Geology in the West Country

The Earth's Core Changes Direction

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Fri, 29 May 2026 15:40:27 +0000

The Earth's Core Changes Direction

But Does it Matter? THIS ARTICLE caught the attention of a correspondent who forwarded the link to me (Thank You!). It concerns the flow of the molten iron which forms the outer core of the Earth. The outer core starts at a depth of 2,890km and is 2,260km thick. It is thought to be 80 to 85% iron, about 5% nickel and the rest is a mix of lighter elements like sulphur, oxygen, silicon and carbon.

It is the outer core which generates the Earth's magnetic field and this keeps cosmic radiation out. This is a good thing! And it is the study of the magnetic field which tells us the direction the core is moving. For a long time it was thought that a gentle western drift of 10 to 40 km per year (1mm per second) was normal.

But in 2010, the bit under the Pacific, started moving eastwards. This continues but has slowed since 2020. What caused this is unknown and the change was unexpected. Perhaps there is more happening in the core than we know about!

Does it matter? Probably not - the Earth's magnetic field is still doing its job and shows no sign of turning off.

The academic paper on which the article is based will be found HERE

The End of the Dinosaurs

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 16 May 2026 13:49:26 +0000

The End of the Dinosaurs

THIS ARTICLE in The Conversation gives a minute by minute account of what happened when the asteroid struck. And it tells how the impact led to the death of the dinosaurs and the rise of the mammals. And it is co-written by Mike Benton and Monica Grady, so it is most probably correct! (At least at the time of writing.)

The article is well worth reading. If you are content with a summary, below is Google Gemini's.

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The Immediate Aftermath (T+0 to 5 Minutes)
The asteroid, traveling faster than the speed of sound, hit the Yucatán Peninsula with the force of billions of Hiroshima bombs. If you were within 1,000 miles, you didn't hear the impact; you were vaporized by the thermal radiation before the sound waves could even reach you.

Within minutes, supersonic winds—stronger than any Category 5 hurricane—flattened entire forests. The atmosphere briefly turned into an oven, reaching temperatures of over 200°C (400°F).

The Environmental Collapse (T+1 Hour to 1 Week)
As the crust rebounded from the impact, it formed a crater 30 kilometres deep, launching molten rock into space. This material rained back down as "impact spherules," igniting global wildfires.

Then came the "stinky" phase. The asteroid hit a region rich in sulphur, blasting massive amounts of it into the sky. Combined with the smoke from burning forests and decaying carcasses, the entire planet likely smelled like rotting vegetables and acrid smoke.

The Long Winter
The soot and sulphur created a global shroud, blocking the sun for years. Photosynthesis stopped. The oceans became acidic from nitrogen oxides, and the planet plunged into a deep freeze.

It is a humbling reminder of our planet’s fragility. While this Armageddon wiped out the giants, it left a tiny opening for small, burrowing mammals—our ancestors—to survive. Without that terrible Tuesday, humans might never have had the chance to walk the Earth.
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A Visualisation by Google Gemini
This visualization focuses on the global environmental shift. The sky is no longer blue but choked with thick, black soot and sulphate aerosols. This dense layer blocks the sun, plunging the planet into darkness. The illustration visualizes the "smell" described in the research by depicting the air itself as a visual fog of acid rain, illuminated by the low, dim, hellish glow of widespread global wildfires.

Volcanic Items of Interest

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 09 May 2026 13:21:00 +0000

Volcanic Items of Interest

Various items have come to my notice lately so here they are in no particular order.

Can volcanic eruptions be forecast, like the weather? The origin of this was THIS ARTICLE and the answer is no but we are getting better at it. What controls volcanism is not easily visible and is not active all the time, unlike weather which is visible and happening constantly. The article covers many aspects of volcanism and has some spectacular photographs.
Is the Campi Flegrei in Naples going to erupt? The Campi Flegrei to the west of downtown Naples is used to low grade volcanic activity - earthquake swarms, ground uplift and subsidence - there is a state of emergency but not yet at a level which would trigger mass evacuation.

Earthquakes detected in Campi Flegrei area, Italy from February 15 - 18, 2025. Credit: INGV
Are Extinct Volcanoes actually Dormant? This comes from THIS ARTICLE. And the evidence for this comes from the "extinct" Methana volcano not far from Athens. It seems that zircon crystals formed throughout the volcanoes history, including during long periods of quiescence. Are they still forming now?

The Southern Aegean Volcanic Arc, showing Methana on the left and Santorini at the bottom. (Giorgostr/Wikimedia Commons)
Lots of magma under Tuscany. Tuscany is not known for volcanism but recent seismological studies have indicate that Yellowstone volumes of magma lie 10km under the surface. The academic paper detailing this is HERE.

Would You be Scared of this Giant Octopus?

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 02 May 2026 10:52:00 +0000

Would You be Scared of this Giant Octopus?

Generally octopuses don't fossilise - they are essentially bags of water. But their beaks are preserved and someone has found some big ones in Cretaceous rocks. And using present day beak sizes and octopus sizes has come to the conclusion that their beaks belonged to an octopus 7 to 19 metres in length!

Cretaceous marine predators (at maximum estimated size) with a scuba diver for scale. Credit: After Ikegami et al. Fig. 4, and Jacobs 2026.

Was the octopus a top predator or was it an extra large food source for a Mosasaurus? It is certainly a very good focus for speculation. Proving anything might be a difficult task.

You can read all about it HERE, based on THIS PAPER

Some New but Old Cambrian Fossils

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 02 May 2026 10:24:00 +0000

Some New (but Old) Cambrian Fossils

A correspondent sent me THIS LINK (but I had spotted it my self!). It concerns a recently discovered Lagerstätte in Southern China, called the Huayuan biota.

It has an added importance as being just after the first mass extinction of the Phanerozoic. It contains some old favourites from the Burgess Shale but many new species have been identified.

The find is of importance for many reasons but for me it is important for the wonderful photographs of the beasties. The source academic paper is HERE

non-bilaterian metazoans and deuterostomes from the Huayuan biota

How and Why Etna is Unusual

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 25 Apr 2026 14:09:00 +0000

How and Why Etna is Unusual

A correspondent sent me THIS LINK. It is based on THIS ACADEMIC PAPER. Both links are quite complex and the best summary of them can be provided by Chat GPT.

The GA will visit Etna this June and I will be there! I look forward to hearing what degree of complexity we hear when we are on the slopes!

Here is ChatGPT's summary.

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The article explains how scientists may finally understand the unusual behaviour of Mount Etna, one of the world’s most active and puzzling volcanoes. Although Etna is over 500,000 years old and sits above a subduction zone where tectonic plates collide, its eruptions don’t match typical volcanic models. Instead of producing the kinds of magma expected in such settings, Etna frequently emits alkaline lava more typical of hotspot volcanoes like those in Hawaii—despite no hotspot being present nearby.

To solve this mystery, researchers analysed the chemistry of Etna’s lava over hundreds of thousands of years. They found that its composition has remained remarkably consistent, even as surrounding tectonic conditions changed. This suggests the magma feeding Etna is not newly formed each time, as in most volcanoes, but instead comes from a long-lasting, stable source deep underground.

The study proposes that Etna is fed by pockets of magma trapped about 80 kilometres beneath the Earth’s surface, in a region between the upper mantle and tectonic plates. As the African Plate moves beneath the Eurasian Plate, pressure squeezes this stored magma upward through cracks in the crust, much like water from a sponge.

This mechanism resembles that of so-called “petit-spot” volcanoes—small volcanic features usually found on the ocean floor. However, Etna is vastly larger, making it an unusual and possibly unique example of this process operating on a massive scale.

These findings reshape scientists’ understanding of how volcanoes can form and function, suggesting Etna may not fit into standard categories. The research also has practical importance, helping improve assessments of volcanic hazards in nearby populated areas such as Catania and Messina.

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The Hunga-Tonga Eruption Hid its Effect

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 25 Apr 2026 13:55:00 +0000

The Hunga-Tonga Eruption Hid its Effect

A correspondent sent me THIS LINK. It concerns the 1922 eruption of Hunga-Tonga. This occurred under water and this had the effect of disguising its impact.

The release of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is often used to measure the cooling affect of eruptions, but Hunga-Tonga released little SO₂ to the atmosphere. And therefore it was assumed that it had little affect on the climate. The SO₂ released reacted with sea water - I assume sulphuric acid will be somewhere in the reactants.

But the lack of SO₂ in the atmosphere does not mean that the eruption had little climactic affect. 3 billion tons of water vapour went into the atmosphere in 1 hour! And it went very high - into the stratosphere and mesosphere. And there it had complex climatic results.

Read the article to understand some of the complexities!

Another Huge Eruption Sometime (Geologically) Soon

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 11 Apr 2026 13:57:00 +0000

Another Huge Eruption Sometime (Geologically) Soon

A correspondent has sent me THIS LINK concerning a volcano which produced the largest eruption of the Holocene. Recent research indicates that the magma chamber is slowly refilling.

When one considers the damage the Holocene eruption did to what was then a sparsely populated area - just south of Japan's southernmost large island, Kyushu - another similarly sized eruption today would be catastrophic. Population densities are rather higher nowadays!

The researchers have found that the magma refilling the magma chamber is new stuff - not the leftovers of the last eruption.

You can get a better idea of the article by reading a summary provided by ChatGPT.

The article describes new research into the Kikai Caldera, a largely submerged volcano Japan responsible for one of the most powerful eruptions in Earth’s recent geological history. Around 7,300 years ago, the volcano produced the Akahoya eruption—the largest known eruption of the Holocene—ejecting vast quantities of material, spreading ash across Japan and beyond, and likely devastating the ancient Jōmon population.

Although the volcano has remained relatively quiet since then, scientists have now discovered that its magma chamber is slowly refilling. Using advanced seismic techniques, including air-gun pulses and ocean-bottom seismometers, researchers mapped the subsurface structure beneath the caldera. Their results reveal a large magma reservoir that appears to be the same system responsible for the ancient eruption.

Importantly, the magma currently accumulating is not simply leftover material from the previous eruption. Chemical analysis shows it is newly injected magma, indicating an active replenishment process. This is supported by evidence of a lava dome forming within the caldera over the past several thousand years, suggesting continuous magmatic activity.

The findings provide insight into how giant caldera systems “recharge” over long timescales. Researchers propose a model in which fresh magma is gradually injected into shallow reservoirs, eventually rebuilding the conditions necessary for another large eruption. This mechanism may apply not only to Kikai but also to other major volcanic systems such as Yellowstone and Toba.

While there is no indication of an imminent eruption, the study highlights the importance of monitoring such systems. Given today’s dense populations, even a moderate eruption could have severe consequences. Ultimately, the research aims to improve understanding of volcanic cycles and enhance the ability to detect warning signs well before future catastrophic eruptions occur.

Can Volcanoes be Connected?

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 28 Mar 2026 15:46:00 +0000

Can Volcanos be Connected?

A correspondent has sent me THIS ARTICLE. For ever geologists have thought that volcanoes could be studied in isolation but, more recently it has been discovered that magma does not just travel towards the surface but can also go sideways - it can move from one volcano to another, sometimes many kilometres apart. And, sometimes the type of rock erupted can change - which seems very odd.

Iceland’s Fagradalsfjall fissure system erupted multiple times between 2021 and 2023, after which the Svartsengi fissure system seemed to take its place.

The article in Quanta Magazine (which has some wonderful photos) describes, at length, coupled volcanos. I recommend reading it. I attach a summary produced by ChatGPT.

The Quanta Magazine article “When Coupled Volcanoes Talk, These Researchers Listen” explores a growing realization in volcanology: volcanoes are not always isolated systems, but can be physically connected and interact through shared underground magma pathways. By tracking how magma moves between volcanoes, scientists are uncovering “conversations” between volcanic systems that could improve eruption forecasting and deepen understanding of Earth’s interior dynamics.

The article begins with the famous 1912 eruption in Alaska involving Mount Katmai and the Novarupta vent. For decades, scientists assumed Katmai itself erupted and collapsed after expelling its magma. However, later geological mapping revealed that the eruption actually occurred about 10 kilometres away at Novarupta, which had effectively drained magma from Katmai. This discovery provided early evidence that magma can move laterally across significant distances, linking separate volcanic structures.

Modern research has expanded on this idea, showing that such connections are not rare. Advances in monitoring technologies—such as seismometers that detect magma movement and satellite-based measurements of ground deformation—allow scientists to track magma migration in near real time. These tools reveal that magma does not always rise vertically, as once assumed, but can flow sideways through complex subterranean networks.

A key focus of current research is Iceland’s Reykjanes Peninsula, where volcanic systems appear to operate in sequence. After eruptions at one fissure system, activity can shift to another nearby system, suggesting that magma is redistributed underground. This behaviour gives the impression that volcanoes are “talking” to each other—when one system quiets down, another becomes active. Such patterns indicate that volcanic regions may function as interconnected networks rather than independent vents.

Scientists are now attempting to map these hidden magma pathways and understand the physical mechanisms behind them. Magma behaves like a complex fluid mixture, with its viscosity depending on composition—silica-rich magma is thicker, while low-silica magma flows more easily. These properties influence how magma travels through the crust and how it links different volcanic systems.

Understanding these connections has practical importance. If magma can shift from one volcano to another, monitoring a single volcano in isolation may be insufficient for predicting eruptions. Instead, researchers must consider entire volcanic regions as integrated systems. By identifying patterns of magma transfer, scientists hope to anticipate where eruptions might occur next, even if the triggering signals originate elsewhere.

Ultimately, the research highlights a shift in how volcanologists conceptualize volcanic behaviour—from isolated eruptions to dynamic, networked systems. By “listening” to how volcanoes interact through shared magma, scientists are developing a more nuanced and predictive understanding of volcanic activity. This approach could lead to better hazard assessments and earlier warnings for communities living near active volcanic regions.

What Caused the Younger Dryas

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 28 Mar 2026 15:21:00 +0000

What Caused the Younger Dryas

The Younger Dryas was a cold period which started 12,870 years ago. The last glacial maximum had finished about 20,000 years ago, so there had been about 7,000 years when things had been getting warmer. At 12,870 years ago thing got cooler quickly - in Europe the average temperature dropped 6⁰C in just 3 years! I suspect this would make life difficult for the people in the area. This cooling lasted for 1,170 years.

The causes of this are discussed in THIS ARTICLE, partially based on this JOURNAL ARTICLE, and this MAGAZINE ARTICLE. Possible culprits include:

A meteor strike
Drainage from a large glacial lake, disrupting the North Atlantic Drift.
An unknown volcanic eruption. (But not the Laacher See eruption - wrong trace elements and a bit later than the start of the Younger Dryas.)

There is evidence of volcanism at the start of the Younger Dryas. Where it was is still unknown. But the meteor strike is now discounted. We are left with culprits 2 and 3. And they do not rule each other out.

Below I attach a summary of the article which started this post, produced by ChatGPT.

The Earth-logs article argues that the long-debated cause of the Younger Dryas cold interval—an abrupt return to near-glacial conditions about 12,870 years ago—is now effectively resolved. The Younger Dryas interrupted the gradual warming that followed the last Ice Age, with temperatures in parts of the Northern Hemisphere dropping dramatically within just a few years and remaining cold for over a millennium.

Historically, several explanations have competed. One popular idea was that a massive influx of freshwater into the North Atlantic disrupted ocean circulation, particularly the Gulf Stream, reducing heat transport to higher latitudes. Another controversial hypothesis proposed that a comet or asteroid impact triggered the cooling, but this has largely been rejected due to lack of reproducible evidence.

The Earth-logs post highlights newer geochemical and ice-core evidence that points instead to a major volcanic trigger. Ice cores from Greenland show a pronounced sulphate spike at the onset of the Younger Dryas, indicating a very large volcanic eruption. While the well-known Laacher See eruption in Germany occurred around the same time, its scale and chemical signature do not match the observed sulphate anomaly. This implies that a much larger, as yet unidentified eruption injected vast quantities of aerosols into the atmosphere.

Such an eruption would have rapidly reduced incoming solar radiation, causing sharp cooling. Crucially, this initial volcanic cooling could have pushed the climate system past a tipping point, weakening ocean circulation and locking the Northern Hemisphere into a prolonged cold state. In this view, volcanism acted as the trigger, while feedbacks within the ocean–atmosphere system sustained the millennium-long chill.

The article concludes that this combined explanation—a large volcanic event initiating a cascade of climatic feedbacks—best fits the available evidence. It reconciles the abrupt onset seen in ice cores with the extended duration of the Younger Dryas, offering a coherent solution to a long-standing geological puzzle.

Down to Earth Extra April 2026

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Thu, 26 Mar 2026 09:46:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra April 2026

The April 2026 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. you can download it HERE or you can read it below.

Subducted Slabs - Where and How

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 21 Mar 2026 12:34:00 +0000

Subducted Slabs - Where and How

Earth-Logs, one of this blogs favourite sources has come up with an interesting article which you can find HERE. It is based on THIS ARTICLE which will appear in a Nature Journal soon.

It concerns subducting plates and what happens to them. It is thought that mineral density changes are the main control, but the authors of the paper suggest that another control is viscosity changes caused by cooler slabs entering the mantle. Their paper is summarised below (by ChatGPT) and further summarised in the diagram at the bottom of this page.

This is fascinating stuff but all the evidence is gained at a distance and we will never get there. So we have to be content with speculating about phase changes and viscosity. But these are the best explanations we have for the observations we make.

Seismic tomography does not support the idea that oceanic slabs sink intact all the way to the core–mantle boundary. Instead, many slabs stall and accumulate at depths around 660 km and 1000 km. The 660 km boundary is reasonably explained by pressure-driven mineral changes (especially in olivine) that increase density and resist further sinking. However, no equivalent mineral transition explains stagnation at ~1000 km depth.

Recent research by Jing Li and colleagues proposes that variations in mantle viscosity, rather than just mineral density changes, control slab behaviour. Their combined experimental and modelling work suggests that as slabs descend, they trigger recrystallization in the surrounding mantle, reducing grain size and creating localized low-viscosity zones. These zones can either facilitate or hinder slab movement, leading to complex, uneven descent.

They identify four subduction modes depending on trench retreat speed and mantle properties:

Slow retreat + low-viscosity patches → slabs penetrate past 660 km but stagnate at ~1000 km
Slow retreat + uniform mantle → slabs buckle between 660–1000 km
Fast retreat (with or without low-viscosity zones) → slabs stagnate at ~660 km

The study also suggests that older, “fossil” slabs may weaken the mantle and create low-viscosity regions that influence later subduction. These processes help explain seismic observations and imply that the mantle is highly heterogeneous.

Overall, the findings highlight that mantle dynamics are complex, with past tectonic activity influencing present-day plate motion, deep mantle convection, plume formation, and the chemical diversity of mantle-derived magmas.

The Silverpit - an Impact Structure

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Thu, 12 Mar 2026 09:50:00 +0000

The Silverpit - an Impact Structure

A correspondent brought THIS ARTICLE to my attention. It is based on THIS ACADEMIC PAPER.

I am getting up to speed with Artificial Intelligence (AI) and used ChatGPT to summarise the Science Daily article. I think it did a pretty good job.

(I am using this free, Bristol University, COURSE to further my knowledge of AI. It seems pretty good so far.)

A recent study has provided strong new evidence that the Silverpit structure beneath the southern North Sea was created by an asteroid impact rather than by geological processes such as salt movement. The feature, first identified in seismic survey data collected during North Sea oil exploration in the early 2000s, had long been debated among geologists. Researchers from Heriot-Watt University have now used improved seismic imaging together with mineral analysis to support the impact interpretation.

According to the study, the impact occurred about 43–46 million years ago, during the Eocene epoch. Scientists estimate that the asteroid responsible was roughly 160 metres in diameter. When it struck the seabed, the collision released immense energy, excavating a large crater and ejecting vast quantities of rock and sediment into the surrounding environment. Seismic data reveal circular structures typical of impact craters, while rock samples show signs of shock metamorphism—microscopic changes in mineral structure produced by extremely high pressures, which are characteristic of meteorite impacts.

The consequences of the collision would have been dramatic. The impact likely generated a massive tsunami, possibly exceeding 100 metres in height, that would have spread across the ancient North Sea basin. Such a wave could have flooded nearby coastlines and significantly altered local landscapes. The event would also have produced a large plume of debris, water, and vapour thrown high into the atmosphere.

For years, many scientists suggested the Silverpit feature might instead be the result of salt tectonics, a process in which underground salt layers move and distort surrounding sediments. The new combination of geophysical and mineralogical evidence, however, provides the clearest support yet for the impact hypothesis.

By confirming the origin of the Silverpit crater, the research adds another entry to the record of asteroid impacts on Earth. It also highlights that significant ocean impacts capable of generating large tsunamis have occurred within relatively recent geological time.

Down to Earth Extra March 2026

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Tue, 24 Feb 2026 09:29:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra March 2026

The March 2026 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.

Smiling Crinoids

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 21 Feb 2026 14:27:00 +0000

Smiling Crinoids

Several people have brought THIS WEB PAGE to my attention and I had spotted it myself. It is a story which ticks so many boxes! Amateur fossil hunter, St Cuthbert, Holy Island and a truly wonderful fossil!

Read the web page and it tells a great story. What I find most interesting is how a very common fossil gets to look like a set of false teeth!

I wish I had found it!!!

Stonehenge - Complexities Continue.

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Fri, 13 Feb 2026 15:59:00 +0000

Stonehenge - Complexities Continue

The more you look at it the more difficult it is to decipher! The main controversy is how all the various types of stone got there. Were they brought by glaciers or by people?

In THIS ARTICLE ( based on THIS ACADEMIC PAPER) the author looks at the presence of the bluestones. These are believed to come from Ordovician volcanics in Pembrokeshire. The assumption of the academic writers is that if the large stones came because of ice transport, the till which brought them would have small grains with the same provenance. So they collected river sands from Salisbury Plain and separated out zircon and apatite grains.

Zircon and apatite are minerals which preserve evidence of their age. This is especially true of the zircon. 550 zircons were analysed, only 1 has an age similar to the bluestones. Which puts paid to the glacial transport theory - or does it?

Welsh glaciers reached Somerset - could the bluestones have been erratics in Somerset?

No doubt the controversy will continue. In the meantime here is a pretty picture of Stonehenge.

Down to Earth Extra February 2026

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 24 Jan 2026 11:45:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra February 2026

The February 2026 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.

T. rex - When did they Stop Growing?

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 17 Jan 2026 14:14:00 +0000

T. rex - When did they Stop Growing?

THIS ARTICLE in New Scientist, (based on this ACADEMIC PAPER) suggests that they grew until at least forty!

The methodology used is akin to counting tree rings, complicated by the earliest growth rings being destroyed as the bone marrow cavity enlarges. Because of this you need many specimens with overlapping growth stages to allow for this.

And after forty years growth rings are not produced so the maximum age of T. rex cannot be determined.

But only two of the specimens reached the advanced age of forty.

The New Scientist article makes the research sound very straight forward but the academic paper reveals that the gathering of the evidence is more than just a matter of counting rings. And then we get into the statistics!

Obligatory, scary T. rex picture.

Down to Earth Extra January 2026 - Replacement

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 03 Jan 2026 11:34:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra January 2026 - Replacement

The replacement January 2026 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.

Down to Earth Extra January 2026

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Sat, 20 Dec 2025 11:57:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra January 2026

The January 2026 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.

How to Look for "Gold" Hydrogen

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Thu, 11 Dec 2025 09:48:00 +0000

How to Look for "Gold" Hydrogen

I wrote about the presence of hydrogen in June (SEE HERE) and THIS ARTICLE follows on, giving some insights into the search for crustal hydrogen.

For many years it was believed that while hydrogen may be produced in the crust, it was too reactive and able to escape too easily for any significant quantities to be trapped. But opinions have changed and there are reports that significant deposits are being found.

But they are not in the places where there has been lots of drilling in the past - you are unlikely to find hydrogen in the places where you would look for oil or natural gas.

It is a familiar story - if you don't look for it you will not find it! But where to look for it. And the theorists are now postulating where the places to look are.

What you need are lots of groundwater and lots of iron-rich rocks. Put simply steam reacts with iron to produce hydrogen. The temperature needs to be hot - about 300⁰C. And you need a reservoir and a seal.

The use of hydrogen as a fuel, replacing hydrocarbons, would make a tremendous difference to the production of greenhouse gases. And that would be a good thing!

Kilauea Puts on a Spectacular Show!

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Wed, 10 Dec 2025 17:06:00 +0000

Kilauea Puts on a Spectacular Show!

Many of you will have seen some of the videos from the Big Island of Hawaii. Kilauea has been fountaining lava hundred of metres into the air in some of the most spectacular footage I have ever seen.

Lake Water Mixing is Slowing - Should we be Worried?

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Fri, 05 Dec 2025 15:59:00 +0000

Lake Water Mixing is Slowing - Should we be Worried?

I came across THIS ARTICLE in Quanta magazine and found it very interesting. The bit which caught my imagination was the method of measuring water clarity.

The disc pictured above is lowered into the lake and when it disappears from the observers sight - that is the Secchi depth.

The lake with the longest history of clarity readings is Crater Lake in Oregon in the USA. And lately the lake has been getting clearer. And that is the result of less mixing of the lakes water.

Lake water mixing is the result of many things, but one of them is the surface water becoming warmer, therefore lighter and less likely to descend and mix. In winter the surface water cools and therefore sinks and mixes. But, in many places this no longer happens.

And as a result the water at the bottom of lakes becomes depleted in oxygen.

In Crater Lake another result is that the warm surface layer becomes thinner - the energy (wind) needed to mix the surface layers becomes greater and it does not happen. The thinner surface layer means less phytoplankton and clearer water.

The article goes on to look at other lakes, especially Lake Tahoe, which used to be very similar to Crater, but shows more signs of deterioration.

This is an article well worth reading.

Down to Earth Extra December 2025

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Fri, 05 Dec 2025 15:13:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra December 2025

The December 2025 edition of Down to Earth Extra jas been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.

Down to Earth Extra November 2025

noreply@blogger.com (Graeme) — Wed, 29 Oct 2025 10:57:00 +0000

Down to Earth Extra November 2025

The November 2025 edition of Down to Earth Extra has been published. You can download it HERE or you can read it below.