Cryogenic processes often determine the direction of environmental systems. Therefore, the aim of the course is to familiarize students with the basic laws of their manifestation, and the theoretical foundations of permafrost, e.g. common causes of the frozen zone of the lithosphere, the laws of its development. The course is meant to teach specialist physical geographers in the study of natural complex of both scientific and practical purposes

To date glaciology community accumulated a huge amount of glacial climatic information obtained in the study of continental and oceanic sediments. Starting from 50’s of the last century a new era in the study of glacial climate began based on micropaleontology and the isotopic paleothermometrics of deep ocean sediments. More than 90% of the information obtained by these methods within the framework of numerous national and international projects, including the international Deep Sea Drilling Project, and many others, were performed by the huge research teams. Suffice it to say that only one program DSDP published over 50 volumes of the initial report, each of which contains from 400 to 1,000 sheets of text and tables. It was taken a few thousand cores deep-sea sediments during the several dozen oceanographic expeditions.

With such extensive and expensive studies, carried out already for a long time (as measured by the change of several generations of researchers), we would expect the end result – the same curve on the graph, which shows the correct pattern of glacial and climatic changes during the Pleistocene and Holocene, and by which you can perform long-term forecasting of natural glacial-climate change – as a basis for competent forecast of glaciation and climate future. However, this result does not and there is even a prerequisite for its speedy preparation. Therefore, glaciology is rapidly acquiring new research methods and approaches, and aspiring specialists with glaciology degree are highly demanded.

Glaciology and Quaternary Geology

Glaciology and quaternary geology studies are inseparable from each other and are mutually intertwined. A conclusion can be made: glaciology and quaternary geology with it need to “pull” out of the impasse, rather than wait until after the lapse of many tens or even hundreds of years, “the quantity will go into quality.” People need reliable long-term prognosis of glaciation and climate change today… and the problem becomes more acute. In order to get the desired result soon enough, glaciologists can only go one way – move up to the new starting positions and a whole new level (based solely on quantitative indicators of lithological and direct absolute dating) to perform geological studies and to study the Quaternary period more deeply and comprehensively.

You can contribute to these astonishing researches; all you need is earning a glaciology degree.

Bachelor’s degree

University courses for bachelor degree in Glaciology are aimed at youth motivated in research of ice fronts and natural glaciers. Students often go for practice at world-known glaciers. Bachelor in glaciology has sufficient knowledge to work as assistant at climate laboratories and alike.

• Montana Tech of the University of Montana
• Boston University

Master’s degree

In all similarity with masters graduates in other specialties, specialists having a master’s degree in glaciology are ready to dwell into major researches and compelling tasks of modern glacial and climate science.

• University of Wyoming
• University of Memphis

Doctorate degree

Geodesists with doctor’s degree have attained the top level professional recognition in glaciology and associated climate disciplines. They work on the scientific problems and even discoveries.

• Florida Atlantic University
• University of Nevada, Reno

Tasks of Geodesy

The task of geodesy is studying and applying:

• Methods of measuring lines and angles on the Earth’s surface, underground (in shafts, tunnels), above the ground (with aerial photography) using special surveying instruments;
• Computer processing of measurement results and the creation of digital terrain models using computer technology;
• Graphic construction and design of maps, plans and profiles using computer graphics;
• The use of measurements and graphical approaches for solving problems of industrial, agricultural, transport, cultural development, scientific research, land management, land and other inventories.

Surveying as an engineering science based on mathematics, physics and closely related to:

• Astronomy and geophysics
• Geography and geology
• Geomorphology and soil science
• Agriculture
• Land design and the economy
• Land reclamation
• Road and other business.

Geodesic discipline taught in universities students of construction, land surveying, transportation, mining, forestry, and many other professions, the work which requires the use of survey data and the application of geodetic measurements.

The basis of education cycles for earning geodesy degree are of:

• General scientific
• Social
• Physical
• Mathematical
• Astronomical
• and Geographical subjects.

The set of majors depends on the sub-specialty.

For the specialty “Geodesy Engineering” (for instance) profiling include:

• Surveying
• Geodesy higher
• Engineering surveying
• Engineering survey
• Photogrammetric research,
• Cartography and practical astronomy, etc.

New Techniques in Geodetic Measurements

In relation to the development of new techniques of geodetic measurements, most modern ones are based on the use of electronics and radio engineering and surveying solutions for use problems of artificial satellites, focusing on physical and mathematical background of students. During the training students receive training and practical work (geological, geodetic, comprehensive geographic, topographic, etc.).

Higher Geodetic education for geodesy degree can be earned in majority of technical universities whether by attending and correspondence variations of learning course (duration is 5 and 6 years) and is concluded by the diploma paper (project). Scientific personnel are trained in surveying schools offering doctorate degree.

At the present time, there is a need for geodesy specialists. Many businesses are forced to engage in training in the field, train assistant geodesists and then transfer them to the post of surveyor.

A competent geodesist is ready to deal with following tasks:

• Participation in the topographic and geodetic surveying and work;
• Choosing the characteristic points of the relief and contours;
• Opening and closing of the center pillar or frame;
• Installing rails on foothills, crutches, frames, stakes, piles, and other selected points of the terrain;
• Clearing the road for surveillance apparatus;
• Adjustment and installation of stakes and sighting landmarks.

Bachelor’s Degree

Curriculum for bachelor degree in Geodesy is aimed at youth interested in technical specialties and allows beginning an aspiring career of engineer geodesist right after graduation. Later students can participate additional courses and raise qualification to master’s level.

• Western Washington University
• Michigan State University
• Boise State University

Master’s degree

In all similarity with masters graduates in other specialties, specialists having a master’s geodesy degree are comprehensively trained to deal with a wide range of problems arising in surveillance of construction sites, land marking and measuring. Majority of building businesses offer decent job positions for master geodesists.

• UCLA
• New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology

Doctorate degree

Geodesists with doctor’s degree have attained the top level professional recognition in geodesy and associated surveillance disciplines. They work on the scientific problems and even discoveries.

• Florida Atlantic University
• University of Nevada, Reno

Since the early Iron Age, 3,300 years ago, people develop new and new ways to use minerals mined from the earth’s crust. Modern industry is still dependent on the mineral resources of the earth. Scientists there are about 3,000 species of minerals, but only 100 of them are fairly common. Minerals are inorganic (inanimate) world. Most often, they are solids. The exception is the mercury.

The list of top 10 valued minerals in geology looks like this:

1. Diamond
2. Emerald
3. Ruby
4. Sapphire
5. Amethyst
6. Beryl
7. Topaz
8. Quartz
9. Citrine
10. Ametrine

Many minerals have specific properties which are easy to learn. For example, native element arsenic smell like garlic when heated, and talc – soapy to touch. Some minerals fluoresce (glow or change color) in the ultraviolet or X-rays. Other electrically charged when heated or under pressure. And there are minerals, which can be recognized only by means of special tests in the laboratory. Some dissolve only in hot acid, and not in the cold, other – only concentrated, but not dissolved.

Minerals have a definite structure and its chemical formula. The chemical formula of halite (rock salt) NaCl. This means that the halite – a chemical compound of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl).

Since each of the mineral composition of a definite and permanent, the atoms of its elements are building the correct three-dimensional lattice structure is specific to it. These lattices are geometric shapes, flat faces which are arranged symmetrically. If you for some time to leave a flat dish a little salt water, it evaporates, and at the bottom of the salt crystals are formed. In the magnifying glass it is revealed that these are correct cubes.

There are seven main crystallographic, or isometric, systems, called symmetry. Diamond, for example, belongs to the cubic system, Ruby – hexagonal, turquoise – to triclinic. Each system can be described according to the specifics of its symmetry – the property that when the crystal is rotated about an axis allowing it to appear in the identity as two or more times for one complete revolution. The crystal can be determined by the number of axes of symmetry.

Precious minerals

Back in the Stone Age people did gold jewelry, in the Bronze Age – from silver. Today, we have discovered many jewelry available minerals. The most expensive gems among top 10 valued minerals in geology are: diamond (especially white), as well as emerald, ruby ​​and sapphire, are valued primarily for color. These stones are so expensive that their weight is measured in carats. One carat equals 200 milligrams.

Diamonds are formed under extreme pressure in the structures of igneous rocks in the form of pipes, kimberlitic substances. They originate deep in the Earth’s mantle. Diamond is a kind of pure coal and chemical composition is different from an ordinary soft mineral graphite pencil familiar to us. Diamond valued for hardness and shine, acquired in cutting and polishing. The reason for this difference between diamond and graphite is that they have a different internal structure. Ability of a substance to exist in two or more forms with the same chemical composition is called polymorphism.

Top 10 valued minerals in geology usually belong to some general type of minerals, which are found more often.

For example,

• The emerald is a rare type of beryl
• The most beautiful specimens are found in Colombia (South America)
• And the most famous rubies in the world (a type of solid mineral corundum) – Myanmar (formerly Burma)
• Beautiful sapphire (blue corundum) is mined in Sri Lanka and Thailand

Heat of the earth is the largest renewable outlet of the planet’s energy, which is significantly different from other alternatives of heat deposits. It can be used in different climatic conditions and at different times of the year. The utilization factor of geothermal power plants is generally above 90%. Price of electricity given by these plants is lower than that of electricity produced using other renewable energy sources.

Geothermal Energy (GTE), despite its youth (it has only a 100-year history) is developing rapidly worldwide. In the energy balance of US GTE share currently stands at 0.02%, but there are significant geothermal resources in the country in excess of their thermal equivalent of the traditional supplies of energy fuels, confirming the advisability of such an energy-efficient industry. Thus, young specialists with geothermal degree are quite demanded these days.

The overall heat balance of the first 10 km of the crust is thousands times greater than the calorific value of the world’s reserves of fuel. The calculations show that in the middle of the earth contains a lot more heat than it could obtain by splitting in nuclear reactors all terrestrial uranium and thorium. If humanity is to use only one geothermal energy will be 41 million years before the temperature drops to depths of the Earth half a degree.

What is Studied during Training in Geothermal Energy?

First of all, future specialists with geothermal degree study sources of this energy and the ways to use it. Sources of geothermal energy on the classification of the International Energy Agency are divided into five types:

1. Deposits of dry steam geothermal – is relatively easy to develop, but quite rare, however, half of all actors in the world GeoTPP uses the heat of these sources;
2. Sources of wet steam (a mixture of hot water and steam) – are more common, but their development has to address to prevent corrosion of equipment GeoTPP and the environment (removal of condensate from the high degree of salinity);
3. Field of geothermal water (containing hot water or steam and water) – are so-called geothermal reservoirs, which are formed as a result of the filling of underground cavities by water precipitation, heated by the magma lies close;
4. Hot dry rocks, magma heated (at a depth of 2 km and more) – the most of their energy reserves are large;
5. Magma, which is heated to 1300° C.

Geothermal heat can be recycled or “directly” or convert it into electricity, if the coolant temperature reaches 150 ° C.

There are several ways to produce energy Geothermal power plants:

• Direct scheme: steam is sent through pipes to the turbine connected to electric generators;
• Indirect scheme: similar to the direct scheme, but before entering the steam pipe clear of gases that cause the destruction of the pipes;
• Mixed scheme: the scheme is similar to direct, but after the condensation of water removed does not dissolve in her gas.

Universities offering Geothermal Degree

1. West Virginia University

This university has a great history of scientific achievements in new grounds, including geothermal energy. It is a constant participant of international collaboration groups. Students are provided with comprehensive sources.

2. Oregon Institute of Technology

Department of Energy Usage in this university is very respectable and recognized by a wide community. Quality training program helps students to study intensively and comprehensively. Master and Bachelor degrees offered.

3. Cornell University

This University has a research facility for alternative energy sources. Students can be on a research team from their sophomore year. Great opportunities of scientific work offered.

4. Stanford University

Stanford is leading university in energetic studies. A reach base of learning sources, including monographs of Stanford professors make a decent theoretical basis. Enrolling on course in geothermal energy is done twice a year.

No electronics, cybernetics, or other advanced fields of modern science and technology can fully be used without the industry of reservoir engineering. Therefore, young people that are going to train in this specialty will find themselves in the mining industry a wide field of activities aimed at wealth creation and solution of actual problems of science and technology.

Only specialists with a high level of training can manage all these complex machines and technology involved in tunneling work, producing, transporting, etc.

There are several sub-specializations in reservoir engineering. After graduation, our graduates can work at the mine and quarry, the mine for the extraction of ore and any salt on the extraction of marble and other decorative stones. They can also work in design, research and education profile of mining. The level of knowledge, breadth of vision and ability to think, acquired over years of training with us is so great that our graduates can be found on any post – even in governmental authorities.

 What is included in training program in MS reservoir engineering?

Specialist of mining or oil and gas reservoir engineering will be trained thoroughly to address the following professional tasks in accordance with professional activities.

Industrial and technological activities:

1. Understand the nature and essence of physical and technological processes of mining and / or oil and gas production.

2. Provide technical guidance for mining and blasting procedures, as well as work to ensure the health equipment of and technical systems, i.e. directly manage the tech-a young lion on the processes of production facilities.

3. Develop, coordinate and approve the technical, methodical and other documents regulating the implementation of the mountains, governmental reports, blasting reports, as well as work associated with the processing of solid minerals, to monitor compliance with the requirements of technical documentation for works, the existing rules, regulations and standards.

4. Develop and implement measures to improve the ecological security of mining or oil and gas production.

5. Practical guide to scientific and engineering activities, principles of an integrated sequence of geo-resource potential of given area.

6. Develop and implement activities to improve and raise the technical level of the oil and gas production or mining, innovation, competitiveness organization in the market environment.

7. Determine the spatial geometry of the objects, to produce geodetic surveying and measuring, to process and interpret their results.

8. Create, maintain equipment and systems to ensure efficient and secure implementation of technological processes in the production of work on the operational exploration, mining and processing in mineral deposits, as well as the construction of underground facilities.

 Where can I enroll to a course in reservoir engineering?

A bunch of universities offer decent training programs for MS reservoir engineering degree. Below is a short pick of them.

1. University of Texas Austin

This university is recognized and respectable in the branch of reservoir engineering. Its teaching staff is often occupied with projects of national importance. Students can join research teams early on.

2. Colorado School of Mines

The department of reservoir engineering in this school is very reputable, since graduates has shown a far more than decent level of knowledge and insight. They occupy responsive and challenging positions.

3. Pennsylvania State University

A great technical base belonging to university provides opportunity of quality practical work for students. Many authors of high-tech innovations to this industry branch work as teachers here.

4. Illinois Institute of Technology

Institute has a large number of laboratories, for each sub-specialization. Students can choose various sets of courses and customize their learning program.

Very often the engineering geologists are involved in the study of:

• Excavations for cuttings
• Raw materials
• Foundations for buildings
• Assessing the stability of man-made and natural slopes
• the Stability and construction of mines and tunnels
• the Construction of dams and embankments
• the Location of building stone and aggregates
• the Disposal and containment of waste materials.

Since the twentieth century, engineering geology has become increasingly scientific as the impact of ground conditions on modern projects has been realized and the use of rock and natural soil as the construction materials understood. On Earth, ground conditions are extremely variable but may nearly always be accommodated by engineering design, of course, provided by the fact that they are correctly understood and assessed. Nowadays the engineering geology is firmly established within the curriculum of civil engineering degree courses, applied geology, and geology itself.

Engineering geology as a Science

Engineering Geology

Engineering geologists are scientists, who have studied geology and are now applying this education to assuring that natural geological factors are accounted for when planning for developed site or a new building. Getting this done is an important job, because it makes certain that the planned building won’t have an overly negative impact on the surrounding area.

However, the engineering geologist at the same time decides whether there are any geological concerns in the building area, which may affect the structural soundness of the building itself.

For the majority of specialists in this area the most common degree to have is a bachelor of science degree in geology. The four-year program is designed to prepare a geologist for his future career, generally giving him plenty of hands-on work at the same time. An engineering geologist may work in any number of specialties after graduation.

At this time there are no options for pursuing an online degree in geology. At the same time, those, who are interested in both engineering and geology may wish to consider studying geotechnical engineering. There are online master’s degrees, even though in-person degrees are far more prevalent.

Geotechnical Engineering Master’s Degree Program

Acceptance into the master’s program requires a bachelor’s degree in engeneering geology, or other related fields. Usually the students who don’t have an appropriate undergraduate background are asked to take some or other additional classes before they are accepted. Students should expect a heavy mix of science and math courses with a focus on engineering and geology. Graduates tend to look for employment as geotechnical engineers after obtaining this degree.

This master’s degree generally takes about two full-time years of study to complete. Since this program can be taken online, it doesn’t usually require a thesis to be written to complete it.

Engineering Geology Degree Coursework

Students obtaining the engineering geology degree get to take a large amount of classes with either a science or mathematics core. Emphases are placed on engineering management, engineering design, computer applications and control systems coursework.

• Control Systems Engineering Course – This is an introductory course, which teaches the basic principles behind developing PLCor a practical control system. Coursework discusses topics in basic electronic parts recognition, including fractional horsepower and motors sensors. Programming methods for PLCs and microprocessors are discussed as well.
• Structural Steel Design Course – Getting structural mechanics class is a prerequisite for this course. This discipline focuses on designing steel structures, including connections and beams. Students learn the load and resistance factor design method and utilized it in a group project, which involves designing a low-rise office building.
• Geosynthetics Engineering Course – This course is designed to provide students with the knowledge, which is needed to apply appropriate geosynthetics alternatives to engineering projects. Students learn methods of sediment and controlling erosion. In addition, course topics include applying geosynthetics to pavement systems, steep slope stability, embankments, and landfill covers and bases.

There is a lot of possible career options for a biologist, which includes:

• Research
• Conservation
• Health care
• Education
• Environmental management.

Usually a biology degree is designed to prepare the students to work as:

• Forest rangers
• Botanists
• Teachers
• Researchers.

During their education biology students learn to make observations, ask questions, evaluate evidence and solve problems.

The students study every type of living things including:

• Viruses
• Cells
• Insects
• Animals
• and Fish.

Associate Degree in Biology

An associate’s degree in biology is designed to provide the students with the basic understandement  and knowledges, which are required for an assistant position in a research facility or a lab. A large amount of employers ask for at least a bachelor’s degree, which generally requires about four years of study.

Possible Specialties for Biology Graduates

It’s common for the biologists to specialize in a large amount of different areas of study.

There are some possible specialties below:

• Oceanography (the study of the ocean)
• Ecology (the relationship of organisms to the environment)
• Botany (the study of plants)
• Genetics (the study of genes)
• Forensics (the study of biological and physical evidence used to solve crime)
• Endocrinology (the study of diseases and disorders)

Online Biology Degree Programs

• Master of Education in Biology – University of West Alabama
• Master of Arts in Teaching  Biology – University of West Alabama
• Master of Natural Resources – Oregon State University

Biology Programs

Online biology degrees were created to provide students with the education background which can be acceptable for various careers. A large amount of the prospective medical assistants and physicians earn undergraduate degrees in the life sciences before starting to attend medical school. In some cases even an individual who wants to make a sudden change to nursing can easily enough make the change by earning an online biology degree.

There’re quite a lot of reputable and well known universities, which will allow individuals with these science degrees to earn a following bachelors degree in nursing through completing two additional semesters of clinical classes. This is a very profitable option for those individuals, who want a quick transition to a career in the medical field.

Career in Teachimg

At the same time, pursuing the education in this area of study can be very useful for those wanting to start a career in college or high school level of teaching. A large amount of colleges and universities are offering doctorate and graduate level online biology degrees programs for thosestudents, who have undergraduate degrees in an educationor science disciplines.

Someone with an undergraduate degree in creative writing or journalism could also study to transition into a career in medical research or transcription. Those individuals, who want to pursue a career in these specific areas might have to consider an online biology degree in order to provide them with the necessary expertise for a successful health science writing career.

Sometimes the option to take classes online can be the necessary convenience for a prospective student, who needs to continue their education. Nowadays, the society has a large amount of individuals who wish to work or need to work to the experience related to their career, both of which leave very little time for education.

Since colleges and universities recognize this dilemma, they are striving to fulfill the demand for quality , convenient, and affordableInternet based education programs. At first sight it may seem impossible for working individuals to earn a science degree online. But these on line courses allow individuals to pursue an education and continue working at the same time. A large amount of universities now allow students to earn an online diploma without residency requirements.

At the same time, the majority of universities require the freshman level biology classes to be taken on campus. Generally freshman classes require from one to two hours of laboratory work every week. But usually students can arrange the laboratory work around their schedules. The majoruty of graduate or doctorate level online biology degree programs do not require residency though.

Career Options with Biology Degree

There’s a large amount of career options for a student who earns the degree. Different online degree programs allow students to earn a concentration in a subcategory of biology such as virology , microbiology, cell and molecular sciences, and so on. Whatever career the graduates chooses to use an online biology degree for, the students are equipped and well prepared to meet the challenges presented by it. Online biology degrees might be the education program to attain a new career goal and are a good choice for a valuable education.

What is Astrophysics Actually About?

We can say that astrophysics is some part of astronomy that studies physical properties and chemical properties of the Sun, planets, comets or stars and nebulae.

The main experimental astrophysics methods are:

• Spectral analysis
• Photography
• Photometry
• and just some usual astronomical observations.

Spectroscopic analysis involves the area that could be named astrochemistry or stellar bodies’ chemistry because spectroscope analyses chemical composition of the studied astronomical objects.

Photometric and photographic studies are usually singled out to the areas of astrophotography and astrophotometry. Some people confuse astrophysics with physical astronomy. They relate it to the theory of stellar bodies’ movement and sometimes name it celestial mechanics. They also relate to Astrophysics examination of the surface structure of stellar bodies, of the Sun and planets as much as it is possible considering telescopic observations of these bodies.

What are the necessary skills to become an astrophysicist?

Astrophysics itself is based on the proper deduction and can only rely on the observations. Actually each astrophysics research can be pictured as a detective story. This is how Jorge Luis Borges defined it: “A detective story is an intellectual manner of writing that is based on a fantastic assumption of the fact that the solution of the crime depends on the ability to think instead of the delation of traitors and criminal’s slips….” The ability to think is an unusual assumption to uncover the crime in the detective story writing, when in astrophysics this ability is extremely necessary. An English writer Gilbert Chesterton had excellently depicted the work of astrophysicists in his novels.

For example, try to remember how his father Brown uncovered the crime just by listening the steps of waiter behind the wall. Any other chapter of natural science (weather it is physics, chemistry or biology) is based on the active experiment: any object is exposed to active influence (usually to a very significant one). This influence can arouse different changes that can portrait a general picture how the object behaves and all his qualities. You can put current through it, you can heat it, cool off, squeeze it, deform etc. But that is not how it happens in astrophysics.

Just try to understand what kind of logic a person should have when he sees that some glowing dots in the sky are giant scorching balls with the surface temperature of about several dozens of thousands degrees and in their depths thermonuclear fusions take place. Or a story about significant explosion that happened thousands of years ago and made the Sun burst into separate protons around all solar system. A person with astrophysics degree should also do the job of a detective when he tries to know a characteristic time, which goes not only beyond the life of one person but usually beyond the existing time of a human civilization.

For example, sometimes a period of one million years will not be enough to describe the development of any object in our Galaxy so much more the Universe. The basic astrophysics’ part of data is made according to the examinations of the objects putting on them electromagnetic beams. People with astrophysics degree also examine direct images that were received on different lengths of waves and electromagnetic specters of the received radiation.

The Full List of Universities where You Can Get Astrophysics Degree

This degree prepares candidates to combine practical knowledge and research to solve problems in the areas, such as:

• Women’s issues
• International affairs
• Ethnic studies and globalization, etc.

Other career options for the master’s degree in history graduate include archaeology, policy-making, consulting and teaching.

Historians, specialists in history, work to help to improve our understanding of the world by sifting through:

• Interviews
• Government records
• Photographs
• Periodicals
• Daily journals and private correspondence

These students, who are obtaining a master’s degree program in history online, learn how to distill this research into balanced analyses and about historical events. Degree programs are generally offering specializations by events, region and era. Positions for historians include researchers, teachers, archivists and writers .

Online Master’s Degree Program in History

Applicants should have taken the GRE and have a bachelor’s degree in history. Minimum GRE and GPA score requirements may be different depending on the school. Depending upon the number of undergraduate credit hours completed in history and liberal arts, a student can be asked to take additional prerequisite courses before starting an online program.

Coursework in a History Master’s Degree Program

An master’s program in history usually takes two full-time years to complete and includes thirty six hours of coursework. Depending upon the student’s area of concentration and the program, six course hours may be earned by defending and writing a master’s thesis. Other courses are listed below:

• Greek civilization
• World history
• Renaissance and reformation
• Roman empire
• Industrial revolution
• Medieval warfare
• History of religion
• American revolution
• Research methodologies
• Cold war diplomacy
• Digital preservation

Areas of Concentration for Distance Learning History Majors

History and Archaeology

The scope of history is almost without a limit, and historians usually focus on a few time periods , geographical regions or subjects. An online master’s degree in history candidate may choose to focus on subjects like European history, ancient history, world history or American history.

Degree candidates, who are interested in presenting the results of their studies to the public at large or archiving historical artifacts might want to consider a concentration in public history. Several schools are offering concentrations in the military history , the influence of religions and growth of technology.

Schools Offering Master’s Degree in History

Brunel University

The master’s degree in Modern World History is mainly based in the History and Politics Department of the School of Social Sciences. Located within the London area, the master’s degree program in Modern World History has established links with the world renowned libraries and archives, which are based nearby Oxford and in London.

Savannah College of Art and Design

The internationally known online Master of Arts in Historic Preservation degree from Savannah College of Art and Design is designed on understanding that towns and cities across the USA have begun to recognize the financial and cultural value of bringing back to life the historic old buildings of our nations past.

This program has the sole purpose of creating preservationists, who are looking to preserve , document, and research the architectural and structural heritage of the United States.

Soil Science

The object of soil studies is various rocks, soils, depositions, man-made geological formations considered as soils and soil masses of the top part of the crust.

The subject of soil science is knowledge about soils, their composition, condition, structure and features, laws of their formation and space-time change.

Soil is called any rock formation, grounds, depositions and anthropogenic rock-like formations considered as multicomponent, dynamic systems formed under all natural and anthropogenic factors that comprise geological environment and that are studied because of the former, current or future human economical activity.

Methods of Research

Methods that had been worked out for other natural sciences:

• Chemistry
• Physics
• Geology
• Mineralogy
• Biology
• Biochemistry
• Hydrology

for research in lower levels of organization in soil science are used in soil studies, usually in modifications taking soil peculiarity into consideration.

In higher levels some specific methods are used that can be combined in the following groups:

-          core methods are consist in studying of the system of soil genetic levels including soil-forming rock in order to compare their features and structure with rock. The found differences allow thinking about perspectives in soil formation processes that cannot be traced.

There are some conditions:

• The initial rock must not be lamellar;
• Model of reference rock has not substantially changed during soil formation period;
• The process of soil formation has been progressing in one direction during the whole period of soil existence.

Even if just one condition is impossible the result interpretation will be complicated.

• Сomparative geographical methods (as well as comparative geomorphologic and comparative lithologic) consist in finding out similarities between composition, structure and feature of  soils with soil formation factors which somehow vary on the earth crust.
• Comparative historic methods are based on the principle of actualism which allows reconstructing conditions of soil formation in previous ages with the help of relict soil features;
• Stationary methods provide possibility to study soil modes: water, thermal, gas, oxidation-reduction, etc. this method underlies biosphere monitoring which includes method of soil lysimeters and experimental watersheds.
• Cartographic methods used for making maps of the soil cover. For this purpose methods of other types (comparative geographic) and even sciences (geodesy – especially aerospace methods) are used. For example, the method of soil criteria involves studying of laws of soil cover structure on a small area and making map of the bigger area according to them. Studying laws of soil spread throughout the Earth for soil and geographic zoning is the subject of a soil science section, i.e. soil geography.
• Modeling method consists in experimental reproduction of the studied phenomena on the base of controlled conditions of the field or laboratory experiment as well as use of mathematical models.

Schools Offering Soil Science Degree

• Purdue University
• University of Wisconsin – Madison
• Michigan State University
• University of Kentucky