GRAMMAR FOR DUMMIES

KEPALA BATAS GUEST HOUSE

2012-03-13T17:46:00.000-07:00

Boy's Room

Master Bedroom with bathroom

Big Master Bedroom

Girl's Room

Dining Room

Living Room

Fully furnished Kitchen

Living Room

RUMAH TERES SETINGKAT(FULLY FURNISHED)
UNTUK DI SEWA HARIAN/MINGGUAN/BULANAN

CHECK-IN 1.OOPTG(1300) DAN CHECK-OUT 12.OOTGH HARI(1200)

SUSUR KELUAR DARI LEBUHRAYA UTARA-SELATAN (SUSUR KELUAR BERTAM/K.BATAS)
(3MINIT)

DARI PADANG GOLF BERTAM (5 MINIT) ;
DARI PEKAN K.BATAS (4 MINIT);
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KEMUDAHAN:
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SEBERANG PERAI UTARA,UDA HOLDING.

HOMESTAY KAMI SESUAI:
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2.HANTAR ANAK KE PUSAT PENGAJIAN
3.BERCUTI KE PULAU PINANG
4.SEMINAR ATAU MESYUARAT
5.DAN APA -APA SAHAJA URUSAN YANG BERSESUAIAN DAN YANG MEMERLUKAN TEMPAT
TINGGAL YANG SELESA.

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2012-01-30T16:36:00.001-08:00

Writing Numbers

2011-02-14T02:44:00.000-08:00

Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for other numbers:

Words

over two pounds

six million dollars

after thirty-one years

eighty-three people

Figures

after 126 days

only $31.50

6,381 bushels

4.78 liters

Here are some examples of specific situations.
Days and Years

December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965

A.D. 1066

in 1900

in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972

the eighties, the twentieth century

the 1980's or the 1980s

Time of Day

8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning

4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon

Addresses

16 Tenth Street

350 West 114 Street

Identification Numbers

Room 8

Channel 18

Interstate 65

Henry VIII

Page and Division of Books and Plays

page 30

chapter 6

in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentages

a 2.7 average

13 1/4 percent

.037 metric ton

Large Round Numbers

four billion dollars (or) $4 billion

16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

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This handout gives you several guidelines to help your subjects and verbs agree.

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

The boy or his friends run every day.

His friends or the boy runs every day.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.

He doesn't like it.

They don't like it.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

One of the boxes is open

The people who listen to that music are few.

The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.

The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.

The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

Each of these hot dogs is juicy.

Everybody knows Mr. Jones.

Either is correct.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.

The news is on at six.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

Five dollars is a lot of money.

Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)

These scissors are dull.

Those trousers are made of wool.

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

There are many questions.

There is a question.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.

The team runs during practice.

The committee decides how to proceed.

The family has a long history.

My family has never been able to agree.

In some cases in American English, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using a collective noun.

The crew are preparing to dock the ship.

This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg Reference Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10: 1001).
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.

All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

Count and Noncount Nouns ( with Articles & Adjectives )

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Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form.

Concrete nouns may be countable.

There are a dozen flowers in the vase.

He ate an apple for a snack.

Collective nouns are countable.

She attended three classes today.

London is home to several orchestras.

Some proper nouns are countable.

There are many Greeks living in New York.
The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Abstract nouns are uncountable.

The price of freedom is constant vigilance.
Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.

Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).

The price of oil has stabilized recently.
May I borrow some rice?

While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:

Uncountable Sense	Countable Sense
Art is often called limitation of life.	I read a book aout the folkarts of Sweden.
Life is precious.	A cat has nine lives.
Religion has been a powerful force in history.	Many religions are practiced in the United States.
She has beautiful skin.	The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.
Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture.	We have several sculptures in our home.
We use only recycled paper in our office.	Where are those important papers?

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.

The guest of honor arrived late.
You are welcome as a guest in our home.
The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise.
Guests are welcome here anytime.

Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.

Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.
The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar.

Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract	Material	Generic	Non-Plurals with -s
advice help information knowledge trouble work enjoyment fun recreation relaxation	meat rice bread cake coffee ice cream water oil grass hair	fruit wildlife equipment machinery furniture mail luggage jewelry clothing money	mathematics economics physics civics ethics mumps measles news tennis (other games)

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any
Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

There are some cookies in the jar. (countable)
There is some water on the floor. (uncountable)
Did you eat any food? (uncountable)
Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)

Much, Many
Much modifies only uncountable nouns.

How much money will we need?
They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick.
Much effort will be required to solve this problem.

Many modifies only countable nouns.

How many children do you have?
They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall.
Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

A lot of, Lots of
These words are informal substitutes for much and many.

Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable)
A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few
Little and quite a littlemodify only uncountable nouns.

We had a little ice cream after dinner.
They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small amount")
They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large amount") (See quite a bit of, below.)

Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.

A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team.
Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "only a small number")
Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "a large number")

A little bit of, Quite a bit of
These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly.

There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")

Enough
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup.
We have enough money to buy a car.

Plenty of
This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland.
She has plenty of money in the bank.

No
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There were no squirrels in the park today.
We have no time left to finish the project.

Definition of Count and Noncount Nouns

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Count or Noncount?

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Examples:

table
finger
bottle
chair
remark
award
word
girl
candidate

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)
I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)
I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Examples:

anger
courage
progress
furniture
education
weather
warmth
leisure
precision

Example sentences:

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)
I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)
I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake
Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The Rule
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:

most count nouns pluralize with -s
noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.
An Exception to the Rule
For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:
Count

I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)
The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)
The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount

She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)
I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)
I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.
A Revision of the Rule
These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.
To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

	Pluralizes with -s	Doesn't Pluralize
Count Noun	XX
Count Use	XX
Noncount Noun		XX
Noncount Use		XX

Articles

Nouns and Articles
Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.
Combinations of Nouns and Articles
The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.

	a, an	the	this, that	these, those	no article
Count singular	XX	XX	XX
Count plural		XX		XX	XX
Noncount		XX	XX		XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.
Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.
Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.

	much, less, little, a little, very little	some, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of the	many, both, several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a couple of	each, every, any, one
Count singular				XX
Count plural		XX	XX
Noncount	XX	XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.
Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.
Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.

Count and Noncount Nouns : Basic Rules

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Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

The Basic Rules: Count and Noncount Nouns

A count noun is one that can be expressed in plural form, usually with an "s." For example, "cat—cats," "season—seasons," "student—students."

A noncount noun is one that usually cannot be expressed in a plural form. For example, "milk," "water," "air," "money," "food." Usually, you can't say, "He had many moneys."

Count and Noncount Nouns with Adjectives

Most of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few."

Some/Any: Some and any countable and uncountable nouns.

"There is some water on the floor."
"There are some Mexicans here."
"Do you have any food?"
"Do you have any apples?"

Much/Many: Much modifies only uncountable nouns. Many modifies only countable nouns.

"We don't have much time to get this done."
"Many Americans travel to Europe."

Little/Few: Little modifies only uncountable nouns.

"He had little food in the house."
"The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room."

Few modifies only countable nouns.

"There are few doctors in town."
"Few students like exams."

Other basic rules

A lot of/lots of:A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.

"They have lots of (much) money in the bank."
"A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe."
"We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer."
"We got lots of (much) rain last summer."

A little bit of:A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

"There is a little bit of pepper in the soup."
"There is a little bit of snow on the ground."

Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

"There is enough money to buy a car."
"I have enough books to read."

Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

"They have plenty of money in the bank."
"There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland."

No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

"There is no time to finish now."
"There are no squirrels in the park."

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

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Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses

The most common relative pronouns are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that, and which. (Please note that in certain situations, "what," "when," and "where" can function as relative pronouns.)
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which connect adjectival and adverbial dependent clauses to a main clause. Adjectival and adverbial dependent clauses modify a word, phrase, or idea in the main clause. The word, phrase, or idea modified is called the antecedent. In the following examples, that and whom modify the subject:

The house that Jack built is large.

The professor, whom I respect, recently received tenure.

The type of clause determines what kind of relative pronoun to use. Generally, there are two types of relative clauses: restrictive (defining) clause and non-restrictive (non-defining) clause. In both types of clauses, the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive pronoun ("whose").

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense.
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses:

Function in the sentence	Reference to
Function in the sentence	People	Things / concepts	Place	Time	Explanation
Subject	who, that	which, that
Object	(that, who, whom)*	(which, that)*	where	when	what/why
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Examples

Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative clause:

This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.

It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause:
1) As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position, but formal English includes the relative pronoun. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, which is used instead of that, for example, "in which," "for which," "about which," "through which," etc. (please see the third example below):

Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had forgotten.
Informal English: This is the man (whom/that) I wanted to speak and whose name I'd forgotten.

Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted.
Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted.

Formal English: This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the US.
Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the US.

Pronouns Case

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Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.

Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Pronouns as Subjects	Pronouns as Objects	Pronouns that show Possession
I	me	my (mine)
you	you	your (yours)
he, she, it	him, her, it	his, her (hers), it (its)
we	us	our (ours)
they	them	their (theirs)
who	whom	whose

The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.

Some problems of case:

1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.

Not: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
Not: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:

He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).

Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.

Not: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?

Pronouns

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Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.

Therefore, pronouns should:

1. Agree in number

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.

Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)

2. Agree in person
If you are writing in the "first person" (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.

NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)

NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)

NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)

NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)

NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

Articles

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What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.

the = definite article

a/an = indefinite article

For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.
Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:

"My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
"Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
"When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour
In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," use an:

An historical event is worth recording.

In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.
Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms:

Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.

Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:

An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:

I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)
Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.

"I need a bottle of water."
"I need a new glass of milk."

Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of the

There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.
Do not use the before:

names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
names of continents (Asia, Europe)
names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles

Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:

Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")
Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.

a cat
a dog
a purple onion
a buffalo
a big apple

With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h.

an honorable peace
an honest error

"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:

an apricot
an egg
an Indian
an orbit
an uprising

With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.

a union
a united front
a unicorn
a used napkin
a U.S. ship
a one-legged man

Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

Adverbs

2011-02-13T16:05:00.001-08:00

The Basic Rules: Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. (You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, though that is not always the case.) The most common question that adverbs answer is how.

Let's look at verbs first.

"She sang beautifully." Beautifully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang.

"The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played.

Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

"That woman is extremely nice." Nice is an adjective that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice.
"It was a terribly hot afternoon." Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon. Terribly is an adverb that modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot.

So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)

Some other rules:

Most of the time, adjectives come before nouns. However, they come after the nouns they modify, most often when the verb is a form of the following:

be
feel
taste
smell
sound
look
appear
seem

Some examples:

"The dog is black." Black is an adjective that modifies the noun dog, but it comes after the verb. (Remember that "is" is a form of the verb "be.")
"Brian seems sad." Sad is an adjective that modifies the noun Brian.
"The milk smells rotten." Rotten is an adjective that modifies the noun milk.
"The speaker sounds hoarse." Hoarse is an adjective that modifies the noun speaker.

Be sure to understand the differences between the following two examples:
"The dog smells carefully." Here, carefully describes how the dog is smelling. We imagine him sniffing very cautiously.
But:
"The dog smells clean." Here, clean describes the dog itself. It's not that he's smelling clean things or something; it's that he's had a bath and does not stink.

Adjectives

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The semantics defination of an adjective is that it describe or denotes the qualities of something. Adjective commonly occur be a determiner and a noun, or after be or other linking verbs, although they can also follow a noun.
Many adjectives have no typical form, but certain derivational morphemes are associated with adjectives, such as –able (likeable), -ish (childish), -ful (thoughtful) and –y (lazy).
English adjectives do not agree in number or gender with nouns as they do in some other languages; however, certain of them have inflectional morphemes for comparative and superlative forms such as happy, happier, happiest.

The function of adjective is to modify or coplement nouns. There are two adjective types : attributive, which precede nouns, and predicative, which follow linking verbs.
Attributive : The old bucket sprang a leak.
Predicative : He became angry at the very thought.

Nouns

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The notional, or semantic, defination of a noun is as you have seen- a noun is the name of a person,place, or thing. Some linguists add "or idea" to account for abstract nouns such as democracy,environment, and life.
As we also noted earlier, nouns have endings or derivational morphemes that formally indicate that a word is a noun: recall the -ness of sadness. They also have grammatical morphemes or inflections for plural and possessive. In terms of their position, they are frequently preceeded by determiners,such as articles.

As pointed out earlier, noun serve functionally as subjects of verbs. They can also, however, be :
Direct objects of verbs : He watered his lawn.
Subject noun predicates: We are all learners.
Object noun predicates : They elected Ann president.
Indirect object of verbs : Ann gave the people confidence.
Appositives : Albany, capital of New York, is located on the Hudson River.
Objects of prepositions : Troy is also located on the Hudson River.
Vocatives : Let me tell you, my friend, grammar is just plain fun!

Another facts worth knowing about nouns is that there are three types. By far the most frequent in occurence are commmon nouns, or nouns referring to a kind of a person, thing, or idea. Common nouns themselves are divisible into two subcategories : Count nouns, which take the plural inflection ( e.g farmers), and mass, or Noncount nouns, which don't (e.g air).
In contrast to commmon nouns are proper nouns, or names for unique individuals or places (e.g Kevin). Proper nouns can be singular or plural. A small number of nouns that refer to group are called collective nouns, singular or plural verbs forms, depending on the interpretation given to the noun- that is, whether it is seen as a unit ( The family is together again) or as a collection of individuals ( The family are all coming for the weekend).

To conclude this section on nouns, we should note that gender is not an important features of English grammar as it is in other languages. Gender is only marked in certain pairs of English nouns ( e.g actor/actress : widow/widower) and is evident in some personal pronouns such as she-he and him-her.

VERBS

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The notional, oremantic, definition of a verb is

that it is a word that denotes an action or state of being.

Four inflections can be used with English verbs:
1) -s of third person singular present tense verbs : Sue jogs every day.
2) -ed of past tense verbs : She jogged yesterday.
3) -en of the past participle : He has seen the movie three time already.
4) -ing of the present participle : I am teaching three course this term.
In terms of their position, verbs follow nouns and may be followed in turn by adjectives,adverbs, or other nouns.

Here we simply categorize verbs by what follows them syntactically. According to Chalker (1984), there are six type :
1) intransitive verbs,which take no following object : Mavis smokes.
2) Transitive verbs, which require an object : David raises Illamas.
3) Distransitive verbs, which take two objects (directs and indirects) : I handed Mary the fax.
4) Complex transitive verbs, where what follows the object relates to the object : They considered the project a waste of time.
5) Linking verbs,where what follows the verbs relates back to the subject : We are teachers.
6) Prepositional verbs, which require a prepositional phrase to be complete : Steve glanced at the headlines.

To illustrate aspect, compare the following two sentences, where the have verb + the present participle of the second sentence shows the action is in progress :

John has written his term paper.
Now he is studying for his final exams.

To conclude our discussion of verbs, we should point out that verbs, too, are marked for number, but only with subjects in the third person singular in the present tense or with the verb be. In such instances, subject-verb agreement occurs, and the verb is marked to agree with the singular or plural subject noun.

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2011-01-19T16:53:00.001-08:00

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GRAMMAR FOR DUMMIES

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Writing Numbers

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

Count and Noncount Nouns ( with Articles & Adjectives )

Countable Nouns

Uncountable Nouns

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Definition of Count and Noncount Nouns

Count or Noncount?

Examples:

Example sentences:

Examples:

Example sentences:

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

Articles

Quantity Terms

Count and Noncount Nouns : Basic Rules

The Basic Rules: Count and Noncount Nouns

Count and Noncount Nouns with Adjectives

Other basic rules

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Examples

Pronouns Case

Some problems of case:

Pronouns

Using Pronouns Clearly

Articles

Indefinite Articles: a and an

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

Definite Article: the

Count and Noncount Nouns

Geographical use of the

Omission of Articles

Adverbs

The Basic Rules: Adverbs

Some other rules:

Adjectives

Nouns

VERBS

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