Greg Tersakian

St. Chora's amazing High Definition mosaics

2010-05-10T17:23:00.000-04:00

Ten megapixel Mosaics!

St. Chora Church is not the most impressive of the Byzantine churches but it has arguably the best mosaics of the era (10-12th century), all executed when the fate of Constantinople was very clear with the city surrounded by the Ottoman forces. The church is best known for housing some of the best preserved mosaics and frescoes from the late-Byzantine period and considered among the very best in the world. (Photo: Krikor Tersakian)

St. Chora High Definition mosaic: St. Paul at St. Chora church. Unsurpassed quality.

It is funny, but every time I mention the Chora church to friends in Montreal, they think I am talking eggs, fruits and and pancakes ! You see, "Cora" is a pretty successful breakfast serving chain in Quebec owned by a Greek businesswoman, while I am trying to talk about the Chora church in Constantinople that houses the best Byzantine Mosaics and Frescoes, arguably the finest in the world!

The world had to wait until very recently for the introduction of High Definition TV and screens, but the incredible and unparalleled mosaics of St. Chora church were executed in "HD" in the 14th century! Some of the mosaic stones used are smaller than rice grains and the overall quality and execution are unparalleled. Mosaic is a very difficult art, and the Chora church is the ultimate temple of this lost but very noble Art.

St. Chora Church (known also as Kariye Museum) is a rather ordinary looking and medium sized church but amazingly it has some of the very best Byzantine mosaics of the 12-14 century to be found anywhere. Constantinople or Istanbul is long known as a city with layer upon layer of cultural riches and heritage dating from ancient times. But beyond all the obvious and universally acclaimed sites, St. Chora is a jewel that’s rarely seen or known. Therefore easily confused with the Montreal breakfast chain by some...

The Chora Church was originally built outside the defensive walls of Constantinople on the south of the Golden Horn, 4 Km west of HaghiaSophia and Topkapi. The church's full name was the Church of the Holy Saviour in the Country (Greek ἡ Ἐκκλησία του Ἅγιου Σωτῆρος ἐν τῃ Χώρᾳ, hē Ekklēsia tou Hagiou Sōtēros en tē Chōra). The name, Chora referring to its location originally outside of the walls, became the shortened and accepted name of the church. The original church on this site was built in the early 5th century, and stood outside of the 4th century walls of Constantine the Great. However, when Theodosius II built his impregnable land walls in 413–414, the church became incorporated within the city's defenses, but retained the name Chora. The church became an important stopping point for Pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land.

Early in the 12th century, the church suffered a partial collapse, perhaps due to an earthquake and was rebuilt. However, it was only after the third phase of building, two centuries after, that the church as it stands today was completed.
Therefore the majority of the current building dates from 1077–1081, when Maria Ducaena, the mother-in-law of Alexius I Comnenus, rebuilt the Chora Church as an inscribed cross (quincunx), which was a popular architectural style of the time. Early in the 12th century, the church suffered a partial collapse, perhaps due to an earthquake. The church was rebuilt by Isaac Comnenus, Alexius's third son. However, it was only after the third phase of building, two centuries after, that the church as it stands today was completed.

The powerful Byzantine statesman Theodore Metochites endowed the church with much of its fine mosaics and frescoes. Theodore's impressive decoration of the interior was carried out between 1315 and 1321, thee mosaic-work being the finest example of the Palaeologus Renaissance. In 1328, Theodore was sent into exile by the Andronicus III but later was allowed to return and lived as a monk his last two years in the church. Finally in 1453 The Ottoman occupied the city through a defensive lapse very near the St. Chora church at Edirne Kapi. The Byzantine soldiers knew their surrounded city was doomed and were resting, praying and finding solace at the Chora.

After theOttoman conquest under the Sultan Fatih, this unique church Around became a mosque. Fifty years after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (in 1453), Atık Ali Paşa, the grand vizier of Sultan Bayazid II, ordered the Chora Church be converted into a mosque — Kariye Camii. Due to the prohibition against images in Islam, the mosaics and frescoes were mostly left unharmed but were covered behind layers of plaster. This and frequent earthquakes in the region had taken their toll on the artwork until their restoration. Another earthquake in 1894 did not help either.

In 1948 the scholar Thomas Whittemore (Dumborton Oaks Byzantine Institute, Washington D.C.) who had done restoration work at the Haghia Sofia, sponsored also a audacious program of restoration of the unique art at the Chora, removing the plaster and restoring the artwork to its splendor. Awesome mosaics and frescoes were discovered, unique in their fine detail, displaying very subtle shadings and very rich colors that are unknown or lacking in earlier Byzantine mosaics. From that time on, the Chora church ceased to be a functioning mosque. In 1958, it was opened to the public as a museum — Kariye Müzesi. In today's Istanbul, St. ChoraHaghia Sofia in the pecking order. Still, it is a must see of universal importance.

A Brief history of the lost art of the mosaics

It is very difficult to elaborate about the exacts origins of the mosaic art as various civilizations from Mesopotamia to Rome have somehow excelled in their own right and not always in religious themes. Purely decorative mosaics with geometrical patterns were also mastered along with the mythological characters, saints, earthly or heavenly scenes etc. Early christians adopted mosaics fast and made them an integral part of church decorations. Mosaics were indeed extensively used both the secular dwellings as well as religious buildings throughout the Roman Empire and the Mediterranean basin.

Despite all this, it is safe to argue that mosaics were most popular in the Eastern Roman Empire and hence were perfected by the Byzantines and therefore the Orthodox Christian rites. Others, such as Venice and other Italian cities also mastered the art as they were in constant friendly (and not so friendly) contact with Byzantium. The mosaics were an ancient roman tradition but in my view they reached their perfection under the Byzantines as witnessed in the St. Chora and a few churches and monasteries.

Mosaic is described as an art where the collage of small pieces of glasses, glazed clays, shells, pebbles, stones and even semi precious stones are used to create a decoration (images, landscapes, religious scenes, geometrical patterns etc.). The stones or glasses are cut to different shapes and the multicolor assemblage is used to create the final work "in situ" (on site, that is in a palace, cathedral, monastery etc). The glasses of different colors are referred to as tesserae and are combined to create the art.

With the rise of the Byzantine Empire from the 5th century onwards, centered on Byzantium (now Istanbul, Turkey), the art form took on new characteristics. These included Eastern influences in style and the use of special glass tesserae called smalti, manufactured in northern Italy. These were made from thick sheets of colored glass. Smalti have a rough surface and contain tiny air bubbles. They are sometimes backed with reflective silver or gold leaves to enhance the overall finish resulting in mesmerizing overall effects.

St. Chora Church dome: High Definition photo or mosaics of Highest quality? This mosaic, in the southern dome of the inner narthex, depicts the ancestry of Christ and his ancestors. In particular, Adam through Jacob are listed, along with the sons of Jacob. (Photo Mirari Erdoiza)

St. Chora: Christ the Savior (Left) and the miracle of Christ multiplying the bread to feed the 5000 followers. (Photo: Rolfgross)

HD screens are not needed here: You have to see to believe that this is not some modern poster, painting or a fresco. This is the mosaic just inside the main door. It depicts the famous image of Christ Pantocrator (Photo: pages.pomona.edu)

St. Chora: Byzantine mosaic depiction of Christ. When the church was built in the 5th Century, Istanbul was still known as Constantinople. The mosaic tiles were added to the interior walls in the 14th century and are considered to be amongst the finest examples of Byzantine art.

St. Chora: Mosaic of the journey to Bethlehem (photo: choramuseum.com).The walls are decorated with superb 14th century mosaics, illustrating scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary. These are the finest masterpieces of Christian religious art to be found anywhere in the world. Paintings, rocks and architectural designs seen in the background make the pictures three-dimensional. The scenes are made with special care for them to look daily, lively and ordinary. The scenes are enriched with explicating stories near them.

Like the mosaics and the frescoes inside, the architecture of the St. Chora is artfully distorted, chaotic, asymmetrical and decorative. (Choramuseum.com)

Mosaic closeup: small mosaic ceramic pieces at Chora in need of repair, showing the stunning range of colors used. It’s not easy to do but it is well worth the effort. The interior walls are covered with exquisite Byzantine religious art that has no equal anywhere in the world. (Choramuseum.com)

The Frescoes in St Chora are also in High Definition: This is the Anastasis (or Resurrection) scene. Christ, who had just broken down the gates of Hell, is standing in the middle and trying to pull Adam and Eve out of their tombs. Behind Adam stand John the Baptist, David and Solomon. Others are righteous kings;(Photo:Mlahannas.de)

Constantinople's defensive walls today, near the St Chora church: a stunning contrast of Old and New: These walls are named after Emperor Theodosius, and I took this picture at Edirnekapi very near the point the Ottoman army finally breached the Byzantine defenses and conquered the besieged city in 1453. The Chora church is only a few hundred feet away. The mobile fruit vendor, the black Audi and the car behind parked in an opposite direction make a stunning tableau of this historic place. Climbing these monstrous fortifications gave me my first ever vertigo and I really feared for my life unsure how to come down safely without losing my balance. (Photo: Krikor Tersakian)

The St. Chora when it was still used as a Mosque then still called Kariye Camii (circa 1904). The mosaics were under then hidden under a layer of white plaster hiding them from view and few knew about their existence. Note the Golden Horn and Beyoglu Pera at the far left. This area now is totally surrounded by concrete working class dwellings and known to be a conservative Muslim Fatih neighborhood.

The Pammakaristos church: Another forgotten Byzantine jewel

Only a few hundred meters from the St. Chora stands another masterpiece of Byzantine culture, namely the Pammakaristos (Greek: Θεοτόκος ἡ Παμμακάριστος, "All-Blessed Mother of God") church which is today known as the Fethiye Mosque or museum. It does have very valuable mosaics even though not as elaborate as those at the St. Chora. It is in the area called Çarsamba in Fatih neighborhood and was built on the fifth hill of Constantinople in the beginning of 12th century and then rebuilt in the 13th century by Michael Glabas Ducas Tarchaniotes, nephew of the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologos. After the fall of the City in 1453, Pammakaristos was used as a nunnery and then it became the see of the exiled Orthodox Patriarchate from 1455 until 1587.
In 1590, the church was inevitably converted into a mosque Fethiye (conquest or conqueror), in order to commemorate the conquest of Georgia and Azerbaijan by the Turks under the reign of Sultan Murad III during the Iranian war. A part of the apse was removed and a niche (Mihrab) was built showing the direction of Mecca for Muslim prayers along with a minaret and a religious teaching school or madrassah.

Pammakaristos church was then neglected for a long period until its restoration in 1949 by the Byzantine Institute of America (see details below). Just like the St. Chora, in the mid 20th century the frescoes and mosaics were cleaned and the famous church became a museum but it is far less visited than the St Chora and understandably so.

At the entrance, there is a well preserved frescoes on the wall with "three wise men", and some fragments of other frescoes. Inside the dome and the interior walls of the parekkleison are covered with mosaics from the 14th century. The dome is decorated with Christ Pantokrator and the Twelve Prophets. In the apsis, there are figures of Christ with Virgin Mary and John the Baptist forming the Deesis, and archangels watching them. In the vaults and arches, there are scenes of the Baptism, and of several saints and monks of the church (www.greatistanbul.com)

Pammakaristos Pantocrator church dome mosaics: (Photo: phool 4xc FlickR)

Pammakaristos: St. Gregory Illuminator (Սուրբ Գրիգոր Լուսաւորիչ) mosaic 14th century: St Gregory or Krikor was the driving force behind the conversion of Armenia from paganism to Christianity in 301 A.D. and hence the founder of the Armenian Apostolic church. He was initially imprisoned by the Armenian king Tirdad I (Տրդատ թագաւոր) but he managed to convert the King to Christianity along with the Nation (the first in the world to do so). His son Aristakes was his successor as head of the newly formed Church and took part to the famous First council of Nicaea in 325 A.D., the first ecumenical council of bishops of the Christian Church under Constantine. The above mosaic at the Pammakaristos church is very interesting but a bit odd given the conflict and competition opposing the Byzantines to the independent Armenian Apostolic church.

This mosaic at Haghia Sofia may be the most famous of them all, but the overall quality of the surviving artwork (frescoes and mosaics) at St Chora is in a different league. (Photo: Krikor Tersakian)

Real life Indiana Jones: In 1948, Thomas Whittemore (1871 – 1950) and Paul A. Underwood, from the Byzantine Institute of America and the Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies, sponsored a program for restoration of the Chora in Istanbul. Thomas Whittemore was a scholar, archaeologist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1871. His good personal relationship with Ataturk enabled him to gain permission from the government to start the preservation and restoration of the Haghia Sophia mosaics in 1931. Under the plaster he discovered close to a thousand years of history—in silver, gold, marble, and sparkling glass cubes put together into a parade of saints and influential sinners which stretches from 537 to 1453 A.D., when the Turks came marching in, and then started work at the Chora restoring the place to its splendor (Choramuseum.com)

Bicephalous Eagle: The Byzantine Imperial flag: The double-headed eagle was the symbol of the Palaiologos, the last Greek-speaking "Roman" dynasty to rule from Constantinople. Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos recaptured Constantinople from the catholic Crusaders in 1261, from a state based in Asia Minor; the double-headed eagle symbolized the dynasty and was kept despite the fact that virtually all of the Asian possessions were being gradually gobbled up by the Turks. This symbol was also adopted by the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate as well as the Russians.

The tragedy of open air mosaics and historical treasures in the Middle East

Beit Meri, Lebanon: an example of open air Roman mosaic floor in total neglect

I grew up an Lebanon, a country considered to be an open air museum. The country is small in size, but few can claim to have seen all the historical sites the cradle of ancient Phoenicia has to offer. From the earliest human settlements all the way to Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, Mameluke, Ottoman or French colonial rule, the country is a one stop shopper's paradise. However all is not so rosy. Some sites are unprotected and the concrete urban jungle threatens most. The Lebanese National Museum with all its unique Phoenician and other treasures was heavily damaged and sacked during the civil war. But this is by no means a tragedy unique to Lebanon. Archaeological sites across the region are left unprotected and are crying for help.

Another tragedy happened in Baghdad upon the absurd Iraqi invasion by all time great American visionary leader and philosopher called George W. Bush. More than ten thousands antiquities of different sizes were looted in April 2003 from the National museum. These unique treasures were illegally sold all around the world, but fortunately most but not all were eventually recovered. In a typical answer as to why the US forces did not secure the museum from theft and looting, the official answer from the General Richard Myers was that while the looting was taking place at the museum, lots of people were dying because of the fighting. Therefore the museum with the unique Mesopotamian artifacts was not a priority for the attacking troops...

As for mosaics, the picture is even bleaker in the region because of the very fragile nature of these assemblages. For example when I was a kid, we used to sometimes visit the Roman site in the Village of Beit Meri near Beirut where there are open air mosaics and we used to actually walk on them just for fun! Yes, we were pretty ignorant, innocent and supervision free to walk on these thousand years mosaics. I still deeply regret doing so.
The sorry state of some archaeological sites in the Near East and elsewhere is beyond belief even though deliberate acts of vandalism seem to be rare. But is this acceptable ?
There are not many options available other than the complete protection of all historical sites with the help (both financial and technical) of the International community, agencies, universities and even philanthropists who understand a basic fact: what is lost today is never recovered.

The great 19th century Armenian Humorist / Satirist Hagop Baronian (1843 Edirne-1891 Constantinople) summed it best: ''Look to your rear side to see in front of you'' (Ետեւդ նայիր որ առջեւդ տեսնես). That is, History is not just the past, it is also the best interpretation and the road map to understand and somehow predict the future.

Tyre, Lebanon: Neglected open air mosaics. It is in the Roman period that mosaics in Lebanon started to appear.The Hellenistic period from 400 B.C until the Roman period have not yielded any mosaic pavement in Lebanon particular during its prosperous period of the 2nd century A.C-Mosaics continue to flourish during the Byzantine period until the Arab conquest. Important finds of mosaic pavements have been made in many archaeological sites, in churches and in ancient houses. Lebanon has become thus one of the most important centers for the study of mosaics. (Photos: Cedarrick)

Lebanon mosaics in total neglect: Please, please, please: Can anyone be caring and smart enough to put these broken mosaic pieces together and lift them a few centimeters off the ground for protection? Or maybe not. After all, not many care...

Krikor Tersakian June 2010, Canada

Iraq's unique Islamic Shi'a shrines explained

2010-03-28T17:20:00.000-04:00

Najaf: Ali Bin abi Taleb Shrine is the third holiest for the Shi'a (or Shiite) Islam after Mecca and Medina. It is followed by the Mosques in nearby Karbala where Ali's younger son Hussein and family were massacred by the Omayyad in the battle of Karbala in 680 AD

Iraq has been at the very center of the world news scene for all the wrong reasons. An artificial war in a country with artificially drawn borders by colonial powers. The land of Iraq is as historic as it gets and very few spots on earth can claim so much credit in the development of Human History and Civilization. The fertile lowland is richly watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, and the "land between the rivers" is what was called Mesopotamia. Assyria, Babylon, Nineveh, Ur, Sumer are all household names of the past, but few realize that since the 7th century Iraq has always taken a center stage in all the events shaping the early days of Islam as a religion and as an empire. This is why Baghdad, Karbala, Najaf, Kufa and Samarra are hugely important. Islam was shaped in the Arabian Peninsula but it was in Iraq that major events took place and shaped the Muslim world in the 7th century and on.

Little has changed since since these early days and Iraq is still the dangerous fault line that has shaped Arab and Islam cultures for two main distinctive reasons:

Iraq is the easternmost "frontier" of the Arabic world , east of which Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan etc. are mostly Muslim but not Arab, while the north is mostly Turkic and historically Armenian. Iraq also represents the tricky "fault line" and bloody rivalry between the Sunni and the Shi'a branches of Islam. Sunnis or "mainstream" Muslims may well represent around 80% of Islam, but in Iraq the Arab Shi'a form a clear majority and interestingly share that belief with their neighboring Iranians. Since colonial times and until the Saddam era the minority Sunnis were in firm control of the country, but George W. Bush put the Shi'a in the driving seat in Baghdad. This Shi'a led government does not bode well with most of the Sunni governments from Saudi Arabia to Egypt and beyond (see the map below).

Sunni-Shi'a schism: The Islamic world is predominantly of the Sunni sect divided into 4 major legal traditions. The population in Persian Gulf region are often Sh'ia, mostly Itna'ashari "Twelvers". Globally, the Shi'a account for an estimated 15-20 percent of the Muslim population, but they dominate the population of Iran, compose a majority in Iraq, and are significant minorities in other nations, including Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Pakistan, and Syria. (C.I.A. World Fact book and Operation Reveille Map).

Institutional development of Islam: The first four "Rashidun" Caliphs after Muhammad and the subsequent split between the Sunnis (following Omayyad) and the Shi'a (following Ali Bin Abi Taleb and sons Hassan and Hussein) (Operation Reveille chart)

But how come Iraq is so different from most of its Arab neighbors and has a Shi'a Arab majority? And how come all the major Shi'a shrines are all in Iraq? The answers are of course embedded in history. We shall try to explain the circumstances and present the major shrines within the Iraq and their significance.

Upon the Death of Prophet Muhammad (632 AD), the Muslim leadership was confronted with major headaches, plots and imbroglio regarding the succession to the Caliph role. By all accounts, Mohamed was an absolute genius: Not only he founded a new and major monotheistic religion but he also created a very successful military and political entity that grew from nothing to a majestic empire within a few decades. Muhammad was a unique personality and choosing a successor naturally proved to be very difficult, divisive and a bloody affair that unfortunately continues to this day. Any Caliph succeeding Mohamed had to be the real leader of the mushrooming Empire and religion, having all the powers held by Mohamed himself except the Prophecy. But choosing the successors proved catastrophic for the unity of the ranks.

Still hurting after all these years: Tears for the Shi'a Imam Hussein martyrdom in Karbala (680 AD). The bandanna reads "Allah and Hussein", while green is seen as the color of Islam. These kind of "populist" posters seem to be less widespread in Sunni societies.

The first four Rashidun (righteously guided) Caliphs that succeeded Muhammad were:

-Abu Bakr As Siddiq: (632-634 A.D: Mohamed's father in law, expanded the Muslim empire to Syria and Iraq and confronted the Byzantines and the Persian Sassanids. He consolidated the Koran. He died of illness. Shi'a do not hold him in high esteem because he was chosen over Ali despite all his incredible credentials and qualities.
-Umar ibn al Khattab (634-644 A.D.): Expanded the Muslim Empire by ruling over Sassanid Persia and to modern Libya. He was a great political and military leader but almost hated by the Shia for his fierce opposition to Ali. Umar was decisive and even could afford to dismiss the Arab military genius Khalid bin Waleed who had spearheaded most of the military expansion of the new empire without ever being defeated. Umar was assassinated by the a Persian while praying in Medina.

Uthman Ibn Affan, Third Caliph, a hate figure for the Shi'a because of his supposed fierce opposition to Ali and his Omayyad lineage.

-Uthman ibn Affan (644-656 A.D.)Married to Muhammad's daughter Ruqayya, he was a member of the Omayyad clan and reputedly the Fourth person to convert to Islam. Under his reign the Muslim empire reached all the way to Morocco and Afghanistan. He was assassinated in Medina and buried in the famous Jannat al Baqi cemetery destroyed by the Saudis (see details below)

-Ali ibn abi Taleb (656-661 A.D.). Fourth caliph for the Sunni but first imam for the Shi'a. He too was an exceptional man, married to Muhammad's daughter Fatima al-Zahra from his first wife Khadija and his father was an uncle to the Prophet. Ali is considered as the first person to have converted to the new religion revealed my his uncle and he was also reputedly the only person being born in the Holy Ka'aba in Mecca (which was a pagan shrine at the time). Ali was a great narrator and military leader. Ali’s appointment as Caliph accelerated the internal struggles and caused a civil war and a major schism in Islam. Ali was challenged on multiple fronts and fought several battles against his rivals within the Muslim hierarchy. He was finally assassinated by his enemies in 658 in Kufa and his murder brought to end what was known as the era of the “righteously guided caliphs”. Ali’s supporters accepted his son Hassan (and later his other son Hussein) as caliph, however the majority rallied behind Ali’s opponent Abi Sufyan, a kinsman of Uthman who founded the Omayyad dynasty in Damascus.

Ali's legendary double edged sword called the Zulficar Ali. (Note that Pakistan's ex-prime minister and Benazir's father was named Zulficar Ali.) This is a replica sword sold as an expensive gift for those who can afford the extra protection it provides!

It is to note that the first four Caliphs were very close friends and relatives of the Prophet and they were chosen by a collegial decisions or consensus based on "merit" and value. However this system was rejected by the followers of Ali bin abi Taleb who felt that Ali must have been the automatic and obvious choice to succeed his Father-in-Law and Cousin Muhammad. Ali did not openly fight the nomination of the preceding three Caliphs and waited for his turn, but he was obviously irritated and rejected the notion of "consensus". For Ali and his followers the Prophet's family ties were overwhelming and therefore other means or criteria to choose successors were simply invalid. Shi'a firmly believe that Ali and all his descendants (known collectively as the Ahlul Bayt, or the Household) must have had absolute priority to rule as Caliphs. But it was not to be.

Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the "Twelvers", and they share a lot with the Sunnis but disagree as far as legal opinions, texts and Words attributed to the Prophet etc. Other groups of Shi'a exist as well such as the "Ismai'li" and the "Zaidi", who in their turn disagree with the Twelvers over lines of successors and the lineage of Imams following Ali.

The Twelve Imams of the Shi'a, With Ali, Hassan Hussein and the 9 others. The last disappeared Imam's face is covered at the far left. Other Shi'a sects like the Ismailis or Zaidis believe in different lines of successors to those of the "Twelvers".

Shi'a Imams: Likenesses of Ali bin abi Taleb and his son Hussein.

The death of Ali did ot put an end to the ugly infighting. Ali's son Hussein had participated in his father's effort to succeed Muhammad and when his father died his older brother Hassan and another claimant, Muawiyah, fought for Ali's position. Muawiyah reinforced his position as a leader when Hassan abdicated and agreed to go on a forced retirement to Medina, and Hussein did not object. However, when Muawiyah sought to name his son Yazid as his successor, which would create the Omayyad dynasty, Hussein became the leader of an anti-Yazid movement and left Mecca for Kufa. While stopped at Karbala, 4,000 men from Yazid's army arrived, cut off Hussein's access to water and food, and ordered him to acknowledge Yazid's authority. Hussein and 72 followers refused and were massacred. Hussein's head was taken to Damascus to be displayed before Yazid (680 AD).

Only Hussein’s ill son Ali ibn Hussein (a.k.a. Zayn al-‘Abidīn) survived of the Imam’s male relatives and companions. His sister, Sayyida Zaynab, and his daughters were among the survivors of his band. They were all taken back in chains to Damascus in Syria, the stronghold and capital of Omayyad power of Mu'awiya. The victims were were buried in Karbala. The shrine was erected over the graves, and since then the Shia celebrate Ashura, the annual holiday marking the anniversary of Hussein's death.

Sufi orders like these whirling dervishes can be both Sunni or Shi'a in essence, but most of them trace their origin to Ali bin abi Taleb as their original spiritual guide on top of their original teacher like Jajal-ul-din Rumi of the Mawlawiya sufi mystics order (Photo imageshack/skyscrapercity.com)

After consolidating their power, the Omayyad completely transferred the power center of the Muslim Empire from Mecca to Damascus and continued what is now known as the Sunni Islam lineage. The followers of Ali and his sons Hassan and Hussein and the subsequent Mahdi (Shi'a) were left in the minority and militarily beaten, but continued to believe in the justness of their their struggle. Therefore the Ali lineage continued through his sons Hassan and Hussein and 9 other Imams until the "disappearance" of the twelfth Imam called Al-Mahdi from the Iraqi city of Samarra. The disappeared Imam is expected to come back. It is obvious that the Iraqi territory was the theater of the major schism that occurred between the early Muslim factions and therefore it is easy to understand why all the major Shi'a shrines are situated in Iraq or in Syria where the family members of the Karbala massacre were taken after Hussein's death.

Most of the population are Muslim Arabs, divided into the Sunni Muslim of central Iraq and Shi'a Muslim of the south. The Kurds inhabit the north along with some Turkomans and Yazidis, mostly in rural areas as well as around 2 million Christians live in Iraq, mostly Chaldean and Assyrian. Arabic is the official language in most of the country, Kurdish is official in northern sections. (Salaam.co.uk)

Najaf and Kufa:

Najaf is understandably the most important Shi'a city as the site of the tomb of Ali Bin abi Taleb (first Imam of the Shi'a and fourth of the Caliphs). Therefore Najaf has an unparalleled importance to the hundreds of millions of Muslims and Shia in particular.
After the assassination of the third Caliph Uthman, Ali ibn abi Taleb was finally chosen as the fourth Caliph until he was assassinated as a result of all the internal struggles and intrigues in Kufa. Ali was finally was buried in nearby Najaf where his Mosque and shrine stand today.
Najaf is where his political power center was and he we was assassinated in the twin city Kufa.
Najaf receives millions of pilgrims from around the world and many elderly people go there and await death and to be buried in the As-Salaam cemetery as an ultimate dedication to Ali. Both Najaf and Karbala are believed to be Gates to Heaven. Najaf cemetery is thought to be the largest in the world with more than an estimated 5 million burials.

As the most important Shi'a shrine, Najaf has always been the site of attacks by Sunnis throughout the ages and also was the center of a large armed uprising against the U.S. led coalition forces. Since the fall of Saddam, Najaf has reclaimed its position as the most important theological learning center in Shi'a Islam. The father of the Iranian Islamic revolution Ayatollah Khomeini spent 14 years in exile in Najaf before his triumphant return to Iran after deposing the Shah Mohamed Reza Pahlavi Shah in 1979.

Najaf: Ali bin abi Taleb shrine inside the Mosque, the third holiest for the Shi'a after Mecca and Medina.

Najaf: Imam Ali Bin abi Taleb Mosque. He was assassinated in the nearby city of Kufa by rivals. He is considered the first Imam by the Shi'a and the fourth Caliph by the Sunnis.

Najaf: Wadi al-Salaam Cemetery, the world's largest with more than 5 million burials: Iraqi Shi'a pilgrims march through this cemetery in Najaf, Iraq, on their way to Karbala with Imam Hussein flags. Shi'a make their annual pilgrimage to Karbala to mark the end of 40 days of mourning following the anniversary of the seventh century death of Imam Hussein, a grandson of the Prophet Mohamed and son of Ali. (AP Photo/Alaa al-Marjani)

Karbala:

The battle of Karbala occurred on October 10, 680 AD when the Omayyad Yazid ibn Muawiya massacred Ali’s son Hussein and 72 of his family and companions. The city has since been central to The Shi'a sect. The modern city of Karbala includes the Mosques dedicated to Imam Hussein (the Third Imam of the Shi'a) as well as the mosque in honor of his brother Abbas ibn Ali. The two mosques are very close and linked with a large public space. Karbala is therefore the fourth holiest site for the Shi'a after mecca, Medina and Najaf, where millions of pilgrims converge to the city for the commemoration of the battle during the Ashura (see photos below). Many hope to die and get buried right there and not return home!

Karbala, Imam Hussein Shrine: Free for the first time in decades to worship openly, these exhausted Shi'a Muslim pilgrims crawl into the shrine. The Shi'a were powerless under Saddam and predominately poor, but now find themselves major players on the world stage often at odds with the U.S.A. They are a diverse people who's beliefs range from the radical to the progressive. (photo/caption Mattmoyer.com)

Karbala of course has been an alien "concept" and philosophy to some Sunnis, and these shrines have been so many times destroyed and rebuilt. In 1802 the Sunni Wahhabi (forefathers of modern Saudi Arabia) attacked the city and demolished everything they could, trying to wipe out the Shi'a sacred shrines. Radical Sunnis consider Shi'a not much more than shameless heretics and enemies of "true Islam" as they understand it. After the fall of Saddam Hussein, Karbala did find a revival of Shi'a religious traditions and expressions, but the Sunni al-Qaeda linked zealot groups carried deadly bomb attacks against the pilgrims in 2004 and 2007, killing dozens of innocents. Karbala has also been the scene of armed uprisings against the US led forces occupying Iraq.

Karbala: Imam Hussein Shrine: millions of Shi'a across the region mark the climax of the 10-day Ashura rites mourning Imam Hussein's slaying in 680 A.D., entrenching the deep schism between the Shi'a followers and the majority Sunnis. These Shia rites have often been the target of attacks by Sunni militants consider the Shi'a some kind of heretics. Ashura was severely curtailed under (Sunni) Saddam Hussein, but has seen a revival since the country was occupied by a U.S.-led invasion in 2003. Millions converge to the Shi'a holy city of Karbala. The other adjacent mosque is the Abbas ibn Ali Mosque, brother of Hussein.

Tehran: Karbalai'ya mosque during the Ashura rites. In a sign of mourning during Ashura, many Shi'a beat their chests to the sound of drums and religious chants, or flagellate themselves, often drawing blood in remembrance to Hussein's and his family's bloody end.

South Lebanon: Ashura in the city of Nabatiyeh under the watchful eyes of the regular Lebanese Army units. Most of these young men are followers of either Hezbollah or the other major Shi'a movement called Amal (Hope).

Zealots at work:A wounded Shi'a boy in Baghdad relies on Imam Hussein for speedy recovery after an attack on the pilgrims heading to Karbala (Photo: MSNBC). Attacks by Sunnis against Shi'a worshipers and the shrines have become kind of "normal"

Samarra:

After Najaf and Karbala, the Iraqi city of Samarra has a very important Shi'a mosque built in 944. This mosque has the remains of the 10th and 11th Imams, namely Ali al Hadi and his son Hassan Al Askari,. hence the name of the mosque Al Askari. Samarra today is in a Sunni dominated area in Iraq and this mosque has been the target of very heavy attacks and bombings in 2006 and 2007 by Sunni extremist groups, almost totally destroying the golden dome and the minarets as well as the clock tower. Intolerance of extreme proportions. The last Imam is said to have "disappeared" from a nearby location and expected back.

Samarra: The Askari shrine before and after the deadly attacks by Sunni zealots to wipe out any "unacceptable" Shi'a influence or presence in the region.

Samarra: The unique architectural jewel Abbasid era mosque and the spiral snail shell like minaret (about 850 AD). It is said to be too high to be used as a true minaret!

Medina:

Medina: The Prophet's tomb and mosque (Masjid al-Nabawi) taken from Jannat al-Baqi cemetery. The total destruction of this cemetery to the rubble was done in 1920's by the Wahhabi who took control of the Holy City and founded Saudi Arabia. It was done in the name of extreme Monotheism banning all worship of human shrines. Many of Prophet Mohamed's closest relatives and companions were buried there. The deliberate destruction of the cemetery is particularly offensive to Shi'a who consider it to be an act of "barbarism" by the Saudis. Shi'a pilgrims occasionally stage improvised protests at the site despite heavy Saudi police crackdown (Photo: Flickr Chinx786).

Jannat al-Baqi cemetery before being demolished by King Al-Saud in 1925. The graves of 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th Shi'a Imams and scores of Mohamed's family and companions are buried here. These structures are totally demolished to a huge sand field as in the picture above.

The Jannat al-Baqi cemetery next to the Prophet Mohamed Mosque in Medina is of extreme importance to Shi'a. It was totally razed by the Wahhabi Saudis in the 1920. It contains the tombs of no less than 5 of the Twelver Shiite imams, including Ali’s eldest son Imam Hassan, Ali ibn Hussein (Imam Hussein’s son) and Fatima bint Assad (the mother of Ali). The destruction of the cemetery was done in the name of total ban for any kind of worship of humans as opposed to the strict worship of Allah. It is said the the Wahhabi were very close in destroying even Mohamed’s tomb by the same logic of forbidding idolatry of humans. The cemetery of Jannatul Mu’alla in Mecca is also held in very high esteem but is less "prestigious" than al-Baqi.

Baghdad: Kadhimiya mosque

Baghdad:The Kadhimiya mosque, with streets overflowing with pilgrims and traditional celebrations of a Shi'a commemoration. This mosque is the most important Shi'a shrine in Baghdad and is believed to have the remains of Imam Mussa al Kadhim, the seventh Imam of the Twelver Shi'a.

After Mecca, Medina and the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, the Shi'a hold Najaf /Kufa and Karbala as their holiest places along with Samarra and the Kadhimiya in Baghdad.

Here are other very important shrines to Shi'a Islam, some also very important to all Muslims regardless of sect or denomination:

Damascus: Sayyidat Zaynab Mosque

Damascus: Sayyidat Zaynab Mosque Damascus has wonderful Iranian Kashani decorations. The dome, and the hanging chandeliers, stand on top of the shrine where her body is believed to rest. The decoration, ceramics and ceilings using mirrors are influenced by Iranian Safavid architecture.(Photo: Yasser el Bahadli).

Damascus: Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque

Damascus: "Ruqayya" mosque, dedicated to Imam Hussein's daughter Sayiddah Ruqayya (photo: soggysyrial.com).

Mashhad (Iran): Imam Reza Shrine

Mashhad, Iran: The shrine was built on the site where Imam Reza died in 818 AD. He was the 8-th Shi'a Imam born in Medina in 765 AD. At the age of 51 he was surprisingly "appointed" by the Abbasid Caliph Mamun (a Sunni) to become his successor as the next caliph and gave him his daughter in marriage. Mamun's actions disturbed the rival Sunnis and several violent uprisings ensued. Reza's sudden death aroused suspicions among Shi'a who believed Mamun had poisoned him to avoid unrest. Millions visit Mashhad every year.

Mazar e-Sharif (Afghanistan): Imam Ali shrine

Afghanistan: In an a bizarre but interesting twist, some Muslims believe that the site of the tomb of Imam Ali ibn abi Taleb is not in Najaf but in... the Afghan city of of Mazar-e Sharif. This was supposedly "revealed" by the sixth Twelver Shi'a Imam Jaafar al-Sadiq, but is not shared by the majority Twelver Shi'a. Nonetheless, millions go there on Pilgrimage. It is also speculated under this fabulous Blue Mosque lies Zoroaster's tomb.

Krikor Tersakian, April 2010

Symphony of Stones: from Garni Gorge to Giant's Causeway

2010-01-17T08:37:00.000-05:00

Part I: The Garni Gorge and Giant's Causeway: Two unique sites of Basalt Symphony.

Part II: The incredible Story of the Girona Spanish Armada warship wrecked in 1588 AD near Giant's Causeway, Northern Ireland; The death of 1300 people on board and the recovery of its treasures.

Part III: The Hellenistic Garni Temple complex watching over the unique Garni Gorge near Yerevan, Armenia

Part I: The Garni Gorge and Giant's Causeway: distant cousins but part of the same Basalt Symphony

Northern Ireland's Giant Causeway, circa 1890 AD. The scenery of course is unchanged today. One century is the equivalent of just one minute for these 50 million years old natural wonders. 40,000 columnar rocks make the Causeway one of the most amazing natural sites on earth, yet it was almost unknown until the 18th century!

The amazing fact about Northern Ireland's most popular tourist attraction is that it was almost unknown to the world and even to most Britons as late as 1730 AD. The Giant's Causeway today is a world renowned miles long natural miracle, but the site was strangely overlooked or simply misunderstood for centuries. Very few knew about its existence just 50 miles from Belfast in the County Antrim near the village Bushmills (famous for its Irish Whiskey distillery). Even fewer people seemed to care enough to inquire about or plan a visit to the Causeway. Some had seen sketches of the site, but the sheer size and beauty of the Causeway was still under a dark blanket of ignorance.

It is believed that it was only after a talented visitor painted some realistic sketches of the site and exposed them to a wider public in Dublin, that a general interest started to grow first in Britain and slowly across the Continent. Exactly how these wonderful various polygon shaped columns remained almost unknown is an enigma in itself. More than 40,000 almost perfect natural sculptures just across the sea from Scotland or from Liverpool and yet unknown to most of Europe and the rest of the World...

The symphony of Stones, First Movement: The Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland (Photo: Fabian Belza San)

Giant's Causeway is a natural geological wonder of volcanic basalt columns of various sizes and sheer cliffs created an estimated 50 million years ago as the area was rich in various volcanic eruptions. The molten lava from the Antrim plateau cooled and formed these wonderful columns, some reaching more than 12m in height (30ft). They are mostly hexagonal in shape, even though squares, pentagons, heptagons, octagons and other geometrical shapes are common. The site is just breathtaking and was included in the UNESCO World Heritage site list in 1986 as a "Rare and prime example of Earth's Evolutionary History". Moreover, the discovery of the wreck of the Spanish Armada galeass warship "Girona" in the nearby sea (with a large amount of the treasures and the 1300 victims that perished aboard in 1588) made the Giant's Causeway an even more famous destination with all due Celtic mysticism. (See Girona's story below, Part II)

Symphony of Stones, Second Movement: Garni Gorge in Armenia, just east of Yerevan.

The now World famous Giant's Causeway has also a lesser known cousin in distant Armenia, around 30 km east of the Capital Yerevan. The Garni (or Karni) Gorge is almost as mystical as its Irish cousin, but sits high in the mountains and not on a seaside location. The Gorge, thes wonderful basaltic polygon columns and the vertical cliffs are almost perfect, as if made by very talented human architects and artists working with play-dough. The Garni Gorge's unique location is even more unique by the perfectly restored 1st century Hellenistic temple and palace complex of Garni sitting just above the cliffs (see Garni Temple story below, Part III). Most visitors from around the world flock to the Garni temple and the UNESCO World Heritage site Geghard monastery complex and the upper Azat valley, only 7 km to the east. Both Keghart and Garni are therefore considered part of the one and same destination in the region called Gotayk (province), but unfortunately few take the time or have the knowledge, time or desire to visit the spectacular Garni Gorge. What a loss!

Descending to the Gorge and feeling the geological miracle casually called the "Symphony of Stones" is an adventure and a very unique destination in its own right. Few natural sites can offer that much grandeur and humbling simplicity. Giant's Causeway and Garni Gorge are in fact geological distant cousins, but part of the same majestic Basalt Symphony composed by the greatest Composers of all time: Mother Nature.

Garni Gorge in Armenia: The wonderful Organ Pipe basalt hexagon and pentagon columns as seen from behind the Hellenistic temple. Timeless Magic hanging from the air and a humbling experience to all visitors. (Photo: Tobotras)

Both Garni and Giant's Causeway are believed to be millions of years old formations, 50 million by most estimates. The origins are of course volcanic eruptions, but what made these sites very unique was the particular cooling and solidifying processes of the boiling lava, which gave these almost perfect geometric forms and absurdly beautiful hanging columns. The rocks have multiple layers and show how the lava eventually solidified, shrunk and formed these shapes over long periods of time. Volcanic basalt is not the hardest of rocks, and therefore millions of years have also resulted in erosion and weathering, giving both these sites a very unique look. The Giant's Causeway offers a wide variety of shapes and structures and some were given different names depending their shape or the morphology. Names such as the "Giant's Gate", "The Granny", "The Chimney" and most appropriately, the "Organ" or "Organ pipes" are among the most famous. As stated, in case of Garny Gorge, a well accepted popular name for the wonderful ensemble is "Symphony of Stones".

The Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland (Photo: Mark Windsor)

Pipes of Peace: The wonderful Garni Gorge and the suspended pipe organ style mostly pentagonal and hexagonal basalt columns (photo: Grant Vahabedian)

The columnar basalts of the Garni and Giant’s causeway are not the only such sites in the world. Columnar and polygon shaped exposed basalt formation can be found in other corners of the world, such as in the Yellowstone national park or the Parana river or elsewhere in Asia. But few are as famous or accessible to the general public. In the case of Garni, the Hellenistic Temple complex and the nearby Keghart rock carved monastery make it a world class "must-see" destination anyway just a 45 minutes drive from Yerevan. Giant’s causeway can be easily reached from Belfast.

Who says Mother Nature is not a great musical composer or does not appreciate music? These supernatural natural Organ Pipes and their majestic surroundings are here to prove all doubters very wrong!

Nature's Organ Pipes...

Man-made Organ "Pipes of War" and "Pipes of Peace"...

Part II: Story of the Spanish Armada warship "Girona" sunk near the Giant's Causeway (1588 AD)

As stated above, one other major reason why Giant's Causeway was included in the UNESCO World Heritage site list had nothing to do with that unique site's geology. UNESCO considers the site to also be of "outstanding cultural value" to the world because of the discovery of a Spanish military ship called the Girona (of the Spanish Armada) which was lost nearby in the aftermath of the Battle of the Gravelines in 1588. The Girona was sunk with 1300 victims aboard and loads of treasures while trying to make its way back to Spain after the disastrous campaign to invade England.

Some of the incredible treasures recovered from the Girona (Spanish Armada) wrecked in 1588 off the Giant's Causeway in North Antrim coast after the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The very precious and historical collection includes pieces ranging from bronze cannons to gold toothpicks, and from gold coins, religious medals and jewelery to leather boot soles. (Ulster museum, Northern Ireland)

The story of the Spanish Armada and the escape from the battle of Gravelines to the the North (Scotland and Ireland) was not a beautiful affair. It was one of the key naval battles in World history that shaped the Europe's balance of power thereafter. The Spanish Armada was the huge naval fleet assembled and sent under the Duke of Medina Sidonia by the catholic monarch of Spain Philippe II with the clear intention invading and conquering England, deposing his Protestant half sister in law Queen Elizabeth in favor of the Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots. The other geopolitical and economical reasons of course were much more complex, but conquering or at least punishing England was the immediate goal of the Spanish Monarch. His Spanish Armada was to sail first to the Low Countries (which were under Spanish rule), join an allied army under the Duke of Parma and help suppress the anti spanish secessionist movements there. The next phase would have been to attack "protestant" England by occupying the Thames river estuary leading to London.

The smaller English warships (left) chase the bigger, heavier and slower Spanish Armada galleons off Plymouth. The defeat of the Spanish Armada remains as the major event remembered of Queen Elizabeth's reign: Spain, Europe's mightiest Catholic power of the time were humiliated by the "Protestant". Spain and England were at opposite sides, both ideologically and commercially. England's support to rebellions in the Spanish-controlled Netherlands irritated Spain's empire and led to war.

The Vatican of course had thrown its full support behind the Spanish both morally and financially, hoping to fight these "heretic" Anglo-Saxon Protestants. The Pope and saw all these Spanish military schemes as a sort of a noble Crusade against the modern infidels. The lessons of the Crusades were hardly learned.

A seemingly magnificent fleet of 22 warships 108 militarized logistical merchant vessels was assembled and finally sailed north from Lisbon (under Spanish occupation), through the English channel with the intention of joining forces with Alexander Farnese's (Duke of Parma) allied army, therefore orchestrating the final assault on England across the La Manche (English Channel).

The Armada was spotted early on off Plymouth, England and was gradually chased by the British Navy under the leadership of Charles Howard and Francis Drake. After initial standoffs and chases, the Spaniards finally reached Calais and anchored in a very tight defensive formation followed by the English. The ensuing battle near the town of the Gravelines, near the modern French city of Dunkirk was not decisive as such but it did enough to destabilize and disperse the Armada, initially breaking their battle ready formations.

The famous fire-ship attack by the English created panic at Gravilines did the trick. The Spanish Armada fearing for the worst, had no choice but to disperse, somehow trying to regroup and manage an organized retreat or escape back to Spanish controlled lands. This forced "withdrawal" was a total catastrophe as it had to be done in the wrong direction: The Spaniard sailed further North to the open Atlantic ocean past Scotland and Ireland instead of heading south to Spain. They had initially failed to meet Parma's forces, and now they were facing the very heavy handed response of Mother nature in the Atlantic Ocean, trying to engineer an eventual return home sailing around the British Isles! It was a definite goodbye to any plans to attack London through the Thames river estuary and now it was a struggle to survive the hardships of being so far from the Motherland in uncharted waters for the Spanish.

Spanish ships, like most heavy warships of the day, were notoriously slow. Being so long at sea and more and more away from the Spanish territories, this fleet was bound to eventually encounter a storm. After having been defeated by the English at Gravelines, at least twenty-three of the King of Spain’s ships “flying from the wind and their enemies,” were wrecked on the rocky coast of northwest Ireland. Fearing a Spanish alliance with the catholic Irish, orders were issued to execute Spaniards coming ashore and the English immediately hanged all they could catch. Some 6,194 of the crews were reported drowned, killed or captured. But most of the Gaelic chiefs showed hospitality to the Spaniards and helped to send as many as they could of them home, creating a bond and a debt from King Philip. Those dark haired, brown eyed Spanish sailors who elected to remain in Ireland, married Irish girls and their progeny became known as "The Black Irish."(Macdonnelloffleinster)

The return to Spain of the Armada after the initial heavy losses was always to be very difficult. The Armada suffered even heavier losses on the return odyssey than at the Gravelines battle itself. More than 65 ships were eventually destroyed and wrecked and an estimated 20,000 lost their lives as the unusually heavy storms put a tragic end to this campaign and Grand Folly. The Armada was technically undefeated on the battlefront, but was practically decimated by Mother Nature.

The warship Girona sank near the Giant's Causeway (Port na Spaniard) on the night of October 26, 1588. It was a Mediterranean style galleass, or an oared fighting ship. It was a vessel of hope for other survivors eager to make it back safely to Spain.The ship originally had a complement of 121 sailors and 186 soldiers. However, while anchored for repairs on the rudder at Killybegs, harbor, Donegal, she came across about 1000 other Spaniards, the remnants of two Armada ships that had run aground. Rather than stay in Ireland where they were in danger of being found by English soldiers on the look of for Spaniards, the galleass Girona took everybody on board and sail for then Catholic Scotland. There they could rest, repair the ship and then set sail for Spain.

With the damaged rudder fixed the Girona sailed from Killybegs to the open sea but the rudder was again damaged in extremely bad weather. With fierce winds blowing the ship towards the shore, the Spanish tried to keep her from grounding by rowing. However, on the midnight of October 28 it run aground off Lacada point, a few hundred feet west of the Giant's Causeway and sunk. Of the estimated 1300 persons on board, less than 10 survived.
Hundreds of bodies were washed ashore and some were buried on St. Cuthbert's cemetery in Dunluce not far from the famous ruined castle, just west of Giant's Causeway.

The destruction of the galleass Girona is commemorated on the reverse side of banknotes printed by the First Trust Bank in Northern Ireland. Note the famous gold and ruby salamander recovered from the wreck in the lower right side (see also salamander picture below for more details).

The Girona had the young and brilliant soldier Don Alonso De Leiva aboard as commander, and had collected hundreds of survivors from various other Spanish wreck to make a final escape from the Northern Ireland sea back to Spain. The Girona had also collected a very considerable valuables and jewelery from the other wrecked ships. It sailed, but shortly after was blown onto the rocks and sunk near the Causeway. The 1300 people perished, and it is believed that fewer than 10 survived the tragedy. In any case, the Girona, like many other Armada warships, was doomed. It was initially designed for a maximum of 500 men and was definitely ill suited for any such expeditions and severe conditions outside the Mediterranean.

The symbol of the Girona:This beautiful salamander pendant, of gold set with rubies, reflects the grandeur of the Spanish empire. Gold and silver from the Spanish conquests in the Americas were a primary source of income for the empire. Large numbers of splendid native gold ornaments were melted down for bullion but the ideas of South American craftsmen were often retained. This may explain the fondness for jewels in the form of animals, which appeared during the 16th century. In legend, the salamander was believed to have the magical properties of being able to extinguish and to survive fire - this made it a potent good luck charm on board a wooden fighting ship, where fire was one of the greatest hazards. (photo/credit: National Museums of Northern Ireland-Ulster museum)

Of the 130 Spanish ships that set out in 1588 to invade England, over 20 of them were wrecked off the North and West coasts of Ireland. The sunken Girona's wreck was discovered almost four centuries later in 1967 in a gulf near the Causeway. A team of mostly Belgian marine archaeologists since recovered what is thought to be the most valuable and unique treasures ever found in a wreck. The very rich haul of treasures were recovered, including gold trinkets, badges, money chains and more than 1200 gold and silver coins. It was the most important valuables ever recovered from a Spanish warship. Most of these incredible treasures are now are on display in Ulster museum in Belfast.

The Ulster Museum owns the excavated remains of three of the Armada ships, the galleass Girona which was wrecked at Lacada Point, near the Giant's Causeway (County Antrim), La Trinidad Valencera which ran aground in Kinnagoe Bay (County Donegal) and the Santa Maria de La Rosa which sank in Blasket Sound (County Kerry).

The Battle of Gravelines, 1588 (painting by Hilliard, Nicholas (1547-1619). The Girona was there with the invading Armada, before it was forced to head north to find a possible escape route back to Spain after the defeat on the battleground.

Map showing the route of the Armada fleet round Scotland and Ireland, by Augustine Ryther, 1588. The Girona was lost near the Giant's Causeway, in country Antrim in modern Northern Ireland (Photo: BBC British History in depth, Felipe Fernandez Armesto)

Part III: The Garni Gorge, under the watchful eyes of the Garni Temple complex

Garni (or Karni), the perfectly restored First century AD Hellenistic temple on the cliffs of the the Garni Gorge. The ruins of a 7th century church are at the foreground. The famous Gorge can be seen just behind the temple. The temple and the surrounding structures were used by successive dynasties. The pagan Godess Thetis was worshiped here.

The architectural complex of Garni was Armenia's foremost center of Hellenistic culture and the summer residence of Armenian kings. It was a fortress in the 3rd century BC and a temple was added in the 1st century AD. It is now within a village in the Kotayk district of Armenia, some 35 km southeast of Yerevan. The temple of Garni is one of the best wholly preserved Greco-roman temples in the area. It is thought to have been constructed mostly with roman money on the cliffs over the Garni gorge. The stones used in the construction of the temple is naturally the gray basalt and not white marble. Traditionally, Greek temples were made out of white marble but, here at Garni, the basalt stones were taken from a surrounding area. Basalt is a favorite of the Armenian sculptors, artisans and architects who knew very well how to cut the stones and use them in erecting temples, palaces and monuments.

It is believed that the Garni temple was first constructed as a testimony to the fact that the region had fallen under official roman rule, most probably during the reign of Emperor Trajan. The site at the edge of the cliffs of the Garni gorge made the area both very attractive and easily defensible against any attacks. The deep and famous gorge and steep mountain slopes were perfect for the defensive settings. The pagan goddess Thetis is thought to have been worshiped there both by Romans and Greeks.

The plan of Garni fortress, just. above the cliffs of the famous gorge 1.The pagan temple (picture above) 2. a seventh-century church 3. a pillared hall 4 a palace 5. a bath-house 6. The outer gate 7. The curtain wall (armenica.org)

The Garni fortress and temple complex stands on a strategics of Garni stands on a triangular cape, which dominates the locality and juts into the river. A deep gorge and steep mountain slopes serve as a natural impregnable obstacle, and therefore the fortress wall was put up only on the side of the plain. It was put together of large square-shaped slabs of basalt placed flat on top of each other without mortar and fastened together with iron cramps sealed with lead. The whole complex is in perfect harmony with Nature (SHS.2009.sci.am).

The temple ruins were first unearthed in 1909-1911 by Academicians Marr and Smirnov. Since 1949, an archaeological group under Professor Arakelyan (Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Armenian Academy of Sciences) has been at work here. As a result, the ruins of a Neolithic camp, a Urartian cuneiform text of the 8th century BC carved on a dragon, and inscriptions in Greek, Aramean and Armenian provide evidence of many centuries of uninterrupted human existence. A Greek inscription carved on a huge basalt block mentions the reconstruction of a fortress by King Tirdat. Garni also has a 5th century single-nave church outside the fortress walls and a 7th century domed church, cruciform on the inside but with a multiplane exterior, directly adjacent to the pagan temple. A 9th century building here is the vaulted sepulcher of the Catholicos Mashtots. A number of buildings inside the present-day village of Garni and its environs date back to the 11th-13th centuries. (Gregorz Blachuta)

Druid or pagan like Armenian women in front of the Garni Temple (Photo: Grzegorz Blachuta)

Garni Temple and the fortress are a sure testimony to the Hellenistic period and cultural influence in the first and second century BC. The initial fortress is said to have been built by Artaxerxes II while the temple was built by the Armenian King Tiridates (Dertad) using funds provides by Rome. After Christianity was adopted as state religion, the Garni complex became a summer residence of the Armenian Royals. Eventually the beautiful Hellenistic temple and other surrounding summer palaces and bath-like structures built at over centuries were abandoned, vandalized and sacked, most notably by the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (a.k.a. Timur Lenk, 1370-1405 AD). During my visit I even saw a very old engraved graffiti at the right hand front side of the temple. It is thought to have been written by a Persian soldier (17th century? during the Persian occupation era). The soldier tells how homesick he is and dreams about his beloved homeland while he is still on military duty in remote Garni. I regret not having taken a photo of that memorable graffiti.

The whole Garni area was also devastated by the 1679 earthquake and fell into ruins.
Fortunately, most original pieces of the temple were left on site, and the reconstruction of the Garni temple to its original grandeur was accomplished in the mid 1970’s by a team led by architect Shahinyan. The missing pieces were replaced and today the temple is fully reconstructed. The other adjacent palace, defensive walls, baths and church all still lay in ruins.

It is unknown to me if there are enough original stones (above ground or still buried) on site enabling their eventual reconstruction, even partial. I am convinced more investment in archaeological work would unearth enough stones to at least partially reconstruct adjacent original structures.

The Garni village and the very picturesque Garni bridge in the jagged and precipitous canyon of the Azat river.

The Garni Gorge is a hanging garden of magical basaltic pipes of rock just behind the Hellenistic temple complex. (Photo: Alexander Naumov)

All photo credits belong to their respective known and unknown authors.

Yerevan's best kept secret?: The Gök (Blue) Mosque

2009-12-13T18:51:00.000-05:00

Yerevan's unique mosque is a surprisingly imposing religious complex covering more than 70,000 sq.ft of prime land in the Center of the capital. Being an Iranian mosque, it follows the Twelver Shi'ite branch of Islam, as Shi'ism was proclaimed state religion of the Persia by the Safavid Empire from the early 16th century and on. (Photo: SasunsyDavit)

The tiny Republic of Armenia never ceases to amaze and surprise the world with its vast cultural heritage and important landmarks disproportionate to its size. The landlocked country in the Caucasus in the Highlands of biblical Mount Ararat has an area of under 30,000 km.sq. with a population of around 3 million. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc in 1991 it regained its independence and now is being discovered by visitors and investors from around the Globe.

Understandably the capital Yerevan is the magnet attracting the new investments, developments and the lion's share of all the visitors who comb the country and are left amazed by the vast variety of natural beauties and the cultural heritage that the country has to offer. Yet, quite amazingly, one if the best kept secrets of Armenia's Capital Yerevan seems to evade most tourists, even many locals.

"So you stayed at the Marriott Hotel in the city center. Did you also visit the nearby Blue Mosque?", I would ask out of curiosity.

-"What mosque? There are no mosques we know of in Yerevan" is the most frequent answer I get.

Yet this big Yerevan mosque is right there, just a few hundred feet away from Armenia's "Point Zero", the epicenter of the country: the Republic square (Hanrapetutyan Hrabarag). Moreover, It is a pretty imposing and rather pleasing complex just a heartbeat away from the Opera or the Marriott. I have literally seen thousands of photographs of every relevant and irrelevant structure and site in Yerevan. Every little commemorative palque, statue, fountain, street corner is proudly photographed by the visitors, but I have never seen one photo of this proud Mosque.

No wonder people miss this unique mosque. It is right opposite the main popular produce market on the Mashdots avenue, but it is hidden almost entirely behind rather ugly apartment buildings that surround it completely (see map below).

Yerevan's unique mosque is nicknamed "Blue", surely because of the predominant color of the entrance and the exterior tiles. (Photo: SasunsyDavit)

This only surviving mosque in Yerevan is called the the Gök mosque (Blue or Sky Blue Mosque), known or Kapuyt Mezgit (Կապոյտ մզկիթ) in Armenian. It sits on an imposing 75,000 sq.ft of land, has an inner courtyard, meeting halls as well as a theological school (madrasa). The single brick and tile laden minaret towers over the complex.

The exact origins of the mosque may be little fuzzy, but it was certainly constructed to its present dimensions in around 1764 and completed within the same decade.The mosque is said to have been commissioned under the patronage of the local Governor or ruler Hussein Ali Khan. That was of course a period of yet another Persian dominion over the eastern Armenian territories after it was taken from the Ottoman Empire. At the time Yerevan was a provincial town, probably with 20,000 inhabitants but was nonetheless influential, with the Armenian Apostolic Holy Seat at Etchmiadzin just a short distance away.

Yerevan and Eastern Armenia of course eventually fell under Russian influence and direct rule after 1827 and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which gave Russia its modern zones of influence relative to Persia and Turkey of the day. This treaty came as a result of the Russo-Persian wars which resulted in crushing defeats for Iran. Turkmenchay is a town in the Azerbaijan province of modern Iran, where the defeated Persians signed and recognized the Imperial Russian dominion over the "Yerevan", "Nakhitchevan" and "Talish" Khanates (administrative provinces under the authority of a Khan). One of the the main results of the treaty was the establishment of the Arax river (Araz, Արաքս) as the recognized boundary between Russian zone of direct influence and Iran. This is still true today, as Arax forms the actual borders between Azerbaijan and Iran and southern Armenia.

(Click on photo to enlarge for details)

Yerevan: The Persian mosque called the Gök Jamii (Blue Mosque) can be seen as the black dot 24 in the center. Note how it is pretty much hidden by all the surrounding Apartments despite its central location. It is only one block away from the Hanraptutyun (Republic) square, the "Point Zero" of Armenia (at the center right in yellow). Marriott Yerevan, formerly "Armenia" hotel is the number 22. Next up is the Ministry of Foreign affairs.

According to some reliable sources, there were around 10 functional mosques in the Yerevan region before the arrival of the Russians. These mosques were eventually abandoned or demolished except of course the Blue Mosque. During the Soviet era, this mosque suffered the same tragic fate as most of the churches in the deeply christian tiny country of Armenia. The communists implemented extreme secular policies, forcibly closing churches and putting all religious institutions under heavy pressure. The Blue Mosque was of course no exception and was in pitiful condition as well during these communist dark ages. After the fall of the Soviet Union the mosque underwent radical and somehow controversial restoration with funding provided by the Iranian Government. Some critics argued the restorations were not truthful to the original spirit of the mosque.

The very intriguing question as to why the Yerevan Blue mosque is surrounded from all sides with apartments buildings and thus literally hidden from view except a rather modest entrance on the Mashdotz avenue? The first logical explanation would be to assume that there was a certain bigotry or conspiracy on the part of the Armenians to ''neutralize'' the Muslim Mosque from general view. In fact the encirclement of the mosque by apartment buildings is almost complete. But it is very safe to say that there was no "foul play" involved on the part of the Christian Armenians. On the contrary, care was exercised to include the whole complex in the new block without any architectural "dissections".

Armenia's capital: Yerevan in the shadow of the snow-capped heights of Mount Ararat, where it is said Biblical Noah's Ark landed escaping the Great Flood. Yerevan's modern urban plan is most obvious with this aerial view. The Ararat mountain with its two peaks has always been at the very center of Armenian history and identity and is sacred to its people. Today it lies in Turkey, just across the border. Alexander Tamanian drew the modern Yerevan city plans (bottom)

The simple explanation of the mosque's bizarre encirclement is that Yerevan underwent a major urban plan during the Soviet times. The city center was completely overhauled and redesigned, just the same way say Baron Haussman transformed central Paris arteries during the 19th century. Renowned architects (especially Alexander Tamanian) undertook the major task of modernizing Yerevan and the new general plan was executed (see Yerevan city map above for the modern design). Therefore the Blue mosque happened to fall in the middle of a new grid or block and was surrounded by new buildings along the new avenues. The blue Mosque was preserved. In any case, destroying it would have been both stupid and criminal.

Yerevan's best kept secret?: The apartment buildings completely encircle the mosque and make it almost impossible for an outside passer-by to see it, even from the major Mashdots or Khorenatsi avenues. Yet this mosque is a joy to see, appreciate and pay a visit.

When I discovered this mosque while trying to find a shortcut from the Mashdotz avenue to my hotel in the mid nineties, the exterior was being repaired by at least six workers albeit with rather primitive methods and equipments. The pace of the works seemed very slow albeit continuous. The mosque is presently functional and is an important meeting point for the local tiny Muslim population and expatriate students studying in Armenian Universities.

Is the Yerevan Blue Mosque a masterpiece in Persian Shiite Islamic architecture? Not so by any stretch of imagination. However it is a historical place of worship that deserves a visit, a photo or two and all the care the Armenian people and Government can give to this unique mosque of the Capital.

The recent referendum in Switzerland imposing a ban on the construction of minarets next to the mosques was a sure indication of the needless and somehow understandable but unnecessary and often ridiculous clashes between these two great monotheistic religions: Islam and Christianity. In this late Swiss episode many protest voices were heard, but similar attitudes of intolerance and exclusion exists all around the world. In Saudi Arabia, for instance, existing churches do not even look like actual churches from the exterior. No crosses are allowed, no visible signs such as stained glasses or statues. Same story on a lesser extent in Kuwait City, where the main Church next to the Sheraton had no cross as not to insult the locals. In some of these these countries the construction and maintenance of any Christian worship place faces more hurdles than the erection of the Great Wall of China!

The landscaping around the perimeter is a disaster, yet seemingly "normal" and somehow acceptable for that part of the world. Fortunately, the "exotic" charm of this mosque is not lost. The brick minaret with staggered patterns is typical of Persian-Mesopotamian traditions.

The Saudis, for example, have imposed a series of non surmountable pre-conditions effectively banning any church constructions. At the core of all this is their insistence that the Catholic church in particular somehow "recognize the prophet Mohamed", even though unclear in what exact capacity. Such conditions are vague and poisonous. Essential human rights and the freedom of all people to practice their faith freely must be beyond any ridiculous restrictions from all sides. The same is true to the Muslim communities that may suffer unnecessary conditions, harassment, discrimination and exaggerated sets of rules and regulations here and there.

In this day and age when religious intolerance is growing like a cancer both in East and West, the World deserves more positive winds of openness, goodwill and a minimum of tolerance. Armenians have had major issues with peoples acting in the name of Islam. Armenians have suffered immensely and have paid the ultimate price of abuses perpetrated against them in the name of religious correctness. This is the reason why the recent restoration and the preservation of this Blue mosque in the middle of Yerevan should serve as an example of tolerance and respect towards minorities to others. Armenian churches are crumbling both in Turkey and even in Christian Georgia (Capital: Tbilisi), where the central government has to come clean and act responsibly towards its minorities.

In any case, it is very clear that Yerevan is a richer place with this Blue mosque than without it.

The Blue Mosque mosque complex from the back oozes Persian architectural forms, even though not in its purest forms. The finishing is rough, but functionality and cost cutting consideration obviously have prevailed. The Yerevan mosque should not be confused with the Blue Mosque of Istanbul, the incredible "Sultanahmet" with its six minarets, an architectural masterpiece of the highest order. Another famous "Blue mosque" of course is in Tabriz (Iran) which was heavily damaged by an earthquake in 1779 and only recently mostly repaired.

Minimalistic approach: The interior of the Yerevan Blue Mosque is beautiful in its simplicity yet lacks the "wow" factor. No interior tiles or typical Islamic calligraphy in this part. The Mihrab (the niche in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca) and the Minbar (the pulpit with stairs for the Imam's sermon) are very simple and functional. The carpet has patterns marking individual worshipers allocated floor space and prayer direction.

Yerevan, Armenia circa 1672, then till under Persian suzerainty until 1827. It was a provincial city. In early 20th century and during the Armenian genocide of 1915 thousands of refugees and survivors found refuge there and eventually it became the Capital of the First Republic of Armenia proclaimed in May 28, 1918. It has remained so since and today it has an estimated population of 1.2 million.

©Krikor Tersakian, Dec. 2009

Editor's notes:

Note: Armenia has very rich historical monuments and can be regarded as an open air museum. Day trips from Yerevan can take the visitors to almost all destinations. Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion in AD 301. Thousand year old churches, Stone crosses (Khatchkars) and other monuments are there to be discovered and awe any visitor. Since the fall of the Soviet Union it is an independent state again and an emerging democracy. Three sites in modern Armenia are included on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, having outstanding universal value and meeting the tough selection criteria. Links to the UNESCO website:
Monasteries of Haghpat and Sanahin
Cathedral and Churches of Echmiatsin and the Archaeological Site of Zvartnots
Monastery of Geghard and the Upper Azat Valley

Photo: Geghard or Keghart rock-carved monastery

The Istanbul Pogroms of 1955: The tragic expulsion of the Greeks

2009-11-15T21:04:00.003-05:00

The 1955 Istanbul Pogroms by Turkish mobs: They attacked mostly Greeks, but also the Armenians, and Jews. An estimated 15 were killed. More than 3500 homes and 5000 shops were destroyed . It was the end of the Greek community's significant presence since the ancient times.

The 6 September 1955 was a very black day indeed. A day when thousands of organized Turkish mobs targeted mainly the Greek community but also other minorities in Istanbul with the clear intent to do as much harm as possible. They burned, looted and destroyed thousands of previously marked and identified businesses belonging to Greeks and also to Armenians. They desecrated cemeteries, attacked 72 churches, hundreds of homes, killing at least 15 innocent people. Even more tragically, these pogroms put an end to any significant Greek presence in the city since thousands of years. The numbers of Greeks dropped rapidly after these attacks and today there are fewer than 1500 mostly elderly Greeks left.

It was the end of what was left of an all encompassing and historical Constantinople-Istanbul. These 1955 attacks were dubbed the "Greek Kristallnacht", echoing the tragic night the Jews and their businesses were attacked by Nazi thugs in 1938 in a prelude of much more serious assault hat followed.(Kristallnacht or Crystal Night refers to the piles of broken glass strewn on the sidewalks and streets after the Nazi attacks on November 9, 1938).

Who could have designed such an outrageous attack on unarmed and unprotected minorities in the metropolis and how come the authorities did not intervene and let the rioters execute their plans with such vast magnitude and total impunity?

September 1955: The rioters did everything to destroy the maximum possible within the shortest period of time. They knew that the police were not about to intervene, but had to act fast nonetheless. Their message to the Greek community was "We are throwing you out Now". These savage perpetrators were the most "active" in the Beyoglu/ Pera area. They damaged much more than just property: They killed what was left of Istanbul's cosmopolitan spirit and history.

The Istanbul Pogrom are also known as the Istanbul Riots, or the Σεπτεμβριανά in Greek and the 6-7 Eylul Olayları in Turkish (both literally Events of September). It was a pogrom directed primarily at Istanbul’s 100,000-strong Greek minority. Jews and Armenians living in the city and their businesses were also targeted in the pogrom, which was orchestrated by the Demokrat Parti-government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes along with the political, bureaucratic and military establishment, that is mysteriously called Dervin Devlet or the Deep State. But how did it all start and why?

Prior to the actual pogroms, the tensions between Greece and Turkey had risen to new heights over the Cyprus impasse. Tensions were boiling over on both sides as the Greek Cypriots National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (known as EOKA) were engaging in an open armed struggle against the British colonial powers in order to achieve the unification of their Island with Greece. Cyprus was the issue but the relations between Turks and Greeks needs no introduction. These Greece-Cyprus unification campaigns were of course totally unacceptable to Ankara. Turkish anti Greek nationalist sentiments were rising as high as the economic inflation in Turkey... The Turks were furious and various groups were staging all kinds of protests against the Greeks and their apparent support of the Cyprus unification plans and actions. The tensions were very high indeed, but the actual pogroms needed a sparking plug to light the fire fueled by this explosive mixture of misinformation, cheap propaganda, political manipulation, religious intolerance and plain ignorance.

The needed spark plug was indeed missing, but the Turkish authorities or Services did their job and devised a workable plot: A bomb was sent secretly from Turkey to the Greek city of Salonika and set to target Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Ataturk's birthplace in that city. That building was serving as the Turkish Consulate at that time. The news of such an intended "Greek" or "Rumeli" attack on Ataturk's sacrosanct birthplace (and Turkish consulate) was surely a very convenient way for the authorities to start the planned pogrom in Istanbul against the local Greek population. The "Greeks are attacking Ataturk and Turkey" was a pretty good slogan or rallying cry to start the attacks in Istanbul.

The actual riots started at 5.50pm on Sept. 6 1955, when thousands of these rioters arrived mainly to the Beyoglu district. They were mostly bused or taxied from the western Anatolia. There are reports that at least 500 of them were from the Eksisehir area, along with their party officials and "technical support" and "supervision" staff. They were all promised money for their efforts as well as booty and the satisfaction of "teaching the enemy a historical lesson".

The mobs were also well equipped and informed with specific lists of addresses to attack. Some businesses or homes were even pre-marked to facilitate the targeted attacks. The hundreds of rioters were divided into 40-50 men contingents and dispatched to various areas along with their band leaders. On the ''logistics'' front, buses belonging to municipalities were parked in strategic locations in order to hand out hammers, crowbars, gasoline and others tools of destruction to these rioters.

1955 pogroms: A destroyed and desecrated Greek cemetery after some friendly visit from the mob acting to inflict the most damage to the community in the shortest possible time...

The rioters soon started to smash everything they could. They destroyed the metal doors, ransacked, pillaged and set on fire everything on their lists. The looting was incredible: businesses were totally emptied of their merchandise, stolen goods taken away in trucks and the locations destroyed. Churches, stores, apartments, cemeteries: nothing was spared. The attackers came wave after wave, did their damage, and left. The second wave, the third wave, while the police or the army were nowhere to be seen. After all, this was a governmental plan, even though executed by "civilians" as a popular outburst against the Rumeli (Greek orthodox) "enemy" within the Turkish Republic. "Death to Gyavurs" and "Kill the Greeks" were the most common slogans chanted by these provincial henchmen.

The pogromist were not instructed to kill, but they still managed to kill more than 15 through beatings and arson. In total 73 churches, 20 factories. 1000 homes and more than 20 schools were attacked over and above 5000 properties looted, burned or destroyed. The majority of attacks were in Istanbul but there were also attacks elsewhere, like Izmir. Exact statistics are impossible, because statistics need data collection and no data was collected of course...The riots officially ceased after midnight, or more precisely at 2.00 am. of September 7, 1955 when the Turkish Army finally moved in and kindly urged the rioters to leave. Martial law was also declared, but all this was already too little to late. That military intervention was like the final act of the burlesque tragedy-comedy. The curtain came down, and another very clack chapter was written in the history books.

Five years later, the Prime Minister of the day Adnan Menderes and his hard-line Foreign Affairs minister Fatin Zorlu were arrested along with other Demokrat Parti. They were arrested and put collectively to trial after the Army took powers and deposed the Government on 27 May 1960. Menderes was jailed in the island of Yessiada near Istanbul where he faced various charges and a trial, including accusations about the organization and execution of the Istanbul pogroms. The military trials were not "open", but it is reported that Minister Zorlu's lawyer claimed or admitted that the pogroms were all orchestrated and that effectively countless thousands were brought to Istanbul from areas in a radius of 60 km around the city.

Menderes was found guilty and executed at the gallows on 17 September 1961 on the island of Imrali. He was pardoned posthumously in 1990, his remains moved to a private mausoleum and even had an International Airport (Izmir) renamed after him! (Note: it is interesting that presently P.K.K. leader Abdullah Ocalan is the lone prisoner on this infamous island of Imrali, in the sea of Marmara where Menderes was executed).

The 1955 rioters in very celebratory mood during their rampage while, below...

...The Greek Patriarch Athenagoras is inspecting and lamenting in a desecrated Orthodox church in Istanbul. He was a lonely figure indeed and did not get much help or protection. The condemnations were not enough to rebuild all the destruction and halt the forced exodus of his flock.

Being married to a woman from Istanbul, I have heard and seen enough to fully grasp the very deep shock that the 1955 riots caused and still do. My late father- in- law Vahan used to say that the 1955 pogroms were as devastating as any other event, shaking not only the Greeks, but also the collective psyche and insecurity feeling of Jews and Armenians, prompting massive immigration in the months and years that followed these pogroms.

Although the Greeks had lost Constantinople in 1453, the conquering Ottomans had not expelled the Greek community. Various restrictions were put in place but life went on for a considerable community that prospered throughout the centuries and greatly helped the development of the City. The establishment of the Greek state in 1829, the Greek-Turkish war of 1919-1922 were low points of course in Greek-Turkish relationships. In the 1930's the situation got even worse as very restrictive and racist laws were passed against the minorities, such as trade restriction, church and school jurisdiction limitations etc. The straw that broke the camel's back, however, was the Cyprus problem and the Istanbul riots that followed.

The Greek community fell from more than 100,000 to under 1500 within a few years. When I dared to enter the Ortakoy Greek Orthodox church on a Sunday morning church "rush hour", this important church was completely empty. Not a soul except a young apprentice deacon saying prayers in Greek. Upon noticing me, he was so surprised that he slowly walked behind the altar to notify his senior that someone had in fact entered their church and was attending the mess. Subsequently they were both staring at me with suspicion while performing their duties, until I did the sign of cross and obviously appeased their worst fears.

My father in law Vahan who left Istanbul as a direct result of the Pogroms used to joke: "Today, it is much easier to find a Giraffe in Paris than a Greek in Istanbul". A sad fact that Istanbul owes to the orchestrated pogroms of 1955.

The Greek Consulate in Istanbul attacked in 2008 during protests against some Greek Government's internal policy. Workers clean red paint sprayed on the Consulate, which is located on Istiklal Caddesi the exact scene of the 1955 riots.

The Armenian Patriarchate in Istanbul (Kum Kapi) is now under 24/7 police protection. The Patriarchate and the Istanbul Patriarch Moutafian himself were lately said to be on an underground group hit list. After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans allowed the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to remain in the city. In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II also invited the Armenians to establish their own Patriarchate as part of the Millet system. The Byzantines and Armenians always considered each other as heretical (since the split that occured at the council of Chalcedon in 451 a.d.) (photo: Krikor Tersakian)

The Istiklal Pera pedestrian street today, the neighborhood where most of the 1955 riots occurred: How many of these vibrant and happy looking youth actually know much about the tragic events that happened right there? Most of the younger generation did not know much about these tragic attacks until a movie called "Guz Sancisi" (by young Turkish woman director Tomris Giritlioglu) was screened in local theaters to great public surprise and success.(Photo: Krikor Tersakian, 2009)

Déjà-Vu in 2009: Istanbul’s Christian cemeteries are still being desecrated, despite the ugly 1955 legacy. This particular one is in historic cemetery near the ancient Valukli Monastery located outside the ancient walls of Theodosius. Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew (pictured) visiting the desecrated cemetery, surely wondering what more can still go wrong. 90 tombstones bearing a cross were destroyed. Some attacks may be driven by hatred while others have economic reasons, instigated by real state developers who badly want the cemeteries or church properties for their projects (Photo: Nikos Manginas)

© Krikor Tersakian, 2009

The Istanbul Pogroms of 1955: The tragic expulsion of the Greeks

2009-11-15T21:04:00.002-05:00

1955 pogroms: A destroyed and desecrated Greek cemetery after some friendly visit from the mob acting to inflict the most damage to the community in the shortest possible time...

The 1955 rioters in very celebratory mood during their rampage while, below...

© Krikor Tersakian Montreal Canada 2009

Istanbul Pogroms of 1955: the Greek Kristallnacht

2009-11-15T21:04:00.000-05:00

The 1955 Istanbul Pogroms - Mostly Greek, but also Armenians, and Jews were attacked - 10 killed - 3500 homes and 4000 shops were destroyed . It was the end of the Greek community's significant presence since the days of Constantine and earlier. And the start od massive exodus of other minorities from that historical city.

The 6 and 7 September of 1955 were a black day indeed. A very macabre day when organised Turkish mobs targeted mainly the Greek community but also other minorities in Istanbul with the clear intent to do as much harm as possible. They burned and destroyed hundreds of previously marked and identified businesses, killing scores. But more tragically, they put an end to any significant Greek presence in the city since thousands of years. The numbers dropped from more than 100,000 to under 1000. It was the end of what was left of an all encompassing Costantinople-Istanbul.

These very tragic systematic mob attacks events were dubbed The "Greek Kristallnacht", echoeing the tragic night the jews and their businesses were attacked by Nazi thugs in 1938 in a prelude of much more serious assault and annihilation that followed. Hundreds (thousands?) of these Istanbul rioters were brought in to the city by chartered buses and taxis from several remote areas to execute the planned intimidation and therefore forced expulsion of the Greeks. And unfortunately they succeeded in their plan: to evict the Greeks and wave goodbye to scores of Armenians and other minorities from that majestic city of Istanbul.

The Istanbul Pogrom, also known as the Istanbul Riots, or the Σεπτεμβριανά in Greek and the 6-7 Eylul Olayları in Turkish (both literally Events of September), was a pogrom directed primarily at Istanbul’s 100,000-strong Greek minority. Jews and Armenians living in the city and their businesses were also targetted in the pogrom, which was orchestrated by the Demokrat Parti-government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes.

The rioters did everything to destroy the most possible within the shortest time. They knew the police were not about to intervene, but had to act fast nonetheless and show the Greeks that they are basically not welcome anymore. They were most "active" in the Beyoglu Pera area and they damaged much more than just property: They killed what was left of Istanbul's cosmopolitan history.

Being married to a woman from Istanbul, I have heard and seen enough to fully grasp the very deep shock that the 1955 riots caused. My late father in law Vahan used to say that the 1955 pogroms were as devastating as any other event, shaking not only the Greeks, but also the collective psyche and insecurity feeling of jews and armenians, prompting massive immigration in the months and years that followed the 1955 organised riots.(The arrest, exile and execution of the Istanbul Armenian intelligentgsia on April 24, 195 was the prelude of the Armenian Genocide.)

On the night of November 9, 1938, Hitler's Nazis burned synagogues all over Germany and Austria, smashed shop windows, looted stores, ransacked Jewish homes, and killed dozens of Jews. Twenty thousand Jews were arrested. The event was called Kristallnacht (Crystal Night) because of the piles of broken glass strewn on the sidewalks and streets. It was a prelude to the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps to come and is often considered the beginning of the Holocaust.(photo Bettman/ Corbis)

Workers clean red paint at the entrance of the Greek Consulate in Istanbul, Turkey. The consulate is on Istiklal Caddesi (Pera, Beyoglu) and today is heavily protected by security around the clock. Too bad, not many Greeks are left in the city...

A Greek cemetary after some friendly visit from the mob acting to inflict the most damafe to the community in the shortest possible time...

The attacks by the mob began at 5.50pm on 6th September and ended at 2am on 7 September with the imposition of martial law. However, during this 8 hours of frenzy the police assisted and guided the mobs in their relentless path of destruction in a very well organised pogrom.

The 100,000 rioters came well equipped with lists of Greek addresses to target scattered through 45 square kilometres; Armenian and Jewish property was also attacked in the frenzy.
There were three systematic waves of destroyers. “
The first wave destroyed metal doors and barriers to all churches, house and businesses. They smashed all obstacles to entry.
The second wave commenced pilfering and the pillaging. They came with trucks so as to systematically loot and carry off their booty. But the basic job of the second wave was to begin the destruction of the houses, the apartments, the church, the stores and then to move on, just as the first wave moved on very quickly.
The third came some time later to finish off the marauding.” The pilfering or destruction of Greek businesses was so great that it produced a food shortage in Constantinople. The price of eggs rose 6 times and as most bakeries were utterly destroyed people had to wait in line for a piece of bread. People had nothing to eat and nowhere to sleep. (Houses were looted, and then destroyed by pouring gasoline

The rioters in very celebratory mood after their rampage while below...

...The Greek Patriarch Athenagoras is inspecting and lamenting in a desacrated Othodox church in Istanbul. He was a lonely figure indeed.

The Armenian Patriarchate in Istanbul (Kum Kapi) is now under 24/7 police protection (Photo: Krikor Tersakian)

The Istiklal Pera (2009), where most of the riots occured. Few of these youth today have much knowledge about what happened right there in 1955 that changed the character of their city. (Photo: Krikor Tersakian)

Krikor Tersakian Montreal Canada 2009

The Ottoman slave gathering system: The "Devsirme"

2009-10-21T19:18:00.002-04:00

One of the most misunderstood and controversial aspects of the Ottoman Empire was its disproportionate reliance on Orthodox Christian slaves forcibly gathered as "Blood Tax", mostly from various communities in the the Balkans under the control of the Sultan.
This forced slavery system of young Christian boys from conquered peoples was institutionalized, ruthlessly efficient and lasted for centuries. It was called Devsirme (pronounced devshirm'eh, Տեւշիրմէ), which means "gathering" in Turkish, as in gathering fruits and vegetables! A very imaginative word to describe the forced enslaving of tens of thousands of future soldiers and servants to their absolute owner, the Ottoman Sultan ! Devsirme became the "lubrication" process and the "oxygenation" of the of the Ottoman engine for centuries and was as cruelly effective at the service of Topkapi Palace and the Sublime Porte.

A Janissary officer recruiting devsirme for Sultan Suleyman I (1495-1566), (painter Ali Amir Beg, 1558), Topkapi Palace archives: This is probably be the best classical devsirme miniature. Note the fearful young christian boys (front) in red robes watched by the recruiting Ottoman officer (seated) and guards.

A young Devsirme slave in the "safe hands" Ottoman personnel. The very unhappy and insecure look of the young boy is worth a thousand words!

Some of the most enduring images generally associated with the Ottoman Empire can be surprisingly "romantic" in nature, when not talking about the human tragedies that occurred under their long rule. Loads of gorgeous women in the Harems, odalisques, backroom intrigues, hot Turkish baths and massages, eunuchs, colourful oriental rugs and costumes, the Orient Express, waterpipes with tobacco and other "exotic" smokes and noisy bazaars.

Orientalist painters like Eugene Delacroix and Ingres, writers such as Pierre Loti helped present the Ottoman lifestyle in the most mysterious and exotic way to the general public in the West. Beyond its undoubted exotic charm, life was not a paradise for the subjects and minorities under Ottoman rule. Nor was it particularly kind to the tens of thousands of christian families who had to surrender their child to the Blood Tax collector knocking on the door for a round of Devsirme!

Mehter military band is thought to be the oldest military marching band in the world. The band's music is known as Janissary music, as most of the band members belonged to that group of Devsirme soldiers. It is believed that the Band "Mehter" was sent to the founder of the Ottoman empire Osman Gazi by a Seljuk Sultan. It is said the band have played every day after the afternoon prayers for the Ottoman ruler. The music of the Mehter lost its appeal after Sultan Mahmud II got fed up with their abusive power of the Janissary army units and massacred them by cannons and swords in 1826!

Janissary army standard bearers and Mehter musicians spearheading another attack of the Ottoman army. The Janissaries were undoubtedly the most famous of all the devsirme slaves. Fiercely militant and increasingly rebellious with time, the Janissaries became like a State within the State and rioted on many occasions. They are also known to be responsible for deposing several Sultans until they met their fate.

Devsirme originated with the very fast and scary pace with which the Ottoman expanded their territories and built the Empire starting 14th century. It was the direct result of the military needs of their very fast growing empire: They lacked human resources to maintain and build a mightier military to cope with new realities. They needed devoted and trained administrators to run various government tasks throughout the territories. In one word they needed highly motivated, trained and loyal soldiers to serve the Sultan as well as scribes and civil servants to the Court.

The rules and regulations of the Devsirme were introduced under Sultan Murad II, about three decades before the fall of Constantinople (1453): The system was cruel in essence but very efficient and well designed. The Sultans and their advisers developed a system avoiding any hereditary Turkish aristocracy that could threaten their position on the long run. Therefore targeting only non-Muslims for the devsirme was easy, safe and convenient.

Initially devsirme appeared to be against the unwritten and written laws of Islam and had always its critics even within the inner circles of the Ottoman state. But the temptation for quick results was impossible to resist. The immediate needs of the empire were more important than any ethical and religious considerations. Devsirme slaves were collected by the thousands, the established quotas were enforced, the rules applied with no hesitation. Under the Muslim law a conquered people was at the mercy of the Sultan, and the Ottoman could kill or enslave anyway. Therefore enslaving young boys was promoted as a noble way to pledge total allegiance and serve the Sultan and a fast way to climb the social ladder.

The Blood Tax collectors would therefore visit each taxed Christian community and would gather approximately one in 10 to 14 young boys. Bulgaria, Serbs, Montenegrin, Albanians, Bosnian and others were all taxed. The Jews were practically excluded, while there have been reports of some Armenian conscripts into the system.

The age of the young conscripts was normally between 8 and 10, but it could be much older. The devsirme collection was performed by a higher officer (typically himself of devsirme origin!) who travelled from region to with with a secretary and soldiers. The boys collected through devsirme, were called either kul, ghilmán or oglan. They were immediately considered the exclusive properties (i.e. slaves) of the Sultan, and mostly lost contact with their families: They became quasi robotic Ottoman Androids, programmed to serve the Sultan and the Sultan only. The girls, much smaller in numbers, followed a supposedly lesser "training" and served in the Harem and the palaces as concubines, odalisques and assistants.

The boys were sorted into different groups according to their fitness etc and sent either to train as soldiers or other tasks in special institution, palaces or even farming families. The initial training took 3 to 7 years, and during this time the boys learned Turkish and Ottoman lifestyles.

The most famous army troops of the devsirme were of course the Janissary (yeni-çeri means new-troops, Ենիչերի). The name "new" indicates very well what they were the beginning: An alternative to the old regular army which was becoming not too reliable. The Sultan needed to have new troops and formed the Janissary corps, because the old army put together by free men from many different tribes and allegiances was difficult to keep under control.

The Janissary soon became famous for their military skills, their successes and abuses on the battle fronts and above all their absolute allegiance to the Sublime Porte. They were still subject to strict rules, limiting their freedom and demanding from them higher moral standards than usual in the Ottoman society. With time their reputation grew and they became almost synonymous with "cold blooded murdering soldier" in many nations under Ottoman rule.

A yeniceri (Janissary) band ready to spread fear and intimidate the conquered people.

Initially for around two hundred years the Janissary and other devsirme could not marry and they were not even allowed to grow beards, a privilege which was granted only to free men in the society. Those who were not destined to be soldiers followed a different path. After the initial round of training, some of these chosen acemi oglanlar, "foreign boys," were sent to Istanbul, where they worked in one of the sultan's gardens, shipyard or in the palace. In the palace they followed another round of education, normally extending beyond 14 years.

The palace school educational system was the the main source for higher officials, scribes, administrators and future leaders in the Ottoman Empire. They were however restricted to the palace and could not leave the perimeter or be in touch with the outside world. Their training included languages (Arabic, Persian etc), religion (Koran, Sharia, Hadith), calligraphy etc. The children of any marriage involving devsirme were necessarily Muslim like their converted parent(s), and therefore they were excluded from the devsirme system and would join the "normal" population at large.

Some of these devsirme students ended up as viziers and grand viziers (the highest administrative position). The famous Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha (1506-1573) was a devsirme of Serbian origin. Nevertheless, most devsirmeh were always practically considered as slaves to the Sultan despite their very high ranks. The Sultan could punish or even execute them without trial for an error or intrigue, real or perceived.

It is estimated that from the 15 th to the 17 century, between 200,000 and 300,000 devsirme boys were gathered, mostly in the Balkan countryside. Normally every 4 years, young minor Orthodox boys from the taxed communities were to be given to the Ottoman throne. Devsirme was promoted as a somehow honorable thing for the parents and a fast way to have a better life to the young children they gave to the tax collector. Being the "slave" of the sultan was considered to be an honor, as some of these slaves would eventually fill prestigious positions in the Ottoman society. The idea of devsirme being "good" for the kids was promoted as a golden opportunity for these boys guaranteeing them a safe and bright future as Sultan's slave and to get out of poverty. Bribes and other means of persuasion were also common to let the Christians parents give their sons to devsirme.

Corruption and lax lifestyle: Janissary relaxing and enjoying life. The increasingly lavish lifestyle of theses units became a problem for the Sultans. Many, if not most, of these elite legions were devsirme and became too powerful, almost a State within the State. They were seen as liabilities to the Sultans rather than as major assets like before. Their extermination was just a matter of time and came in early 19th century.

The end of the devsirme is generally associated with the decline and eventual massacre of the Janissaries. Already by the 17th century the Janissary legions were becoming a liability: strong, independent, they were dictating Ottoman policy, deposing Sultans at will, acting as landholders, staging several coups and interfering with the very basic rules of the devsirme. At the same time they were becoming ineffective on the battlefield. After the second battle of Vienna in 1683 the Empire started to decline fast and the Janissaries were acting more and more like the real power brokers than fighters. They also revolted on several occasions to get higher wages or to set their rules and conditions.

The Greek war for Independence (1821-1830) proved once again that the Janissaries were no longer the infallible force as they had been historically. Their end was fast approaching. In 1826 news spread out that the Sultan Mahmud II was taking the necessary steps to form new European style army units. As expected or hoped, the Janissaries were furious and revolted one more time. But this time the Sultan had other plans and was well prepared. As the rioting Janissaries were advancing on the Palace in Istanbul, their barracks near the Hippodrome (Atmeydani) were set in fire by heavy artillery loyal to the Sultan and more than 4000 Janissaries were massacres. Survivors were arrested and executed in various other locations. It is reported that the last Janissary units were executed in Thessaloniki, modern day Greece. With that the final chapter the devsirme system broke beyond repair.

Modern Mehter band of the Janissary units. They are based at Istanbul's Military museum (Askeri Muze). They are now ceremonial in nature and perform to the public almost daily. They also go on tours around the world as the world's oldest known military marching band.

The devsirme was the feeding mechanism to a general system called the Kul, that is the military and administative servitude. Devsirme was not the only slave generating mechanism in the Empire. Slaves for domestic tasks, the harem and the forced labour (mostly agricultural) always existed. The Kul and devsirme underwent major changes during the 19th century. The concepts of slavery, freedom, ownership and social status of the slaves became extremely complex and ambiguous within the Empire trying to reform itself.

The innovative and liberal Tanzimat reform program put in place from 1839 until 1876 was designed to "reorganize" the Ottoman society and government, including the now obsolete devsirme and the Kut. It was initiated on changes started by sultan Mahmud II and executed under sultan Abdulmecid I. It was initiated by reformists who understood why their Empire was growing weaker while neighboring countries were growing stronger. The Tanzimat was indeed of the highest importance to the survival of Ottoman Empire but failed miserably.

Tanzimat was opposed by the conservative forces, who also vehemently rejected any major reforms of the thorny slavery issue. In any case Tanzimat came too little too late to save the crumbling Empire and it totally collapsed with sultan Abdülaziz' abusive politics. Finally there was even less hope left when Abdülhamid II ascended the sultan throne in 1876 and executed some of the worst atrocities of the era. The rest is history.

The devsirme was finally dead after long centuries, but its very controversial legacy continued for a long time both in modern Turkey and the Balkans. The divisive Ottoman heritage in the Balkans and Thrace is still present today. People wondering about some of the root causes of the ethnic and religious tensions between say Albanians, Serbs, Kosovars, Bosnians can do some reading to understand the issues of domination, forced conversions, devsirme and the like. There is never any smoke without fire.

Janissary army war and massacre scene through the eyes of yet another romantic European painter.

"Occupation of Yerevan, Armenia by the Ottoman army under Ferhad Pasha"(miniature by Nakkas Osman,1597).

© Krikor Tersakian, October 26, 2009 Montreal Canada

The Ottoman slave gathering system: The "Devsirme"

2009-10-21T19:18:00.001-04:00

A Devsirme slave collecting officer with new "conscript" slaves gathered from christian conquered nations, especially in the Balkans. The girl probably ended up in a Harem and the boys trained as Janissary soldiers or civil servants somewhere in the Ottoman Empire.

One of the most misunderstood and controversial aspects of the Ottoman Empire was its disproportionate reliance on Orthodox Christian slaves forcibly gathered as "Blood Tax", mostly from various communities in the the Balkans under the control of the Sultan.

This forced slavery system of young Christian boys from conquered peoples was institutionalised, ruthlessly efficient and lasted for centuries. It was called Devsirme (pronounced devshirm'eh, Տեւշիրմէ), which means "gathering" in Turkish, as in gathering fruits and vegetables! A very imaginative word to describe the forced enslaving of tens of thousands of future soldiers and servants to their absolute owner, the Ottoman Sultan ! Devsirme became the "lubrication" process and the "oxygenation" of the of the Ottoman engine for centuries and was as cruelly effective at the service of Topkapi Palace and the Sublime Porte.

A Janissary officer recruiting devsirme for Sultan Suleyman I (1495-1566), (painter Ali Amir Beg, 1558), Topkapi Palace archives: This is probably be the best classical devsirme miniature. Note the fearful young christian boys (front) in red robes watched by the recruiting Ottoman officer (seated) and guards.

A young Devsirme slave in the "safe hands" Ottoman personnel. The very unhappy and insecure look of the young boy is worth a thousand words!

Some of the most enduring images generally associated with the Ottoman Empire can be surprisingly "romantic" in nature, when not talking about the human tragedies that occurred under their long rule. Loads of gorgeous women in the Harems, odalisques, backroom intrigues, hot Turkish baths and massages, eunuchs, colourful oriental rugs and costumes, the Orient Express, waterpipes with tobacco and other "exotic" smokes and noisy bazaars.

Orientalist painters like Eugene Delacroix and Ingres, writers such as Pierre Loti helped present the Ottoman lifestyle in the most mysterious and exotic way to the general public in the West. Beyond its undoubted exotic charm, life was not a paradise for the subjects and minorities under Ottoman rule. Nor was it particularly kind to the tens of thousands of christian families who had to surrender their child to the Blood Tax collector knocking on the door for a round of Devsirme!

Mehter military band is thought to be the oldest military marching band in the world. The band's music is known as Janissary music, as most of the band members belonged to that group of Devsirme soldiers. It is believed that the Band "Mehter" was sent to the founder of the Ottoman empire Osman Gazi by a Seljuk Sultan. It is said the band have played every day after the afternoon prayers for the Ottoman ruler. The music of the Mehter lost its appeal after Sultan Mahmud II got fed up with their abusive power of the Janissary army units and massacred them by cannons and swords in 1826!

Janissary army standard bearers and Mehter musicians spearheading another attack of the Ottoman army. The Janissaries were undoubtedly the most famous of all the devsirme slaves. Fiercely militant and increasingly rebellious with time, the Janissaries became like a State within the State and rioted on many occasions. They are also known to be responsible for deposing several Sultans until they met their fate.

Devsirme originated with the very fast and scary pace with which the Ottoman expanded their territories and built the Empire starting 14th century. It was the direct result of the military needs of their very fast growing empire: They lacked human resources to maintain and build a mightier military to cope with new realities. They needed devoted and trained administrators to run various government tasks throughout the territories. In one word they needed highly motivated, trained and loyal soldiers to serve the Sultan as well as scribes and civil servants to the Court.

The rules and regulations of the Devsirme were introduced under Sultan Murad II, about three decades before the fall of Constantinople (1453): The system was cruel in essence but very efficient and well designed. The Sultans and their advisers developped a system avoiding any hereditary Turkish aristocracy that could threaten their position on the long run. Therefore targeting only non-Muslims for the devsirme was easy, safe and convenient.
Initially devsirme appeared to be against the unwritten and written laws of Islam and had always its critics even within the inner circles of the Ottoman state. But the temptation for quick results was impossible to resist. The immediate needs of the empire were more important than any ethical and religious considerations. Devsirme slaves were collected by the thousands, the established quotas were enforced, the rules applied with no hesitation. Under the Muslim law a conquered people was at the mercy of the Sultan, and the Ottoman could kill or enslave anyway. Therefore enslaving young boys was promoted as a noble way to pledge total allegiance and serve the Sultan and a fast way to climb the social ladder.

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: "The Turkish Bath/ Le Bain Turc," 1862 . These concubines and odalisques were mostly devsirme female slaves in an Ottoman Imperial Serail (seraglio), commonly known as Harem (from the Arabic word word "Haram" as in forbidden quarters of a palace).

"Manicure in the Harem in a Seraglio" (serail). The most famous Harem was at the Topkapi palace, Istanbul.

Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) "Harem Pool" -Oil on canvas/ Hermitage museum, St Petersburg, Russia

The Blood Tax collectors would therefore visit each taxed Christian community and would gather approximately one in 10 to 14 young boys. Bulgaria, Serbs, Montenegrin, Albanians, Bosnians and others were all taxed. The Jews were practically excluded, while there have been reports of some Armenian conscripts into the system.

The age of the young conscripts was normally between 8 and 10, but it could be much older. The devsirme collection was performed by a higher officer (typically himself of devsirme origin!) who travelled from region to with with a secretary and soldiers. The boys collected through devsirme, were called either kul, ghilmán or oglan. They were immediately considered the exclusive properties (i.e. slaves) of the Sultan, and mostly lost contact with their families: They became quasi robotic Ottoman Androids, programmed to serve the Sultan and the Sultan only. The girls, much smaller in numbers, followed a supposedly lesser "training" and served in the Harem and the palaces as concubines, odalisques and assistants.

The boys were sorted into different groups according to their fitness etc and sent either to train as soldiers or other tasks in special institution, palaces or even farming families. The initial training took 3 to 7 years, and during this time the boys learned Turkish and Ottoman lifestyles.

The most famous army troops of the devsirme were of course the Janissary (yeni-çeri means new-troops, Ենիչերի). The name "new" indicates very well what they were the beginning: An alternative to the old regular army which was becoming not too reliable. The Sultan needed to have new troops and formed the Janissary corps, because the old army put together by free men from many different tribes and allegiances was difficult to keep under control.

The Janissary soon became famous for their military skills, their successes and abuses on the battle fronts and above all their absolute allegiance to the Sublime Porte. They were still subject to strict rules, limiting their freedom and demanding from them higher moral standards than usual in the Ottoman society. With time their reputation grew and they became almost synonymous with "cold blooded murdering soldier" in many nations under Ottoman rule.

A yeniceri (Janissary) band ready to spread fear and intimidate the conquered people.

Initially for around two hundred years the Janissary and other devsirme could not marry and they were not even allowed to grow beards, a privilege which was granted only to free men in the society. Those who were not destined to be soldiers followed a different path. After the initial round of training, some of these chosen acemi oglanlar, "foreign boys," were sent to Istanbul, where they worked in one of the sultan's gardens, shipyard or in the palace. In the palace they followed another round of education, normally extending beyond 14 years.

The palace school educational system was the the main source for higher officials, scribes, administrators and future leaders in the Ottoman Empire. They were however restricted to the palace and could not leave the perimeter or be in touch with the outside world. Their training included languages (Arabic, Persian etc), religion (Koran, Sharia, Hadith), calligraphy etc. The children of any marriage involving devsirme were necessarily Muslim like their converted parent(s), and therefore they were excluded from the devsirme system and would join the "normal" population at large.

Some of these devsirme students ended up as viziers and grand viziers (the highest administrative position). The famous Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha (1506-1573) was a devsirme of Serbian origin. Nevertheless, most devsirmeh were always practically considered as slaves to the Sultan despite their very high ranks. The Sultan could punish or even execute them without trial for an error or intrigue, real or perceived.

It is estimated that from the 15th to the 17 century, between 200,000 and 300,000 devsirme boys were gathered, mostly in the Balkan countryside. Normally every 4 years, young minor Orthodox boys from the taxed communities were to be given to the Ottoman throne. Devsirme was promoted as a somehow honorable thing for the parents and a fast way to have a better life to the young children they gave to the tax collector. Being the "slave" of the sultan was considered to be an honour, as some of these slaves would eventually fill prestigious positions in the Ottoman society. The idea of devsirme being "good" for the kids was promoted as a golden opportunity for these boys guaranteeing them a safe and bright future as Sultan's slave and to get out of poverty. Bribes and other means of persuasion were also common to let the Christians parents give their sons to devsirme.

Corruption and lax lifestyle: Janissary relaxing and enjoying life. The increasingly lavish lifestyle of theses units became a problem for the Sultans. Many, if not most, of these elite legions were devsirme and became too powerful, almost a State within the State. They were seen as liabilities to the Sultans rather than as major assets like before. Their extermination was just a matter of time and came in early 19th century.

The end of the devsirme is generally associated with the decline and eventual massacre of the Janissaries. Already by the 17th century the Janissary legions were becoming a liability: strong, independant, theywere dictating Ottoman policy, deposing Sultans at will, acting as landholders, staging several coups and interfering with the very basic rules of the devsirme. At the same time they were becoming ineffective on the battlefield. After the second battle of Vienna in 1683 the Empire started to decline fast and the Janissaries were acting more and more like the real power brokers than fighters. They also revolted on several occasions to get higher wages or to set their rules and conditions.

The Greek war for Independence (1821-1830) proved once again that the Janissaries were no longer the infallible force as they had been historically. Their end was fast approaching. In 1826 news spread out that the Sultan Mahmud II was taking the necessary steps to form new European style army units. As expected or hoped, the Janissaries were furious and revolted one more time. But this time the Sultan had other plans and was well prepared. As the rioting Janissaries were advancing on the Palace in Istanbul, their barracks near the Hippodrome (Atmeydani) were set in fire by heavy artillery loyal to the Sultan and more than 4000 Janissaries were massacres. Survivors were arrested and executed in various other locations. It is reported that the last Janissary units were executed in Thesallonika, modern day Greece. With that the final chapter the devsirme system broke beyond repair.

Modern Mehter band of the Janissary units. They are based at Istanbul's Military museum (Askeri Muze). They are now ceremonial in nature and perform to the public almost daily. They also go on tours around the world as the world's oldest known military marching band.

The innovative and liberal Tanzimat reform program put in place from 1839 until 1876 was designed to "reorganize" the Ottoman society and government, including the now obsolete devsirme and the Kut. It was initiated on changes started by sultan Mahmud II and executed under sultan Abdulmecid I. It was initiated by reformists who understood why their Empire was growing weaker while neighbouring countries were growing stronger. The Tanzimat was indeed of the highest importance to the survival of Ottoman Empire but failed miserably.

The devsirme was finally dead after long centuries, but its very controversial legacy continued for a long time both in modern Turkey and the Balkans. The divisive Ottoman heritage in the Balkans and Thrace is still present today. People wondering about some of the root causes of the ethnic and relegious tensions between say Albanians, Serbs, Kosovars, Bosnians can do some reading to understand the issues of domination, forced conversions, devsirme and the like. There is never any smoke without fire.

Janissary army war and massacre scene through the eyes of a romantic European painter.

"Occupation of Yerevan, Armenia by the Ottoman army under Ferhad Pasha":(miniature by Nakkas Osman,1597).

© Krikor Tersakian, October 26, 2009 Montreal Canada

The Ottoman slave gathering system: The "Devsirme"

2009-10-21T19:18:00.000-04:00

A young Devsirme slave in the "safe hands" Ottoman personnel. The very unhappy and insecure look of the young boy is worth a thousand words!

Janissary army standard bearers and Mehter musicians spearheading another attack of the Ottoman army. The Janissaries were undoubtedly the most famous of all the devsirme slaves. Fiercely militant and increasingly rebellious with time, the Janissaries became like a State within the State and rioted on many occasions. They are also known to be responsible for deposing several Sultans until they met their fate.

Devsirme originated with the very fast and scary pace with which the Ottoman expanded their territories and built the Empire starting 14th century. It was the direct result of the military needs of their very fast growing empire: They lacked human resources to maintain and build a mightier military to cope with new realities. They needed devoted and trained administrators to run various government tasks throughout the territories. In one word they needed highly motivated, trained and loyal soldiers to serve the Sultan as well as scribes and civil servants to the Court.

The rules and regulations of the Devsirme were introduced under Sultan Murad II, about three decades before the fall of Constantinople (1453): The system was cruel in essence but very efficient and well designed. The Sultans and their advisers developped a system avoiding any hereditary Turkish aristocracy that could threaten their position on the long run. Therefore targeting only non-Muslims for the devsirme was easy, safe and convenient.

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: "The Turkish Bath/ Le Bain Turc," 1862 . These concubines and odalisques were mostly devsirme female slaves in an Ottoman Imperial Serail (seraglio), commonly known as Harem (from the Arabic word word "Haram" as in forbidden quarters of a palace).

"Manicure in the Harem in a Seraglio" (serail). The most famous Harem was at the Topkapi palace, Istanbul.

Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) "Harem Pool" -Oil on canvas/ Hermitage museum, St Petersburg, Russia

The Blood Tax collectors would therefore visit each taxed Christian community and would gather approximately one in 10 to 14 young boys. Bulgaria, Serbs, Montenegrin, Albanians, Bosnians and others were all taxed. The Jews were practically excluded, while there have been reports of some Armenian conscripts into the system.

The age of the young conscripts was normally between 8 and 10, but it could be much older. The devsirme collection was performed by a higher officer (typically himself of devsirme origin!) who travelled from region to with with a secretary and soldiers. The boys collected through devsirme, were called either kul, ghilmán or oglan. They were immediately considered the exclusive properties (i.e. slaves) of the Sultan, and mostly lost contact with their families: They became quasi robotic Ottoman Androids, programmed to serve the Sultan and the Sultan only. The girls, much smaller in numbers, followed a supposedly lesser "training" and served in the Harem and the palaces as concubines, odalisques and assistants.

The boys were sorted into different groups according to their fitness etc and sent either to train as soldiers or other tasks in special institution, palaces or even farming families. The initial training took 3 to 7 years, and during this time the boys learned Turkish and Ottoman lifestyles.

The most famous army troops of the devsirme were of course the Janissary (yeni-çeri means new-troops, Ենիչերի). The name "new" indicates very well what they were the beginning: An alternative to the old regular army which was becoming not too reliable. The Sultan needed to have new troops and formed the Janissary corps, because the old army put together by free men from many different tribes and allegiances was difficult to keep under control.

The Janissary soon became famous for their military skills, their successes and abuses on the battle fronts and above all their absolute allegiance to the Sublime Porte. They were still subject to strict rules, limiting their freedom and demanding from them higher moral standards than usual in the Ottoman society. With time their reputation grew and they became almost synonymous with "cold blooded murdering soldier" in many nations under Ottoman rule.

A yeniceri (Janissary) band ready to spread fear and intimidate the conquered people.

Initially for around two hundred years the Janissary and other devsirme could not marry and they were not even allowed to grow beards, a privilege which was granted only to free men in the society. Those who were not destined to be soldiers followed a different path. After the initial round of training, some of these chosen acemi oglanlar, "foreign boys," were sent to Istanbul, where they worked in one of the sultan's gardens, shipyard or in the palace. In the palace they followed another round of education, normally extending beyond 14 years.

The palace school educational system was the the main source for higher officials, scribes, administrators and future leaders in the Ottoman Empire. They were however restricted to the palace and could not leave the perimeter or be in touch with the outside world. Their training included languages (Arabic, Persian etc), religion (Koran, Sharia, Hadith), calligraphy etc. The children of any marriage involving devsirme were necessarily Muslim like their converted parent(s), and therefore they were excluded from the devsirme system and would join the "normal" population at large.

Some of these devsirme students ended up as viziers and grand viziers (the highest administrative position). The famous Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha (1506-1573) was a devsirme of Serbian origin. Nevertheless, most devsirmeh were always practically considered as slaves to the Sultan despite their very high ranks. The Sultan could punish or even execute them without trial for an error or intrigue, real or perceived.

It is estimated that from the 15th to the 17 century, between 200,000 and 300,000 devsirme boys were gathered, mostly in the Balkan countryside. Normally every 4 years, young minor Orthodox boys from the taxed communities were to be given to the Ottoman throne. Devsirme was promoted as a somehow honorable thing for the parents and a fast way to have a better life to the young children they gave to the tax collector. Being the "slave" of the sultan was considered to be an honour, as some of these slaves would eventually fill prestigious positions in the Ottoman society. The idea of devsirme being "good" for the kids was promoted as a golden opportunity for these boys guaranteeing them a safe and bright future as Sultan's slave and to get out of poverty. Bribes and other means of persuasion were also common to let the Christians parents give their sons to devsirme.

Corruption and lax lifestyle: Janissary relaxing and enjoying life. The increasingly lavish lifestyle of theses units became a problem for the Sultans. Many, if not most, of these elite legions were devsirme and became too powerful, almost a State within the State. They were seen as liabilities to the Sultans rather than as major assets like before. Their extermination was just a matter of time and came in early 19th century.

The end of the devsirme is generally associated with the decline and eventual massacre of the Janissaries. Already by the 17th century the Janissary legions were becoming a liability: strong, independant, theywere dictating Ottoman policy, deposing Sultans at will, acting as landholders, staging several coups and interfering with the very basic rules of the devsirme. At the same time they were becoming ineffective on the battlefield. After the second battle of Vienna in 1683 the Empire started to decline fast and the Janissaries were acting more and more like the real power brokers than fighters. They also revolted on several occasions to get higher wages or to set their rules and conditions.

The Greek war for Independence (1821-1830) proved once again that the Janissaries were no longer the infallible force as they had been historically. Their end was fast approaching. In 1826 news spread out that the Sultan Mahmud II was taking the necessary steps to form new European style army units. As expected or hoped, the Janissaries were furious and revolted one more time. But this time the Sultan had other plans and was well prepared. As the rioting Janissaries were advancing on the Palace in Istanbul, their barracks near the Hippodrome (Atmeydani) were set in fire by heavy artillery loyal to the Sultan and more than 4000 Janissaries were massacres. Survivors were arrested and executed in various other locations. It is reported that the last Janissary units were executed in Thesallonika, modern day Greece. With that the final chapter the devsirme system broke beyond repair.

Modern Mehter band of the Janissary units. They are based at Istanbul's Military museum (Askeri Muze). They are now ceremonial in nature and perform to the public almost daily. They also go on tours around the world as the world's oldest known military marching band.

The innovative and liberal Tanzimat reform program put in place from 1839 until 1876 was designed to "reorganize" the Ottoman society and government, including the now obsolete devsirme and the Kut. It was initiated on changes started by sultan Mahmud II and executed under sultan Abdulmecid I. It was initiated by reformists who understood why their Empire was growing weaker while neighbouring countries were growing stronger. The Tanzimat was indeed of the highest importance to the survival of Ottoman Empire but failed miserably.

The devsirme was finally dead after long centuries, but its very controversial legacy continued for a long time both in modern Turkey and the Balkans. The divisive Ottoman heritage in the Balkans and Thrace is still present today. People wondering about some of the root causes of the ethnic and relegious tensions between say Albanians, Serbs, Kosovars, Bosnians can do some reading to understand the issues of domination, forced conversions, devsirme and the like. There is never any smoke without fire.

Karahunge: The Armenian Stonehenge

2009-10-11T08:49:00.003-04:00

Karahunge is a very unique and almost unknown megalithic site in Armenia that may have had a much bigger regional influence than previously thought or understood. Research and understanding of its mysteries are incomplete. The promotion and preservation of the site are nonexistent.

The Stonehenge is a marvel of the ancient world, situated in the Salisbury plain west of London, England. It is the most famous megalithic site on earth and fully deserves its fame by the sheer size of the stones and their incredible technique of construction for their age. Like other similar sites all around Europe, it was sacred place for meeting, praying, burial, observing the celestial movements and praising the supernatural and the mystical.

The very venerable Stonehenge is in a sense unique in the world, but it may owe a big debt to an obscure Armenian megalithic site called the Karahunge. Quite simply, Karahunge and Stonehenge have identical names: KaraHunge / StoneHenge.

"Kar"means "Stone", in Armenian, and "Hunge" (Հունչ/Հնչել) means "Sound" or "Buzz". Amazing but true, Stonehenge may owe his name to the much older Karahunge site in Armenia. It is a striking and incredible similarity, to say the least, for two prehistoric and very distant sites.

The Karahunge observatory at full functionality! The sight is primitive, rough compared to some other megalithic sites but still very romantic, pretty and mysterious.

Here are some theories: "Hunge" or "Henge" (as in Stonehenge) has no clear meaning in English or its preceding languages although some suggest it may mean hinge, as is the door hinge. Some theories claim that Stān means "stone", and either "hencg" meaning hinge (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or "hen(c)en" meaning "hanging". It is a fact that the upper horizontal tier of the Stonehenge stones sit in hidden pointed parts of the vertical stones as if acting like anchoring and stabilizing hinges. But the name Stonehenge itself may be much older than the introduction of the word hinge into modern day England.

Still one can not explain how Karahunge/Stonehenge have got identical names. It seems unlikely that it is just a simple coincidence, and all this enigma makes for a very curious and intriguing case of these megalithic sites. Karahunge (Քարահունչ) is thought to be 7500 years old while its English homonym Stonehenge is around 3500 years "younger" at 4000-5000 years (depending on the successive long construction period of the stones).

Karahunge vaulted tombs called "dromos" and "cromlechl": Naturally these tombs are completely empty since a very long time. God knows who and what was buried there thousands of years ago...

Moss and lichens covered Karahunge stones. These specifically angled carved holes were most certainly for astronomical observations and rituals. The holes may be much "younger" than the stones themselves, judging from their rather clean and non weathered shape.

Karahunge, or what remains of it, is made of rather small basalt stones. The present shape of the stones is almost random and the overall effect less than tremendous but still pretty impressive. But, lest we forget, Stonehenge is 3500 years "younger" than Karahunge and we all know what that means in terms of progress in human history. Let's look at the last 35 years to understand the impact of 3500 years!

Karahunge literally translates as "Stones with Voice" or "Stones that have a Sound". It is also known as Zorats Karer (Զորաց Քարեր) in Armenia, that could be translated as "Powerful Stones" or the "Stones of the Powerful". Both these names are currently used, but the official name remains Karahunge. The site is situated at an altitude of 1,750 meters, near the town of Sisian, 220 kilometers south-east of the capital Yerevan. It is located on a rocky promontory, a prominent mass of land or hill which overlooks lower lying land and therefore easier to defend. The nearby town of Sisian (Սիսեան) is a small provincial agglomeration of under 20,000. It is situated at the narrowest point of Republic of Armenia proper sandwiched between Artsakh-Karabagh and Naxichevan (see map below).

Karahunge is situated just north of Sisian, on the narrowest region of Armenia proper sandwiched between the Armenian autonomous region of Artsakh- Karabagh to the east and the Azeri Naxichevan. Note that ''Xankandi'' on the map actually refers to Stepanakert, the Capital city of Artsakh

Karahunge was mainly used as a large necropolis from the Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Huge stone tombs are found there and around, dating from these periods. Later, possibly in Hellenistic-Roman times, it is thought to have served as a place of refuge in times of social unrest or attack. A defensive wall of rocks and loam was built, and vertical rocks were used for reinforcements. Of this city wall only the upright standing rocks still remain (see photo below).

The remaining rocks of the original Karahunge defensive city walls. Note the numbering of the stones.

Karahunge site today is made up of hundreds (some say 223 in total) of vertically standing basalt stones of which 84 stones. The total territorial area is approximately 7 hectares. Many of these stones have smooth angled holes of 4 to 5cm in diameter, the angles of the holes being directed at different points on the horizon and outer space. The age of Karahunge has been estimated to be 7500 years or older (VI millennium BC). It is believed that the main deity celebrated there was Ari, the main prehistoric Armenian God of the period, as well as possibly other lesser Gods.

A festival of colors and reflections: Each stone is marked with its number in a bizarre and primitive form of paint identification probably from the Soviet days. Some pointed stones may have been a focal point with its narrow tip to reflect light on other nearby stones.

We shall underline that in no way we are implying that Karahunge may be as "important" or impressive as Stonehenge as a megalithic site. That is not the case, nor the issue. In fact, some of the Stonehenge stones are up to 7m and weigh 50 tons and mostly brought from specific quarries in Carmarthenshire in south west Wales. The distance from Carmarthenshire to Stonehenge is more than 110km, and the way these giant stones were moved to Stonehenge by land and sea is still a mystery and an incredible human accomplishment by itself.

Karahunge is more modest in sheer size, but it surely deserves a lot of interest. It is somehow unknown even among the general Armenian population and it rarely figures in brochures or books. We do not have official statistics, but the number of visitors to Karahunge is probably insignificant. The tourist accommodations near the site, the appropriate landscaping, signage and documentation are almost nonexistent to encourage more visitors. A site pretty much abandoned despite a new dynamic and flourishing tourism industry in Armenia.

Similar prehistoric megalithic stone structures exist all around Europe and beyond from Sweden to Russia. Menhirs, Dolmens, burial mound and barrows, Cromlech (stone chambers), and other types of prehistoric structures are highly appreciated everywhere they are found . Most of these sites are Neolithic (New Stone Age) 5000 BC and Bronze age 3000-2000BC and younger. In its style and form, Karahunge seems closer to another English megalithic site at Avebury, not far from Stonehenge. But somehow it is the famous Stonehenge that shares the same name with Karahunge which lies almost 4000km away, in a remote mountainous region in the Armenian Syunik (Սիւնիք) region!

Karahunge "Ghost Town": a panorama worthy of a scary Hallowe'en movie.

Karahunge may or may not have given his name to the Stonehenge, but this issue may turn out to be more than just speculation. Some (but not enough) scientific research has been done in Karahunge, but the gathered information and knowledge are far from being complete or satisfactory. A lot more research is needed in order to unlock the magnitude of Karahunge's regional influence and details about these Armenian ancestors who built it some 70 centuries ago.

Is Karahunge and the nearby other bronze age sites a priority in the conversation efforts in Armenia? The answer of course is a "No". Countless churches, monasteries and Stone Cross Khatchkars are in rather pitiful conditions too and need immediate attention. Karahunge seems to be at the bottom of the "To Do" or rather "Forgotten" list.

Stonehenge in Wiltshere, England is surely one of Britain's and the World's greatest icons. Since its construction some 5000 years ago, it has symbolized mystery, power, worship and endurance.Most probably it was a pagan a temple made for the worship of ancient deities, and a sacred burial site and an astronomical observatory. Like the nearby Avebury site, Stonehenge is a U.N.E.S.C.O. World Heritage Site of the "Highest order".

Karahunge is unique to the region, and is worthy of much more attention and care than its present state of total abandon. It deserves a minimum of effort, recognition and restoration from both the Armenian and the International communities, specialized agencies and Foundations.

Unfortunately, I doubt that anything of substance will happen anytime soon.

Note:

I modestly dedicate this article about Karahunge to all Armenians around the World who courageously preserve their identity and their very old and unique culture. If these 7000 years old rocks are any indication, History and Culture are built over a long long period of time. And we all carry the burden to protect them against all odds and challenges.

Karahunge: The Armenian Stonehenge

2009-10-11T08:49:00.002-04:00

The Karahunge observatory at full functionality! The sight is primitive, rough compared to some other megalithic sites but still very romantic, pretty and mysterious.

Karahunge vaulted tombs called "dromos" and "cromlechl": Naturally these tombs are completely empty since a very long time. God knows who and what was buried there thousands of years ago...

The remaining rocks of the original Karahunge defensive city walls. Note the numbering of the stones.

Karahunge site today is made up of hundreds (some say 223 in total) of vertically standing basalt stones of which 84 stones. The toatal territorial area is approximately 7 hectares. Many of these stones have smooth angled holes of 4 to 5cm in diameter, the angles of the holes being directed at different points on the horizon and outer space. The age of Karahunge has been estimated to be 7500 years or older (VI millennium BC). It is believed that the main deity celebrated there was Ari, the main prehistoric Armenian God of the period, as well as possibly other lesser Gods.

A festival of colours and reflections: Each stone is marked with its number in a bizarre and primitive form of paint identification probably from the Soviet days. Some pointed stones may have been a focal point with its narrow tip to reflect light on other nearby stones.

Karahunge is more modest in sheer size, but it surely deserves a lot of interest. It is somehow unknown even among the general Armenian population and it rarely figures in brochures or books. We do not have official statistics, but the number of visitors to Karahunge is probably insignificant. The tourist accomodations near the site, the appropriate lanscaping, signage and documentation are almost nonexistant to encourage more visitors. A site pretty much abandoned despite a new dynamic and flourishing tourism industry in Armenia.

Karahunge "Ghost Town": a panorama worthy of a scary Hallowe'en movie.

Unfortunately, I doubt that anything of substance will happen anytime soon.

Note:

Karahunge: The Armenian Stonehenge

2009-10-11T08:49:00.001-04:00

The Karahunge observatory at full functionality! The sight is primitive, rough compared to some other megalithic sites but still very romantic, pretty and mysterious.

Karahunge vaulted tombs called "dromos" and "cromlechl": Naturally these tombs are completely empty since a very long time. God knows who and what was buried there thousands of years ago...

Karahunge literally translates as "Stones with Voice" or "Stones that have a Sound". It is also known as Zorats Karer (Զորաց Քարեր) in Armenia, that could be translated as "Powerful Stones" or the "Stones of the Powerful". Both these names are currently used, but the official name remains Karahunge. The site is situated at an altitude of 1,750 meters, near the town of Sisian, 220 kilometers south-east of the capital Yerevan. It is located on a rocky promontory, a prominent mass of land or hill which overlooks lower lying land and therefore easier to defend. The nearby town of Sisian (Սիսեան) is a small provincial agglomeration of under 20,000. It is situated at the narrowest point of Republic of Armenia proper sandwiched between Artsakh-Karabagh and Naxichevan (see map below).

The remaining rocks of the original Karahunge defensive city walls. Note the numbering of the stones.

Karahunge is more modest in sheer size, but it surely deserves a lot of interest. It is somehow unknown even among the general Armenian population and it rarely figures in brochures or books. We do not have official statistics, but the number of visitors to Karahunge is probably insignificant. The tourist accomodations near the site, the appropriate lanscaping, signage and documentation are almost nonexistant to encourage more visitors. A site pretty much abandoned despite a new dynamic and flourishing tourism industry in Armenia.

Similar prehistoric megalithic stone structures exist all around Europe and beyond from Sweden to Russia. Menhirs, Dolmens, burial mound and barrows, Cromlech (stone chambers), and other types of prehistoric structures are highly appreciated everywhere they are found . Most of these sites are Neolithic (New Stone Age) 5000 BC and Bronze age 3000-2000BC and younger. In its style and form, Karahunge seems closer to another English megalithic site at Avebury, not far from Stonehenge. But somehow it is the famous Stonehenge that shares the same name with Karahunge which lies almost 4000km away, in a remote mountainous region in the Armenian Syunik (Սիւնիք) region!

Karahunge "Ghost Town": a panorama worthy of a scary Hallowe'en movie.

Unfortunately, I doubt that anything of substance will happen anytime soon.

Note:

The Japanese who killed the Natural Pearl

2009-09-12T07:48:00.004-04:00

Mikimito Statue in Toba, Japan: It is the world's birthplace of the cultured pearl industry. In 1893 Mikimoto Kokichi (1858-1954) produced the world's first cultured pearl. His life and work is celebrated on Mikimoto Pearl Island. The Pearl Museum explains how natural and cultured pearls are produced, how they are graded, polished and strung on necklaces or set in jewelry.

For centuries, people have been trying to unlock the secret of nature and duplicate such things as gold, silver, diamonds, ivory, precious stones and other wonders of the natural world. Alchemists old and new have tirelessly tried to recreate valuable inorganic material from scratch and to get...rich.

Pearls of course were no exception and they were at the very top of the luxury items pyramid. A perfect natural pearl was both extremely rare and expensive. The mystical work of a tiny mollusk was extraordinary in producing such natural gems. For centuries diving for pearls was practiced around the globe and entire communities earned their living from that very dangerous but exciting economic activity. Supplying pearls to the very rich was a very viable economic activity in so many parts of the world.

But all this came to an abrupt end starting early 20-th century because of one Japanese entrepreneur. It wasn't until 1916, when Kokichi Mikimoto (1858-1954) patented the art of producing cultured pearls and perfect round pearls. Using a technique developed originally by an inventor called William Sawville-Kent and brought to Japan, Mikimoto successfully cultured whole "Akoya" pearls and founded the modern cultured pearl industry.
He was also the first to market these cultured pearls and triggered the huge "cultured" or "man induced" pearl industry. Today millions of people can afford and have access to a pearl jewelery of very varying qualities because of these new revolutionary production techniques. Consequently, the natural pearl diving, gathering and trade all but died as a non efficient as it was priced out of the market by the consumers at large.
Most of us think of pearls as perfectly round and white. Nature has other ideas and is far more creative in terms of shape and colour!

Few know his name, but Mikimoto single handedly stopped the natural pearl business and the livelihood it provided to so many communities around the globe. Today Mikimoto is also a high end brand name with very chic boutiques in all major capitals of the world. His Pearl Island and museum in Tobi is visited by millions of people. Various pearl trading companies like Mikimoto deal and sell the best pearls but the prices have plummeted across the board as cultured pearls of all sorts and qualities flooded the market drowning the natural pearl. Therefore the mass production has affected in a major way the world supply and the prices.

A cultured pearl ready to be harvested. The technique to produce these pearls were patented by Mikimoto in 1916 and thus practically killed the natural pearl traditions and romance.

Mikimoto was a shrewd innovator and entrepreneur. As mentioned he did not himself unlock the mystery as to why some mollusks produce pearls, but he was the one who put to practical use the discovery: A tiny foreign particles implanted in the oyster will trigger the formation of pearls as a defense mechanism to neutralise the intruding and irritating particle. In short, pearl is the by product of the defense mechanism of the animal to neutralize the foreign element.

Planting a mother-of-pearl nucleus or any foreign particle into the soft membrane of the "oyster" develops the mollusk's natural protective response which is to secrete a conchiolin (soothing brownish substance) and covered by a nacre coating (the lustrous materials of pearls) to destroy the intruder. The longer the period, the thicker the nacre becomes and usually, the deeper the luster.

Virtually all the pearls we see and purchase today are cultured or man-induced pearls. Therefore these pearls are can still be considered "natural" because they are created by mother nature alone, but the process is induced by humans. Naturally the radiography of a natural pearl and a cultured pearl will show the structural differences to varying degrees depending on the foreign implant used to trigger the process.

Natural pearls of different bivalve species have been the symbol of power and wealth throughout the ages. Nature has endowed them with such beautiful qualities that Emperors, Kings, and Queens or Sultans have sought. Natural pearls from the Oyster, Abalone and Scallop are among the rarest.

The Arab Gulf States have become the new Eldorado of the 21-st century. These mega rich mini states from Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain to Oman have economically flourished beyond any one's wildest dreams. Oil was the primary driving force of this concentration of riches. But few realize what these coastal Arab people used to do before the discovery of oil.

The area is pure desert sand with only few scattered palm trees here and there along small oasises. These Arab coastal communities were sedentary with a few domesticated animals and an endless supply of seafood. Some were merchants trading in spices, foodstuff and slaves from the Africa to Indian subcontinent. Others were pearl divers and merchants, mostly selling their precious gems on the Indian markets or to middlemen.

Mikimoto store in Manhattan: Pearls are still luxury items but they are now "cultured" and not considered natural.

Pearl diving and trade were always at the center stage of all economic activity in that region. Using classical Dhow boats and very primitive equipments such as ropes, burlap baskets, ear plugs and nostril clippers for diving, the Arabs and their slaves were a force to be reckoned with! The Arabian pearls had the quality as well as all the mystique and the exoticism that made these pearls even more sought after by the rich, powerful and the famous across the world.

Before the beginning of the 20-th century, the only means of obtaining pearls was by manually gathering very large numbers of pearl oysters (or pearl mussels) from the ocean floor (or lake or river bottoms). The sea animals were then brought to the surface, opened, and the tissues searched for pearls and most thrown away dead. In order to find enough pearl oysters, divers were often forced to descend to depths of over 100 feet on a single breath, exposing them to the dangers of sharks, waves, freezing and of course simply drowning.

Pearl divers in Bahrain with their shaved heads, greased bodies, ropes and baskets ready to descend in search of the perfect natural pearl. The job is extremely hazardous. They risk drowning, freezing, meeting a shark or even their Creator.

Back then divers had only very basic forms of technology to aid their survival at such depths. For example, in some areas, they greased their bodies to conserve heat, put greased cotton in their ears, wore a tortoise-shell clip to close their nostrils, gripped a large object like a rock to descend without the wasteful effort of swimming down and had a wide mouthed basket or net to hold the oysters. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan or the tribe's leader, and selling secretly them could result in the death penalty for the seller. However, a slave who discovered an extra-large pearl could sometimes purchase his freedom.

Pearling was not confined just to the Arabian (Persian) Gulf. It used to be a universal activity from the Indian ocean to the Pacific and even to American riverbeds, but the Arabic pearls were regarded as among the cream of the cream. Only pearls from the southern Philippine Sulu archipelago equalled Arabian pearls in fame and value. Sulu is part of the southern rebellious separatist Muslim region of Mindanao, and today cultured pearl farms have also overshadowed the natural pearling traditions.

This tacky looking "Giant Pearl" monument in Qatar commemorates the Persian Gulf's rich pearling history. Statues, monuments and murals honoring the pearling tradition can be found in almost every town in the Gulf states from Kuwait to Bahrain. Pearl was there before oil, lest we forget!

Because of the difficulty of diving and the unpredictable nature of natural pearl growth in pearl oysters, pearls of the time were extremely rare and of varying quality. All this added to the romance of the pearls and the prices were very high.

Modern scuba diving and oxygen masks were not invented by then, but in some areas divers were able to stay under the water for prolonged periods of time since a secure rope was tied around their waists connected to the ship as they breathed through a long curving pipe that led up above the surface of the water. This long breathing tube was strengthened by rings of cheap metals and fastened to a face masks.

The display window of a Mikimoto cultured pearl store in Manhattan.

Today's pearl industry produces high quality pearls by the billions therefore affecting the demand and prices of the natural pearls. Natural Pearl diving still exists today but the art and industry of the natural pearl has all but vanished since Mikimoto. Entire villages in the Gulf states were economically depressed as the pearl natural pearl market demand and prices collapsed. Today a gold and jewelery souk in the Gulf states feels bizarre as natural pearls have almost disappeared in a region that used to be one of its main sources and markets.

The Pearl Diving Festival is an event held annually to remind young Kuwaitis of their forefathers' principal occupation before the discovery of oil. The event is being held under the patronage of the Amir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, my boss when I was working at his Al Jahra Agricultural Supplies firm in Kuwait City from 1987-1989.

Science and innovation have a "habit" of rendering things obsolete. Today we only smile when we think of ancient things such as the telegraph, the typewriter, the horse cart, the oil lantern, the Walkman or the cassette player just to name a few.

In the case of the natural pearl, technology did not render it obsolete as such. A natural pearl is still a gem of high value, but its "harvesting" ceased to be a viable economic activity. The pearl somehow lost its luster with Mikimoto's revolution, but it became a "democratized" gem, as millions of people could afford to buy a cultured necklace or pair of earrings!

© Krikor Tersakian, Montreal, Canada

The Japanese who killed the Natural Pearl

2009-09-12T07:48:00.003-04:00

He was also the first to market these cultured pearls and triggered the huge "cultured" or "man induced" pearl industry. Today millions of people can afford and have access to a pearl jewellery of very varying qualities because of these new revolutionary production techniques. Consequently, the natural pearl diving, gathering and trade all but died as a non efficient as it was priced out of the market by the consumers at large.

Most of us think of pearls as perfectly round and white. Nature has other ideas and is far more creative in terms of shape and colour!

Few know his name, but Mikimoto single handedly stopped the natural pearl business and the livelihood it provided to so many communities around the globe. Today Mikimoto is also a high end brand name with very chic boutiques in all major capitals of the world. His Pearl Island and museum in Tobi is visited by millions of people. Various pearl trading companies like Mikimoto deal and sell the best pearls but the prices have plummeted across the board as cultured pearls of all sorts and qualities flooded the market drowning the natural pearl. Therefore the mass production has affected in a major way the world supply and the prices.

A cultured pearl ready to be harvested. The technique to produce these pearls were patented by Mikimoto in 1916 and thus practically killed the natural pearl traditions and romance.

Mikimoto was a shrewd innovator and entrepreneur. As mentioned he did not himself unlock the mystery as to why some mollusks produce pearls, but he was the one who put to practical use the discovery: A tiny foreign particles implanted in the oyster will trigger the formation of pearls as a defense mechanism to neutralise the intruding and irritating particle. In short, pearl is the by product of the defense mechanism of the animal to neutralize the foreign element.

Planting a mother-of-pearl nucleus or any foreign particle into the soft membrane of the "oyster" develops the mollusk's natural protective response which is to secrete a conchiolin (soothing brownish substance) and covered by a nacre coating (the lustrous materials of pearls) to destroy the intruder. The longer the period, the thicker the nacre becomes and usually, the deeper the luster.

Virtually all the pearls we see and purchase today are cultured or man-induced pearls. Therefore these pearls are can still be considered "natural" because they are created by mother nature alone, but the process is induced by humans. Naturally the radiography of a natural pearl and a cultured pearl will show the structural differences to varying degrees depending on the foreign implant used to trigger the process.

Natural pearls of different bivalve species have been the symbol of power and wealth throughout the ages. Nature has endowed them with such beautiful qualities that Emperors, Kings, and Queens or Sultans have sought. Natural pearls from the Oyster, Abalone and Scallop are among the rarest.

The Arab Gulf States have become the new Eldorado of the 21-st century. These mega rich mini states from Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain to Oman have economically flourished beyond any one's wildest dreams. Oil was the primary driving force of this concentration of riches. But few realize what these coastal Arab people used to do before the discovery of oil.

The area is pure desert sand with only few scattered palm trees here and there along small oasises. These Arab coastal communities were sedentary with a few domesticated animals and an endless supply of seafood. Some were merchants trading in spices, foodstuff and slaves from the Africa to Indian subcontinent. Others were pearl divers and merchants, mostly selling their precious gems on the Indian markets or to middlemen.

Mikimoto store in Manhattan: Pearls are still luxury items but they are now "cultured" and not considered natural.

Pearl diving and trade were always at the center stage of all economic activity in that region. Using classical Dhow boats and very primitive equipments such as ropes, burlap baskets, ear plugs and nostril clippers for diving, the Arabs and their slaves were a force to be reckoned with! The Arabian pearls had the quality as well as all the mystique and the exoticism that made these pearls even more sought after by the rich, powerful and the famous across the world.

Before the beginning of the 20-th century, the only means of obtaining pearls was by manually gathering very large numbers of pearl oysters (or pearl mussels) from the ocean floor (or lake or river bottoms). The sea animals were then brought to the surface, opened, and the tissues searched for pearls and most thrown away dead. In order to find enough pearl oysters, divers were often forced to descend to depths of over 100 feet on a single breath, exposing them to the dangers of sharks, waves, freezing and of course simply drowning.

Pearl divers in Bahrain with their shaved heads, greased bodies, ropes and baskets ready to descend in search of the perfect natural pearl. The job is extremely hazardous. They risk drowning, freezing, meeting a shark or even their Creator.

Back then divers had only very basic forms of technology to aid their survival at such depths. For example, in some areas, they greased their bodies to conserve heat, put greased cotton in their ears, wore a tortoise-shell clip to close their nostrils, gripped a large object like a rock to descend without the wasteful effort of swimming down and had a wide mouthed basket or net to hold the oysters. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan or the tribe's leader, and selling secretly them could result in the death penalty for the seller. However, a slave who discovered an extra-large pearl could sometimes purchase his freedom.

Pearling was not confined just to the Arabian (Persian) Gulf. It used to be a universal activity from the Indian ocean to the Pacific and even to American riverbeds, but the Arabic pearls were regarded as among the cream of the cream. Only pearls from the southern Philippine Sulu archipelago equalled Arabian pearls in fame and value. Sulu is part of the southern rebellious separatist Muslim region of Mindanao, and today cultured pearl farms have also overshadowed the natural pearling traditions.

This tacky looking "Giant Pearl" monument in Qatar commemorates the Persian Gulf's rich pearling history. Statues, monuments and murals honoring the pearling tradition can be found in almost every town in the Gulf states from Kuwait to Bahrain. Pearl was there before oil, lest we forget!

Because of the difficulty of diving and the unpredictable nature of natural pearl growth in pearl oysters, pearls of the time were extremely rare and of varying quality. All this added to the romance of the pearls and the prices were very high.

Modern scuba diving and oxygen masks were not invented by then, but in some areas divers were able to stay under the water for prolonged periods of time since a secure rope was tied around their waists connected to the ship as they breathed through a long curving pipe that led up above the surface of the water. This long breathing tube was strengthened by rings of cheap metals and fastened to a face masks.

The display window of a Mikimoto cultured pearl store in Manhattan.

Today's pearl industry produces high quality pearls by the billions therefore affecting the demand and prices of the natural pearls. Natural Pearl diving still exists today but the art and industry of the natural pearl has all but vanished since Mikimoto. Entire villages in the Gulf states were economically depressed as the pearl natural pearl market demand and prices collapsed. Today a gold and jewelery souk in the Gulf states feels bizarre as natural pearls have almost disappeared in a region that used to be one of its main sources and markets.

The Pearl Diving Festival is an event held annually to remind young Kuwaitis of their forefathers' principal occupation before the discovery of oil. The event is being held under the patronage of the Amir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, my boss when I was working at his Al Jahra Agricultural Supplies firm in Kuwait City from 1987-1989.

Science and innovation have a "habit" of rendering things obsolete. Today we only smile when we think of ancient things such as the telegraph, the typewriter, the horse cart, the oil lantern, the Walkman or the cassette player just to name a few.

In the case of the natural pearl, technology did not render it obsolete as such. A natural pearl is still a gem of high value, but its "harvesting" ceased to be a viable economic activity. The pearl somehow lost its luster with Mikimoto's revolution, but it became a "democratized" gem, as millions of people could afford to buy a cultured necklace or pair of earrings!

The Japanese who killed the Natural Pearl

2009-09-12T07:48:00.002-04:00

The Japanese who killed the Natural Pearl

2009-09-12T07:48:00.001-04:00

The Japanese who killed the Natural Pearl

2009-09-12T07:48:00.000-04:00

Who will save the Dead Sea from dying?

2009-08-28T17:53:00.004-04:00

The Dead Sea: The salt deposits are a wonderful sight but the sea is in danger of drying up soon beyond the sustainable limit. The water level is hitting dangerous record lows, losing almost a meter per year. The lake surface presently is nearly 400 meters (1,300 feet) below sea level, making it the lowest spot on Earth.

Lately the shopping centers around the world are flooded with a new generation of cosmetic products prepared with chemicals and minerals from the Dead Sea: Facial creams, Lotions, Body mud, Bath salt, Scrubs, Balms, Herbal sachets etc. The healing power of these products seems to have reached a universal marketing network and has legions of consumers.

And yet, paradoxically, the Dead Sea itself is dying. It may well dry up within fifty years if water is not replenished to raise the level, but no one seems to do much about it.

Healing skins and offering a fresh healthy skin to women are laudable objectives to achieve. No one denies that. Excavating and selling tons and tons of potash and other minerals is very helpful to the Israeli and Jordanian economies. Building new luxurious hotels and spas all around the Dead Sea seems sound investments as they keep the tourists coming to heal their bodies and minds.

However, the fundamental question is still not addressed after decades of discussion and inaction: Who will save the Dead Sea from totally drying up?

The Dead Sea shrinking water levels have already split it into two non communicating lobes. The Jordan River from the North is bringing in less and less water to the lake due to extensive irrigation projects. Both Israel (left) and Jordan (right) are not doing nothing substantial to save the Sea. Also note the totally arid landscape. Deep waters are dark blue, while pale blue shows salt ponds and shallow wetlands to the south.

The Dead Sea is a small lake, presently between Jordan and the occupied West Bank and Israel proper. Beside being the lowest point on earth, about 420m (1380 ft) below sea level, it is also one of the saltiest lakes in the world. The surrounding areas is mostly very arid mountains, with many visible man made and natural caves both for human settlements and more recent military purposes. The lake and the area is extremely rich a wide range of chemicals and minerals, most importantly potash that is extensively used in manufacturing fertilizers as well as magnesium etc. And of course those magic and not so magic cosmetic products flooding the world markets.

But here are some very disturbing data about the lake:

-The Dead Sea has been shrinking at the rate of one meter per year and could completely dry up within the next 50 years if substantial water is not brought in.
-The water level has receded from 394 metres below sea level in 1960s to 420 meters below sea level today.
-The surface area has shrunk by at least 33 per cent over the last 56 years, roughly from 950 square kilometers to 637 square kilometers.
-The average annual inflow has decreased from 1,200 million cubic meters of water to around 250 million cubic meters as water from the Jordan river and other feeder streams are diverted for irrigation and industry.
-Dead Sea water is about ten times more saline than ocean water and that salinity increases as the water evaporates and the level decreases. Needless to say that the Dead Sea is called "dead" because there is practically no plants and fish due to the extreme salinity. That makes it a very fragile and unique in every sense.

Dead Sea Scrolls: They were found near Wadi Qumran in eleven caves between 1947 and 1956. Some of these priceless first century documents were sold on the local flea market for a few dollars! They consist of about 900 biblical texts written on parchment and papyrus by a Jewish sect in the northwest region of the Dead Sea. They were discovered by an Arab shepherd who accidentally fell into one of the caves.

The Dead Sea has only one significant tributary: the Jordan River / Sea of Galilee channel. In the mid 20th century, about 1.5 billion cubic meters used to find its way to the Dead Sea. Today that volume is down to only about 5-10%,because of dams, canals, irrigation and other human uses and abuses. Rainfall in that very arid region is only around 100mm/year that mostly evaporates and does not help refill the Dead Sea.
Tragically, there has been no coordinated system of water development and responsible management in the region. Israel and Jordan have historically pursued their own selfish water development projects independent of one another, competing for the same very scarce resources.

Salt and other minerals are free to take. Help yourself, but do not forget to bring a shovel to join the party!

Granted, there is no easy and cheap way to fix the problem and save the Dead Sea. Israeli and Jordanian commitment to a large scale projects such as either the "Mediterranean-Dead Sea'' or "Red Sea-Dead Sea" canals is becoming urgent to implement. The project to pump water from the Red Sea looks the more plausible than the Mediterranean option, but Jordan surely can not afford it alone.

Pumping sea water to the Dead Sea may be very costly but is relatively easy in engineering terms. The 400 m altitude difference between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea will be of great help. Sea water will have to be pumped, desalinized and sent to the Dead Sea, possibly with some hydro electrical stations built along the way. The project may be totally within the Jordanian borders, which complicates the funding and sharing of the cost burden with Israel, the Palestinian authority and the International community.

On the other hand a project to use water from the Mediterranean may also be feasible but will involve very complicated sets of agreements and legal wranglings between the constantly feuding concerned parties.

Dead Sea Marketing: Cosmetics, hotels, spas, mass tourism are flourishing. Fertilizer components are shipped around the globe by the tons. But at this rate there will not be much left soon to advertise those "magic" products as the water is evaporating fast. The Dead Sea is in fact moribund.

Environmental questions also remain as to how to regulate the Dead Sea water salt content and preserve its very unique constitution and habitat despite all the planned sea water inflow. There is the issue of a chemical incompatibility of the waters. Some studies even raise questions about the the impact of pumping water from the Red sea on the fragile coral reefs there (in the Gulf of Aqaba).

Depending on which solution is eventually adopted, the Palestinian Authority must also be consulted and made a partner in any mega project to save the Dead Sea. The concerted efforts of such very "friendly" bodies such as Israel, the Palestinian authorities and Jordan does not inspire much hope.

The issue is extremely urgent, the project is feasible, yet the multi billion dollar funds and the political will to implement anything is lacking. The international community does have a leadership role to play to make such a project work in that volatile area, but not much is done except consultations and promises.
This is a messy situation with no easy solution in sight. Too many cooks in the kitchen and the food is already burning.

Floating on the Dead Sea is easy. Even certified non- swimmers such as myself would float in a water with 34% salt content with such extreme buoyancy!

Visitors around the world have been coming to this natural wonder for thousands of years. The Dead Sea is unique both as a natural wonder and as a historical world monument. Endless communities have lived and found home and refuge around it since prehistorical times. John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the now almost dry Jordan river, and today he would have found pretty difficult to gather enough water for such an act.
The Dead Sea is moribund, there may not be left that much to see in a relatively short time. Therefore, I count myself among the lucky.

© Krikor Tersakian August 2009

Who will save the Dead Sea from dying?

2009-08-28T17:53:00.003-04:00

The Dead Sea is a small lake, presently between Jordan and the occupied West Bank and Israel proper. Beside being the lowest point on earth, about 420m (1380 ft) below sea level, it is also one of the saltiest lakes in the world. The surrounding areas is mostly very arid mountains, with many visible man made and natural caves both for human settlements and more recent military purposes. The lake and the area is extremely rich a wide range of chemicals and minerals, most importantly potash that is extensively used in manufacturing fertilizers as well as magnesium etc. And of course those magic and not so magic cosmetic products flooding the world markets.

But here are some very disturbing data about the lake:

-The Dead Sea has been shrinking at the rate of one metre per year and could completely dry up within the next 50 years if substantial water is not brought in.
-The water level has receded from 394 metres below sea level in 1960s to 420 metres below sea level today.
-The surface area has shrunk by at least 33 per cent over the last 56 years, roughly from 950 square kilometres to 637 square kilometres.
-The average annual inflow has decreased from 1,200 million cubic meters of water to around 250 million cubic meters as water from the Jordan river and other feeder streams are diverted for irrigation and industry.
-Dead Sea water is about ten times more saline than ocean water and that salinity increases as the water evaporates and the level decreases. Needless to say that the Dead Sea is called "dead" because there is practically no plants and fish due to the extreme salinity. That makes it a very fragile and unique in every sense.

Dead Sea Scrolls: They were found near Wadi Qumran in eleven caves between 1947 and 1956. Some of these priceless first century documents were sold on the local flea market for a few dollars! They consist of about 900 biblical texts written on parchment and papyrus by a Jewish sect in the northwest region of the Dead Sea. They were discovered by an Arab shepherd who accidentally fell into one of the caves.

The Dead Sea has only one significant tributary: the Jordan River / Sea of Galilee channel. In the mid 20th century, about 1.5 billion cubic meters used to find its way to the Dead Sea. Today that volume is down to only about 5-10%,because of dams, canals, irrigation and other human uses and abuses. Rainfall in that very arid region is only around 100mm/year that mostly evaporates and does not help refill the Dead Sea.

Tragically, there has been no coordinated system of water development and responsible management in the region. Israel and Jordan have historically pursued their own selfish water development projects independent of one another, competing for the same very scarce resources.

Salt and other minerals are free to take. Help yourself, but do not forget to bring a shovel to join the party!

Granted, there is no easy and cheap way to fix the problem and save the Dead Sea. Israeli and Jordanian commitment to a large scale projects such as either the "Mediterranean-Dead Sea'' or "Red Sea-Dead Sea" canals is becoming urgent to implement. The project to pump water from the Red Sea looks the more plausible than the Mediterranean option, but Jordan surely can not afford it alone.

Pumping sea water to the Dead Sea may be very costly but is relatively easy in engineering terms. The 400 m altitude difference between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea will be of great help. Sea water will have to be pumped, desalinised and sent to the Dead Sea, possibly with some hydro electrical stations built along the way. The project may be totally within the Jordanian borders, which complicates the funding and sharing of the cost burden with Israel, the Palestinian authority and the International community.

On the other hand a project to use water from the Mediterranean may also be feasible but will involve very complicated sets of agreements and legal wranglings between the constantly feuding concerned parties.

Dead Sea Marketing: Cosmetics, hotels, spas, mass tourism are flourishing. Fertilizer components are shipped around the globe by the tons. But at this rate there will not be much left soon to advertise those "magic" products as the water is evaporating fast. The Dead Sea is in fact moribund.

Environmental questions also remain as to how to regulate the Dead Sea water salt content and preserve its very unique constitution and habitat despite all the planned sea water inflow. There is the issue of a chemical incompatibility of the waters. Some studies even raise questions about the the impact of pumping water from the Red sea on the fragile coral reefs there (in the Gulf of Aqaba).

Depending on which solution is eventually adopted, the Palestinian Authority must also be consulted and made a partner in any mega project to save the Dead Sea. The concerted efforts of such very "friendly" bodies such as Israel, the Palestinian authorities and Jordan does not inspire much hope.

The issue is extremely urgent, the project is feasible, yet the multi billion dollar funds and the political will to implement anything is lacking. The international community does have a leadership role to play to make such a project work in that volatile area, but not much is done except consultations and promises.

This is a messy situation with no easy solution in sight. Too many cooks in the kitchen and the food is already burning.

Floating on the Dead Sea is easy. Even certified non- swimmers such as myself would float in a water with 34% salt content with such extreme buoyancy!

Visitors around the world have been coming to this natural wonder for thousands of years. The Dead Sea is unique both as a natural wonder and as a historical world monument. Endless communities have lived and found home and refuge around it since prehistorical times. John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the now almost dry Jordan river, and today he would have found pretty difficult to gather enough water for such an act.

The Dead Sea is moribund, there may not be left that much to see in a relatively short time. Therefore, I count myself among the lucky.

Who will save the Dead Sea from dying?

2009-08-28T17:53:00.002-04:00

Salt and other minerals are free to take. Help yourself, but do not forget to bring a shovel to join the party!

This is a messy situation with no easy solution in sight. Too many cooks in the kitchen and the food is already burning.

Floating on the Dead Sea is easy. Even certified non- swimmers such as myself would float in a water with 34% salt content with such extreme buoyancy!

The Dead Sea is moribund, there may not be left that much to see in a relatively short time. Therefore, I count myself among the lucky.

Who will save the Dead Sea from dying?

2009-08-28T17:53:00.001-04:00

Salt and other minerals are free to take. Help yourself, but do not forget to bring a shovel to join the party!

This is a messy situation with no easy solution in sight. Too many cooks in the kitchen and the food is already burning.

Floating on the Dead Sea is easy. Even certified non- swimmers such as myself would float in a water with 34% salt content with such extreme buoyancy!

The Dead Sea is moribund, there may not be left that much to see in a relatively short time. Therefore, I count myself among the lucky.

What if Malthus was right? The world needs to double food production in next 50 years or else...

2009-08-11T17:22:00.004-04:00

Super rich and Super poor: Stunning and disgusting contrast in Sao Paolo: The rich and their private balconies complete with swimming pools and excellent views on the shantytown next door!

In his book "Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798), the English economist and demographer Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) claimed that the human population was increasing every twenty-five years in a geometrical ratio (that is 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256…), while the food supply was increasing only in an arithmetical ratio (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8...).

While the world population doubles every now and then, food resources show a much more modest rise, far less than what is needed to feed the extra masses. Malthus claimed that this huge disparity will always exist no matter what, and that is the root of the major problems humanity will always face. The world's population today stands at more than 6 bl, will hit 7bl in 2012 and 9bl in 2040 but very unequally distributed over the continents. (Note: The first billion milestone was reached in 1827. Since then the population explosion to 7 bl is absurd and non sustainable. Malthus wrote his book even before the world had reached the 1 bln mark).

Malthus argued that the supply of food production and our capacity to increase it is a much weaker force than the huge and constant population growth. Therefore wars, poverty, famine, disease, epidemics and other calamities decimating human lives are just understandable and natural consequences of this constant food shortage. These human tragedies are the only way to keep the population in check and hence balance our numbers with the actual food supply.

Very thirsty: Humans are not the only ones suffering from the water shortages. Endless wars were fought over water supplies. For example, the Near East countries from Turkey to Israel and surrounding Arab nations have all strained inter-relations over water disputes. Wars are anticipated for the control of fresh water supplies.

Malthus published his views from 1789 until 1826 with several editions and additions of his famous book. He explained clearly his views about subsistence level principles and wage pressures on the economic realities. he concluded that it was becoming essential to engage in a serious struggle for survival for each individual, society and by extension nation.

His underlying conclusion was that however we try, the population growth will keep exerting even more pressure on the overall system resulting in the human catastrophes. In other words, prosperity will always be distributed in a very unequal way, poverty will never be eradicated, widespread hunger and constant wars over resources (water, land, oil, mines etc) will ensure the right natural "balance".

Malthus’ theories and axioms greatly influenced people like Darwin, Adam Smith and major political leaders around the world both from the left and the right. Darwin's views in "The Origin of Species" were most influenced by Thomas Robert Malthus and his ideas.

Nationalist extremists and colonialists used his theories as proof of their "vision" for survival and need for aggressive and illegal territorial expansions. The rather distorted concept of "vital living space" or Lebensraum" was professed by Adolf Hitler as an official excuse for the need more "German" land. He saw his aggressions in the light of survival for his nation by annihilating others.

Leftist philosophers and political thinkers like Marx and Engels did not approve of Malthus and accused him of justifying the abuse of the working class by the capitalist forces. They counter argued that the working classes remain poor because of the abuses and not natural forces.

Thomas Malthus: Famine, disease, massacres, poverty and wars etc. are only normal and will always be with us to limit population and even out with the food supply. Love him or hate him, Malthus was an exceptional thinker and he may well have the last "laugh". . A major catastrophe in many regions may be on the horizon if food production is not almost doubled in a few decades.

Basically Malthus was accused of being a negative thinker devoid of any moral values and a proponent of theories of gloom and doom. He was seen as someone excusing such things as child labor for survival, capitalist abuses, megalomaniac leaders and proponents of an unjust world. Malthus was stating what he perceived as a universal truth that will always hold true. Malthus' theory specifically states that increases in productivity is never enough to keep pace with the population growth, so the only solution is positive voluntary population check, such as birth control, celibacy, abortion etc. A good illustration is China’s strict quotas for children per family: a very Malthusian policy to avoid large scale catastrophe.

Despite all the opposition, Malthus remains an unequaled force in the history of human thought and his axioms are very difficult to ignore or discard. Moreover time may definitely be on his side as the humans exert more and more pressure on the planet's increasingly scarce resources and our failure to increase food production proportionally to the population increase.

Safe drinking water: About a fifth of humanity lacks access, according to United Nations data, while 44 percent of the world's population live in areas affected by high water stress, and this figure is expected to increase to 47% by 2030.

Economic theories can be dismissed as just theories, but Malthus nailed in the sad truth: Humans multiply too fast for our planet. We are too successful for our own good. Therefore we better accept the idea that all the horrible things like poverty, vice, corruption, famine and bloodshed are a direct result of our own genetic unchecked growth potential and biological aggressiveness.

If food and resources fall in short supply and therefore only war, famine, disease and other natural consequences keep the human number in check, then are men good in nature like some philosophers such as Jean Jacques Rousseau and many others believe? Do constant killings and wars all justifiable in the context of survival?

According to some British studied published lately in Kent, England, the next 50 years will be extremely challenging for humans in general in terms of food production with enough quantities at a reasonable pricing. Basically, the world needs to almost double its food output and the only way to really boost that is by major technological breakthroughs. One such technology is the GM (genetically modified foods).

Very Hungry: line ups will definitely grow longer: Food shortages are here to stay and they will get worse according to the demographic projections. Famines are inevitable to check the growth in numbers.

The Genetically Modified foods are crops that have traits altered by the addition of DNA from a different organism. They are vegetables, fruits and field crops and the different ways in which they can be altered to protect them from disease, harsh weather, long distance travel etc.

Enhancing desired traits in food crops as well as domesticated animals is as old as the earliest human settlements. Since ancient times, farmers used the process of artificial selection to grow plants with desired qualities and breed better and more efficient animals. However these methods are time consuming and it is very difficult to introduce new traits into a specific population. In contrast, using genetic engineering, scientists can take the gene that controls the trait from one organism and insert it into another organism that does not have the gene to make it better. GM and other modern technologies may face opposition, but reality will soon sink in and necessity will give in to ideological opposition.

"Stop Monsanto" sign in a field and the Genetically Modified Food technology it represents. Is the American giant firm just an easy target or do they really represent a real threat to humanity? Malthusian theory may well give Monsanto reason. The world will soon experience an increasing food costs, along with energy and environmental dire realities. Some activists see the new technologies as evil but they have no positive proposals.

The total arable land in the world does not necessarily increase. Therefore the crop yields per area should increase considerably through better seeds, smarter fertilizers, better management and cutting losses to disease and parasites. Managing limited water resources and checking the emission of greenhouse gases resulting from farming activities of all sorts are other major challenges. The non renewable nature of fossil fuels and finding alternative energy sources are the major tests ahead.
Can the future be bright and can the World avoid major Catastrophes as predicted by Malthus? Unfortunately he may well have the last laugh, as our march toward the 10 billion "milestone" is only a few of decades away.

© Krikor Tersakian, Montreal, Canada

What if Malthus was right? The world needs to double food production in next 50 years or else...

2009-08-11T17:22:00.003-04:00

Thomas Malthus: Famine, disease, massacres, poverty and wars etc. are only normal and will always be with us to limit population and even out with the food supply. Love him or hate him, Malthus was an exceptional thinker and he may well have the last "laugh". . A major catastrophe in many regions may be on the horizon if food production is not almost doubled in a few decades.

Basically Malthus was accused of being a negative thinker devoid of any moral values and a proponent of theories of gloom and doom. He was seen as someone excusing such things as child labor for survival, capitalist abuses, megalomaniac leaders and proponents of an unjust world. Malthus was stating what he perceived as a universal truth that will always hold true. Malthus' theory specifically states that increases in productivity is never enough to keep pace with the population growth, so the only solution is positive voluntary population check, such as birth control, celibacy, abortion etc. A good illustration is China’s strict quotas for children per family: a very Malthusian policy to avoid large scale catastrophe.

Despite all the opposition, Malthus remains an unequalled force in the history of human thought and his axioms are very difficult to ignore or discard. Moreover time may definitely be on his side as the humans exert more and more pressure on the planet's increasingly scarce resources and our failure to increase food production proportionally to the population increase.

Safe drinking water: About a fifth of humanity lacks access, according to United Nations data, while 44 percent of the world's population live in areas affected by high water stress, and this figure is expected to increase to 47% by 2030.

Economic theories can be dismissed as just theories, but Malthus nailed in the sad truth: Humans multiply too fast for our planet. We are too successful for our own good. Therefore we better accept the idea that all the horrible things like poverty, vice, corruption, famine and bloodshed are a direct result of our own genetic unchecked growth potential and biological aggressiveness.

If food and resources fall in short supply and therefore only war, famine, disease and other natural consequences keep the human number in check, then are men good in nature like some philosophers such as Jean Jacques Rousseau and many others believe? Do constant killings and wars all justifiable in the context of survival?

According to some British studied published lately in Kent, England, the next 50 years will be extremely challenging for humans in general in terms of food production with enough quantities at a reasonable pricing. Basically, the world needs to almost double its food output and the only way to really boost that is by major technological breakthroughs. One such technology is the GM (genetically modified foods).

Very Hungry: line ups will definitely grow longer: Food shortages are here to stay and they will get worse according to the demographic projections. Famines are inevitable to check the growth in numbers.

The Genetically Modified foods are crops that have traits altered by the addition of DNA from a different organism. They are vegetables, fruits and field crops and the different ways in which they can be altered to protect them from disease, harsh weather, long distance travel etc.

Enhancing desired traits in food crops as well as domesticated animals is as old as the earliest human settlements. Since ancient times, farmers used the process of artificial selection to grow plants with desired qualities and breed better and more efficient animals. However these methods are time consuming and it is very difficult to introduce new traits into a specific population. In contrast, using genetic engineering, scientists can take the gene that controls the trait from one organism and insert it into another organism that does not have the gene to make it better. GM and other modern technologies may face opposition, but reality will soon sink in and necessity will give in to ideological opposition.

"Stop Monsanto" sign in a field and the Genetically Modified Food technology it represents. Is the American giant firm just an easy target or do they really represent a real threat to humanity? Malthusian theory may well give Monsanto reason. The world will soon experience an increasing food costs, along with energy and environmental dire realities. Some activists see the new technologies as evil but they have no positive proposals.

The total arable land in the world does not necessarily increase. Therefore the crop yields per area should increase considerably through better seeds, smarter fertilizers, better management and cutting losses to disease and parasites. Managing limited water resources and checking the emission of greenhouse gases resulting from farming activities of all sorts are other major challenges. The non renewable nature of fossil fuels and finding alternative energy sources are the major tests ahead.

Can the future be bright and can the World avoid major Catastrophes as predicted by Malthus? Unfortunately he may well have the last laugh, as our march toward the 10 billion "milestone" is only a few of decades away.

What if Malthus was right? The world needs to double food production in next 50 years or else...

2009-08-11T17:22:00.002-04:00