Newborn animals are vulnerable to infection and disease. Immunoglobulins (Ig’s) are the first defence against disease and necessary for stimulation of the immune system.

Young ruminants (calves, lambs, kids) are born with negligible circulating concentrations of immunoglobulins (antibodies). Ig’s do not pass across the placenta prior to birth. Since there is no maternal sharing, ensuring that calves receive these Ig’s at birth is the only way to protect a newborn from environmental and disease challenges. Colostrum must be fed as soon as possible (within the first hour, preferably within 30 minutes of birth). Ig’s are absorbed intact into the newborn’s blood stream within a 6 hour window.

Young animal diseases often affect the gastrointestinal tract where they cause damage and symptoms of disease – diarrhea and dehydration. The intestines of young animals are not fully developed for several months. Ig cells help protect the gastrointestinal tract from pathogens. Colostrum also has a laxative effect and stimulates the normal function of the digestive tract.

Most importantly perhaps, Ig’s from colostrum stimulate the immune system. By building this “memory bank”, young animals now have the tools to mount a defense against disease.

Observations from the Grober Young Animal Development Centre (GYADC)

Further to disease prevention, early ingestion of good quality colostrum supports better gains in calves. During 2009 at the Grober Young Animal Development Centre, all calves entering the facility were tested for total proteins using blood serum. Calves were classified as failure of passive transfer (FPT) for total protein values <5.5mg/dL and successful passive transfer (SPT) for value above 5.6 mg/dL. All calves had received dam’s colostrum on their home farm according to a standard protocol.

During two separate trials at the Centre, calf growth was plotted and graphed according to total protein results (FPT or SPT).

In trial one, growth was plotted over a 10 week period. By the 5th week, SPT calves out-weighed FPT calves by 1.6kg (3.5lb) and by week 10 by 2.2kg (4.8lb). All calves were fed the same volume of Grober Excel milk replacer (6L/day).

In a second feeding trial, calves were fed an accelerated amount of Grober Excel (9L/day). By 10 weeks SPT calves outweighed FPT calves by 5.4kg (11.9lb) (see Figure 1). Even by 10 weeks of age, the gap in body weights between the two groups did not narrow. For every gram of milk replacer fed, the calves with SPT utilized these nutrients with greater efficiency. This data supports the vital concept that the first meal (colostrum) provides rich nutrients and antibodies with long term benefits.

Figure 1 Body weight comparison between calves with successful passive transfer and failure passive transfer.

What is Colostrum?

Colostrum is the thick, creamy, yellow secretion provided from the mammary gland for the first 24 hours after birth.

Colostrum provides a source of immunoglobulins (Ig’s) and other nutrients (protein, energy, vitamins and minerals, gut growth factors) vital for the newborn.

Immunoglobulins (antibodies) help to prevent infections by identifying and destroying pathogens. There are three main Ig’s identified in cow’s milk: IgG, IgA and IgM. The antibodies that the dam passes on depends on the diseases she has been exposed to throughout her life. First lactation animals, for this reason, will often secrete a more limited range of antibodies.

Newborns are born with very low energy stores and generally poor insulative protection, especially during the first few hours after birth. Energy from colostrum (through fat and lactose) supplies calories to help with thermoregulation. Heat production is important for survival and in particular, for animals born into cold environments in helping to prevent hypothermia. Proteins in colostrum are utilized for protein synthesis in addition to the absorption of Ig’s.

Vitamins A, D and E do not cross the placenta in significant amounts, so the newborn must rely on oral ingestion for these vitamins. Levels in colostrum are significantly higher than milk, but will depend on maternal nutrition prior to birth. These vitamins are important to the animal for the resistance of disease.

Growth factors are thought to promote gut growth and development, especially during the first 24-48 hours after birth.

Collection, Feeding, Handling & Storage

Please visit the University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine web site for colostrum handling protocol.

http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/fapmtools/8calf/colosprot.pdf

http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/fapmtools/calves.htm

Calf’s Choice Total

A quality commercial colostrum replacer product is a safe and effective alternative to dam’s colostrum. Colostrum replacers provide consistent, disease free, and guaranteed levels of Ig’s. Along with the protective immunity, certain colostrum replacers offer rich nutrition needed by young animals. Colostrum replacers are of particular importance when high quality colostrum is not available or during a Johne’s eradication program.

Commercial products must provide sufficient biologically active IgG’s. Calf’s Choice Total is a supplement product that guarantees 100g of IgG per package (470g). Typically this is enough to have successful passive transfer. This product is Canadian sourced colostrum and tested with selection for antibodies toward specific diseases such as E. coli, Bovine Rotavirus and Bovine Coronavirus. All products are tested to ensure that it is free of Johne’s bacterium, free of Salmonella and free of E. coli.

Calf’s Choice Total was compared to other colostrum replacer products on the market (see Figure 2). Through both feeding approaches (1 bag or 2), calves fed Calf’s Choice Total not only met minimum SPT levels but surpassed those levels; the competitor product in both cases did not achieve minimum threshold.

*Attention to detail is required in storage and mixing instructions (i.e. use clean vessels for mixing and feeding, clean water to rehydrate colostrum supplements or replacers, etc.). Store product in a cool dry place and once mixed, use immediately.

Kathleen Shore, MSc.
Nutritionist
Grober Nutrition
(800) 265-7863 ex.201
kshore@grober.com

Colostrum Replacers

Calf’s Choice Total

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Introduction

Producers have traditionally raised calves in individual pens or hutches. This rearing system has had advantages of individual feeding, observation and reduced risk of cross-contamination. It is however, still labour intensive. Dairy cattle are naturally group-living animals. Group-housed calves can enjoy an early social interaction and learn to understand group behaviour. Research is now proving that well-managed group housed calf rearing systems can provide advantages for both calves and producers.

Automatic feeding systems for group housing

Group housing often requires intensive management. In non-automated group housing individual intake is difficult to monitor. Moreover, sub-clinical or ill calves may be challenging to identify and therefore treat appropriately.

The new generation of automatic feeding systems (like the Förster-Technik model sold through DeLaval, Lely and Westfalia/GEA) can be easily programmed to effectively feed and monitor calves on an individual basis. There is software available to accumulate a significant amount of information and provide detailed data analysis of individual calves and/or the group for high management control with low labour requirements. An example of data collected includes daily milk replacer intake and number of visits to the feeder. Alarms will be triggered when deviations occur. Individual medication, electrolyte/additive administration programs are also available options.

Feeding management

In conventional feeding by pail, calves are fed limited amounts of milk replacer (i.e.) 2-3 litres of milk replacer twice a day, the equivalent of 500-900g of solids. For optimal heifer growth and development calf feeding recommendations have increased to 8-10 liters/day, the equivalent of 1200-1500g of solids, sometimes even more.

The advantages of feeding calves more milk are widely published. Areas studied include calf growth, height, starter consumption, medication use/costs, time management, and the increased output of milk during the first lactation (references available upon request). These published advantages examine the economic impacts of feeding more milk replacer.

Grober Nutrition, based in Cambridge, Ontario is working in partnership with Förster-Technik, a world leader in automatic calf feeding, to establish further on-farm practice and benefits. The concept of smaller meals being offered more frequently could lead to improved digestion and may also aid in the prevention of severe scouring.

Group feeding experience

Grober Nutrition has been evaluating group housing systems for over 20 years and have more recently collated data from CY Heifer Farms (Elba, N.Y.) and the Grober Young Animal Development Centre (GYADC) (Woodstock, Ont.). The trials were set up to examine and quantify the growth, development, medication usage rate and economics of feeding the same amount of milk to group fed calves compared with individually fed calves. The first data set from CY Farms was evaluated based on 582 calves and concluded no significant difference in live weight and growth rate between the two feeding practices. Group fed calves, however, showed a significantly lower medication cost(P<0.05) during the CY Farms trial period compared to individually fed calves. Computer data analysis allowed for earlier detection of illness and labour was reduced by 52%.

The Grober Young Animal Development Centre in Woodstock, Ontario, enables Grober to compare both individual and group housing methods under one roof. This means that nutrition programs, calf-rearing technologies and other calf products can be examined simultaneously under both management systems.

Recent data from the Grober Centre shows that calves in groups exceeded average daily gains compared to individually housed calves starting week 5 and continuing past weaning (see Table 1).

Table 1. Average Daily Gain (ADG) of calves receiving 6L/day of milk replacer as compared between groups and individual pens. (All values reported in kg/day).

blue, red columns with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05

While ADG often fluctuates due to environmental and health influences there was no significant difference in average body weight until weaning (week 7). Throughout weaning and post-weaning, calves in group housing achieved a significantly higher average body weight (see Figure 1.

Improved gains may be attributed to the significant increase (P< 0.05) in starter intake from automatic grain feeders prior to weaning for the group fed calves. However, during weaning, calves in individual pens achieved similar calf starter intake compared to group housed calves.

Group Housing & Health

There are perceived health concerns when calves have nose-to-tail contact. Automatic calf feeding machines are a tool for early detection of illness.

Grober Nutrition assessed the cost of medication to evaluate whether group housed calves are more likely to require therapeutic intervention (see Figure 2).

The data illustrates that individual calves suffered significantly more illness early on (i.e. scours).

During week 4, a significant difference in cost was associated with group calves (respiratory illness). Overall, group fed calves showed a significantly lower medication cost compared to individually fed calves. Age, body weight and a higher plane of nutrition may have accounted for more moderate medication use and cost.

Group Housing Considerations

Selecting calves for group housing with automation requires a thrifty calf with a strong suckling reflex. The calf manager should group calves of similar age and body weight. Group housing of calves has many time and labour saving advantages. It provides improved access to space, allowing for more vigorous activity, and with automation, improves feed consistency and number of feeds.

Group housing can facilitate earlier socialization. Moreover, there may be minimization of stress associated with changes in feed and environment post-weaning for calves.

For more details please contact Grober Nutrition at www.grobernutrition.com  or toll free 1-800-265-7863

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Grober Contacts

• Offer smaller meals more frequently (minimum 3 feedings/day)
• Provide plenty of fresh water
• Encourage grain consumption

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After careful review of the scientific literature, Grober Nutrition has replaced its inorganic selenium source with the Alltech® product Sel-Plex®.

Sel Plex logoSel-Plex® is an organic form of selenium that contains selenomethionine, selenocysteine and several other selenoproteins.

Compared to its inorganic form, organic selenium is readily available to the animal for the synthesis of various enzymes and proteins within the body. Organic selenium is absorbed as a protein by the small intestine through active transport.

Selenium is an important micro nutrient in a number of physiological functions including immune function and reproduction.

• Calves should be fed twice everyday.
• Missed feeding means missed growth.
• Calves should be fed as close to 9-12 hours apart as possible for optimum appetite and digestion. These times should remain as constant as possible as calves are creatures of habit. Irregular feeding times will result in more refusals, especially with older calves.
• Two hours after feeding give water to all calves that didn’t drink half or more of their milk. They need the fluid to retain full hydration, in particular if they have a temperature.
• It is a good practice to give weak calves electrolytes two hours after morning feeding for the first 10-14 days. It will help them maintain hydration and good general health, and prevent scouring.
• All calves should have access to water 24 hours a day.
• Check the barn in the evening, after feeding, for bloat, missed sick calves and for air control problems.

The feeding schedule should be adjusted daily to maintain the feed levels outlined on the label. Changes should be initiated when:

• The calves are drinking well and are eager?
• The manure behind the calves indicates needed change.
• Manure should be checked twice daily for young calves before changing feed schedules and daily for older calves.
• Calves should be kept on the Grober feeding schedule throughout the feeding program.

Calf raisers are advised to assess and adapt their feeding practices to ensure adequate growth while maximizing economic benefits.

Winter-feeding in cold climatic conditions requires additional attention to ensure that the young calf is provided with sufficient nutrients for maintenance and for growth expectations.

The young calf has limited reserves of energy when exposed to temperatures below the lower critical temperature for extended periods of time. These reserves are quickly depleted in approximately 18 hours for the newborn calf (Okamoto et al, 1986).

Research, under controlled conditions with adequate bedding and dry conditions, indicate that calves housed at -4oC require about 30% more calories for maintenance. This number will increase as temperature goes down, humidity rises and calves are subject to wet bedding.

The effect of cold stress on potential gain (g/d) for a 45kg calf when they are fed 12.5% DM or 125g of powder in a litre of water.

The effect of cold stress on potential gain (g/d) for a 45kg calf when they are fed 15% DM or 150g of powder in a litre of water.

When a calf falls under negative energy balance, immune status can be easily compromised and the calf becomes susceptible to bacterial and viral infections. To maintain the same amount of gain in colder environments increase the amount of powder

fed to calves on average by 7.7g per °C below their critical temperature.

Fat and its source are important in milk replacers for young calves to ensure a high absorption and to best meet their energy needs especially in cold stress conditions.

Young animals require highly digestible, human grade fats and oils, with a correct fatty acid profile and saturation structure to provide a profile similar to milk fat. This will help to maximize growth potential and avoid ‘fatty faeces’. According to research done by Drackley (2000), protein requirement is a function of the energy allowable gain.

Correct mixing of the milk replacer and temperature of water used will provide a more uniform blend and low fat particle size (<1.5 microns). These factors encourage optimum absorption capacity by the young calf.

Effect of concentrate feeding:

Calves utilize energy less efficiently from starter feeds than milk replacer because carbohydrate and protein in the starter must be fermented in the developing rumen prior to digestion by the calf.

Feeding more of an appropriately balanced milk replacer diet to meet requirements for both energy and protein allowable gain appears to be the most systematic solution to cold stress challenge.

Ways to help the young calf under conditions of cold stress:

• Ensure that the calf has access to dry, well-bedded shelter that provides protection from wind and is free from drafts.
• Provide extra energy through its feed by increasing the amount of milk replacer being fed.
• Observe the weather forecast so that changes can be introduced gradually so that stomach upset (bloating) can be avoided.

These values are approximate based on the information in NRC, 2001.

Feeding the extra milk replacer powder:

• The extra amount can and should be split into two or more meals
• It can be added on top of a milk meal

Kathleen Shore, MSC
Nutritionist
Grober Nutrition

What does the body need water for?

Basic metabolic functions need daily water intake to replace that which is continuously used or eliminated. I.e.: transporting nutrients (blood volume), excretion of waste products (urine and faeces), digestion of feed, maintenance of osmotic pressure, lubrication of joints and eyes, exchange of CO2 with oxygen in the lungs, regulation of body temperature – especially heat release by the lungs and urine.

Bacteria in the rumen can only survive in a water environment. Most of the water that enters the rumen is from free water intake. Milk or milk replacer do not constitute free water. They bypass the rumen due to the esophageal groove that can be active until 12 weeks of age. The intake of water stimulates dry feed intake (Kertz et al 1984) and promotes greater total feed intake (Thickett et al, 1981), which leads to improved performance and health.

Kertz, A.F. 1984 J.D.S. 67: 2964-2969

During periods of water loss, (e.g. scours or hot, humid weather) or water restriction (ice, dirty water, inadequate supply) reductions in body fluid negatively impacts metabolism and feed intake. Even mild dehydration (1-5% loss of body weight from water loss), with symptoms not visible to the human eye, reduces metabolic efficiency and impairs ability to regulate body heat (ear and leg extremities feel cool to the touch). As dehydration becomes more severe (9-11% of body weight), calves become depressed. When dehydration reaches 12-15% of body weight, calves may die. Calves need water!

How much water does a calf need?

An animal obtains its water from drinking water, water present in its food and metabolic water.
NRC (2001) Water intake during 1st week of life about 1kg/day increasing to over 2.5kg/d during 4th week of life.

Typical water intake for Holstein calves
at 10-26 oC ref Penn State

What effects water intake?

The 2001 study done by Thomas et. al. (App. Anim. Sci., 74: 165-173) concluded that significant vocalization differences existed between groups of calves depending on how often, and how much they were fed. This study highlights the satiation of calves with increased feeding rates. If a producer notices noisy calves, feeding schedules should be one of the first places he/she looks.

Today we have a wide range of milk replacer formulations to select from to ensure we meet the needs of the young calf. Feeding programs have been developed to maximize growth and development of the young calf prior to weaning. This, followed by enhanced grain and forage feeding programs, can ultimately maximize growth and development.

What are the pay-offs for sound calf nutrition that starts at DAY 1?

• maximizing lean muscle tissue deposition
• encouraging earlier breeding size and optimal weight
• earlier lactation and
• more milk over the lifetime of the animal

In the last few years, larger calf raising units and more attention being paid to rearing costs and profits, has made it interesting to look into the possibility of on farm pasteurization for waste milk.

Important criteria to consider in choosing a milk feeding program:

• Number of calves being fed
• Nutritional requirements
• Performance targets
• Consistency of availability
• Storage & preservation requirements
• Infectious disease control Economics

The number of calves fed:
It is important to have a stable supply of milk so that young calves’ diet is consistent. Often, the quantity of waste milk available is sufficient for units operations.

Nutritional requirements of the young calf and performance targets

Whole milk and milk replacers can be compared on an energy and protein basis to provide some indication of growth performance. Whole milk can have a variable nutrient profile and is low in vitamins and some minerals. Pasteurized milk is subjected to high temperatures, therefore care and attention must be taken to avoid denaturing of proteins and vitamin loss etc.

Milk sources

Transition milk: availability, variability, storage and preservation can be a problem, particularly for large numbers of calves. Warm or hot weather can result in putrefactive fermentation.

Non saleable or discard milk: Milk from cows after antibiotic treatment for mastitis or other infectious diseases which cannot be sold. There are concerns of development of antibiotic resistance for intestinal bacteria in calves and antibiotic residues may also result in unsaleable calves after the withdrawal period.

Milk replacer: Quality products are consistent and formulated to high standards to ensure that the young calf is provided with the best possible nutrition and start in life.

Infectious disease control

It is easier and more cost effective to try and prevent disease situations than to cure them once they have become established. Decreasing exposure to disease is a primary method of decreasing disease.
Calves are the most vulnerable animals on the farm to infection and disease. Some of these disease conditions can be transmitted to calves through feeding practices.

There is a large ‘risk’ factor associated with feeding waste milk for transmission of infectious diseases to calves, (Godden 2004). Pathogens that may be transmitted in colostrum and milk include: Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis (Mptb) (the agent causing Johne’s disease); Salmonella spp.; Mycoplasma spp.; Listeria monocytogenes; Campylobacter spp.; Mycobacterium bovis; E.coli. (most common identified pathogen). The prevalence of Mptb in Ontario dairy cattle has been estimated to be 6.1% (McNab et al., 1991). At the herd level, 16.7% of herds had at least two Mptb-positive cows (VanLeeuwen et al., 2001).

On-farm commercial pasteurizers are offering a method of reducing but not eliminating this risk of disease transmission.

Economics

Installation and daily operation costs need to be considered when evaluating on farm waste milk pasteurization. For example electricity, drainage, chemicals, labour, maintenance and repairs, depreciation, interest payments etc. Some industry data suggests operation costs from $0.067 to $0.46 per calf per day to operate a pasteurizer. (University Wisconsin, 2002)

Producers would be advised to assess the equipment, space, time and handling requirements alongside economic and nutritional efficiency compared with alternatives like milk replacer. This must be combined with the risk factors of transmission of infectious diseases to calves.

Facts to consider

• It is recommended that milk is <1,000,000 CFU/ml to achieve adequate pasteurization efficacy. This requires chilling to prevent growth and fermentation of pre-pasteurized milk. (Unchilled waste milk may reach 1,000,000,000 CFU/ml in summer, (Reynolds 2002); on farm waste milk tested 14,960,000CFU/ml (S.McGuirk 2003).
• Pasteurization is a process of heating milk to a specific temperature for a specified amount of time to reduce the bacteria to negligible levels. For example Batch process: 66°C for 30mins or continuous flow (HTST): 72oC for 15 secs.
• Heating destroys or reduces the presence of viable bacteria. Some bacteria will survive the process. These are either heat-tolerant bacteria or a result of a very high concentration of bacteria in raw milk.
• The goal for post pasteurized milk is <20,000 CFU/ml. (Grade A milk for human consumption) to <10,000 CFU/ml total bacteria.
• Bacterial numbers double every 20 minutes. In ideal conditions, after one hour this could be > 500,000 CFU/ml. This is a very high load for the young calf gut to handle.
• The efficacy of pasteurization in destroying Mptb (the agent causing Johne’s disease), remains controversial between the different pasteurization systems (Batch or HTST). For E.g. UofG, 2003, result indicates that Mptb may survive HTST pasteurization. J. Dairy Science 2001; 84(2):524-527 “Results suggest that batch pasteurization of waste milk contaminated with M. paratuberculosis was effective at generating a clean product to feed to young calves.” USDA tests conducted 1997 showed that “treatment of raw milk at 72° C (162° F) for 15 seconds effectively killed all M. paratuberculosis.” (J.R. Stabel, et al). Turbulent flow is suggested to be essential for complete killing of Mptb contamination.

 Problems with pasteurization

Extreme care and attention is required when handling milk. Maintenance and sanitation of the pasteurizer are ongoing and essential for maintaining high quality end product. Agitation is suggested to ensure even heating and higher kill %. This can be very expensive to install and maintain.

Pasteurizing colostrum in standard pasteurizers can be difficult due to thickening (denatured proteins coagulate) and poor flow (clumps plug equipment). Immunogloblin (IgG) levels in pasteurized colostrum can be significantly reduced (e.g. 24-58% reduction!). A high colostrum Ig concentration is one of the critical factors to ensure that the calf receives adequate ‘passive transfer’. This helps protect the young calf from infectious diseases until its on immune system becomes fully functional. Proper management of colostrum (sanitation, cooling, storage, thawing etc) is better to ensure low bacterial load and high quality clean colostrum.

Grober provides high quality milk replacers for successful and healthy calf rearing.

Milk Replacer quality comes from several areas; the raw materials used, the method of manufacture and the soundness of the feeding nutrition program. All Grober milk replacers are manufactured with the same important high quality guidelines. Grober quality milk replacers ensure that the products are free of pathogens and contain a low bacterial load. Typical levels: <25,000CFU in milk replacer, equivalent to <5000 CFU/ml in milk solution using low bacterial load water.

Capitalize on the rapid early growth potential of young calves. Meet the needs of the rapidly growing bone and muscle for protein. This encourages greater lean tissue deposition without excess fattening.

Why Specific Protein : Fat Ratio?

Provide the correct protein to fat ratio at these higher feeding rates, to better promote muscle and skeletal growth so that increases in stature are attained. The high digestibility of lactose and the requirement for energy by the calf must be balanced for fat and protein.

Why Higher Feeding Rate?

Feeding rate determines energy intake, which sets limits on the growth potential.
Grober VG is fed at a higher concentration (125g/l) than conventional milk replacers to meet growth demands of a healthy feeding program.

Milk Replacer Comparison

*ref: NRC 2001 for 50kg calf.

Calf Growth: What do you want?

• Transition to functioning ruminant
• Rapid growth of frame (skeleton and muscle)
• Optimal fat deposition
• High health status.

Rate of gain should not be the sole means of assessing the efficiency of a nutrition program for milk replacer fed grain veal calves.

Potential Advantages

• Improved health and immune system when calves are gaining at higher levels. (IGF-1 important regulator of cells of the immune system, IGF’s correlated to growth rates- Drackley)
• Improved feed efficiency and returns on feed investment. Feed efficiency is an important measure of how an animal utilizes the nutrients it eats and converts them into products, e.g. muscle, fat, structural growth. Ration, management and environmental factors may affect feed efficiency.

Potential Disadvantages

• Increased investment of money during milk feeding period.
• Attention to management required for success – to avoid digestive upsets, maintain high levels of sanitation, providing adequate, clean water at all times. Starter intake of 900grams per day for 3 consecutive days must be achieved before weaning can occur.

Calf Rearing Objectives

Optimum calf growth is a function of the time necessary to achieve market weight.

In raising Holstein grain veal calves, the largest cost input are calves and feed. By feeding for the highest gains possible in the liquid feeding period, you will get the greatest value for the cost of milk replacer and starter.
The calf’s genetic potential to grow is imprinted at birth. The ability to utilize the nutrients in milk replacer and more so the ability to consume ever increasing amounts of liquid feed is in direct relation to the volume of feed the calf feeder offers the calf.

Underfeeding a calf will not only impact its growth potential but also its health and ability to overcome stress challenges.

A properly designed milk replacer and feeding program should allow you to have gains approaching 500 g/d, given proper health, sanitation and management.

Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
April 2003