Hacker Heaven

LATTE_CAFFE_ATTACK_CRACK_WEP_ENCRYPTION-I

2016-03-17T08:32:00.002-07:00

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Hello Friends,

Welcome back to Hacker_Heaven..

in this article i am going to show show you how to hack any wep encryptes network & their users by creating the Rouge hotspot network and force users to connect to it and by using the Latte_Caffe attack..we can successfully manage to crack the WEP keys..and ofter at all decrypt the Victim packets and bridge his netwrk to you Lesimitate AccessPoint(Router)..

with your fake AP...and by this you will get the IP level connectivity to your computer with victim one....after all you know their is Metasploit which will gave you the simply access to the victim machine by using Auto_Pwn exploit...

i hope you will enjoy it...

please share,like and comment...

unitl next...this is zerocool sign out...

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LATTE_CAFFE_ATTACK_CRACK_WEP_ENCRYPTION-I from zerocool on Vimeo.

MAN IN THE MIDDLE ATTACK-FACEBOOK_HACK WITH SSLSTRIP & ARP_POISNING

2016-03-17T08:05:00.002-07:00

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Hello Friends,
welcome back to Hacker_Heaven..
in this article i show you hot to attack victim
with the MAN IN THE MIDDLE ATTACK..and through which how i success fully manage to hack the victim facebook...or what ever account.
actuaaly the main concept behind this aatack is that...by reidrecting https web page to http ..and with the help of sniffers i can successfully manage to see what going on the victim machine..

i hope you will like it...

please comment,like and share...

until next...this is zerocool sign out....

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MAN IN THE MIDDLE ATTACK-FACEBOOK_HACK WITH SSLSTRIP & ARP_POISNING from zerocool on Vimeo.

WEP_KEY CRACKING-LIVE DEMONSTRATION

2016-03-16T23:06:00.001-07:00

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Hello Friends,
welcome back to Hacker_Heaven ..

in this article i am gonna show you how to crack the wep encryption.
actually their is lot of article and tutorial based on wep hacking..

but i am not gonna erepeat it again and again..in this i try to use ARP and aireplay utility of the aircrack-ng..
along with i show you how to Deauthenticat any wireless network even when you are not connected to that network...

so you will get pretty much fun in this video..
keep watching and...like share and comment

this is zerocool...sign out...

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WEP_KEY CRACKING-LIVE DEMONSTRATION from zerocool on Vimeo.

WEB_PENTESTING-VEGA-VULNERABILITY_SCANNING

2016-03-14T07:27:00.001-07:00

Hello Guys,

Welcome back to Hacker_Heaven ..today i am going to show you how to scan the whole website with vega for checking the vulnerabilty in the website.

i hope you will like it..

please comment Share this post...

WEB_PENTESTING-SKIPFISH-VULNERABILITY_SCANNING

2016-03-13T03:09:00.001-07:00

Hello Friend..

welcome back to Hacker_Heaven.. in this video i am gonna show you how to

use skipfish to scan the whole websites vulnerability..it is pretty good tool to do this..i hope you will like this..

please share & comment if you have doubt.

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SKIPFISH-VULNERABILITY SCANNING from zerocool on Vimeo.

EVERY LINUX_ADMIN-COMMANDS TO BE KNOW

2016-02-21T08:13:00.001-08:00

Hello Friends,

in todays article i am gonna cover the most used 16 linux commands,every linux admin should know it.in the whole article i just show the uses of all the commands and their additional attributes too.

so lets start it..

#1: top - Process Activity Command

The top program provides a dynamic real-time view of a running system i.e. actual

process activity. By default, it displays the most CPU-intensive tasks running on the

server and updates the list every five seconds.

HotKey Usage

t Displays summary information off and on.

m Displays memory information off and on.

A Sorts the display by top consumers of various system resources. Useful for quick

i dentification of performance-hungry tasks on a system.

f Enters an interactive configuration screen for top. Helpful for setting up top for a

specific task.

o Enables you to interactively select the ordering within top.

r Issues renice command.

k Issues kill command.

z Turn on or off color/mono

#2: vmstat - System Activity, Hardware and System

Information

The command vmstat reports information about processes, memory, paging, block IO,

traps, and cpu activity.

Display Memory Utilization Slabinfo

# vmstat 3

Display Memory Utilization Slabinfo

# vmstat -m

if you are not an root user you have to make your self as root user by adding 'sudo'

keyword in the command.

#sudo vmstat -m

Get Information About Active / Inactive Memory Pages

# vmstat -a

#3: w - Find Out Who Is Logged on And What They Are Doing

'w' command displays information about the users currently on the machine, and their

processes.

# w username

like in mine case user name is 'ubutu'

# w ubuntu

#4: uptime - Tell How Long The System Has Been Running

The uptime command can be used to see how long the server has been running. The

current time, how long the system has been running, how many users are currently

logged on, and the system load averages for the past 1, 5, and 15 minutes.

# uptime

1 can be considered as optimal load value. The load can change from system to system.

For a single CPU system 1 - 3 and SMP systems 6-10 load value might be acceptable.

#5: ps - Displays The Processes

ps command will report a snapshot of the current processes. To select all processes use

the -A or -e option:

# ps -A

Show Long Format Output

# ps -Al

To turn on extra full mode (it will show command line arguments passed to process):

# ps -AlF

To See Threads ( LWP and NLWP)

# ps -AlFH

To See Threads After Processes

# ps -AlLm

Print All Process On The Server

# ps ax

# ps axu

Print A Process Tree

# ps -ejH

# ps axjf

# pstree

Print Security Information

# ps -eo euser,ruser,suser,fuser,f,comm,label

# ps axZ

# ps -eM

See Every Process Running As User ubuntu

# ps -U ubuntu -u ubuntu u

Set Output In a User-Defined Format

# ps -eo pid,tid,class,rtprio,ni,pri,psr,pcpu,stat,wchan:14,comm

# ps axo stat,euid,ruid,tty,tpgid,sess,pgrp,ppid,pid,pcpu,comm

# ps -eopid,tt,user,fname,tmout,f,wchan

Display Only The Process IDs of Lighttpd

# ps -C lighttpd -o pid=

# pgrep lighttpd

# pgrep -u ubuntu php-cgi

for example i use mine machine PID(process ID) 55977

Display The Name of PID 55977

# ps -p 55977 -o comm=

Find Out The Top 10 Memory Consuming Process

# ps -auxf | sort -nr -k 4 | head -10

here the different in the command in the cpu use and the meaomory is

about the -k value..

in the sort command their is the -k option what its mean..??

-k, --key=KEYDEF sort via a key; KEYDEF gives location and type

Find Out top 10 CPU Consuming Process

# ps -auxf | sort -nr -k 3 | head -10

#6: free - Memory Usage

The command free displays the total amount of free and used physical and swap

memory in the system, as well as the buffers used by the kernel.

# free

#7: iostat - Average CPU Load, Disk Activity

The command iostat report Central Processing Unit (CPU) statistics and input/output

statistics for devices, partitions and network filesystems (NFS).

# iostat

#8: sar - Collect and Report System Activity

The sar command is used to collect, report, and save system activity information. To

see network counter, enter:

# sar -n DEV | more

but before used this command you have to make sure that your /etc/default/sysstat is enabled.

#sudo leafpad /etc/default/sysstat

this will pop u the sysstat file ,where you have enable it by putting 'true' word in lace of 'false'..

NOTE: actually i used here so many commands attributes in all these commands..so if you want to know more basics commands plaese refer to mine website www.zerocool-hexor.blogspot.in

where you will get the some basic articles and videos based on linux commanding

To display the network counters from the 24th:

# sar -n DEV -f /var/log/sa/sa24 | more

You can also display real time usage using sar:

# sar 4 5

#9: mpstat - Multiprocessor Usage

The mpstat command displays activities for each available processor, processor 0 being

the first one. mpstat -P ALL to display average CPU utilization per processor:

# mpstat -P ALL

#10: pmap - Process Memory Usage

The command pmap report memory map of a process. Use this command to find out

causes of memory bottlenecks.

# pmap -d PID

To display process memory information for pid # 3663, enter:

# pmap -d 3663

The last line is very important:

mapped: 27528K writeable/private: 2828K shared: 28K

mapped: 27528K total amount of memory mapped to files

writeable/private: 2828K the amount of private address space

shared: 28K the amount of address space this process is sharing with others

#11 and #12: netstat and ss - Network Statistics

The command netstat displays network connections, routing tables, interface statistics,

masquerade connections, and multicast memberships. ss command is used to dump

socket(IPs & Ports) statistics. It allows showing information similar to netstat. See the following

resources about ss and netstat commands:

#13: iptraf - Real-time Network Statistics

The iptraf command is interactive colorful IP LAN monitor. It is an ncurses-based IP LAN

monitor that generates various network statistics including TCP info, UDP counts, ICMP

and OSPF information, Ethernet load info, node stats, IP checksum errors, and others. It

can provide the following info in easy to read format:

# sudo iptraf

Network traffic statistics by TCP connection

IP traffic statistics by network interface

Network traffic statistics by protocol

Network traffic statistics by TCP/UDP port and by packet size

Network traffic statistics by Layer2 address

#14: /Proc file system - Various Kernel Statistics

/proc file system provides detailed information about various hardware devices and

other Linux kernel information. Common /proc examples:

# cat /proc/cpuinfo | more

# cat /proc/meminfo | more

# cat /proc/zoneinfo | more

# cat /proc/mounts | more

** try rest off commands by own.

#15: Gnome System Monitor - Real-time Systems

Reporting and Graphing

The System Monitor application enables you to display basic system information and

monitor system processes, usage of system resources, and file systems. You can also

use System Monitor to modify the behavior of your system. Although not as powerful as

the KDE System Guard, it provides the basic information which may be useful for new

users:

*Displays various basic information about the computer's hardware and software.

*Linux Kernel version

*GNOME version

*Hardware

*Installed memory

*Processors and speeds

*System Status

*Currently available disk space

*Processes

*Memory and swap space

*Network usage

*File Systems

*Lists all mounted filesystems along with basic information about each.

Bonus: Additional Tools

A few more tools:

$nmap - scan your server for open ports.

$lsof - list open files, network connections and much more.

$ntop web based tool - ntop is the best tool to see network usage in a way similar to

what top command does for processes i.e. it is network traffic monitoring software.

You can see network status, protocol wise distribution of traffic for UDP, TCP, DNS,

HTTP and other protocols.

$Conky - Another good monitoring tool for the X Window System. It is highly

configurable and is able to monitor many system variables including the status of

the CPU, memory, swap space, disk storage, temperatures, processes, network

interfaces, battery power, system messages, e-mail inboxes etc.

$GKrellM - It can be used to monitor the status of CPUs, main memory, hard disks,

network interfaces, local and remote mailboxes, and many other things.

$vnstat - vnStat is a console-based network traffic monitor. It keeps a log of hourly,

daily and monthly network traffic for the selected interface(s).

$htop - htop is an enhanced version of top, the interactive process viewer, which

can display the list of processes in a tree form.

$mtr - mtr combines the functionality of the traceroute and ping programs in a

single network diagnostic tool.

#socklist: to see the open port running in the debian system

their are many other commands but i can't cover all of these in this articles.

I hope you like it.

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Follow @pandeyshiv992

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MALTEGO-INFORMATION GATHERING GRAPH

2016-02-21T00:24:00.001-08:00

Hello Friend,
Welcome back to Hacker_heaven .in this article i am gonna show you how to gather deep information about any specific website.so just stick with me...

Maltego is a Reconnaissance tool built into Kali developed by Paterva. It is a multipurpose Reconnaissance tool that can gather information using open and public information on the Internet. It has some built-in DNS Reconnaissance, but goes much deeper into fingerprinting your target and gathering intelligence on
them. It takes the information and displays the results in a graph for analysis. To start Maltego, navigate to Application menu in Kali, and click on the Kali menu. Then select Information Gathering | DNS Analysis | Maltego.
The first step when you launch Maltego is to register it. You cannot use the application without registration.

here is the video show you how to resigster in maltigo.

When you complete registration, you will be able to install Maltego and start using

the application.

Maltego has numerous methods of gathering information. The best way to use Maltego is to take advantage of the startup wizard to select the type of information you want to gather. Experienced users may want to start with a blank graph or skip the wizard all together. The power of Maltego is that it lets you visually observe the
relationship between a domain, organization, and people. You can focus around a specific organization, or look at an organization and its related partnerships from DNS queries.
Depending on the scan options chosen, Maltego will let you perform the following tasks:
• Associate an e-mail address to a person
• Associate websites to a person
• Verify an e-mail address
• Gather details from Twitter, including geolocation of pictures

Most of the features are self-explanatory and include how they are used under the feature description. Maltego is used commonly to gather information and sometimes used as the first step during a social engineering attack.
it have numerous feature to dig deep in specific target.
so for easier to viewer i just make an video how to use the maltego to gather all the information.

Please like ,share comments ...until next article this is
ZEROCOOL
SIGN OUT

METASPLOIT_UNLEASED-INTRODUCTION(CREAT PENTESTING LAB)

2016-02-20T02:52:00.000-08:00

Hello Friends,
this is zerocool...welcome back to HACKER_HEAVEN.
today ia m gonna show you how to use the METASPLOIT_FRAMEWORK to compromised victim system.
ok first of all i apologized for long vacation from blogger...but dont worry guys i have a lot of thing to show you right now....

so..i just started an tutorial series in the youtube channel about the METSPLOIT_UNLEASED.
so i think you guys excited about it...

ok right now i am gonna write the articles as well the videos too..
so just stick with me...
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METASPLOIT
created by: HD MOORE
written in: RUBY LANGUGE
community support: rapid7 community

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in this whole tutorial series we will used only pentesting along with little with theory portion.
so for the pentesting first we required the pentesting lab..

here is the video which explain all the things...

i hope you will like it..

plese subscribe,like share and off-course comment your queiry too..

bye bye...zerocool sign out..

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HASHCAT-CRACKING HASHES PASSWORD_KALI SANA 2.0

2016-01-26T22:16:00.000-08:00

HELLO GUYS..
WELCOME BACK TO HACKERHEAVEN...

in previous article..i show you how to spoof your mac address in kali sana..
today i am gonna show you how to crack the passwords through the help of hashcat in the kali sana 2.0..

let me tell you ..all the password are encrypted in hashe..
like ..

window password encryption...SAM file in LM,NLTM or MD5 hashe which is very easily crack with help of HASHCAT,JOHN_THE_RIPPER,HYDRA..these all the software came inbuld with kali linux...

similar to the window..
LINUX password is encrypted with SHA525 i think..

ya sure..wich can also be easily crack through these software..

and alogwith cracking...hashes..

i show you how to check the encrypted password...which type of hash it is...

actually their is an sotware..hashfinder in kali...which easily ..
guess what type of encyption it is...

let me tell you one more thing...about the encryption..

lets your passwd is :zerocool

but after encyption...MD5

MD5 hash for zerocool is : d947c85f4f06eb2942999f09396f31b9

you can go to website MD5-ENCYPTOR

actually in your plain text 'zerocool' it added the random text
which we said (salt)..

so after that your plain text is not human readable..

actually..this is the basic process...

KALI SANA 2.0 IN VIRTUAL BOX_HOSTED-UBUNTU

2016-01-26T21:44:00.004-08:00

HELLO....GUYs WELCOME BACK TO HACKER_HEAVEN

its long time ..huh...

no worry i came with lot of article related penetration testing in Kali-sana 2.0
but befor we start it...we have to create an plate form to do it...

trust me guy..it will help you to learn lot of thing about kali plateforms....

so in this tutorial ..i give you a live installation guide ..how to install virtual box in ubuntu,,,

an after that..how to install kali sana 2.0 in it...it gonna take time to watch it..but trust me after this video you got an whole idea how to do..it..

this is zerocool..sign out..

SYSTEM_SECURITY_2

2016-01-17T19:14:00.000-08:00

Setting File Mode With The GUI

Now that we have seen how the permissions on files and directories are set in the last article"system security", we can better

understand the permission dialogs in the GUI. In both Nautilus (GNOME) and Konqueror

(KDE), right-clicking a file or directory icon will expose a properties dialog.suppose that an file whose permission wee change throgh the terminal commands..now it's time to show you how it will done by the GUI mode..

1. right click in file and goto proporties and in their are an otion named 'permission' where you can change seperately its ownerships permissions..i put an screenshot of my screen for understanding...

where you will get all the three owners section seperatly and by scrolling you can easily do it.

that it for permission changing through the commands and by GUI mode now come to the next point that an command 'umask' which use to change the mask value of the newly created file and directories.

what is mean of mask here..?

umask – Set Default Permissions

actually mask means the default initilise values of the permission..or in simle word it an default permission given to the file while it creat.

The umask command controls the default permissions given to a file when it is created.

It uses octal notation to express a mask of bits to be removed from a file's mode attributes.

Let's take a look:

steps :

1. creat an new file ,like here i creat it with name zerocool.txt.

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ >zerocool.txt

by using the redirectional (>) sign/operator

2. now check out its detail by using 'ls' commands along with '-l' as its attributes.

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls -l zerocool

-rw-rw-r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 25 10:15 zerocool

analysis:

now here you can see that the created file is an ordinary fily by seeing the rmission first charecter(-).

and its owner and groups have only read and write permission,no execution permission

but 'everyone/world' owner have only and only read permission ,means the world or other users have no permission to write or delete or rename the file.

these all are the default values.

3. now just delete this file and use unmask command to change the default permission values.

by giving an octal number as permission.

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ umask

0002

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ rm -f zerocool.txt

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ umask 0022

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ umask

0022

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

4.now creat an new fresh file zerocool..and check its detail by 'ls' command.

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ >zerocool

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls -l zerocool

-rw-r--r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 25 10:22 zerocool

now you see that the default permission is changed here than previous one ..so lets have an close look why and how this happen.

umask is the first answer ,that's why this effect occur .

now how it be done...actually the argument(0022) given to the commands 'umask' is also an octal number.

NOTE:

but here you see that 4 digits but in previous command 'chmod' we use only three digit whats its mean..?

actually here 4 digit means last 3 for owners and first digit for the file type.

means in 0022 argument.

file type-(0)

file mode -(022)

now lets understand it with examples(0022).

Original file mode --- rw- rw- r--

octal 0 0 2 2

Mask 000 000 010 010

Result --- rw- r-- r--

now from the example you have to see only the '1' binary number what you just conclude.

you see in 'group' owner that it befors have both permission but after it have no permission to write in the file.

so the main conclusion is that when an binary '1' appear it just unset that confriguation.

lets see another example..(0000)

Original file mode --- rw- rw- r--

octal 0 0 0 0

Mask 000 000 000 000

Result --- rw- rw- r--

here you see that no '1' appear here so the orignal value remain same as before.

commands:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ umask 0000

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ >zerocool;ls -l zerocool

-rw-rw-rw- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 25 10:50 zerocool

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ rm zerocool;umask 0022;>zerocool;ls -l zerocool

-rw-r--r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 25 10:51 zerocool

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

i hope from these examples and the screenshot you will get an pretty much good idea what it do..and how it do..

so..Playvwith some values (try some sevens) to get used to how this works. When you're done, remember to clean up:

i mean just reset the value by command after all you have done your experiments.

commands:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ rm zerocool;umask 0002

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ umask

0002

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

Most of the time you won't have to change the mask; the default provided by your distribution

will be fine. In some high-security situations, however, you will want to control it.

Some Special Permissions

Though we usually see an octal permission mask expressed as a three digit number,

it is more technically correct to express it in four digits. Why? Because, in addition

to read, write, and execute permission, there are some other, less used, permission

settings.

The first of these is the setuid bit (octal 4000). When applied to an executable file,

it sets the effective user ID from that of the real user (the user actually running the

program) to that of the program's owner. Most often this is given to a few programs

owned by the superuser. When an ordinary user runs a program that is “setuid

root” , the program runs with the effective privileges of the superuser. This

allows the program to access files and directories that an ordinary user would normally

be prohibited from accessing. Clearly, because this raises security concerns,

the number of setuid programs must be held to an absolute minimum.

The second less-used setting is the setgid bit (octal 2000) which, like the setuid

bit, changes the effective group ID from the real group ID of the real user to that

of the file owner. If the setgid bit is set on a directory, newly created files in the

directory will be given the group ownership of the directory rather the group ownership

of the file's creator. This is useful in a shared directory when members of a

common group need access to all the files in the directory, regardless of the file

owner's primary group.

The third is called the sticky bit (octal 1000). This is a holdover from ancient

Unix, where it was possible to mark an executable file as “not swappable.” On

files, Linux ignores the sticky bit, but if applied to a directory, it prevents users

from deleting or renaming files unless the user is either the owner of the directory,

the owner of the file, or the superuser. This is often used to control access to a

shared directory, such as /tmp.

Here are some examples of using chmod with symbolic notation to set these special

permissions.

First assigning setuid to a program:

chmod u+s program

Next, assigning setgid to a directory:

chmod g+s dir

Finally, assigning the sticky bit to a directory:

chmod +t dir

When viewing the output from ls, you can determine the special permissions.

Here are some examples.

First, a program that is setuid:

-rwsr-xr-x

A directory that has the setgid attribute:

drwxrwsr-x

A directory with the sticky bit set:

drwxrwxrwt

so these are the some important permission which are used at specific place but now we are not in state to impliments these action ..but you have too keep in aside we will discuss this topic when it required or you are in that stage to understood.

ok for now this is all about 'umask' command.

now let see another important topic or you can say an concept you all should know i hope you already inconuter with this comman but now this time to reveal the little secret.

Changing Identities

At various times, we may find it necessary to take on the identity of another user. Often

we want to gain superuser privileges to carry out some administrative task, but it is also

possible to “become” another regular user for such things as testing an account. There are

three ways to take on an alternate identity:

1. Log out and log back in as the alternate user.

2. Use the su command.

3. Use the sudo command.

these are the possible things to do but for now we only study the 2 and 3 cases.

means use 'su' and 'sudo' commands.

From within our own shell session, the su command allows you to assume

the identity of another user, and either start a new shell session with that user's IDs,

or to issue a single command as that user. The sudo command allows an administrator to

set up a configuration file called /etc/sudoers, and define specific commands that

particular users are permitted to execute under an assumed identity. The choice of which

command to use is largely determined by which Linux distribution you use. Your distribution

probably includes both commands, but its configuration will favor either one or

the other.

here i am using the linux distro ubuntu...but know problem all the linux distros are pretty much similar ...

for now lets start with the 'su' commands.

su – Run A Shell With Substitute User And Group IDs

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ whatis su

su (1) - change user ID or become superuser

The su command is used to start a shell as another user. The command syntax looks like

this:

su [-[l]] [user]

If the “-l” option is included, the resulting shell session is a login shell for the specified

user. This means that the user's environment is loaded and the working directory is changed to the user's home directory. This is usually what we want.

If the user is not specified, the superuser is assumed. Notice that (strangely) the “-l” may be abbreviated “-”, which is how it is most often used. To start a shell for the superuser, we would do this:

zerocool@kali:~$ su -

Password:

root@kali:~#

After entering the command, we are prompted for the superuser's password. If it is suc-

cessfully entered, a new shell prompt appears indicating that this shell has superuser priv-

ileges (the trailing “#” rather than a “$”) and the current working directory is now the

home directory for the superuser (normally /root.) Once in the new shell, we can carry

out commands as the superuser. When finished, enter “exit” to return to the previous

shell:

root@kali:~# exit

logout

zerocool@kali:~$

It is also possible to execute a single command rather than starting a new interactive com-

mand by using su this way:

su -c 'command'

Using this form, a single command line is passed to the new shell for execution. It is im-

portant to enclose the command in quotes, as we do not want expansion to occur in our

shell, but rather in the new shell:

zerocool@kali:~$ su -c 'ls -l /root/*'

Password:

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 Sep 23 23:32 /root/app.apk

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 32083800 Sep 22 14:47 /root/BIG-WPA-LIST-1.rar

-rw------- 1 root root 352 May 12 2015 /root/btscanner.log

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 32495 Apr 26 2015 /root/config.log

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3696 Oct 23 16:18 /root/debug_results.txt

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1805 Oct 25 07:45 /root/dnsrecon.xml

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 16280 Sep 1 12:50 /root/driftnet-0.jpeg

NOTE:

here is an main point i have to discuss here is why i am not shown the screen shots of the ubuntu system.their is an point behind this.

actually by ususing the 'su' command you just give freely permissions to the malwares too..that is the main drawback of the 'su' commands..and as i previously said that linux users and the owners have far far relation ship..mean the permission denied to all the users for sensitive thing ..it need an priveledge permission from the owner.

that is why linux security is much better than the window.

that's why initally ubunntu created then it have only 'sudo' command which will gives users an super user prievelge.

ok we discuss a lot in this article we will came again with another intresting part of sytem security..

please like and share this article if you like...

and you can join me at commanding forum in the facebook..

until this is ....

ZEROCOOL

SIGN OUT

SYSTEM SECURITY-PERMISSIONS

2016-01-08T06:53:00.002-08:00

Add caption

Hello guys welcome back to HackerHeaven,today we will learn about the system security of the linux distros...very preciesly..so..we are going to look at this essential part of system security and introduce the following commands:
● id – Display user identity
● chmod – Change a file's mode
● umask – Set the default file permissions
● su – Run a shell as another user
● sudo – Execute a command as another user
● chown – Change a file's owner
● chgrp – Change a file's group ownership
● passwd – Change a user's password
i hope you enjoyed my previous articles too...
here are some things straight forward but instead you have too know it..

command : id

output :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ id
uid=1000(ubuntu) gid=1000(ubuntu) groups=1000(ubuntu),4(adm),24(cdrom),27(sudo),30(dip),46(plugdev),108(lpadmin),124(sambashare)
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

So where does this information come from? Like so many things in Linux, from a couple
of text files. User accounts are defined in the /etc/passwd file and groups are defined
in the /etc/group file. When user accounts and groups are created, these files are
modified along with /etc/shadow which holds information about the user's password.
For each user account, the /etc/passwd file defines the user (login) name, uid, gid,
the account's real name, home directory, and login shell. If you examine the contents of
/etc/passwd and /etc/group, you will notice that besides the regular user accounts,
there are accounts for the superuser (uid 0) and various other system users.

over all ..if you really wanna to dive into the linux directories...for this you have to executes some commands..these are listed below...

commands..
1.this command will list all the owners..
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ less /etc/passwd >FileName.txt

root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
daemon:x:1:1:daemon:/usr/sbin:/usr/sbin/nologin
bin:x:2:2:bin:/bin:/usr/sbin/nologin
sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/usr/sbin/nologin
sync:x:4:65534:sync:/bin:/bin/sync
games:x:5:60:games:/usr/games:/usr/sbin/nologin
man:x:6:12:man:/var/cache/man:/usr/sbin/nologin
lp:x:7:7:lp:/var/spool/lpd:/usr/sbin/nologin
mail:x:8:8:mail:/var/mail:/usr/sbin/nologin
news:x:9:9:news:/var/spool/news:/usr/sbin/nologin
uucp:x:10:10:uucp:/var/spool/uucp:/usr/sbin/nologin
proxy:x:13:13:proxy:/bin:/usr/sbin/nologin
www-data:x:33:33:www-data:/var/www:/usr/sbin/nologin
backup:x:34:34:backup:/var/backups:/usr/sbin/nologin
list:x:38:38:Mailing List Manager:/var/list:/usr/sbin/nologin
irc:x:39:39:ircd:/var/run/ircd:/usr/sbin/nologin
gnats:x:41:41:Gnats Bug-Reporting System (admin):/var/lib/gnats:/usr/sbin/nologin
nobody:x:65534:65534:nobody:/nonexistent:/usr/sbin/nologin
libuuid:x:100:101::/var/lib/libuuid:
:more---

here FileName.txt is an txt file where you can print the output of the commands executed by the command.. less /etc/passwd ..you can easily read out the content inside the /etc file
for samle you can see above.

2.this command will list out all the groups exits in the ubuntu..

command-
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ less /etc/group >GroupNames.txt

root:x:0:
daemon:x:1:
bin:x:2:
sys:x:3:
adm:x:4:syslog,ubuntu
tty:x:5:
disk:x:6:
lp:x:7:
mail:x:8:
news:x:9:
uucp:x:10:
man:x:12:
proxy:x:13:
kmem:x:15:
dialout:x:20:
fax:x:21:
voice:x:22:
cdrom:x:24:ubuntu

here again GroupNames.txt is the file which will store the ouput of the command less /etc/group ,actually above output is for sample out only..

Reading, Writing, And Executing:

now lets talk about more deeper about our main topic..
Access rights to files and directories are defined in terms of read access, write access, and
execution access.
these are represented in terminal output by charecter 'r' ,'w' and 'x' respectively.
If we look at the output of the ls command, we can get some clue as to
how this is implemented:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ >zerocool.txt
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls -l zerocool.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 24 11:41 zerocool.txt
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

The first ten characters(- rw-rw-r--) of the listing are the file attributes. The first of these characters('-' or 'd' or 'l') is the file type. Here are the file types you are most likely to see (there are other, less common types too):

Attribute File Type
- A regular file.

d A directory.

l A symbolic link. Notice that with symbolic links, the remaining file
attributes are always “rwxrwxrwx” and are dummy values. The real
file attributes are those of the file the symbolic link points to.

c A character special file. This file type refers to a device that
handles data as a stream of bytes, such as a terminal or modem.

b A block special file. This file type refers to a device that handles
data in blocks, such as a hard drive or CD-ROM drive.

ok these are the some of the attribute which are used to represent the 'file type'
like in this '-rw-rw-r--' by seeing the first charector we can recognised the this file conatain regular type of file....here are some detail description about the owners,groups and world...have a close look on it...that will more effective..to understand the outputs..

reading -r
writing -w
executing -x

all these nine 'file mode' charecter actully reprent the three types of owners...by the group of three charecters..

Owner Group World
rwx rwx rwx

now we actually have to now more about the attributes of the output more clearly...so by this way it very easy to understand the output meaning..

Attribute -r

Files-

Allows a file to be opened and
read.

Directories -

Allows a directory's contents to
be listed if the execute attribute
is also set.

attributes -w

files-

Allows a file to be written to or
truncated, however this attribute
does not allow files to be
renamed or deleted. The ability
to delete or rename files is
determined by directory
attributes.

directories -

Allows files within a directory
to be created, deleted, and
renamed if the execute attribute
is also set.

attributes -x

files-

Allows a file to be treated as a
program and executed. Program
files written in scripting
languages must also be set as
readable to be executed.

directories -

Allows a directory to be
entered, e.g., cd directory

Here are some examples of file attribute settings read it and try to understand it..

File Attributes Meaning
-rwx------ A regular file that is readable, writable, and executable by the
file's owner. No one else has any access.

-rw------- A regular file that is readable and writable by the file's owner.
No one else has any access.

-rw-r--r-- A regular file that is readable and writable by the file's owner.
Members of the file's owner group may read the file. The file is
world-readable.

-rwxr-xr-x A regular file that is readable, writable, and executable by the
file's owner. The file may be read and executed by everybody
else.

-rw-rw---- A regular file that is readable and writable by the file's owner
and members of the file's group owner only.

lrwxrwxrwx A symbolic link. All symbolic links have “dummy”
permissions. The real permissions are kept with the actual file
pointed to by the symbolic link.

drwxrwx--- A directory. The owner and the members of the owner group
may enter the directory and, create, rename and remove files
within the directory.

drwxr-x--- A directory. The owner may enter the directory and create,
rename and delete files within the directory. Members of the
owner group may enter the directory but cannot create, delete
or rename files.

i hope these are the pretty much stuff to understand the my point...

now it time to maniulate these things using terminal...these things mean file mode..offcourse their is an GUI mode to change all this stuff easily but in state when you have to change an multiple of file with different file mode to an different mode then it will become more complicate too do it through GUI mode...i hope you get the point...
lets introduce a new commands to you..

chmod – Change File Mode

To change the mode (permissions) of a file or directory, the chmod command is used. Be
aware that only the file’s owner or the superuser can change the mode of a file or directory.

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ chmod --help

output :

Usage: chmod [OPTION]... MODE[,MODE]... FILE...
or: chmod [OPTION]... OCTAL-MODE FILE...
or: chmod [OPTION]... --reference=RFILE FILE...
Change the mode of each FILE to MODE.
With --reference, change the mode of each FILE to that of RFILE.

-c, --changes like verbose but report only when a change is made
-f, --silent, --quiet suppress most error messages
-v, --verbose output a diagnostic for every file processed
--no-preserve-root do not treat '/' specially (the default)
--preserve-root fail to operate recursively on '/'
--reference=RFILE use RFILE's mode instead of MODE values
-R, --recursive change files and directories recursively
--help display this help and exit
--version output version information and exit

chmod supports two distinct ways of specifying mode changes: octal number representation,
or symbolic representation. We gonna introduce you first with octal number..
With octal notation we use octal numbers to set the pattern of desired permissions. Since
each digit in an octal number represents three binary digits, this maps nicely to the
scheme used to store the file mode. This table shows what we mean:

and you know the things about binary that

'0' represent low,off condition
'1' reprent high ,on etc. conditions

and more thing that..all the file mode charecters are represent in a way...
'rwx' or 'read,write,execute' way only

so the binary '101' reprent this file mode as 'r-x'...where 'w' or 'write' mode in null mean their is no permission..
these are the representation to represent these file mode..

lets have a look in the table this will make my point very clearly..

Octal Binary File Mode

0 000 ---
1 001 --x
2 010 -w-
3 011 -wx
4 100 r--
5 101 r-x
6 110 rw-
7 111 rwx

so,By using three octal digits, we can set the file mode for the owner, group owner, and
world ..i hope you get it very well ..lets impliment our concept to change the file modes...

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls -l zerocool.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 24 11:41 zerocool.txt

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ chmod 600 zerocool.txt|ls -l zerocool.txt
-rw------- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 0 Dec 24 11:41 zerocool.txt
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

so you can see how permission can be easily change by using only one line of command.
actully what we do here..By passing the argument “600”, we were able to set the permissions of the owner to read and write while removing all permissions from the group owner and world. Though remembering
the octal to binary mapping may seem inconvenient, you will usually only
have to use a few common ones: 7 (rwx), 6 (rw-), 5 (r-x), 4 (r--), and 0 (---).

chmod also supports a symbolic notation for specifying file modes. Symbolic notation is
divided into three parts: who the change will affect, which operation will be performed,
and what permission will be set. To specify who is affected, a combination of the characters
“u”, “g”, “o”, and “a” is used as follows:

Symbol Meaning

u/user the file or directory owner.

g/group Group owner.

o/others world.

a /all The combination of “u”, “g”, and “o”.

If no character is specified, “all” will be assumed.
The operation may be a

“+” indicating
that a permission is to be added,

“-” indicating
that a permission is to be taken away,

or
a “=” indicating
that only the specified permissions are to be applied and that all others
are to be removed.

Permissions are specified with the “r”, “w”, and “x” characters. Here are some examples
of symbolic notation:

Notation Meaning

u+x Add execute permission for the owner.

u-x Remove execute permission from the owner.

+x or Equivalent to a+x. Add execute permission for the owner, group, and world.

o-rw Remove the read and write permission from anyone besides the
owner and group owner.

go=rw Set the group owner and anyone besides the owner to have read and
write permission. If either the group owner or world previously had
execute permissions, they are removed.

u+x,go=rx Add execute permission for the owner and set the permissions for
the group and others to read and execute. Multiple specifications
may be separated by commas.

Symbolic notation does offer the advantage of allowing you to set a single attribute without disturbing any of the others.
but some folk use the octal notation rather than symbolic...but guy you have freedom use any of them which one suitable for you.

but for futher reading about chmod command you can read its manual page in your system but here i add an text for its manual read it here ..or just write command in your terminal as...

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ man chmod

or you can redirect your output into an folder..

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ man chmod >CHMODManual.txt

that's it for today we will see all other commands in the later article section .
comment below in below box for any query or you can join my command community box in facebook.
see you their..

until next article this is ..
ZEROCOOL
SIGN OUT

REDIRECTION-OUTPUT,ERROR AND INPUT

2015-12-11T18:30:00.002-08:00

Hello guys welcome back to hacker-heaven..
today we gonna see how the commands output/input and error are displayed by the I/O system..through the terminal..we also learn about commands..
wc(word count),tail,head,cat etc...

Standard Input, Output, And Error

Many of the programs that we have used so far produce output of some kind. This output often consists of two types. First, we have the program's results; that is, the data the program is designed to produce, and second, we have status and error messages that tell us
how the program is getting along. If we look at a command like ls, we can see that it displays its results and its error messages on the screen. Keeping with the Unix theme of “everything is a file,” programs such as ls actually send their results to a special file called standard output (often expressed as stdout) and their
status messages to another file called standard error (stderr). By default, both standard output and standard error are linked to the screen and not saved into a disk file.
thats why every time when you execute your commands its output as well error print out int the screen ..this is beacause it is by default change in your system but their are commands that can change your output and error to be displayed in the file ....

similar to the stdout and stderror ...In addition, many programs take input from a facility called standard input (stdin) which
is, by default, attached to the keyboard.

I/O redirection allows us to change where output goes and where input comes from. Normally,
output goes to the screen and input comes from the keyboard, but with I/O redirection,
we can change that.

Redirecting Standard Output

I/O redirection allows us to redefine where standard output goes. To redirect standard
output to another file instead of the screen, we use the “>” redirection operator followed
by the name of the file. Why would we want to do this? It's often useful to store the output
of a command in a file. For example, we could tell the shell to send the output of the
ls command to the file ls-output.txt instead of the screen:

command :
ls /usr/bin >ls-output.txt

Here, we created a long listing of the /usr/bin directory and sent the results to the file ls-output.txt. Let's examine the redirected output of the command:

If we look at the file with less, we will see that the file
ls-output.txt does indeed contain the results from our ls command:

Now, let's repeat our redirection test, but this time with a twist. We'll change the name of the directory to one that does not exist:

We received an error message. This makes sense since we specified the non-existent directory /bin/usr, but why was the error message displayed on the screen rather than being redirected to the file ls-output.txt? The answer is that the ls program does
not send its error messages to standard output. Instead, like most well-written Unix programs, it sends its error messages to standard error. Since we only redirected standard output and not standard error, the error message was still sent to the screen. We'll see how to redirect standard error in just a minute, but first, let's look at what happened to our output file:
The file now has zero length! This is because, when we redirect output with the “>” redirection operator, the destination file is always rewritten from the beginning. Since our ls
command generated no results and only an error message, the redirection operation started to rewrite the file and then stopped because of the error, resulting in its truncation.

In fact, if we ever need to actually truncate a file (or create a new, empty file) we can use
a trick like this:
Simply using the redirection operator with no command preceding it will truncate an existing
file or create a new, empty file.

So, how can we append redirected output to a file instead of overwriting the file from the
beginning? For that, we use the “>>” redirection operator, like so:

Using the “>>” operator will result in the output being appended to the file. If the file
does not already exist, it is created just as though the “>” operator had been used. Let's
put it to the test:

Redirecting Standard Error

Redirecting standard error lacks the ease of a dedicated redirection operator. To redirect standard error we must refer to its file descriptor. A program can produce output on any
of several numbered file streams. While we have referred to the first three of these file streams as standard input, output and error, the shell references them internally as file descriptors
0, 1 and 2, respectively. The shell provides a notation for redirecting files using the file descriptor number. Since standard error is the same as file descriptor number 2,
we can redirect standard error with this notation:

Redirecting Standard Output And Standard Error To One File

There are cases in which we may wish to capture all of the output of a command to a single file. To do this, we must redirect both standard output and standard error at the same time. There are two ways to do this. First, the traditional way, which works with old versions
of the shell:

command: $ ls -l /bin/usr > ls-output.txt 2>&1

Using this method, we perform two redirections. First we redirect standard output to the
file ls-output.txt and then we redirect file descriptor 2 (standard error) to file descriptor
one (standard output) using the notation 2>&1.

Notice that the order of the redirections is significant.

The redirection of standard error must always occur after redirecting standard output or it doesn't work. In
the example above,

>ls-output.txt 2>&1

redirects standard error to the file ls-output.txt, but if the order is changed to

2>&1 >ls-output.txt

standard error is directed to the screen.

Recent versions of bash provide a second, more streamlined method for performing this In this example,

we use the single notation &> to redirect both standard output and standard
error to the file ls-output.txt. You may also append the standard output and standard error streams to a single file like so:

Disposing Of Unwanted Output
Sometimes “silence is golden,” and we don't want output from a command, we just want to throw it away. This applies particularly to error and status messages. The system provides
a way to do this by redirecting output to a special file called “/dev/null”. This file is a system device called a bit bucket which accepts input and does nothing with it. To suppress error messages from a command, we do this:

command: ls -l /bin/usr 2> /dev/null

Redirecting Standard Input

Up to now, we haven't encountered any commands that make use of standard input (actually we have, but we’ll reveal that surprise a little bit later), so we need to introduce one.

cat – Concatenate Files

The cat command reads one or more files and copies them to standard output like so:

Redirection

cat [file...]

In most cases, you can think of cat as being analogous to the TYPE command in DOS.
You can use it to display files without paging, for example:

ubuntu@ubuntu:$ cat ls-output.txt

will display the contents of the file ls-output.txt. cat is often used to display short
text files. Since cat can accept more than one file as an argument, it can also be used to
join files together. Say we have downloaded a large file that has been split into multiple
parts (multimedia files are often split this way on Usenet), and we want to join them back
together. If the files were named:

movie.mpeg.001 movie.mpeg.002 ... movie.mpeg.099

we could join them back together with this command:

cat movie.mpeg.0* > movie.mpeg

Since wildcards always expand in sorted order, the arguments will be arranged in the correct
order.
This is all well and good, but what does this have to do with standard input? Nothing yet,
but let's try something else. What happens if we enter “cat” with no arguments:

command: cat

Nothing happens, it just sits there like it's hung. It may seem that way, but it's really doing exactly what it's supposed to.
If cat is not given any arguments, it reads from standard input and since standard input is, by default, attached to the keyboard, it's waiting for us to type something! Try adding
the following text and pressing Enter:

Next, type a Ctrl-d (i.e., hold down the Ctrl key and press “d”) to tell cat that it has
reached end of file (EOF) on standard input:

In the absence of filename arguments, cat copies standard input to standard output, so we see our line of text repeated. We can use this behavior to create short text files. Let's
say that we wanted to create a file called “lazy_dog.txt” containing the text in our example.
We would do this:

Type the command followed by the text we want in to place in the file. Remember to type Ctrl-d at the end. Using the command line, we have implemented the world's dumbest
word processor! To see our results, we can use cat to copy the file to stdout again:

Now that we know how cat accepts standard input, in addition to filename arguments, let's try redirecting standard input:

Using the “<” redirection operator, we change the source of standard input from the keyboard
to the file lazy_dog.txt. We see that the result is the same as passing a single filename argument. This is not particularly useful compared to passing a filename argument,
but it serves to demonstrate using a file as a source of standard input. Other commands make better use of standard input, as we shall soon see. Before we move on, check out the man page for cat, as it has several interesting options.

Pipelines
The ability of commands to read data from standard input and send to standard output is
utilized by a shell feature called pipelines. Using the pipe operator “|” (vertical bar), the
standard output of one command can be piped into the standard input of another:

command type: command1 | command2

To fully demonstrate this, we are going to need some commands. Remember how we said there was one we already knew that accepts standard input? It's less. We can use less to display, page-by-page, the output of any command that sends its results to standard
output:

The Difference Between > and |
At first glance, it may be hard to understand the redirection performed by the
pipeline operator | versus the redirection operator >. Simply put, the redirection
operator connects a command with a file while the pipeline operator connects the
output of one command with the input of a second command.
command1 > file1
command1 | command2
A lot of people will try the following when they are learning about pipelines, “just
to see what happens.”
command1 > command2
Answer: Sometimes something really bad.
Here is an actual example submitted by a reader who was administering a Linuxbased
server appliance. As the superuser, he did this:
# cd /usr/bin
# ls > less

The first command put him in the directory where most programs are stored and the second command told the shell to overwrite the file less with the output of the ls command. Since the /usr/bin directory already contained a file named “less” (the less program), the second command overwrote the less program
file with the text from ls thus destroying the less program on his system. The lesson here is that the redirection operator silently creates or overwrites files, so you need to treat it with a lot of respect.

Filters/sorting

Pipelines are often used to perform complex operations on data. It is possible to put several commands together into a pipeline. Frequently, the commands used this way are referred
to as filters. Filters take input, change it somehow and then output it. The first one we will try is sort. Imagine we wanted to make a combined list of all of the executable
programs in /bin and /usr/bin, put them in sorted order and view it:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | less

Since we specified two directories (/bin and /usr/bin), the output of ls would have consisted of two sorted lists, one for each directory. By including sort in our pipeline,
we changed the data to produce a single, sorted list.

uniq - Report Or Omit Repeated Lines

The uniq command is often used in conjunction with sort. uniq accepts a sorted list of data from either standard input or a single filename argument (see the uniq man page for details) and, by default, removes any duplicates from the list. So, to make sure our list has no duplicates (that is, any programs of the same name that appear in both the /bin and /usr/bin directories) we will add uniq to our pipeline:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq | less

In this example, we use uniq to remove any duplicates from the output of the sort command. If we want to see the list of duplicates instead, we add the “-d” option to uniq like so:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq -d | less

wc – Print Line, Word, And Byte Counts

The wc (word count) command is used to display the number of lines, words, and bytes contained in files. For example:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ wc ls-output.txt
2035 19080 124487 ls-output.txt

In this case it prints out three numbers: lines, words, and bytes contained in ls-output. txt. Like our previous commands, if executed without command line arguments, wc accepts standard input. The “-l” option limits its output to only report lines. Adding it
to a pipeline is a handy way to count things. To see the number of items we have in our
sorted list, we can do this:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq | wc -l
2177
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

grep – Print Lines Matching A Pattern

grep is a powerful program used to find text patterns within files. It's used like this:

grep pattern [file...]

When grep encounters a “pattern” in the file, it prints out the lines containing it. The patterns that grep can match can be very complex, but for now we will concentrate on
simple text matches. We'll cover the advanced patterns, called regular expressions in a
later article. Let's say we wanted to find all the files in our list of programs that had the word “zip” embedded in the name. Such a search might give us an idea of some of the programs on
our system that had something to do with file compression. We would do this:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq | grep zip

There are a couple of handy options for grep: “-i” which causes grep to ignore case
when performing the search (normally searches are case sensitive) and “-v” which tells
grep to only print lines that do not match the pattern.

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq | grep -i zip

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /bin /usr/bin | sort | uniq | grep -v zip

head / tail – Print First / Last Part Of Files

Sometimes you don't want all the output from a command. You may only want the first few lines or the last few lines. The head command prints the first ten lines of a file and the tail command prints the last ten lines. By default, both commands print ten lines of
text, but this can be adjusted with the “-n” option:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ head -n 5 ls-output.txt
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ tail -n 5 ls-output.txt

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /usr/bin | tail -n 5

ok..ok...so today we learn a lot of commands..so at last just sum up what we all learn today...

● cat - Concatenate files
● sort - Sort lines of text
● uniq - Report or omit repeated lines
● grep - Print lines matching a pattern
● wc - Print newline, word, and byte counts for each file
● head - Output the first part of a file
● tail - Output the last part of a file
● tee - Read from standard input and write to standard output and files

thats it for today...and one thing more ..i just upload all the videos of the article what we all cover previously in linux commanding...i hope that help you lot...thank for visiting...like,share....

until next article...
ZEROCOOL
SIGN OUT

WORKING WITH COMMANDS-MANIPULATION VIDEO

2015-12-11T02:11:00.000-08:00

Hello guys welcome back...in this article i just upload an previous post video..i hope you will like it...
to be more effective video ..you have to read my previous article based on command manipulation..

PART-1

PART-2

PART-3

WORKING WITH COMMANDS

2015-12-02T19:22:00.000-08:00

Hello guys welcome back to hacker-heaven..after long time..
off-course i was little bit busy..my semester exam are started..
ok..forget it..

lets wrap upto what we all learn before...not here you have to read all other article on linux commanding.. and all these articles list present here...

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND TUTORIAL LIST

so ,
Up to this point, we have seen a series of mysterious commands, each with its own mysterious options and arguments.

today we all made our own mysterious commands...today we will learn a little bit but this gonna be different from all we learn upto ...about commanding..so lets have a look what we gonna learn today...

● type – Indicate how a command name is interpreted
● which – Display which executable program will be executed
● help – Get help for shell builtins
● man – Display a command's manual page
● apropos – Display a list of appropriate commands
● info – Display a command's info entry
● whatis – Display a very brief description of a command
● alias – Create an alias for a command

What Exactly Are Commands?
A command can be one of four different things:

1. An executable program like all those files we saw in /usr/bin. Within this category, programs can be compiled binaries such as programs written in C and C++, or programs written in scripting languages such as the shell, perl, python,ruby, etc.

2. A command built into the shell itself. bash supports a number of commands internally called shell builtins. The cd command, for example, is a shell builtin.

3. A shell function. These are miniature shell scripts incorporated into the environment.We learn later to write our own function script which will be executable in the terminal, but for now, just be aware that they exist.

4. An alias. Commands that we can define ourselves, built from other commands.

Identifying Commands

It is often useful to know exactly which of the four kinds of commands is being used and Linux provides a couple of ways to find out.

type – Display A Command's Type

The type command is a shell builtin that displays the kind of command the shell will execute, given a particular command name. It works like this:

type command

where “command” is the name of the command you want to examine. Here are some examples:

Here we see the results for first three different commands. Notice that the one for ls (taken from a ubuntu system) and how the ls command is actually an alias for the ls command with the “-- color=tty” option added. Now we know why the output from ls is displayed in color!

which – Display An Executable's Location

Sometimes there is more than one version of an executable program installed on a system.While this is not very common on desktop systems, it's not unusual on large servers.To determine the exact location of a given executable, the which command is used:

which only works for executable programs, not builtins nor aliases that are substitutes for actual executable programs. When we try to use which on a shell builtin, for example,cd, we either get no response or an error message:

like here in the ubuntu system you got no responce from terminal....but instead of ubuntu...try in fedora or in other system you will get an erro massage as shown below..

[me@linuxbox ~]$ which cd
/usr/bin/which: no cd in (/opt/jre1.6.0_03/bin:/usr/lib/qt-
3.3/bin:/usr/kerberos/bin:/opt/jre1.6.0_03/bin:/usr/lib/ccache:/usr/l
ocal/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/home/me/bin)

Getting A Command's Documentation

With this knowledge of what a command is, we can now search for the documentation available for each kind of command.

help – Get Help For Shell Builtins

bash has a built-in help facility available for each of the shell builtins. To use it,
type “help” followed by the name of the shell builtin. For example:

help cd

A note on notation:
When square brackets appear : in the description of a command's syntax, they indicate optional items.

A vertical bar: character indicates mutually exclusive
items.

In the case of the cd command above:
cd [-L|[-P[-e]]] [dir]

This notation says that the command cd may be followed optionally by either a “-L” or a “-P”

and further, if the “-P” option is specified the “-e” option may also be included followed by the optional argument “dir”.

While the output of help for the cd commands is concise and accurate, it is by no means tutorial and as we can see, it also seems to mention a lot of things we haven't
talked about yet! Don't worry. We'll get there.

--help – Display Usage Information

Many executable programs support a “--help” option that displays a description of the command's supported syntax and options. For example:
ls --help

Some programs don't support the “--help” option, but try it anyway. Often it results in an
error message that will reveal the same usage information.

man – Display A Program's Manual Page

Most executable programs intended for command line use provide a formal piece of documentation called a manual or man page. A special paging program called man is used to view them. It is used like this:

command:
man cp

Man pages vary somewhat in format but generally contain a title, a synopsis of the command's syntax, a description of the command's purpose, and a listing and description of each of the command's options. Man pages, however, do not usually include examples,
and are intended as a reference, not a tutorial. As an example, let's try viewing the man page for the ls command:

man cp

On most Linux systems, man uses less to display the manual page, so all of the familiar less commands work while displaying the page.
The “manual” that man displays is broken into sections and not only covers user commands but also system administration commands, programming interfaces, file formats
and more. The table below describes the layout of the manual:

Section Contents
1 User commands
2 Programming interfaces kernel system calls
3 Programming interfaces to the C library
4 Special files such as device nodes and drivers
5 File formats
6 Games and amusements such as screen savers
7 Miscellaneous
8 System administration commands

Sometimes we need to look in a specific section of the manual to find what we are looking for. This is particularly true if we are looking for a file format that is also the name of a command. Without specifying a section number, we will always get the first instance of a match, probably in section 1. To specify a section number, we use man like this:

command format:
man section search_term

example :

man 5 passwd

This will display the man page describing the file format of the /etc/passwd file.

apropos – Display Appropriate Commands

or
instead of this we can use another command..

man -k
both command will do the same task ....

It is also possible to search the list of man pages for possible matches based on a search term. It's very crude but sometimes helpful. Here is an example of a search for man pages using the search term “floppy”:

The first field in each line of output is the name of the man page, the second field shows the section.

whatis – Display A Very Brief Description Of A Command

The whatis program displays the name and a one line description of a man page matching
a specified keyword:

info – Display A Program's Info Entry

The GNU Project provides an alternative to man pages for their programs, called “info.”
Info pages are displayed with a reader program named, appropriately enough, info. Info pages are hyperlinked much like web pages. Here is a sample:

The info program reads info files, which are tree structured into individual nodes, each
containing a single topic. Info files contain hyperlinks that can move you from node to
node. A hyperlink can be identified by its leading asterisk, and is activated by placing the
cursor upon it and pressing the enter key.
To invoke info, type “info” followed optionally by the name of a program. Below is a
table of commands used to control the reader while displaying an info page:

Command Action
? Display command help
PgUp or Backspace Display previous page
PgDn or Space Display next page
n Next - Display the next node
p Previous - Display the previous node
u Up - Display the parent node of the currently displayed
node, usually a menu.
Enter Follow the hyperlink at the cursor location
q Quit

Most of the command line programs we have discussed so far are part of the GNU
Project's “coreutils” package, so typing:

info coreutils

will display a menu page with hyperlinks to each program contained in the coreutils package.

Creating Your Own Commands With alias

Now for our very first experience with programming! We will create a command of our own using the alias command. But before we start, we need to reveal a small command
line trick. It's possible to put more than one command on a line by separating each command with a semicolon character. It works like this:

command1 ,command2 ,command3

let's have an explainatory example in support of this statement...

command:
cd /usr; ls; cd -

As we can see, we have combined three commands on one line. First we change directory to /usr then list the directory and finally return to the original directory (by using 'cd -') so we end up where we started. Now let's turn this sequence into a new command using
alias. The first thing we have to do is dream up a name for our new command.
Let's try “zerocool”. Before we do that, it would be a good idea to find out if the name “zerocool” is
already being used or not. To find out, we can use the type command again:

as you can see the 'zerocool' command is not found so we can use this to alias any other command with same name..

but before we proceed to the practical..let's see what is the original format of the 'alia' command..

alias name='string'

After the command “alias” we give alias a name followed immediately (no whitespace allowed) by an equals sign, followed immediately by a quoted string containing the meaning to be assigned to the name. After we define our alias, it can be used anywhere the
shell would expect a command. Let's try it:

command: alias zerocool='cd /usr; ls; cd -'

We can also use the type command again to see our alias:

type zerocool

this will display the use of actual command..

To remove an alias, the unalias command is used, like so:

command: unalias zerocool

While we purposefully avoided naming our alias with an existing command name, it is not uncommon to do so. This is often done to apply a commonly desired option to each invocation of a common command. For instance, we saw earlier how the ls command is
often aliased to add color support: To see all the aliases defined in the environment, use the alias command without arguments.
Here are some of the aliases defined by default on a Fedora system. Try and figure out what they all do:

There is one tiny problem with defining aliases on the command line. They vanish when your shell session ends.

ok...that's it for today..but once again i remind you specially for beginner's...keep practicing.

well said...
"Practice make man perfect"

watch video of this article..here..

WORKING WITH COMMANDS-MANIPULATION VIDEO

ok..until next article this is..
ZEROCOOL
SIGN OUT

FILE MANIPULATION-PRACTICAL

2015-11-19T05:23:00.000-08:00

Hello friends i hope you have read my previous article..

MANIPULATING THE FILE AND DIRECTORIES

and it is compulsory to understand the concepts of that article....
in this article we will be learning the practical of the linux commanding manipulation :- files and directories...
So Lets start...
Since we are going to do some real file manipulation, let's build a safe place to “play” with our file manipulation commands. First we need a directory to work in. We'll create one in our home directory and call it “game”.

Creating Directories

The mkdir command is used to create a directory. To create our game directory we will first make sure we are in our home directory and then we will create a new directory:

command :

mkdir game

To make our playground a little more interesting, let's create a couple of directories inside game directory and name it as “dir1” and “dir2”. To do this, we will change our current working directory to "game" and execute another command mkdir:

commamd :
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ pwd
/home/ubuntu/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mkdir dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mkdir dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

or

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ pwd
/home/ubuntu/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mkdir dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ clear

Notice that the mkdir command will accept multiple arguments allowing us to create both directories with a single command.

Copying Files

Next, let's get some data into our playground. We'll do this by copying a file. Using the cp command, we'll copy the passwd file from the /etc directory to the current working directory:

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:/etc$ cp /etc/passwd /home/ubuntu/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:/etc$ cd ~/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

or
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ pwd
/home/ubuntu/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cp /etc/passwd .
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

NOTE: in above example the main command is

"cp <file name to copy> <destination where to copy>"

in first example you can understand very well that "/etc/passwd" is the file
which have to copy to the directory or destination "/home/ubuntu/game" that is the destination file.

but in the second example first i have change directory to the destination that is "game" then i used command " cp /etc/passwd ." here '.' mean that "current working directory"...remember i already taught you about this in the navigation system (relative pathname or absolute pathname)about command ".." and "."

Notice how we used the shorthand for the current working directory, the single trailing period. So now if we perform an ls, we will see our file:

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 12
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 05:21 dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 05:21 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 1 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:36 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

Now, just for fun, let's repeat the copy using the “-v” option (verbose) to see what it does:

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cp -v /etc/passwd .
‘/etc/passwd’ -> ‘./passwd’
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

The cp command performed the copy again, but this time displayed a concise message indicating what operation it was performing. Notice that cp overwrote the first copy without any warning.

to display the warning massage we have to use the '-i(interactive)'
with 'cp' command.

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cp -i /etc/passwd .
cp: overwrite ‘./passwd’? y
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

Responding to the prompt by entering a “y” will cause the file to be overwritten, any other character (for example, “n”) will cause cp to leave the file alone.

Moving And Renaming Files

Now, the name “passwd” doesn't seem very playful and this is a playground, so let's change it to something else:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 passwd
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv -i passwd fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

so here you can clearly see that the file name 'passwd' change to file name 'fun'.

let's make some other command ..play the game....

move the rename 'passwd' file 'fun' to another directory 'dir1'.

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv fun dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ ls
fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$

so , through this it is clear to you how it is moved from parent directory 'game' to the sub-directory'dir1'.

some other play..just watch it..carefully...

let's move 'fun' file from dir1 to dir2..watch carefully..i have used so many command here..

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ ls
fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ cd ..
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv dir1/fun dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ ls
fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ cd ../dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ ls
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$

try to manipulate by yourself...if you have any doubt comment ...below

now let's again move 'fun' file to the main directory...

comment :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv dir2/fun .
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ ls
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$

ok..ok..it was quiet easy to understood...let's play some other..game stuff..

1. move 'fun' file to directory 'dir1'
2.then move directory 'dor1' to directory 'dir2'.
3.now explore 'dir2' by command ls

watch carefully i have done all these step in the single time..try to understand the commands ..recall all previou learn commands..

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv fun dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ ls
dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ cd dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2/dir1$ ls
fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2/dir1$

so..in this play we just put every thing in the directory dir2...and file 'fun' in the dir1...
so now it is time to put all the thing as previous one ...i hope you got pretty good idea how to do this ..through command...but let do it together 'with me'..
ohh it recall you 'john snow'...leave it ..it only for the GOT lover's..ya off-course me too...

ok...let's do it..

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv dir2/dir1 .
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ mv dir1/fun .
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ohh..it's seem that every things are done..

so, you done it carefully..

let come to upgrade your-self.....
start new topic about how to make link through the CLI(command lne interface)..

but before we start this let have a look what is link..? why we need this..?what are the importance of this feature in the unix-linux based systems..?

actually..In most Unix-like systems it is possible to have a file referenced by multiple names.While the value of this may not be obvious, this is the link...and off-course it is really a useful feature in the unix system....

their is two type of 'link'...

1.soft-link or sys-link or Symbolic Links :

As we look around, we are likely to see a directory listing with an entry like this:

lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 11 2007-08-11 07:34 libc.so.6 -> libc-2.6.so

look it ..if you dont get any thing then you have to keep patience...

Picture this scenario:

A program requires the use of a shared resource of some kind contained in a file named “foo,” but “foo” has frequent version changes. It would be good to include the version number in the filename so the administrator or other interested party could see what version of “foo” is installed. This presents a problem. If we change the name of the shared resource, we have to track down every program that might use it and change it to look for a new resource name every time a new version of the resource is installed. That doesn't sound like fun at all.

so what is the solution of this big problem...actually this is an big bug for an world strongest operating system..linux

Here is where symbolic links save the day. Let's say we install version 2.6 of “foo,” which has the filename “foo-2.6” and then create a symbolic link simply called “foo” that points to “foo-2.6.” This means that when a program opens the file “foo”, it is actually opening the file “foo-2.6”. Now everybody is happy. The programs that rely on “foo” can find it and we can still see what actual version is installed. When it is time to upgrade to “foo-2.7,” we just add the file to our system, delete the symbolic link “foo” and create a
new one that points to the new version. Not only does this solve the problem of the version upgrade, but it also allows us to keep both versions on our machine. Imagine that “foo-2.7” has a bug (damn those developers!) and we need to revert to the old version. Again, we just delete the symbolic link pointing to the new version and create a new symbolic link pointing to the old version.

the directory listing above shows a symbolic link called “libc.so.6” that points to a shared library file called “libc-2.6.so.” This means that programs looking for “libc.so.6” will actually get the file “libc-2.6.so.”

ok that's it i feel diggy-biggy by explainig this lot of theory let's see it face to fece...
after that you wil understood very well...

Creating Hard Links

Now we'll try some links. First the hard links. We’ll create some links to our data file like so:

see here is an example ..in this command..how to make link of 'fun' document in all directory..'game' ,'dir1' ,'dir2'..

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ln fun funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ld
ld: no input files
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ less funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ less fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ln fun dir1/funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir1
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ ls
funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir1$ cd ../
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ln fun dir2/funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ ls
funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game/dir2$ cd ..
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

NOTICE : So now we have four instances of the file “fun”. Let's take a look our playground directory:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 16
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:04 dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:05 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

One thing you will notice is that the second field in the listing for fun and fun-hard both contain a “4” which is the number of hard links that now exist for the file. You'll remember that a file will aways have at least one link because the file's name is created by a link. So, how do we know that fun and fun-hard are, in fact, the same file? In this case, ls is not very helpful. While we can see that fun and fun-hard are both the same size (field 5(2737 byte)), our listing provides no way to be sure. To solve this problem, we're
going to have to dig a little deeper. When thinking about hard links, it is helpful to imagine that files are made up of two parts: the data part containing the file's contents and the name part which holds the file's
name. When we create hard links, we are actually creating additional name parts that all refer to the same data part. The system assigns a chain of disk blocks to what is called an inode, which is then associated with the name part. Each hard link therefore refers to a specific inode containing the file's contents.

The ls command has a way to reveal this information. It is invoked with the “-i” option:
just try to differentiate ..both file..in below commands perform..

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -li
total 16
29393001 drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:04 dir1
29393002 drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:05 dir2
29389569 -rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
29389569 -rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 16
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:04 dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:05 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

you see that in the first command "ls -li" which reaveal the number called 'ionide'..both of these number are similar tha's mean both file contain the same document.

Creating Symbolic Links

Symbolic links were created to overcome the two disadvantages of hard links: Hard links cannot span physical devices and hard links cannot reference directories, only files. Symbolic links are a special type of file that contains a text pointer to the target file or directory. Creating symbolic links is similar to creating hard links:

command:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ln -s fun fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 16
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:04 dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:05 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 3 Nov 11 08:26 fun-sym -> fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

The first example is pretty straightforward, we simply add the “-s” option to create a symbolic link rather than a hard link. But what about the next two? Remember, when we create a symbolic link, we are creating a text description of where the target file is relative to the symbolic link. It's easier to see if we look at the ls output:

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l dir1
total 4
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 6 Nov 11 08:28 fun-sym -> ../fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

The listing for fun-sym in dir1 shows that it is a symbolic link by the leading “l” in the first field and that it points to “../fun”, which is correct. Relative to the location of fun-sym, fun is in the directory above it. Notice too, that the length of the symbolic link file is 6, the number of characters in the string “../fun” rather than the length of the file to which it is pointing.

When creating symbolic links, you can either use absolute pathnames:

ln -s /home/me/playground/fun dir1/fun-sym

or relative pathnames, as we did in our earlier example. Using relative pathnames is more desirable because it allows a directory containing symbolic links to be renamed and/or moved without breaking the links.

In addition to regular files, symbolic links can also be reference directories:

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir2 fun funhard fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ln -s dir1 dir1-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir1-sym dir2 fun funhard fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 16
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 13:51 dir1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 4 Nov 11 13:52 dir1-sym -> dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:30 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
-rw-r--r-- 4 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 funhard
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 3 Nov 11 08:26 fun-sym -> fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

Removing Files And Directories

As we covered earlier, the rm command is used to delete files and directories. We are going to use it to clean up our playground a little bit. First, let's delete one of our hard links:

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir1-sym dir2 fun funhard fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ rm funhard
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir1-sym dir2 fun fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 12
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 13:51 dir1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 4 Nov 11 13:52 dir1-sym -> dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:30 dir2
-rw-r--r-- 3 ubuntu ubuntu 2737 Nov 11 05:48 fun
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 3 Nov 11 08:26 fun-sym -> fun

That worked as expected. The file fun-hard is gone and the link count shown for fun is reduced from four to three, as indicated in the second field of the directory listing. Next, we'll delete the file fun, and just for enjoyment, we'll include the “-i” option to
show what that does:

commmand :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir1-sym dir2 fun fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ rm -i fun
rm: remove regular file ‘fun’? y
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 8
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 13:51 dir1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 4 Nov 11 13:52 dir1-sym -> dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:30 dir2
lrwxrwxrwx 1 ubuntu ubuntu 3 Nov 11 08:26 fun-sym -> fun
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

Most Linux distributions configure ls to display broken links. On a UBUNTU, broken links are displayed in blinking red text! The presence of a broken link is not.

Let's clean up a little. We'll delete the symbolic links:
remove dir1-sym and fun-sym from the game directory..by using the -i(intractive command)...

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls
dir1 dir1-sym dir2 fun-sym
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ rm -i dir1-sym fun-sym
rm: remove symbolic link ‘dir1-sym’? y
rm: remove symbolic link ‘fun-sym’? y
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ ls -l
total 8
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 13:51 dir1
drwxrwxr-x 2 ubuntu ubuntu 4096 Nov 11 08:30 dir2
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$

NOTE :

One thing to remember about symbolic links is that most file operations are carried out on the link's target, not the link itself. rm is an exception. When you delete a link, it is the link that is deleted, not the target.

Finally, we will remove our playground directory "game". To do this, we will return to our home directory and use rm with the recursive option (-r) to delete playground and all of its contents, including its subdirectories:

command :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ pwd
/home/ubuntu/game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~/game$ cd ..
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ pwd
/home/ubuntu
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ rm -r game
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd game
bash: cd: game: No such file or directory
ubuntu@ubuntu:~$

now you can see that after removing the game directory ...command 'cd game '..will show an error massage that "No such file or directory"..
so finally we all delete the directory what we was make for our practicle purpose..i hope you get this very well through this example...

off-course it was quiet long to explain ...but to sum-up in brief i will upload an video for it....but to understand that very well you have to read all this theory very carefully...

ohh..today we learn a lot..that's it for today in this article...for any confusion or any query feel free to contact me through the comment box or you can join me in hacker-heaven facebook page..or you can directly contact me in facebook..you can find my facebook profile in this page...

read my new article...

MANIPULATING THE COMMANDS

have nice day ..and thank you for reading this article..

until next article this is..

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LINUX COMMANDING TUTORIAL VIDEO-FILE NAVIGATION AND HIERARCHY

2015-11-17T00:53:00.001-08:00

BEFORE WATCHING THIS VIDEO FIRST YOU MUST HAVE TO READ THESE ARTICLE BASED ON LINUX COMMANDING...

TERMINAL COMMAND :-

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

AND

LINUX HIERARCHY-GUIDING TOUR

AFTER READING THESE ARTICLE THIS VIDEO WILL BE MORE EFFECTIVE.

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND TUTORIAL LIST

2015-11-16T16:29:00.004-08:00

TERMINAL COMMAND :-

1:- LINUX TERMINAL-COMMAND-I-INTRODUCTION

2:- LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND -2-NAVIGATION

3.LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

4. LINUX HIERARCHY-GUIDING TOUR

5. MANIPULATING THE FILE AND DIRECTORIES

6.LINUX COMMANDING TUTORIAL VIDEO-FILE NAVIGATION AND HIERARCHY

7. FILE MANIPULATION-PRACTICAL

8. MANIPULATING THE COMMANDS

9.REDIRECTION-OUTPUT,ERROR AND INPUT

MANIPULATING THE FILE AND DIRECTORIES

2015-11-16T15:49:00.003-08:00

HELLO GUYS WELCOME BACK TO HACKER HEAVEN..I HOPE YOU ENJOYED MY PREVIOUS ARTICLE ...

i hope at this point, we are ready for some real work! This article will introduce the following
commands:

● cp – Copy files and directories
● mv – Move/rename files and directories
● mkdir – Create directories
● rm – Remove files and directories
● ln – Create hard and symbolic links

These five commands are among the most frequently used Linux commands. They are used for manipulating both files and directories.
Now, to be frank, some of the tasks performed by these commands are more easily done with a graphical file manager. With a file manager, we can drag and drop a file from one directory to another, cut and paste files, delete files, etc. So why use these old command line programs ?
The answer is power and flexibility. While it is easy to perform simple file manipulations with a graphical file manager, complicated tasks can be easier with the command line programs. For example, how could we copy all the HTML files from one directory to another, but only copy files that do not exist in the destination directory or are newer than the versions in the destination directory? Pretty hard with a file manager. comparetively it's easy with the command line:

command :

cp -u *.html destination

-u : update (means it will copy only those files which are not present in the destination or which are newer than the preset files)

**don't be panic we will discuss it in further .

actually this is an example for explaining my point that why we all have to use command line instead of the GUI mode .but i promise you that you will be able to do all these stuff very easily by command line after today's reading and following the instructions...

so without wasting the time let's start ..

mkdir – Create Directories

The mkdir command is used to create directories. It works like this:

command :

mkdir directory...

A note on notation:

When three points follow an argument in the description of a command
(as above), it means that the argument can be repeated, thus:

command:

mkdir dir1

would create a single directory named “dir1”, while

  commmand :

mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3

would create three directories named “dir1”, “dir2”, and “dir3”.

note : today we dealing with 3 other commands, every commands description is matches same to same about 90%...like in command mkdir have one or more than one similar as this command cp (copy ) have same not only this but also ln(making link) command have same description as in this...so it make quite easy to learn the theory behind the all command but how to implement in real we will see it in video as well as screeshots practical image...that will explain a lot to understand the commands..

cp – Copy Files And Directories

The cp command copies files or directories. It can be used two different ways:

cp item1 item2

to copy the single file or directory “item1” to file or directory “item2”

AND

cp item... directory

like i explain before these three dots represent that it can copy multiple items (either files or directories) into a directory.

Useful Options And Examples

Here are some of the commonly used options (the short option and the equivalent long
option) for cp:

-a or --archive

Copy the files and directories and all of their attributes,
including ownerships and permissions. Normally,
copies take on the default attributes of the user
performing the copy.

-i or --interactive

Before overwriting an existing file, prompt the user for
confirmation. If this option is not specified, cp will
silently overwrite files.

-r or --recursive

Recursively copy directories and their contents. This
option (or the -a option) is required when copying
directories.

-u or --update

When copying files from one directory to another, it only
copies files that either doesn't exist, or are newer than the
existing corresponding files, in the destination directory.

-v or --verbose

display massage when task is done. (eg:-copying is sucessfull) ....

cp Examples

-cp file1 file2

Copy file1 to file2. If file2 exists, it is overwritten
with the contents of file1. If file2 does not exist, it
is created.

-cp -i file1 file2

Same as above, except that if file2 exists, the user is
prompted if and only if the file is overwritten.

actiually here i just try to explain that first time when i copy /passwd file from dir1 to dir2 it just copy it without any pop-up massage,but next time i try to copy same file to dir2 it will ask about overwriting option..

-cp file1 file2 dir1

Copy file1 and file2 into directory dir1. dir1 must
already exist.

here in this screenshot i try to use relative path name that point i already explain in my previous articles..REMEMBER THAT..?

-cp dir1/* dir2

Using a wildcard, all the files in dir1 are selected and then copied
into dir2.
condition dir2 must already exist.

-cp -r dir1 dir2

Copy the contents of directory dir1 to directory
dir2. If directory dir2 does not exist, it is created
and, after the copy, will contain the same contents
as directory dir1.
If directory dir2 does exist, then directory dir1 (and
its contents) will be copied into dir2.

for this i just delete dir2 from my directory and try to copy dir1 to dir2 which is not exit.

mv – Move And Rename Files

The mv command performs both file moving and file renaming, depending on how it is used. In either case, the original filename no longer exists after the operation. mv is used in much the same way as cp:

mv item1 item2

to move or rename file or directory “item1” to “item2” or:

mv item... directory

to move one or more items from one directory to another.

Useful Options And Examples

mv shares many of the same options as cp:

-i, --interactive

Before overwriting an existing file, prompt the user for
confirmation. If this option is not specified, mv will
silently overwrite files.

-u, --update

When moving files from one directory to another, only it will
move files that either doesn't exist, or are newer than the
existing corresponding files in the destination
directory.

-v, --verbose

Display informative messages as the move is done...

mv Examples

here note that what these example i gonna explain is same as copy commands ..i already show you lots of screenshots..but now i am not gonna be repeat the same task...you know it little bit laziness...haha...try it self..
ok look up the examples and the description given below..

mv file1 file2

Move file1 to file2. If file2 exists, it is overwritten
with the contents of file1. If file2 does not exist, it
is created. In either case, file1 ceases to exist.

mv -i file1 file2

Same as above, except that if file2 exists, the user is
prompted before it is overwritten.
mv file1 file2 dir1 Move file1 and file2 into directory dir1. dir1 must
already exist.

mv dir1 dir2

If directory dir2 does not exist, create directory
dir2 and move the contents of directory dir1 into
dir2 and delete directory dir1.
If directory dir2 does exist, move directory dir1
(and its contents) into directory dir2.

rm – Remove Files And Directories

The rm command is used to remove (delete) files and directories:

command :

rm item...

** here look only first command rest are not explaining this point..haha..again i just copy above image here...laziness..

where “item” is one or more files or directories.

Useful Options And Examples

Here are some of the common options for rm:

-i, --interactive

Before deleting an existing file, prompt the user for
confirmation. If this option is not specified, rm will
silently delete files.

-r, --recursive

Recursively delete directories. This means that if a
directory being deleted has subdirectories, delete them
too. To delete a directory, this option must be specified.

-f, --force

Ignore nonexistent files and do not prompt. This
overrides the --interactive option.

-v, --verbose

Display informative messages as the deletion is
performed.

rm examples

rm file1

Delete file1 silently.

rm -i file1

Same as above, except that the user is prompted for
confirmation before the deletion is performed.

rm -r file1 dir1

Delete file1 and dir1 and its contents.

rm -rf file1 dir1

Same as above, except that if either file1 or dir1 do
not exist, rm will continue silently.

Be Careful With rm!

Unix-like operating systems such as Linux do not have an undelete command.
Once you delete something with rm, it's gone. Linux assumes you're smart and
you know what you're doing.
Be particularly careful with wildcards. Consider this classic example. Let's say
you want to delete just the HTML files in a directory. To do this, you type:

rm *.html

which is correct, but if you accidentally place a space between the “*” and the
“.html” like so:

rm * .html

the rm command will delete all the files in the directory and then complain that
there is no file called “.html”.
Here is a useful tip. Whenever you use wildcards with rm (besides carefully
checking your typing!), test the wildcard first with ls. This will let you see the
files that will be deleted. Then press the up arrow key to recall the command and
replace the ls with rm.

   ln – Create Links

The ln command is used to create either hard or symbolic links. It is used in one of two ways:

ln file link

to create a hard link, and:

ln -s item link

to create a symbolic link where “item” is either a file or a directory.

Srry guy's i have to quiet this one without screenshot i have lots of college work...(ye sale college wale bhi na bachho ko chain se nhi jeene dete...assignment pe assignment..assignment pe assignment..bs rh jata hai assignment...#sunnydeol..haha, all these fuc*** thing...only indians understad this...LOL)
but i promise i will write another article only performing all the commands i just not cover here....

ok..,these are the some theory for today article...
ya, but before we going to the practical mood..let's talk about an important topic 'wild-card'...a shell feature that makes these commands so powerful. Since the shell uses filenames so much, it provides special
characters to help you rapidly specify groups of filenames. These special characters are called wildcards. Using wildcards (which is also known as globbing) allow you to select
filenames based on patterns of characters. The table below lists the wildcards and what they select:

* Matches any characters

? Matches any single character

[characters] Matches any character that is a member of the set characters

[!characters] Matches any character that is not a member of the set
characters

[[:class:]] Matches any character that is a member of the specified
class

NOTE : [[:class:]], actually what is class ? here..after seeing this you will understand it very well...

[:alnum:] Matches any alphanumeric character

[:alpha:] Matches any alphabetic character

[:digit:] Matches any numeral

[:lower:] Matches any lowercase letter

[:upper:] Matches any uppercase letter

these are the some shortcut it make feel you annoiyng but believe me by the time goes in practice it will become very easy for you to use to manage your file or searching your file whatever..

here i am giving some more helpful example that make easy to understand the meaning of the given wildcars(shortcuts).

* All files

g* Any file beginning with “g”

b*. txt Any file beginning with “b” followed by
any characters and ending with “.txt”

Data??? Any file beginning with “Data” followed
by exactly three characters

[abc]* Any file beginning with either an “a”, a
“b”, or a “c”

BACKUP.[0-9][0-9][0-9] Any file beginning with “BACKUP.”
followed by exactly three numerals

[[:upper:]]* Any file beginning with an uppercase letter

[![:digit:]]* Any file not beginning with a numeral

*[[:lower:]123] Any file ending with a lowercase letter or
the numerals “1”, “2”, or “3”

here another note that 'Wildcards Work In The GUI Too'

Wildcards are especially valuable not only because they are used so frequently on the command line, but are also supported by some graphical file managers.

● In Nautilus (the file manager for GNOME), you can select files using the
Edit/Select Pattern menu item. Just enter a file selection pattern with wildcards and the files in the currently viewed directory will be highlighted for selection.
● In some versions of Dolphin and Konqueror (the file managers for KDE),
you can enter wildcards directly on the location bar. For example, if you want
to see all the files starting with a lowercase “u” in the /usr/bin directory, enter
“/usr/bin/u*” in the location bar and it will display the result.

i hope this is not place to perform the practical of all these stuff what we learn today...so i have to upload another article based on these concepts so please refer to my next article ,for the further reading..

read my next article ....

FILE MANIPULATION-PRACTICAL

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LINUX HIERARCHY-GUIDING TOUR

2015-11-16T08:34:00.000-08:00

Hello guys welcome back...in today article..we gonna discuss about the linux system hirarchy..which is much different than the window hirarchy..and it's important to learn..actually this article is continue of previous one...

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

The file system layout on our Linux system is much like that found on other Unix-like systems. The design is actually specified in a published standard called the Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard. Not all Linux distributions conform to the standard exactly but
most come pretty close.

Next, we are going to wander around the file system ourselves to see what makes our Linux system tick. This will give you a chance to practice your navigation skills. One of
the things we will discover is that many of the interesting files are in plain human-readable
text. As we go about our tour, try the following:

1. cd into a given directory
2. List the directory contents with ls -l
3. If you see an interesting file, determine its contents with file
4. If it looks like it might be text, try viewing it with less

Remember the copy and paste trick!
If you are using a mouse, you can double click on a filename to copy it and middle click to paste it into commands.

so let's explore the system hirarchy..from initial point..

1./

The root directory. Where everything begins.

2./bin

Contains binaries (programs) that must be present for the system to boot and run.

3./boot

Contains the Linux kernel, initial RAM disk image (for
drivers needed at boot time), and the boot loader.

Interesting files:
● /boot/grub/grub.conf or menu.lst, which
are used to configure the boot loader.

● /boot/vmlinuz, the Linux kernel
/dev This is a special directory which contains device nodes.

“Everything is a file” also applies to devices. Here is where
the kernel maintains a list of all the devices it understands.

4./etc

The /etc directory contains all of the system-wide
configuration files. It also contains a collection of shell
scripts which start each of the system services at boot time.
Everything in this directory should be readable text.
Interesting files: While everything in /etc is interesting,

here are some of my all-time favorites:

● /etc/crontab, a file that defines when
automated jobs will run.

● /etc/fstab, a table of storage devices and their
associated mount points.

● /etc/passwd, a list of the user accounts.

5./home

In normal configurations, each user is given a directory in
/home. Ordinary users can only write files in their home
directories. This limitation protects the system from errant
user activity.

6./lib

Contains shared library files used by the core system
programs. These are similar to DLLs in Windows.

7./lost+found

Each formatted partition or device using a Linux file system,
such as ext3, will have this directory. It is used in the case of
a partial recovery from a file system corruption event.
Unless something really bad has happened to your system,
this directory will remain empty.

8./media

On modern Linux systems the /media directory will
contain the mount points for removable media such as USB
drives, CD-ROMs, etc. that are mounted automatically at
insertion.

9./mnt

On older Linux systems, the /mnt directory contains mount
points for removable devices that have been mounted
manually.

10./opt

The /opt directory is used to install “optional” software.
This is mainly used to hold commercial software products
that may be installed on your system.

11./proc

The /proc directory is special. It's not a real file system in
the sense of files stored on your hard drive. Rather, it is a
virtual file system maintained by the Linux kernel. The
“files” it contains are peepholes into the kernel itself. The
files are readable and will give you a picture of how the
kernel sees your computer.

11./root

This is the home directory for the root account.

12./sbin

This directory contains “system” binaries. These are
programs that perform vital system tasks that are generally
reserved for the superuser.

13./tmp

The /tmp directory is intended for storage of temporary,
transient files created by various programs. Some
configurations cause this directory to be emptied each time
the system is rebooted.

14 ./usr

The /usr directory tree is likely the largest one on a Linux
system. It contains all the programs and support files used
by regular users.

/usr/bin

/usr/bin contains the executable programs installed by
your Linux distribution. It is not uncommon for this
directory to hold thousands of programs.

/usr/lib

The shared libraries for the programs in /usr/bin.

/usr/local

The /usr/local tree is where programs that are not
included with your distribution but are intended for systemwide
use are installed. Programs compiled from source code
are normally installed in /usr/local/bin. On a newly
installed Linux system, this tree exists, but it will be empty
until the system administrator puts something in it.

/usr/sbin

Contains more system administration programs.

/usr/share

/usr/share contains all the shared data used by
programs in /usr/bin. This includes things like default
configuration files, icons, screen backgrounds, sound files,
etc.

/usr/share/doc

Most packages installed on the system will include some
kind of documentation. In /usr/share/doc, we will find
documentation files organized by package.
or we can say that it is the manual of all the commands as well softwares install on this machine..so through this you can learn a lot..using comman 'less' or 'nano'(text editor) or other texxt editore like as 'leafpad' or 'gedit'..

15./var

With the exception of /tmp and /home, the directories we
have looked at so far remain relatively static, that is, their
contents don't change. The /var directory tree is where
data that is likely to change is stored. Various databases,
spool files, user mail, etc. are located here.

/var/log

contains log files, records of various system
activity. These are very important and should be monitored
from time to time. The most useful one is /var/log/messages

that's it ...it is pretty straight forward ...but as much possible i explain it in..but if you still have query please feel free to ask or comment below..

if you are are visiting this website first time please read other article related with command..here..

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

until next article on commanding..i hope it will be soon..this is..

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LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

2015-11-06T07:15:00.001-08:00

Now that we know how to move around the file system, it's time for a guided tour of our Linux system. Before we start however, we’re going to learn some more commands that will be useful along the way:
● ls – List directory contents
● file – Determine file type
● less – View file contents

if you don't get my point please read my prevoius article in linux commanding :

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND -2-NAVIGATION

if you already read it let's start learning some higher level commands than previous...

More Fun With ls

The ls command is probably the most used command, and for good reason. With it, we
can see directory contents and determine a variety of important file and directory attributes.As we have seen, we can simply enter ls to see a list of files and subdirectories contained in the current working directory:
today specially we exploring the power of ls command..
so , what we can do with this command..approx..we cover mmost of command in this article..along with this i make an video of this article..but before let's understand what are those command..

1.to see a list of files and subdirectories contained in the current working directory:

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls

2.Besides the current working directory, we can specify the directory to list, like so:

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls /usr

3. even specify multiple directories.

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ ls ~ /usr

In this example we will list both the user's home directory

symbolized by the “~” character and the /usr directory

4. change the format of the output to reveal more detail:

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ ls -l

actually we will talk about this command in detail in later article..actually it's about security and permission of the directory file..mean which user can delete,edit or share this file ..to other..i am here explainning about the commands meaning..

here is an copy of one result...for better understanding..

drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 69632 Nov 6 07:22 bin

Next 3 words (drwxr-xr-x) are permissions for the file or directory.
The next file is the number(2) of blocks (don't worry too much about this).
The next field is the owner(root) of the file or directory .
The next field is the group(root) the file or directory belongs to .
Following this is the file size(69632 byte).
Next up is the file modification time(Nov 6 07:22).
Finally we have the actual name of the file(bin) or directory.

5. We ran ls with a command line argument ( /etc ).this will explore all the detail of the directory /etc:

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:/$ ls -l /etc

these are the some examples of the 'ls' commands..but intead of this we are now discussing about these commands meaning in a understandable manner...with some more arguments in 'ls' commands..let start...

Options And Arguments :

This brings us to a very important point about how most commands work. Commands are often followed by one or more options that modify their behavior, and further, by one or more arguments, the items upon which the command acts. So most commands look kind

of like this:

command -options arguments

NOTE :

Most commands use options consisting of a single character preceded by a dash, for example,

“-l”, but many commands, including those from the GNU Project, also support

long options, consisting of a word preceded by two dashes. Also,

many commands allow

multiple short options to be strung together. In this example, the ls command is given

two options, the “l” option to produce long format output, and the “t” option to sort the

result by the file's modification time.

command :ubuntu@ubuntu:/$ ls -lt

We'll add the long option “--reverse” to reverse the order of the sort:

command : ubuntu@ubuntu:/$ ls -lt --reverse

NOTE :

FILE NAME AND COMMANDS BOTH ARE CASE SENSTIVE IN THE LINUX TERMINAL

The ls command has a large number of possible options. The most common are listed

i will explain all these commands in video..first learn all these very carefully...and practice as possible as...

-a or --all :

List all files, even those with names that begin

with a period, which are normally not listed

(i.e., hidden).

command :ls -a

NOTE :

IN LINUX AS WELL AS IN ANDROID(IT IS ALSO AN LINUX DISTRIBUTION)

you can hide your file by applying '.' before the file name.

-A or --almost-all :

Like the -a option above except it does not

list . (current directory) and .. (parent

directory).

command : ls -A

command : ls -l -A

-d or --directory :

Ordinarily, if a directory is specified, ls will

list the contents of the directory, not the

directory itself. Use this option in conjunction

with the -l option to see details about the

directory rather than its contents.

command : ls -l -d

-F or --classify :

This option will append an indicator character

to the end of each listed name. For example, a

“/” if the name is a directory.

command : ls -l -F

compare the result with usually simple command ls and ls -F.

-h or --human-readable :

In long format listings, display file sizes in

human readable format rather than in bytes.

command : ls -l -h

actually in try to explain my point.if you don't get it useful leave it.these are only for your information.

A Longer Look At Long Format

As we saw before, the “-l” option causes ls to display its results in long format. This format contains a great deal of useful information. Here is the Examples directory from an Ubuntu system:

command : ls -l

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3576296 2007-04-03 11:05 Experienceubuntu.ogg
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1186219 2007-04-03 11:05 kubuntu-leaflet.png
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 47584 2007-04-03 11:05 logo-Edubuntu.png
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 44355 2007-04-03 11:05 logo-Kubuntu.png
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 34391 2007-04-03 11:05 logo-Ubuntu.png
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 32059 2007-04-03 11:05 oo-cd-cover.odf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 159744 2007-04-03 11:05 oo-derivatives.doc
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 27837 2007-04-03 11:05 oo-maxwell.odt
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 98816 2007-04-03 11:05 oo-trig.xls
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 453764 2007-04-03 11:05 oo-welcome.odt
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 358374 2007-04-03 11:05 ubuntu Sax.ogg

EXPLANATION:

-rw-r--r-- :

Access rights to the file. The first character indicates the

type of file. Among the different types, a leading dash

means a regular file, while a “d” indicates a directory.

The next three characters are the access rights for the

file's owner, the next three are for members of the file's

group, and the final three are for everyone else. The full

meaning of this is discussed in Chapter 9 – Permissions.

1 File's number of hard links. See the discussion of links

later in this chapter.

root :

The username of the file's owner.

root :

The name of the group which owns the file.

32059 :

Size of the file in bytes.

2007-04-03 11:05 :

Date and time of the file's last modification.

oo-cd-cover.odf :

Name of the file.

tha's it for the 'ls' command.now learn next topic of today article..'file' command.

Determining A File's Type With file

As we explore the system it will be useful to know what files contain. To do this we will use the file command to determine a file's type. As we discussed earlier, filenames in Linux are not required to reflect a file's contents. While a filename like “picture.jpg” would normally be expected to contain a JPEG compressed image, it is not required to in Linux. We can invoke the file command this way:

file filename

When invoked, the file command will print a brief description of the file's contents.

For example:

command : file picture.jpg

There are many kinds of files. In fact, one of the common ideas in Unix-like operating

systems such as Linux is that “everything is a file.” As we proceed with our lessons, we

will see just how true that statement is.

While many of the files on your system are familiar, for example MP3 and JPEG, there

are many kinds that are a little less obvious and a few that are quite strange.

Viewing File Contents With less

The less command is a program to view text files. Throughout our Linux system, there

are many files that contain human-readable text. The less program provides a convenient

way to examine them.

What Is “Text”?

There are many ways to represent information on a computer. All methods involve defining a relationship between the information and some numbers that will be used to represent it. Computers, after all, only understand numbers and all data is converted to numeric representation. Some of these representation systems are very complex (such as compressed video files), while others are rather simple. One of the earliest and simplest is called ASCII text. ASCII (pronounced "As-Key") is short for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This is a simple encoding scheme that was first used on Teletype machines to map keyboard characters to numbers.Text is a simple one-to-one mapping of characters to numbers. It is very compact.Fifty characters of text translates to fifty bytes of data. It is important to understand that text only contains a simple mapping of characters to numbers. It is not
the same as a word processor document such as one created by Microsoft Word or OpenOffice.org Writer. Those files, in contrast to simple ASCII text, contain many non-text elements that are used to describe its structure and formatting.Plain ASCII text files contain only the characters themselves and a few rudimentary control codes like tabs, carriage returns and line feeds.Throughout a Linux system, many files are stored in text format and there aremany Linux tools that work with text files. Even Windows recognizes the importance of this format. The well-known NOTEPAD.EXE program is an editor for plain ASCII text files.

Why would we want to examine text files? Because many of the files that contain system
settings (called configuration files) are stored in this format, and being able to read them
gives us insight about how the system works. In addition, many of the actual programs
that the system uses (called scripts) are stored in this format. In later chapters, we will
learn how to edit text files in order to modify systems settings and write our own scripts,
but for now we will just look at their contents.

The less command is used like this:

less filename

Once started, the less program allows you to scroll forward and backward through a
text file. For example, to examine the file that defines all the system's user accounts, enter

the following command:

command : less /etc/passwd

Once the less program starts, we can view the contents of the file. If the file is longer
than one page, we can scroll up and down. To exit less, press the “q” key.

below lists the most common keyboard commands used by less.

Command Action

Page Up or b Scroll back one page

Page Down or space Scroll forward one page

Up Arrow Scroll up one line

Down Arrow Scroll down one line

G Move to the end of the text file

1G or g Move to the beginning of the text file

/characters Search forward to the next occurrence of characters

n Search for the next occurrence of the previous search

h Display help screen

q Quit less

please refer every commands i describe above and try to practice in your machine that will give you an exellent result in learning the command like .i hope you enjoyed this article.
please share your view in comment box.and suggest me other commonds which i just forget to mention here..than you for visiting...

we will post video in next article with an practice tour which will practice all your commands learn in navigation list..

read my next article on commanding ...

LINUX HIERARCHY-GUIDING TOUR

until next article this is :

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LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND -2-NAVIGATION

2015-11-01T14:48:00.001-08:00

IN PREVIOUS ARTICLE LINUX TERMINAL-COMMAND-I-INTRODUCTION WE ONLY DISCUSS THE BASIC COMMANDS.
so, today we are going to discuss about the navigation of the file directory in the linux distribution system..basically today we learn mostly three things..

pwd : current working directory

ls : content in the directory

cd : changing the directory

but before starting it must to be understand how the file system orgnized in the linux..so let's start ...

but before if you don't read my previous article in linux commanding please read it first..

LINUX TERMINAL-COMMAND-I-INTRODUCTION

Understanding The File System Tree

Like Windows, a Unix-like operating system such as Linux organizes its files in what is called a hierarchical directory structure.
The first directory in the file system is called the root directory.
The root directory contains files and subdirectories, which contain more files and subdirectories and so on and so on.

Note :-
that unlike Windows, which has a separate file system tree for each storage device, Unix-like systems such as Linux always have a single file system tree, regardless of how many drives or storage devices are attached to the computer.

The Current Working Directory

When we first log in to our system or start a terminal emulator session our current working directory is set to our home directory.

At any given time, we are inside a single directory and we can
see the files contained in the directory and the pathway to the directory above us called the parent directory and any subdirectories below us.

The directory we are standing in is called the current working directory.

To display the current working directory, we use the
pwd (print working directory) command.

command :pwd

Listing The Contents Of A Directory

To list the files and directories in the current working directory, we use the ls command.

command : ls

Changing The Current Working Directory

pathname : is the route we take along the branches of the tree to get to the directory we want.

Pathnames can be specified in one of two different ways; as absolute
pathnames or as relative pathnames.

Absolute Pathnames :An absolute pathname begins with the root directory and follows the tree branch by branch until the path to the desired directory or file is completed.

like here if you want to navigate to the directory..'bin' ,which is subdirectory of 'usr' directory...

then you have to pass through 'usr' directory.

command : cd /usr/bin

..actually '/'(forward slash) use for the navigation from directory to subdirectory.

so , cd /usr/bin ..is an relative pathname start from the root directory to the destination.

Relative pathname..

it start from the working directory.
lets understand what it's mean..

like by command : cd /usr/bin...

command :pwd...this will give you the current directory name..which is 'bin'..

so if you want to navigate to another directory like to '/usr'..from the current working directory ..'bin'..then you have to go with relative pathname.

for this their is two command ...
1. '.'(dot) command :actually this is use for current working directory.if you don't get the point we will discuss it through practicle..wait..||

2. '..'(double dot): through this it will navigate to parent directory of the current working directory..
means if you are in 'bin' directory currently..then

command : cd ..

this will take you to the parent directory of the 'bin' directory, which is 'usr'.

ok ,that's it for theory now start the practicle game...
but before this just someup basic things...

pwd : use to display current working directory pathname.

ls : listing the content of the directory

cd : used to change the directory

pathname:-

absolute pathname : start from the root to destination directory.

relative pathname :- start from the current working directory.

The "." symbol refers to the working directory and the ".." symbol refers to the working
directory's parent directory.

Here is how it works. Let's change the working directory to

/usr/bin..

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd /usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ pwd
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$

so by 'cd' command we change directory to '/usr/bin' and by 'pwd' command we
get the current working directory '/usr/bin'.

Okay, now let's say that we wanted to change the working directory to the parent of
/usr/bin which is /usr.

for this their is two way to doing this.

1. by absolute pathname..

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ cd /usr
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ pwd
/usr
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$

2. or by the relative pathname..

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ cd ..
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ pwd
/usr
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$

here what we learn above used here that..
by using '..' it will navigate to parent directory of the current working directory.

Two different methods with identical results. Which one should we use? The one that
requires the least typing!

Likewise, we can change the working directory from /usr to /usr/bin in two
different ways. Either using an absolute pathname:

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ cd /usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ pwd
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$

or by the relative pathname :

commands:

ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ cd ./bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ pwd
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$

like what we learn that command '.' will represent the current working directry which is now 'usr'..so

commnad : "cd /usr/bin" or "cd ./bin" both are equivalent.

an important thing here :
"if you do not specify a pathname to something, the working directory will be assumed"

it's mean that in 'usr ' directory their is many directory . so if you ommitted './' from command it will assume that you are working in the current directory.
if you don't get this see here..

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ ls
bin games include lib local sbin share src
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ cd bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ pwd
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$

some useful ..'cd shortcuts'..

1. cd Changes the working directory to your home directory.

2. cd - Changes the working directory to the previous working directory.

commands :

ubuntu@ubuntu:~$ cd /usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ pwd
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ cd ..
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$ cd -
/usr/bin
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr/bin$ cd -
/usr
ubuntu@ubuntu:/usr$

that's it for today..

read my next article based on commanding..

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND – EXPLORE THE SYSTEM

until next article this is..

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LINUX TERMINAL-COMMAND-I-INTRODUCTION

2015-11-01T04:03:00.001-08:00

hey guys from today we start learning the command prompt step by step...

for this i prefare an linux commanding book...from where i extracted some portion .i hope this will be very useful for the beginners as well learners..for this just stick with me...and like my facebook page "HACKER-HEAVEN"

off course if you are my countinous reader of my blog ..you know well that my english is poor..i am improving my self..but i hope you will get the thing what i wanna teach you..so without wasting time let's start learning ....

What Is The Shell?

When we speak of the command line, we are really referring to the shell. The shell is a program that takes keyboard commands and passes them to the operating system to carry out. Almost all Linux distributions supply a shell program from the GNU Project called

bash. The name “bash” is an acronym for “Bourne Again SHell”, a reference to the fact bash is an enhanced replacement for sh, the original Unix shell program written by Steve Bourne.

Terminal Emulators

When using a graphical user interface, we need another program called a terminal emulator to interact with the shell. If we look through our desktop menus, we will probably find one. KDE uses konsole and GNOME uses gnome-terminal, though it's likely

called simply “terminal” on our menu. There are a number of other terminal emulators available for Linux, but they all basically do the same thing; give us access to the shell.

You will probably develop a preference for one or another based on the number of bells and whistles it has.

in terminal what is meaning of

username@machinename,

If the last character of the prompt is a pound sign (“#”) rather than a dollar sign $, the terminal session has superuser privileges.

like in given screenshot

username :ubuntu

machine name : ubuntu

and it shown dollar sign it's mean it is not an super user

Command History

If we press the up-arrow key, we will see that the previous command “kaekfjaeifj” reap-pears after the prompt. This is called command history. Most Linux distributions remember the last 500 commands by default. Press the down-arrow key and the previous command disappears.

or you can just type command: history

copy paste concept in the gnome terminal

If you highlight some text by holding down the left mouse button and dragging the mouse over it (or double clicking on a word), it is copied into a buffer

maintained by X. Pressing the middle mouse button will cause the text to be pasted at the cursor location. Try it.

Note: Don't be tempted to use Ctrl-c and Ctrl-v to perform copy and paste inside a terminal window. They don't work. These control codes have different meanings to the shell and were assigned many years before Microsoft Windows.

but another shortcut is

Ctrl+Shift+c :copy

Ctrl+Shift+v :paste

Try Some Simple Commands

before we start testing one thing remeber that terminal is case senstive.

1. The first one is date. This command displays the current time and date.

command : date

2.A related command is cal which, by default, displays a calendar of the current month.

command : cal

3. To see the current amount of free space on your disk drives, enter df:

command : df

4.Likewise, to display the amount of free memory, enter the free command.

command : free

5. to clear the terminal screen. actually this command not delete the previous one exit..it just scroll your terminal and give an fresh screen.

command :clear

Ending A Terminal Session We can end a terminal session by either closing the terminal emulator window, or by en-

tering the exit command at the shell prompt:

exit command :exit

The Console Behind The Curtain

actually here 90% command is fully work in linux distribution like ubuntu ,fedora etc.

Even if we have no terminal emulator running, several terminal sessions continue to run behind the graphical desktop. Called virtual terminals or virtual consoles, these sessions can be accessed on most Linux distributions by pressing Ctrl-Alt-F1 through Ctrl-Alt-F6. When a session is accessed, it presents a login

prompt into which we can enter our username and password. To switch from one virtual console to another, press Alt and F1-F6. To return to the graphical desktop, press Alt-F7.

READ MY NEXT ARTCLE ON COMMANDING..

LINUX TERMINAL COMMAND -2-NAVIGATION

watch the video tutorial for this..sorry their is no audio..nut i hope you will get what i am trying to taught you...

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DEEP SOUND -STEGNOGRAPHY

2015-10-31T19:07:00.000-07:00

In the series of the steganography ..today we are going to discuss the hiding of data in the music file

through the help of the window based tool name "DEEP SOUND"..now a days very famous TV series name Mr. Robot ..

off course i am fan of this show..where elliot use this tool for hiding his secret data..

read previous article on steganography

so without wasting much time lets start ..

1.install the DEEP SOUND

go to the official website of the deep sound and download it to your machine.

and open up the interface of the deep sound.

2. setting

click on the setting gear icon, an pop-up window show up...where languge remain same as english, change your output directory..like i change it to the documents by browsing the folder.

after that check the box for encrypt files..

after that it will ask for the password..

input your password for the secret file..

tha's it ..after this click on button ok.

3.encoding

now after clicking ok button..just select the song where you want to hide your secret data. like here i am selecting song 'highway'

after that..you will see many option will show up in the top menus.

so after that click on button..add files..

choose your secret file to hide by browsing..like here i choose cmd file to hide.then click 'ok'..after that click

on menu button 'encrypt'..

that's it ..it will encrypt your data in the music file ..it will take some time depend upon the data size.

4.decode.

it's is very easy ..open deep sound...just navigate to the out put folder where you save your encrypted file...and

click on the file...it will ask you for password...provide it...click ok...

then click on the menu button ..decrypt...it

will decrypt the hidden file where the encrypt music placed..

like in my case it was store in document folder..

that's it..

read my another article on steganography

that's it for today..until next article..this is

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STEGANOGRAPHY-STEGHIDE

2015-10-31T15:20:00.001-07:00

Today we are going to stretch the previous article on steganography...with some different concept..with some different tools in other OS like in linux..

their is an popular tool for the linux OS named STEGHIDE...
it also be available for windows to...

how to download this tool in windows and linux OS ??

FOR LINUX...
press Ctr+Alt+T ,to open up your terminal window...now type
Command:
sudo aptitude install steghide

or

sudo apt-get install steghide

FOR WINDOW
go to this link and download steghide .
It is in zip format just extract the file..

http://steghide.sourceforge.net/download.php

now here is the manual to use the steghide ..you can read it for your knowledge..
but i am not going to cover all the command described in below..
but mostly 80 % commands will be used here in the demonstration.
So lets start without wasting time...

actually steghide tool is used for hiding .txt/.pdf file into images of format JPEG, BMP, WAV and AU.
Actually freely said ..their is know restriction on hiding file type...but here i am going to use only .txt format .

NOTE :
the size of the cover file (image) must be graeter than the size of embed file(file to be hide).
Before we start the demonstration..you have to place your image ,where you have to hide your secret file ,in the desktop and change you directory to Desktop..it's not recommended but it will make easy to use.

Step 1.
So first step is to check the capacity of the image that how much data it can hide.
Command :
heck how much of data we can embed into the picture.
command :

steghide info image.jpg

// in place of the image.png use the image name where you want to hide the data

step 2:
create an txt file throught the terminal/commmand prompt
command :

echo > file_name.txt “write your secret massage”

step 3.
check what is the size of the file_name.txt..
command :
du -b file_name.txt

output of this command shown in number which is the size of the txt file in byte.
26 byte

Step 4.
now let start the encryption...

command :

steghide embed -cf image.jpg -ef file_name.txt -sf text_hidden_img.jpg

now let understand what this command said..

embed – this is use for hiding the text in the image.

-cf – cover file mean where you have to hide your text file-format

-ef -embed file means which file you have to hide

-sf – it's an generated image where your text file is hidden.

Actually this one is not necessary but if you are checking how this tool work then it will be useful for understanding.

as you can see that an another named image is craeted in desktop with named.. secret_hide_img.jpg.

after the command executed it will ask for you to type your passphase...just type it.

HOW TO EXTRACT THE SECRET FILE FROM THE IMAGE

NOW HOW TO EXTRACT THE INFORMATION THROUGH THE ENCRYPTED IMAGE..

COMMAND :

steghide extract -sf < text_hidden_img.jpg>

this will ask for the passphase...give it..
again ask for the is it file exits.?

Press 'y'..
it will reaveal your secret file.

But if you want to reaveal your secret file in different name..if you don't understand see the screenshot below.

Command :

steghide extract -sf text_hidden_img.jpg -xf reveal_secert_file.txt

and you see it will reveal your file with different name.
like here with name reavealed_secret.txt

instaed of this result if you want to know about the incrypted image ,information..
you will under stand what iw anna say...

here you can see in the screenshots that..that image capacity is given.. 1.4 kb and in the next screenshot...it just tell me about the embded file information that..it's size is 26 byte.
encryption : rijndael-128, cbc
//actually this is an default encryption..if you want to know more please read manual just below..

for this information you have to write the command...

command :

steghide info <secret_hide_img.jpg>

after this it will ask that do you try to get embded file information.? just press 'y'.

tha's it .

here i wanna show some more thing that after embded file and before imbded file in image ..what it will change in image..

it will change only size ..all other remain same.

READ PREVIOUS ARTICLE ON STEGANOGRAPHY...

if you intrested more please read the manual...

SYNOPSIS
steghide command [ arguments ]

DESCRIPTION
Steghide is a steganography program that is able to hide
data in various kinds of image- and audio-files. The
color- respectivly sample-frequencies are not changed thus
making the embedding resistant against first-order statis
tical tests.

Features include the compression of the embedded data,
encryption of the embedded data and automatic integrity
checking using a checksum. The JPEG, BMP, WAV and AU file
formats are supported for use as cover file. There are no
restrictions on the format of the secret data.

Steghide uses a graph-theoretic approach to steganography.
You do not need to know anything about graph theory to use
steghide and you can safely skip the rest of this para
graph if you are not interested in the technical details.
The embedding algorithm roughly works as follows: At
first, the secret data is compressed and encrypted. Then a
sequence of postions of pixels in the cover file is cre
ated based on a pseudo-random number generator initialized
with the passphrase (the secret data will be embedded in
the pixels at these positions). Of these positions those
that do not need to be changed (because they already con
tain the correct value by chance) are sorted out. Then a
graph-theoretic matching algorithm finds pairs of posi
tions such that exchanging their values has the effect of
embedding the corresponding part of the secret data. If
the algorithm cannot find any more such pairs all
exchanges are actually performed. The pixels at the
remaining positions (the positions that are not part of
such a pair) are also modified to contain the embedded
data (but this is done by overwriting them, not by
exchanging them with other pixels). The fact that (most
of) the embedding is done by exchanging pixel values
implies that the first-order statistics (i.e. the number
of times a color occurs in the picture) is not changed.
For audio files the algorithm is the same, except that
audio samples are used instead of pixels.

The default encryption algorithm is Rijndael with a key
size of 128 bits (which is AES - the advanced encryption
standard) in the cipher block chaining mode. If you do not
trust this combination for whatever reason feel free to
choose another algorithm/mode combination (information
about all possible algorithms and modes is displayed by
the encinfo command). The checksum is calculated using
the CRC32 algorithm.

info, --info
Display information about a cover or stego file.

encinfo, --encinfo
Display a list of encryption algorithms and modes
that can be used. No arguments required.

version, --version
Display short version information. No arguments
required.

license, --license
Display steghide's license. No arguments required.

help, --help
Display a help screen. No arguments required.

EMBEDDING
You should use the embed command if you want to embed
secret data in a cover file. The following arguments can
be used with the embed command:

-ef, --embedfile filename
Specify the file that will be embedded (the file
that contains the secret message). Note that
steghide embeds the original file name in the stego
file. When extracting data (see below) the default
behaviour is to save the embedded file into the
current directory under its original name. If this
argument is omitted or filename is -, steghide will
read the secret data from standard input.

-cf, --coverfile filename
Specify the cover file that will be used to embed
data. The cover file must be in one of the follow
ing formats: AU, BMP, JPEG or WAV. The file-format
will be detected automatically based on header
information (the extension is not relevant). If
this argument is omitted or filename is -, steghide
will read the cover file from standard input.

-sf, --stegofile filename
Specify the name for the stego file that will be
created. If this argument is omitted when calling
steghide with the embed command, then the modifica
tions to embed the secret data will be made
directly to the cover file without saving it under
Specify the compression level. The compression
level can be any number in 1...9 where 1 means best
speed and 9 means best compression.

-Z, --dontcompress
Do not compress the secret data before embedding
it.

-K, --nochecksum
Do not embed a CRC32 checksum. You can use this if
the secret data already contains some type of
checksum or if you do not want to embed those extra
32 bits needed for the checksum.

-N, --dontembedname
Do not embed the file name of the secret file. If
this option is used, the extractor needs to specify
a filename to tell steghide where to write the
embedded data.

EXTRACTING
If you have received a file that contains a message that
has been embedded with steghide, use the extract command
to extract it. The following arguments can be used with
this command.

-sf, --stegofile filename
Specify the stego file (the file that contains
embedded data). If this argument is omitted or
filename is -, steghide will read a stego file from
standard input.

-xf, --extractfile filename
Create a file with the name filename and write the
data that is embedded in the stego file to it. This
option overrides the filename that is embedded int
the stego file. If this argument is omitted, the
embedded data will be saved to the current direc
tory under its original name.

GETTING INFORMATION ABOUT A COVER/STEGO FILE
You can use the info command to get some information about
a cover or stego file (for example the capacity). You
might want to use this if you have received a file and you
are not sure if it contains an embedded message or if you

COMMON OPTIONS
The following options can be used with all commands (where
it makes sense).

-p, --passphrase
Use the string following this argument as the
passphrase. If your passphrase contains whitespace,
you have to enclose it in quotes, for example: -p
"a very long passphrase".

-v, --verbose
Display detailed information about the status of
the embedding or extracting process.

-q, --quiet
Supress information messages.

-f, --force
Always overwrite existing files.

FILE NAME OPTIONS
All file name arguments (-cf, -ef, -sf, -xf) also accept -
as a filename which makes steghide use standard input or
standard output (whichever makes sense). Omitting the cor
responding file name argument will have the same effect as
using - with two exceptions: If -sf is omitted for the
embed command, then the modifications will be done
directly in the cover file. If -xf is omitted for extrac
tion, then the embedded data will be saved under the file
name that is embedded in the stego file. So when you want
to be sure that standard input/output is used, use - as
filename.
read my next article on steganography..

DEEP SOUND -STEGNOGRAPHY

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