Happiness Meditations

Justice and the Moral Limits of Markets

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Thu, 8 Mar 2012 07:42:00 +0700

The Strenght of America vs The Strenght of China

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Thu, 8 Mar 2012 07:39:00 +0700

The Happiness Matrix - Testimonials

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Thu, 8 Mar 2012 07:36:00 +0700

Stress Management and Happiness in Life

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Thu, 8 Mar 2012 07:32:00 +0700

How to Lose Weight Fast - The truth about Fat Burning Foods and Weight ...

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 1 Feb 2012 00:45:00 +0700

The Principles of Organic Gardening

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Mon, 7 Nov 2011 01:02:00 +0700

There are many reasons why you should learn organic gardening principles. Maybe you want to start a garden, but you don’t want to make a big impact on the environment. Maybe you want to change your current garden for the better. You can even put some delicious, organic fruits and vegetables on your table. No matter what your motivations are, you should always consider certain things when building a garden.

The goal of your organic garden should be to put out as much produce while using as little outside resources as possible. According to organic principles, this means that you should not buy any nutrients, fertilizers, or pesticides from the store. It’s even better to avoid using water from your hose, and instead gather rain water. Instead, you should try to use your resources as best you can to create a healthy crop. It’s a bigger challenge, but it’s worth it in the end.

Instead of throwing away vegetables and other food waste, you should start a compost heap. This is, by far, the best way to manufacture your own nutrients for your garden. You will find that there is no shortage of material to add to your compost heap. When you mow the lawn, put all of the clipped grass into the heap. Put all of your food waste into the pile. Once it’s hot and ready, you can spread it on your garden and watch the plants flourish.

Some people take organic gardening to the next level, and have chickens roam their garden. Chickens are surprisingly easy to sustain. They spread helpful manure for you, and you will probably never have to buy chicken feed. For food, the concept of the “maggot bin” is popular. Everything you can’t put into the compost heap – such as leftover meat products and dead varmints – for example, if you kill a rabbit that has been eating your vegetables. You place it all into the maggot bin, and within a few weeks it’s full of huge, scrumptious maggots that you can feed your chickens.

With these systems in place, almost none of your leftovers are put to waste. You simply have to start thinking along the lines of saving all of the nutrients you can, and converting them into energy that your garden can use to grow healthy, delicious fruits. It’s a cheaper way to maintain a garden, it’s healthier for the environment, and it creates better, more natural products.

From Wellness to Happiness

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Mon, 9 May 2011 10:33:00 +0700

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What is the definition of happiness anyway?

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Mon, 24 Jan 2011 15:14:00 +0700

So many ways to define happiness. Here are some definitions of happiness to inspire you.

Finding happiness is like finding yourself. You don't find happiness, you make happiness. You choose happiness. Self-actualization is a process of discovering who you are, who you want to be and paving the way to happiness by doing what brings YOU the most meaning and contentment to your life over the long run.
This definition of happiness by David Leonhardt, The Happy Guy

True happiness is not attained through self-gratification, but through fidelity to a worthy purpose.
This definition of happiness by Helen Keller

You will never be happier than you expect. To change your happiness, change your expectation.
This definition of happiness by Bette Davis

Hope is itself a species of happiness, and, perhaps, the chief happiness which this world affords.
This definition of happiness by Samuel Johnson

Happiness is man's greatest aim in life. Tranquility and rationality are the cornerstones of happiness.
This definition of happiness by Epicurus

How do you define happiness?
Send us your happy thought or definition of happiness,
and we just might publish it.

Realize that true happiness lies within you. Waste no time and effort searching for peace and contentment and joy in the world outside. Remember that there is no happiness in having or in getting, but only in giving. Reach out. Share. Smile. Hug. Happiness is a perfume you cannot pour on others without getting a few drops on yourself.
This definition of happiness by Og Mandino

Happiness is contagious...when you reflect happiness, then all others around you catch the happy bug and are happy, too.
This definition of happiness by Jennifer Leese

Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.
This definition of happiness by Mahatma Gandhi

Happiness is an inner state of well being. A state of well being enables you to profit from your highest: thoughts, wisdom, intelligence, common sense, emotions, health, and spiritual values in your life.
This definition of happiness by Lionel Ketchian

Sometimes your joy is the source of your smile, but sometimes your smile can be the source of your joy.
This definition of happiness by Thich Nhat Hanh

A happy person is not a person in a certain set of circumstances, but rather a person with a certain set of attitudes.
This definition of happiness by Hugh Downs

Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.
This definition of happiness by Aristotle

There is a French proverb: To live happy, live hidden. Where can Brigitte Bardot hide?
This definition of happiness by Brigitte Bardot

Money can't buy you happiness, but it does bring you a more pleasant form of misery.
This definition of happiness by Spike Milligan

Happiness ain't a thing in itself--it's only a contrast with something that ain't pleasant.
This definition of happiness by Mark Twain

Shared joy is a double joy; shared sorrow is half sorrow.
This definition of happiness is a Swedish proverb

Happiness is the only sanction of life; where happiness fails, existence remains a mad and lamentable experiment.
This definition of happiness by George Santayana

I give thanks for the joy and happiness in life and trust that God does indeed want me to be happy.
This definition of happiness by Marty Varnadoe Dow

Happiness comes only from appreciating what you have right now. You can even be happy by appreciating your troubles because they are helping to build your character.
This definition of happiness by Harriet Meyerson

It is not easy to find happiness in ourselves and it is not possible to find it elsewhere.
This definition of happiness by Agnes Rippler

Happiness is mostly a by-product of doing what makes us feel fulfilled.
This definition of happiness by Dr. Benjamin Spock

Thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, And the life of the candle will not be shortened. Happiness never decreases by being shared.
This definition of happiness by Buddha

Happiness is the only good. The time to be happy is now. The place to be happy is here. The way to be happy is to make others so.
This definition of happiness by Robert G. Ingersoll

Happiness: An agreeable sensation arising from contemplating the misery of another.
This definition of happiness by Ambrose Bierce

Life can be divided into the horrible and miserable.
This definition of happiness by Woody Allen

There is work that is work and there is play that is play; there is play that is work and work that is play. And in only one of these lie happiness.
This definition of happiness by by Gelett Burgess

There is no cosmetic for beauty like happiness.
This definition of happiness by the Countess of Blessington

Happiness is not merely a life lived by accumulating moments of pleasure. On the contrary, happiness is a long lasting enduring enjoyment of life, it is being in love with living. It is your reward for achieving a good character and personal rational values in life. Some important values are a productive career, romance, friendship and hobbies.
This definition of happiness by Dr. Ellen Kenner.

By all means marry: If you get a good wife, you'll become happy; if you get a bad one, you'll become a philosopher.
This definition of happiness by Socrates.

Happiness is not in having or being—it is in the doing.
This definition of happiness by Lillian Watson.

Happiness is living in a state of freely choosing to create and exchange one's rational values with others.
This definition of happiness by John Roberts

But what is happiness except the simple harmony between a man and the life he leads.
This definition of happiness by Albert Camus

The greatest part of our happiness depends on our dispositions, not our circumstances.
This definition of happiness by Martha Washington.

Happiness is a thing to be practiced, like the violin.
This definition of happiness by John Lubbock

Happiness... is not a destination: it is a manner of traveling. Happiness is not an end in itself. It is a by-product of working, playing, loving and living.
This definition of happiness by Haim Ginott.

Happiness for me is to know that my life has meaning and purpose, and that every day my life touches others in a positive way--whether to make them laugh or learn or both at once!
This definition of happiness by Deanna Mascle

To be truly happy and contented, you must let go of what it means to be happy or content.
This definition of happiness by Confucius

The true way to render ourselves happy is to love our work and find in it our pleasure.
This definition of happiness by Francoise de Motteville

Happiness is something you get as a by-product in the process of making something else.
This definition of happiness by Aldous Huxley

What's the use of happiness? It can't buy you money.
This definition of happiness by Henny Youngman

Happiness is when your mind is thinking through your heart.
This definition of happiness by Judi Singleton

Happiness is nothing more than good health and a bad memory.
This definition of happiness by Albert Schweitzer.

Whoever is happy will make others happy, too.
This definition of happiness by Mark Twain

Happiness can be defined, in part at least, as the fruit of the desire and ability to sacrifice what we want now for what we want eventually.
This definition of happiness by Stephen Covey

David Leonhardt is author of a self-help happiness book. He also runs a this happiness website.

RAVI SHANKAR - I AM MISSING YOU, O KRISHNA

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 14:59:00 +0700

GAMELAN JAWA SINOM

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 14:47:00 +0700

Relaxation: Therapy

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 14:40:00 +0700

Meditation Help - Relaxation

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 14:39:00 +0700

Peaceful Music Meditation and Relaxation

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 14:37:00 +0700

Meditation From A to Z

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 13:42:00 +0700

Meditation refers to any of a family of practices in which the practitioner trains his or her mind or self-induces a mode of consciousness in order to realize some benefit.

Meditation is generally an internal, personal practice and most often done without any external involvement, except perhaps prayer beads to count prayers. Meditation often involves invoking or cultivating a feeling or internal state, such as compassion, or attending to a specific focal point. The term can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques employed to cultivate the state.

There are dozens or more of specific styles of meditation practice. People may mean different things when they use the word, 'meditation'. Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as a component of numerous religious traditions, especially in monastic settings.

A 2007 study by the U.S. government found that nearly 9.4% of U.S. adults (over 20 million) have practiced meditation within the past 12 months, up from 7.6% (more than 15 million people) in 2002.

Since the 1960s, meditation has been the focus of increasing scientific research of uneven rigor and quality. In over 1000 published research studies, various methods of meditation have been linked to changes in metabolism, blood pressure, brain activation, and other bodily processes. Meditation has been used in clinical settings as a method of stress and pain reduction.

History of meditation
The word meditate stems from the Latin root meditatum, i.e. to ponder. In the Old Testament hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete. The Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio. The use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to the 12th century monk Guigo II.
Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in Buddhism and in Hinduism, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate. The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism, or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm. A recent edited book about "meditation", for example, included chapter contributions by authors describing Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Islamic, and Taoist traditions. Scholars have noted that "the term 'meditation' as it has entered contemporary usage" is parallel to the term "contemplation" in Christianity.
It is difficult to trace the history of meditation without considering the religious context within which it was practiced. Data suggest that even at prehistoric times older civilizations used repetitive, rhythmic chants and offerings to appease the gods. Some authors have even suggested the hypothesis that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the final phases of human biological evolution. References to meditation with Rishabha in Jainism go back to the prehistoric age with the Acaranga Sutra dating to 500 BC. Some of the earliest written records of meditation date to 1500BC in Hindu Vedantism. Around 500-600BC Taoists in China and Buddhists in India began to develop meditative practices.
In the west, by 20BCE Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative techniques.
The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BCE considers Indian Buddhist meditation as a step towards salvation. By the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100CE included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other oriental countries, and in 653 the first meditation hall was opened in Japan. Returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for Zazen.
The Islamic practice of Dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an since the 8th or 9th century. By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words. Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not be proved. Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer.
Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.
By the 18th century, the study of Buddhism in the West was a topic for intellectuals. The philosopher Schopenhauer discussed it, and Voltaire asked for toleration towards Buddhists. The first English translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead was published in 1927.
Secular forms of meditation were introduced in India in the 1950s as a Westernized form of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in the United States and Europe in the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self improvement. Both spiritual and secular forms of meditation have been subjects of scientific analyses. Research on meditation began in 1931, with scientific research increasing dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s. Since the beginning of the '70s more than a thousand studies of meditation in English-language have been reported. However, after 60 years of scientific study, the exact mechanism at work in meditation remains unclear.

Modern definitions and Western models
As early as 1971, Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditation is." As of 2010, there remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved universal or widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community, as one study recently noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".
In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate broadly similar practices, or sets of practices, that are found across many cultures and traditions.
Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been the need to recognize the particularities of the many various traditions. There may be differences between the theories of one tradition of meditation as to what it means to practice meditation. The differences between multiple various traditions, which have grown up a great distance apart from each other, may be even more stark. The defining of what, 'meditation', is has caused difficulties for modern scientists. Scientific reviews have proposed that researchers attempt to more clearly define the type of meditation being practiced in order that the results of their studies be made more clear. Taylor noted that to refer only to meditation from a particular faith (e.g., "Hindu" or "Buddhist")
is not enough, since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of meditation comes are quite different and even within a single tradition differ in complex ways. The specific name of a school of thought or a teacher or the title of a specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular type of meditation.
Within a specific context, more precise meanings are not uncommonly given the word "meditation." For example, 'meditation', is sometimes the translation of meditatio in Latin, which means the third, of four steps, of Lectio Divina, an ancient form of Christian prayer. 'Meditation' may also refer to the second of the three steps of Yoga in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, a step called dhyāna in Sanskrit. Meditation may refer to a mental or spiritual state that may be attained by such practices, and may also refer to the practice of that state.
This article mainly focuses on meditation in the broad sense of a type of discipline, found in various forms in many cultures, by which the practitioner attempts to get beyond the reflexive, "thinking" mind (sometimes called "discursive thinking" or "logic" ) into a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state. The terms "meditative practice" and "meditation" are mostly used here in this broad sense. However, usage may vary somewhat by context - readers should be aware that in quotations, or in discussions of particular traditions, more specialized meanings of "meditation" may sometimes be used (with meanings made clear by context whenever possible).

Western typologies
Ornstein noted that "most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief".
Progress on the "intractable" problem of defining meditation was attempted by a recent study of views common to 7 experts trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (clinical or Eastern-derived) forms of meditation. The study identified "three main criteria... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode. Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence". However, the study cautioned that "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances'... or by the related prototype model of concepts".
In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in a variety of ways; many of these emphasize the role of attention (see table at right).Oftentimes, in the West, meditation is classified in two broad categories, so noted in the following excerpt,
direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative mediation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.
Other typologies have also been proposed, and some techniques shift among major categories. Evidence from neuroimaging studies suggests that major categories of meditation, defined by how they direct attention, appear to generate different brainwave patterns. Some evidence also suggests that using different focus objects may generate different brainwave patterns.
In Concentration meditation the meditator holds attention on a particular object while consistently bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object. For example, in anapanasati, one pays attention to the movement of one's breath.
In Mindfulness meditation, the meditator sits comfortably and silently, centering attention by focusing awareness on an object or process. The meditator is usually encouraged to maintain an open focus or monitoring. An example of a more detailed description of the process of mindfulness meditation:
In mindfulness meditation, the subject sits comfortably, in silence, centering attention by focusing mental awareness an object or process (either the breathing process, a sound, a mantra koan or riddle evoking questions, a visualisation, or an exercise) and then consciously is encouraged to scan their thoughts in an open focus, shifting freely from one perception to the next (Kutz et al., 1985a, b). No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a `no effort’ attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an `anchor’ (Teasdale et al., 1995) brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.

Meditation styles
Religious and spiritual
Some meditative traditions, such as yoga or tantra, are common to several religions.

Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. `Abdu'l-Bahá is quoted as saying:
Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves.
Although the founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى‎) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by ablutions. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء "splendor" or "glory") which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".

Buddhism
The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment. -Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying
The historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautama is said to have achieved enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree, after which The Buddha returned to the world where he founded the monastic way of life and taught the dharma, or truth, in order to liberate all living beings. Monks live a life of poverty, chastity, prayer, and meditation. The daily routine of a monastery differs from place to place, as does the sort of meditation practiced there. There are literally hundreds of specific Buddhist meditative methods.
Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind, and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.
The traditional goal of Buddhists is, as a part of The Noble Eightfold Path, reaching enlightenment, which means liberation from the bonds of delusion and suffering. Meditation is also practiced for health benefits, which have been observed using the scientific method.
Classically, Buddhists have characterized Buddhist meditation as the cultivation (bhavana) of calm abiding, known as shamatha, with the subsequent development of vipassana, or special insight into the nature of reality.
Anapanasati, or watching the breath, has been practiced since the time of The Buddha, and is still practiced in Zen, Tibetan, and Theravadan Buddhism, as well as a part of multiple secular mindfulness programs in Western medicine. In this type of meditation one simply turns the attention to each breath. Anapanasati has been shown to improve one's ability to sustain one's attention to a particular stimuli as well as improving executive functioning and slowing the natural aging process of the brain.
Gampopa, a Tibetan sage, wrote about ten stages (bhumis) which one ascends gradually on his or her path to full enlightenment, "Generally, bodhisattvas of the ten bhumis have the same realization while in meditative absorption. If explained particularly, differences occur during in the post-meditative state. At the first bhumi, one realizes the meaning of entering into the all-pervading Dharmadatu. Through that, one achieves the sameness of oneself and others."
The state of meditative absorption mentioned above by Gampopa is also known as Dhyana, Mahamudra or Dzogchen as mentioned in the paragraph below, and, in Hinduism, as union of the Atman (Self) with the formless, omnipresent Brahman. For more information on this meditative state of union with the all-pervading and nondual in cultures around the world, see Mysticism. For additional information on Buddhist nondualism in particular, see Nondualism#Buddhism_general and Śūnyatā, as well as Prajnaparamita, Anatta, and The Heart Sutra.
Meditation in Tibetan Buddhism grew up as an integral part of religious life, alongside other practices like mantra recitation, study of sacred literature, hand mudras, prostrations, and so forth. All Tibetan schools share the traditional preliminary practice of Ngondro. After ngondro one begins either with Dzogchen in the Nyingma school or with Mahamudra in the Kagyu. There is a fairly wide consensus among lamas of both the Nyingma and Sarma schools that the end state of dzogchen and mahamudra are the same, that is, to awaken to the sky-like nature of mind.
The repetition of a phrase, a mantra, is common in Buddhism and especially in Tibetan Buddhism.[
In Tonglen, which originates from Tibetan Buddhism, one takes on the suffering of others on the in-breath and radiates total happiness and well-being to others on the out-breath.
Through a practice known as Tummo, meditators in Tibetan traditions have caused steam to rise off a wet and very cold towels, which would have caused people who have not yet developed the meditation to shiver uncontrollably.
Metta, or cultivation of compassion and loving-kindness is common to the Tibetan and Theravada lineages of Buddhism. In this practice one generates strong feelings of love and the desire for others to have happiness. This practice has been studied by the scientist Richard J. Davidson, who has shown that it modulates areas of the brain previously linked to empathy, emotion, and theory of mind.
In Zen Buddhism there are three common styles of zazen, or meditation. They are, the effortful repeating in one's mind of a riddle-like koan, in a burning, zealous effort to find an answer, shikantaza, or 'just sitting', and watching the sensations of the breath, also known as anapanasati. Satori - a flash of awareness that the universe is whole - is an essential element of Zen Buddhism. Some Zen people practice sitting with no thoughts, feelings, or anything, in pure awareness.
Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (sati) and concentration (samadhi). Traditional popular meditation subjects in Theravada include the breath (anapana) and loving-kindness (mettā).
In the past 20 years there have been a new crop of therapies to help people through mindfulness-based teachings and practices in the Western world, see Mindfulness (psychology) for more information. Also see Buddhism and psychology.
Science has joined hands with Buddhism to study the effects of meditation on the brain. The Dalai Lama takes part in the Mind and Life Dialogues, an annual conference of monks and leading Western professionals, where scientists share their research on topics related to attention, neuroplasticity, and the like. More information on the research on meditation can be accessed at Research on meditation, as well as the individual pages of each meditation style, such as Metta or Anapanasati, which can in turn be found out about at Buddhist meditation.
It has been suggested that the meditative traditions of Buddhism influenced the development of some aspects of Christian contemplative faith (see Buddhism and Christianity).[81] Buddhist meditation predated the recorded birth of Jesus by 500 years and was present in Asia Minor and Alexandria during Jesus' life.

Christianity
Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God.
The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.
Christian meditation contrasts with cosmic styles of eastern meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with discussions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings. Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, but are intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.
In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and eastern styles of meditation. In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".
Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.

Hinduism
The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita. According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad refers to meditation when it states that "having becoming calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (ātman) within oneself".
The practices of Yoga help one to control the mind and senses so the ego can be transcended and the true self (atman) experienced, leading to moksha or liberation. Yoga practice includes ethical discipline (Yamas), physical postures (Asanas), breath control (Pranayama), withdrawal from the senses (Pratyahara), one-pointedness of mind (Dharana), meditation (Dhyana), and eventually Samadhi, which is often described as the union of the Self (Atman) with the omnipresent , and is the ultimate goal of all Hindu Yogis.
Meditation in Hinduism is not confined to any school or sect and has expanded beyond Hinduism to the West. Today there is a new branch of Yoga which combines Christian practices with Yogic postures known popularly as Christian Yoga.
The influential modern proponent of Hinduism who first introduced Eastern philosophy to the West in the late 19th century, Swami Vivekananda, describes meditation as follows:
Meditation has been laid stress upon by all religions. The meditative state of mind is declared by the Yogis to be the highest state in which the mind exists. When the mind is studying the external object, it gets identified with it, loses itself. To use the simile of the old Indian philosopher: the soul of man is like a piece of crystal, but it takes the colour of whatever is near it. Whatever the soul touches ... it has to take its colour. That is the difficulty. That constitutes the bondage.

Islam
A Muslim is obliged to pray at least five times a day: once before sunrise, at noon, in the afternoon, after sunset, and once at night. During prayer a Muslim focuses and meditates on God by reciting the Qur'an and engaging in dhikr to reaffirm and strengthen the bond between Creator and creation, with the purpose of guiding the soul to truth. Such meditation is intended to help maintain a feeling of spiritual peace, in the face of whatever challenges work, social or family life may present.
The five daily acts of peaceful prayer are to serve as a template and inspiration for conduct during the rest of the day, transforming it, ideally, into one single and sustained meditation: even sleep is to be regarded as but another phase of that sustained meditation.
Meditative quiescence is said to have a quality of healing, and—in contemporary terminology—enhancing creativity. The Islamic prophet Muhammad spent sustained periods in contemplation and meditation. It was during one such period that Muhammad began to receive the revelations of the Qur'an.
Following are the styles, or schools, of meditation in the Muslim traditions:
• Tafakkur or tadabbur, literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.[102]
• Meditation in the Sufi traditions is largely based on a spectrum of mystical exercises, varying from one lineage to another. Such techniques, particularly the more audacious, can be, and often have been down the ages, a source of controversy among scholars. One broad group of ulema, followers of the great Al-Ghazzali, for example, have in general been open to such techniques and forms of devotion, while another such group, those who concur with the Ibn Taymiya, reject and generally condemn such procedures as species of bid'ah (Arabic: بدعة) or mere innovation.
Numerous Sufi traditions place emphasis upon a meditative procedure similar in its cognitive aspect to one of the two principal approaches to be found in the Buddhist traditions: that of the concentration technique, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, this is particularly evident, where muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, the latter being a Persian term that means concentration.

Jainism
Meditation has been one of the core spiritual practices undertaken by the Jains since the era of first Tirthankar Lord Rishabha. All the twenty four Tirthankars have practiced deep meditation and attained enlightenment. They are all shown in meditative postures in the images or idols. Lord Mahaveer practiced deep meditation for twelve years and attained enlightenment. The Acaranga Sutra dating to 500 BC, addresses the meditation system of Jainism in detail. Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu of 4th century BC practiced deep Mahaprana meditation for 12 years. Acharya Kundakunda of 1st century BCE, opened new dimensions of meditation in Jain tradition through his books Samayasara, Pravachansar, etc.
Jain meditation and spiritual practices system was referred to as salvation-path. It has three important parts, Right perception and faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct, which are also known as Three Jewels. Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attaining salvation, take the soul to complete freedom. It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana.
There exists a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha dhyāna one focuses on Mantra. A Mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara practice Mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind. Yogasana and Pranayama has been an important practice undertaken since ages. Pranayama – breathing exercises – are performed to strengthen the ten Pranas or vital energy. Yogasana and Pranayama balances the functioning of neuro-endocrine system of body and helps in achieving good physical, mental and emotional health.
Contemplation is a very old and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts. In agnya vichāya, one contemplates on seven facts - life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges into and that eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, when one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.
Acharya Mahapragya formulated Preksha Meditation in 1970s and presented a well organised system of meditation. It is an important milestone in the history of Jain meditation system. Yogasana and Pranayama, meditation, contemplation, Mantra, therapy are its integral parts. Numerous Preksha meditation centers came into existence around the world and numerous meditations camps are being organized to impart training in it.

Judaism
There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years. For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field—a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63), probably prayer.
Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was central to the prophets. In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), which means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה‎), which means to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.
The Jewish mystical tradition, Kabbalah, is inherently a meditative field of study. The Talmud refers to the advantage of the scholar over the prophet, as his understanding takes on intellectual, conceptual form, that deepens mental grasp, and can be communicated to others. The advantage of the prophet over the scholar is in the transcendence of their intuitive vision. The ideal illumination is achieved when the insights of mystical revelation are brought into conceptual structures. For example, Isaac Luria revealed new doctrines of Kabbalah in the 16th Century, that revolutionised and reordered its teachings into a new system. However, he did not write down his teachings, which were recounted and interpreted instead by his close circle of disciples. After a mystical encounter, called in Kabbalistic tradition an "elevation of the soul" into the spiritual realms, Isaac Luria said that it would take 70 years to explain all that he had experienced. As Kabbalah evolved its teachings took on successively greater conceptual form and philosophical system. Nonetheless, as is implied by the name of Kabbalah, which means "to receive", its exponents see that for the student to understand its teachings requires a spiritual intuitive reception that illuminates and personalises the intellectual structures.
Corresponding to the learning of Kabbalah are its traditional meditative practices, as for the Kabbalist, the ultimate purpose of its study is to understand and cleave to the Divine. Classic methods include the mental visualisation of the supernal realms the soul navigates through to achieve certain ends. One of the most well known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).
In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone. Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding. This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings.

New Age
New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, Yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional belief systems as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance. New Age meditation as practiced by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object. Many New Age groups combine yoga with meditation where the control of mind and breathing is said to be the highest yoga.
In Zen Yoga, Aaron Hoopes talks of meditation as being an avenue to touching the spiritual nature that exists within each of us.
At its core, meditation is about touching the spiritual essence that exists within us all. Experiencing the joy of this essence has been called enlightenment, nirvana, or even rebirth, and reflects a deep understanding within us. The spiritual essence is not something that we create through meditation. It is already there, deep within, behind all the barriers, patiently waiting for us to recognize it. One does not have to be religious or even interested in religion to find value in it. Becoming more aware of your self and realizing your spiritual nature is something that transcends religion. Anyone who has explored meditation knows that it is simply a path that leads to a new, more expansive way of seeing the world around us.

Sikhism
In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing one's attention on the attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body; 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centres. The top most energy level is called the tenth gate or Dasam Duaar. When one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.
Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householder's life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.
In the Sikh religion, kirtan, otherwise known as singing the hymns of God is seen as one of the most beneficial ways of aiding meditation, and it too in some ways is believed to be a meditation of one kind.

Taoism
Taoism includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions, said to have their principles described in the I Ching, Tao Te Ching, Chuang Tzu and Tao Tsang among other texts. The multitude of schools relating to Qigong, Neigong, Internal alchemy, Daoyin and Zhan zhuang is a large, diverse array of breath-training practices in aid of meditation with much influence on later Chinese Buddhism and with much influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese as well as some Japanese martial arts. The Chinese martial art T'ai Chi Ch'uan is named after the well-known focus for Taoist and Neo-Confucian meditation, the T'ai Chi T'u, and is often referred to as “meditation in motion”.
"The Guanzi essay 'Neiye' 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C."
Often Taoist Internal martial arts, especially Tai Chi Chuan are thought of as moving meditation. A common phrase being, "movement in stillness" referring to energetic movement in passive Qigong and seated Taoist meditation; with the converse being "stillness in movement", a state of mental calm and meditation in the tai chi form.
In a form of meditation using visualization, such as Chinese Qi Gong, the practitioner concentrates on flows of energy (Qi) in the body, starting in the abdomen and then circulating through the body, until dispersed.

Jiddu Krishnamurti
Indian-born philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti used the term "meditation" to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind, or to consciously achieve a specific goal or state:
Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.
For Krishnamurti, meditation was choiceless awareness in the present:
Meditation is a state of mind which looks at everything with complete attention, totally, not just parts of it. And no one can teach you how to be attentive. If any system teaches you how to be attentive, then you are attentive to the system and that is not attention. Meditation is one of the greatest arts in life - perhaps the greatest, and one cannot possibly learn it from anybody, that is the beauty of it. It has no technique and therefore no authority. When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy - if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation.[
Using beads
Many religions have their own prayer beads. Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread. The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Each set of ten is separated by another bead. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads, as well as those used in Jainism and Buddhist prayer beads. Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantra until the person has gone all the way around the mala, which is counted as 100, with an extra 8 there to compensate for missed beads. The Muslim mishbaha has 99 beads. Prayers and specific meditations of each religion are different and there are theological reasons for the number of beads. Prayer beads may come in different colors, sizes and designs. However, the central purpose, which is to pray repetitively and to meditate, is the same across all religions that use them as a prayer tool.

Secular
According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, a U.S. government entity within the National Institutes of Health that advocates various forms of Alternative Medicine, "Meditation may be practiced for many reasons, such as to increase calmness and physical relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope with illness, or to enhance overall health and well-being."
Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including Transcendental Meditation and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.
Autogenic training was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation; however, autogenic training is devoid of any mysticism.
Australian psychiatrist Dr Ainslie Meares published, in the 1960s, a book entitled Relief Without Drugs, in which he recommended several simple and secular relaxation techniques, based on Hindu practices, as a means to alleviate anxiety, stress and chronic physical pain.

The 1999 book The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism by Paul Wilson has a discussion and instruction in a form of secular meditation.

Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.
Acem Meditation has been developed in the Scandinavian countries since 1966. It is non-religious technique with no requirement for change of lifestyle or adaption to any system of belief.
Sound and light techniques of meditation are based on the results of studies with electroencephalography in long-term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a frequency-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz, the resulting measured EEG will show a 5 Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols. This is the justification behind such inventions as the Dreamachine and binaural beats. Binaural beats and other audio techniques form the basis of the techniques at The Monroe Institute.

Mindfulness
Over the past 20 years, mindfulness-based programs have become increasingly important to Westerners and in the Western medical and psychological community as a means ofelping people, whether they be clinically sick or healthy. Jon Kabat-Zinn, who founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program in 1979, has defined mindfulness as 'moment to moment non-judgmental awareness.' Several methods are used during time set aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and also during our daily lives, such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat. Scientifically demonstrated benefits of mindfulness practice include an increase in the body's ability to heal and a shift from a tendency to use the right prefrontal cortex to a tendency to use the left prefrontal cortex, associated with a trend away from depression and anxiety and towards happiness, relaxation, and emotional balance.
Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. In this practice one tenses and then relaxes muscle groups in a sequential pattern whilst concentrating on how they feel. The method has been seen to help people with many conditions especially extreme anxiety.

Transcendental Meditation
The Transcendental Meditation or TM technique is a form of mantra meditation introduced in India in 1955 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917–2008). Taught in a standardized, seven-step course over 4 days by certified teachers, it involves the silent use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.

Modern cross-cultural dissemination
Methods of meditation have been cross-culturally disseminated at various times throughout history, such as Buddhism going to East Asia, and Sufi practices going to many Islamic societies. Of special relevance to the modern world is the dissemination of meditative practices since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of numerous Asian-derived practices to the West. Interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also been revived, and these have been disseminated to a limited extent in Asian countries.
Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity," and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s." But The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda... [founded] various Vedanta ashrams... Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha ... [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen...
More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. Observers have suggested many types of explanations for this interest in Eastern meditation (and revived Western contemplation). Thomas Keating, a founder of Contemplative Outreach, wrote that "the rush to the East is a symptom of what is lacking in the West. There is a deep spiritual hunger that is not being satisfied in the West." Daniel Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested that the shift in interest from "established religions" to meditative practices "is caused by the scarcity of the personal experience of these [meditation-derived] transcendental states - the living spirit at the common core of all religions."
Another suggested contributing factor is the rise of communist political power in Asia, which "set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West", namely the Tibetan Diaspora.

In a Western context
In the late 19th century, Theosophists adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and other Indian religions. Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the Sanskrit dhāraṇā, dhyana, samadhi and bhavana.

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts. Beginning with the Theosophists meditation has been employed in the West by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as Yoga, New Age and the New Thought movement.
Meditation techniques have also been used by Western theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Jacobson is credited with developing the initial progressive relaxation procedure. These techniques are used in conjunction with other behavioral techniques. Originally used with systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques are now used with other clinical problems. Meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback-induced relaxation are a few of the techniques used with relaxation training. One of the eight essential phases of EMDR (developed by Shapiro), bringing adequate closure to the end of each session, also entails the use of relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a technically eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as a technique used in individual therapy.

From the point of view of psychology and physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness. Such altered states of consciousness may correspond to altered neuro-physiologic states.
Meditation, religion, and drugs
Many traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Transcendental Meditation, Buddhism, Hinduism, and other religions, advise members to not consume intoxicants.
The fourth of the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions states that adherents must not ingest, "intoxicating drinks and drugs causing heedlessness." Edwin Arnold, in his famous poem The Light of Asia speaks of abstinence like this: "Shun drugs and drinks which work the wit abuse; Clear minds, clean bodies, need no Soma juice."

On the other hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been a central feature in the rituals of many religions, in order to produce altered states of consciousness. In the Rastafari movement, cannabis is believed to be a gift from Jah and a sacred herb to be used regularly, while alcohol is considered to debase man. Bob Marley meditated daily on his long hammock in a corridor-like room with wooden floor and shutters. In several traditional shamanistic ceremonies, drugs are used as agents of ritual. Salvia divinorum had a long history of use amongst the Mazatec shamans, who used it to produce visionary states of consciousness in spiritual healing rituals. Native Americans are known to use peyote, as part of religious ceremony, continuing today.
During the 1960s, eastern meditation traditions and psychedelics such as LSD became popular in America, and it was suggested that LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end. Many practictioners of eastern traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The Master Game, Robert S de Ropp writes that the "door to full consciousness" can be glimpsed with the aid of substances, but to "pass beyond the door" requires yoga and meditation. Other authors, such as Rick Strassman, believe that the relationship between religious experiences reached by way of meditation and through the use of psychedelic drugs deserves further exploration. Also see Psychedelic psychotherapy.

Physical postures
Various postures are taken up in meditation. Sitting, supine, and standing postures are used. The bodily positions applied during Yoga are found at the Wikipedia page Asana.

Most well-known in the Buddhist and Hindu traditions, as well as in their modern forms, are the full-lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, and kneeling positions. Meditation can also be practiced while walking, such as kinhin, or doing simple repetitive tasks, as in Zen samu, or work which encourages mindfulness.

Scientific studies
Over 1,000 publications on meditation have appeared to date. Many of the early studies lack a theoretically unified perspective, oftentimes resulting in poor methodological quality, as discussed in Meditation#Definitions and scope.
A review of scientific studies identified relaxation, concentration, an altered state of awareness, a suspension of logical thought and the maintenance of a self-observing attitude as the behavioral components of meditation; it is accompanied by a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body that alter metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain activation. Meditation has been used in clinical settings as a method of stress and pain reduction. Meditation has also been studied specifically for its effects on stress.
In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research. The result was mixed: some studies showed substantial, detectable, changes in the brain of people who meditated, while other studies were very poor in quality and could not be reliably depended upon. More rigor in future studies was called for.
More recent research suggests that meditation may increase attention spans. A recent randomized study published in Psychological Science reported that practicing meditation led to doing better on a task related to sustained attention.

In popular culture
Various forms of meditation have been described in popular culture sources. In particular, science fiction stories such as Frank Herbert's Dune, Star Trek, Artemis Fowl, Star Wars, Maskman, Lost Horizon by James Hilton, and Stargate SG-1 have featured characters who practice one form of meditation or another. Meditation also appears as the overt theme of novels such as Jack Kerouac's The Dharma Bums and Herman Hesse's Siddhartha. Usually these practices are inspired by real-world meditation traditions, but sometimes they have very different methods and purposes.

Meditations on First Philosophy

noreply@blogger.com (HaeM) — Wed, 22 Dec 2010 11:46:00 +0700

Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated) is a philosophical treatise written by René Descartes and first published in 1641 (in Latin). The French translation (by the Duke of Luynes with the supervision of Descartes) was published in 1647 as Méditations Metaphysiques. The original Latin title is Meditationes de prima philosophia, in qua Dei existentia et animæ immortalitas demonstratur.

The book is made up of six meditations, in which Descartes first discards all belief in things which are not absolutely certain, and then tries to establish what can be known for sure. The meditations were written as if he were meditating for 6 days: each meditation refers to the last one as "yesterday". (In fact, Descartes began work on the Meditations in 1639).

The Meditations consist of the presentation of Descartes' metaphysical system in its most detailed level and in the expanding of Descartes' philosophical system, which he first introduced in the fourth part of his Discourse on Method (1637). Descartes' metaphysical thought is also found in the Principles of Philosophy (1644), which the author intended to be a philosophy guidebook.

Concerning Those Things That Can Be Called into Doubt

The first way that Descartes tries to undermine his beliefs is by considering the fact that he remembers that his senses have deceived him before. If he has been misled by sensory information in the past (e.g. he judged that the stick in the water was bent, when in fact it was straight), then he may be deceived now, "and it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once."

He goes on to suggest more powerful reasons to doubt that his beliefs are true. In general, his method is that of forming skeptical hypotheses — methodic doubt. In the first meditation, he considers whether he is mad, dreaming, or deceived by an evil daemon.

The general form of these arguments is:

1. If I am dreaming/deceived, then my beliefs are unreliable.

Descartes' goal — as stated at the beginning of the meditation — is to suspend judgment about any of his beliefs which are even slightly doubtful. The skeptical scenarios show that all of the beliefs which he considers in the first meditation, including at the very least all of his beliefs about the physical world, are doubtful. So he decides to suspend judgment. He will henceforth give up all of his beliefs about the physical world.

Concerning the Nature of the Human Mind: That It Is Better Known Than the Body

In Meditation II: Concerning The Nature of the Human Mind: That It Is Better Known Than The Body, Descartes lays out a pattern of thought, sometimes called representationalism, in response to the doubts forwarded in Meditation I. He identifies five steps in this theory:

1. We only have access to the world of our ideas; things in the world are only accessed indirectly.

2. These ideas are understood to include all of the contents of the mind, including perceptions, images, memories, concepts, beliefs, intentions, decisions, etc.

3. Ideas and the things they represent are separate from each other.

4. These represented things are many times "external" to the mind.

5. It is possible for these ideas to constitute either accurate or false representations.

Descartes argues that this representational theory disconnects the world from the mind, leading to the need for some sort of bridge to span the separation and provide good reasons to believe that the ideas accurately represent the outside world. The first plank he uses in constructing this bridge can be found in the following excerpt:

I have convinced myself that there is nothing in the world — no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Doesn't it follow that I don't exist? No, surely I must exist if it's me who is convinced of something. But there is a deceiver, supremely powerful and cunning whose aim is to see that I am always deceived. But surely I exist, if I am deceived. Let him deceive me all he can, he will never make it the case that I am nothing while I think that I am something. Thus having fully weighed every consideration, I must finally conclude that the statement "I am, I exist" must be true whenever I state it or mentally consider it. (Descartes, Meditation II: On the Nature of the Human Mind, Which Is Better Known Than the Body).

In other words, one's consciousness implies one's existence. In one of Descartes' replies to objections to the book, he summed this up in the phrase, "I am, I exist", which is often confused with the famous quote, "I think, therefore I am".

Once he has secured his existence, however, Descartes seeks to find out what "I" is. He rejects the typical method which looks for a definition, e.g. Rational Animal, because the words used in the definition would then need to be defined. He seeks simple terms that do not need to be defined in this way, but whose meaning can just be "seen." From these self-evident truths, complex terms can be built up.

The first of these self-evident truths is Descartes' proof of existence turned on its head:

But what then am I? A thinking thing. And what is that? Something that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and also senses and has mental images. (Descartes, Meditation II: On the Nature of the Human Mind, Which Is Better Known Than the Body).

To define himself further, Descartes turns to the example of wax. He determines that wax isn't wax because of its color, texture or shape, as all of these things can change and the substance still be wax. He believes that wax is perceived "by the intellect alone" (Meditation II: On the Nature of the Human Mind, Which Is Better Known Than the Body). Therefore, he distinguishes between ordinary perception and judgment. When one understands the mathematical principles of the substance, such as its expansion under heat, figure and motion, the knowledge of the wax can be clear and distinct.

If a substance such as wax can be known in this fashion, then the same must be of ourselves. The self, then, is not determined by what we sense of ourselves — these hands, this head, these eyes — but by simply the things one thinks. Thus, one "can't grasp anything more easily or plainly than [his] mind."

Descartes concludes that he exists because he is a "thinking thing." If he is the thing that can be deceived and can think and have thoughts, then he must exist.

Concerning God, That He Exists

Descartes proposed that there are three types of ideas: Innate, Factitious, and Adventitious. Innate ideas are and have always been within us, factitious or invented ideas come from our imagination, and Adventitious ideas come from experiences of the world. He argues that the idea of God is Innate and placed in us by God and he rejected the possibility that the idea of God is Invented or Adventitious.

Argument 1

1. Something can not come from nothing.

2. The cause of an idea must have at least as much formal reality as the idea has objective reality.

3. I have in me an idea of God. This idea has infinite objective reality.

4. I cannot be the cause of this idea, since I am not an infinite and perfect being. I don't have enough formal reality. Only an infinite and perfect being could cause such an idea.

5. So God — a being with infinite objective reality — must exist (and be the source of my idea of God).

6. An absolutely perfect being is a good, benevolent being.

7. So God is benevolent...

8. So God would not deceive me, and would not permit me to error without giving me a way to correct my errors.

Argument 2

1. I exist.

2. My existence must have a cause.

3. The only possible ultimate causes are

a) myself

b) my always having existed

c) my parents

d) something less perfect than God

e) God

4. Not a. If I had created myself, I would have made myself perfect.

5. Not b. This does not solve the problem. If I am a dependent being, I need to be continually sustained by another.

6. Not c. This leads to an infinite regress.

7. Not d. The idea of perfection that exists in me cannot have originated from a non-perfect being.

8. Therefore, e. God exists.

Descartes argued that he had a clear and distinct idea of God. In the same way that the cogito was self-evident, so too is the existence of God, as his perfect idea of a perfect being could not have been caused by anything less than a perfect being.

[edit] Meditation IV: Concerning the True and the False

The conclusions of the previous Meditations that "I" and "God" both exist lead to another problem: If God is perfectly good and the source of all that is, how is there room for error or falsehood? Descartes attempts to answer this question in Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity.

If I've gotten everything in me from God and He hasn't given me the ability to make errors, it doesn't seem possible for me ever to error. (Descartes, Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity).

The framework of his arguments center on the Great Chain of Being, in which God's perfect goodness is relative to His perfect being. On the extreme opposite end of the scale is complete nothingness, which is also the most evil state possible. Thus, humans are an intermediary between these two extremes, being less "real" or "good" than God, but more "real" and "good" than nothingness. Thus, error (as a part of evil) is not a positive reality, it is only the absence of what is correct. In this way, its existence is allowed within the context of a perfectly inerrant God.

I find that I am "intermediate" between God and nothingness, between the supreme entity and nonentity. Insofar as I am the creation of the supreme entity, there's nothing in me to account for my being deceived or led into error, but, inasmuch as I somehow participate in nothing or nonentity — that is, insofar as I am distinct from the supreme entity itself and lack many things — it's not surprising that I go wrong. I thus understand that, in itself, error is a lack, rather than a real thing dependent on God. Hence, I understand that I can err without God's having given me a special ability to do so. Rather, I fall into error because my God-given ability to judge the truth is not infinite. (Descartes, Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity).

Descartes also concedes two points that might allow for the possibility of his ability to make errors. First, he notes that it is very possible that his limited knowledge prevents him from understanding why God chose to create him so he could make mistakes. If he could see the things that God could see, with a complete and infinite scope, perhaps he would judge his ability to err as the best option. He uses this point to attack the Aristotelian structure of causes. The final cause described by Aristotle are the "what for" of an object, but Descartes claims that because he is unable to comprehend completely the mind of God, it is impossible to understand completely the "why" through science — only the "how."

I realize that I shouldn't be surprised at God's doing things that I can't explain. I shouldn't doubt His existence just because I find that I sometimes can't understand why or how He has made something. I know that my nature is weak and limited and that God's is limitless, incomprehensible, and infinite, and, from this, I can infer that He can do innumerable things whose reasons are unknown to me. On this ground alone, I regard the common practice of explaining things in terms of their purposes to be useless in physics: it would be foolhardy of me to think that I can discover God's purposes. (Descartes, Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity).

Second, he considers the possibility that an apparent error at the individual level could be understood within the totality of creation as error free.

When asking whether God's works are perfect, I ought to look at all of them together, not at one isolation. For something that seems imperfect when viewed alone might seem completely perfect when regarded as having a place in the world. Of course, since calling everything into doubt, I haven't established that anything exists besides me and God. But, when I consider God's immense power, I can't deny that He has made — or, in any case, that He could have made — many other things, and I must therefore view myself as having a place in a universe. (Descartes, Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity).

Lastly, Meditation IV attributes the source of error to a discrepancy between two divine gifts: understanding and free will. Understanding is given in an incomplete form, while will (by nature) can only be either completely given or not given at all. When he is presented with a certain amount of understanding and then chooses to act outside of that, he is in error. Thus, the gifts of God (understanding and will) both remain good and only the incorrect usage by him remains as error.

If I suspend judgement when I don't clearly and distinctly grasp what is true, I obviously do right and am not deceived. But, if I either affirm or deny in a case of this sort, I misuse my freedom of choice. If I affirm what is false, I clearly err, and, if I stumble onto the truth, I'm still blameworthy since the light of nature reveals that a perception of the understanding should always precede a decision of the will. In these misuses of freedom of choice lies the deprivation that accounts for error. And this deprivation, I maintain, lies in the working of the will insofar as it comes from me — not in my God-given ability to will, or even in the will's operation insofar as it derives from Him. (Descartes, Meditation IV: On Truth and Falsity).

Concerning the Essence of Material Things, and Again Concerning God, That He Exists

Concerning the Essence of Material Things, and Again Concerning God, That He Exists begins with the stated purpose of expanding the "known items" of God and self to include outside material objects, Descartes saves that for Meditation VI in lieu of something he deems more fundamental but in the same direction: a discussion concerning the ideas of those external items. Along the way, he advances another logical proof of God's existence.

Before asking whether any such objects exist outside me, I ought to consider the ideas of these objects as they exist in my thoughts and see which are clear and which confused. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).

Descartes separates external objects into those that are clear and distinct and those that are confused and obscure. The former group consists of the ideas of extension, duration and movement. These geometrical ideas cannot be misconstrued or combined in a way that makes them false. For example, if the idea of a creature with the head of a giraffe, the body of a lion and tail of a beaver was constructed and the question asked if the creature had a large intestine, the answer would have to be invented. But, no mathematical re-arrangement of a triangle could allow its three internal angles to sum to anything but 180 degrees. Thus, Descartes perceived that truths may have a nature or essence of themselves, independent of the thinker. (In Descartes' formulation, this is a mathematical truth only pragmatically related to nature; the properties of triangles in Euclidean geometry remain mathematically certain, though it was later discovered that the internal angles in real local triangles sum to more than 180 degrees.)

I find in myself innumerable ideas of things which, though they may not exist outside me, can't be said to be nothing. While I have some control over my thoughts of these things, I do not make the things up: they have their own real and immutable natures. Suppose, for example, that I have a mental image of a triangle. While it may be that no figure of this sort does exist or ever has existed outside my thought, the figure has a fixed nature (essence or form), immutable and eternal, which hasn't been produced by me and isn't dependent of my mind. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).

While thinking about the independence of these ideas of external objects, Descartes realizes that he is just as certain about God as he is about these mathematical ideas. He asserts that this is natural as the ideas of God are the only ideas that imply God's existence. He uses the example of a mountain and a valley. While one cannot picture a mountain without a valley, it's possible that these do not exist. However, the fact that one cannot conceive of God without existence inherently rules out the possibility of God's non-existence. Simply put, the argument is framed as follows:

1. God is defined as an infinitely perfect being.

2. Perfection includes existence.

3. So God exists.

This ontological argument originated in the work of St. Anselm, the medieval Scholastic philosopher and theologian. While Descartes had already claimed to have confirmed God's existence through previous arguments, this one allows him to put to rest any discontent he might have had with his "distinct and clear" criteria for truth. With a confirmed existence of God, all doubt that what one previously thought was real and not a dream can be removed. Having made this realization, Descartes asserts that without this sure knowledge in the existence of a supreme and perfect being, assurance of any truth is impossible.

Thus I plainly see that the certainty and truth of all my knowledge derives from one thing: my thought of the true God. Before I knew Him, I couldn't know anything else perfectly. But now I can plainly and certainly know innumerable things, not only about God and other mental beings, but also about the nature of physical objects, insofar as it is the subject-matter of pure mathematics.

—Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence)

Concerning the Existence of Material Things, and the Real Distinction between Mind and Body

In Meditation VI: Concerning the Existence of Material Things, and the Real Distinction between Mind and Body, Descartes addresses the potential existence of material outside of the self and God. First, he asserts that such objects can exist simply because God is able to make them.

Insofar as they are the subject of pure mathematics, I now know at least that they can exist, because I grasp them clearly and distinctly. For God can undoubtedly make whatever I can grasp in this way, and I never judge that something is impossible for Him to make unless there would be a contradiction in my grasping the thing distinctly. (Descartes, Meditation VI: On the Existence of Material Objects from Body).

Knowing that the existence of such objects is possible, Descartes then turns to the prevalence of mental images as proof. To do this, he draws a distinction between imagination and understanding, the former being something that is seen like a mental photograph and the latter being something that is understood but not pictured. He uses an example of this to clarify:

When I have a mental image of a triangle, for example, I don't just understand that it is a figure bounded by three lines; I also "look at" the lines as though they were present to my mind's eye. And this is what I call having a mental image. When I want to think of a chiliagon, I understand that it is a figure with a thousand sides as well as I understand that a triangle is a figure with three, but I can't imagine its sides or "look" at them as though they were present. (Descartes, Meditation VI: On the Existence of Material Objects and the Real Distinction of Mind from Body).

Descartes has still not given proof that such external objects exist, however, only shown that their existence could conveniently explain this mental process. To obtain this proof, he first reviews his premises for the Meditations — that the senses cannot be trusted and what he is taught "by nature" does not have much credence. However, he views these arguments within a new context; after writing Meditation I, he has proved the existence of himself and of a perfect God. Thus, Descartes jumps quickly to proofs of the division between the body and mind and that material things exist:

Proof for the body being distinct from the mind

1. It is possible for God to create anything I can clearly and distinctly perceive.

2. If God creates something to be independent of another, they are distinct from each other.

3. I clearly and distinctly understand my existence as a thinking thing (which does not require the existence of a body).

4. So God can create a thinking thing independently of a body.

5. I clearly and distinctly understand my body as an extended thing (which does not require a mind).

6. So God can create a body independently of a mind.

7. So my mind is a reality distinct from my body.

8. So I (a thinking thing) can exist without a body.

This has been criticized: just because God can create a mind and body independently of each other, it does not necessarily follow that he has.

Proof of the reality of external material things

1. I have a "strong inclination" to believe in the reality of external material things due to my senses.

2. God must have created me with this nature.

3. If independent material things do not exist, God is a deceiver.

4. But God is not a deceiver.

5. So material things exist and contain the properties essential to them.

After using these two arguments to dispel solipsism and skepticism, Descartes seems to have succeeded in defining reality as being in three parts: God (infinite), minds, and material things (both finite). He closes by addressing natural phenomena that might appear to challenge his philosophy, such as phantom limbs, dreams, and dropsy.

Objections and replies

Descartes submitted his manuscript to many philosophers, theologians and a logician before publishing the Meditations. Their objections and his replies (many of which are quite extensive) were included along the first publication of the Meditations. In the Preface to the Meditations, Descartes asks the reader "not to pass judgment on the Meditations until they have been kind enough to read through all these objections and my replies to them.” Thus, this dialogue could be seen as an integral part of Descartes' views expressed in the Meditations.

The seven objectors were, in order (of the sets as they were published):

* The Dutch theologian Johannes Caterus (Johan de Kater) first set of objections.

* Various "theologians and philosophers" gathered by Descartes' friend and principal correspondent, Friar Marin Mersenne - second set of objections

* The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes - third set of objections

* The theologian and logician Antoine Arnauld - fourth set

* The philosopher Pierre Gassendi - fifth set (Descartes wrote that all of these could be easily dismissed.)

* Another miscellany gathered by Mersenne -sixth set

* The Jesuit Pierre Bourdin -seventh set of objections

They make many objections to Descartes’ arguments and method. Some of the objections show that the objector has misunderstood the text. Descartes’ response to these is often dismissive and curt. Other objections are more powerful, and in some cases it is controversial whether Descartes responds to them successfully (refer to Hobbes' objections).

Some of the most powerful objections include the following:

Objections to proof(s) of God’s existence:

A. We have no (clear) idea of an infinite Being (1st, 2nd, and 5th objections).

B. From the fact that I can think of a perfect being, it doesn’t follow that the perfect being exists (1st, 2nd, and 5th).

C. We could get the idea of God without God’s causing the idea (2nd, 3rd).

D. Nothing can cause itself to exist (4th), so God can’t cause himself to exist.

Objections to the epistemology:

A. How can we be sure that what we think is a clear and distinct perception really is clear and distinct (3rd, 5th)?

B. Circle objection 1: if we aren’t certain that judgments based on clear and distinct ideas are true before we prove God’s existence, then we can’t be certain that we are a thinking thing (2nd). Circle objection 2: if we aren’t certain that clear and distinct ideas are true before we prove God’s existence, then we can’t be certain that God exists, since we use clear and distinct ideas to prove God’s existence (4th).

C. Contrary to what Descartes argues, we are certain that bodies exist/that perception coincides with reality (5th, 6th).

Objections to philosophy of mind:

A. Ideas are always imagistic (3rd), so we have no idea of thinking substance (non-image idea).

B. We can’t conclude that the mind (thinking thing) is not also a corporeal thing, unless we know that we know everything about the mind. But we don’t know that we know everything about the mind. So we don’t know that the mind isn’t corporeal. (2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th).

Elisabeth of Bohemia also corresponded with Descartes on the Meditations (from 1643, unpublished, at her insistence). She objected both to his description of the union between mind and body, and that virtue and moral truths seem to need to be grasped by something other than the intellect (despite Descartes's assertion that all truths must be grasped intellectually).

[edit] See also

* 17th-century philosophy

Notes and references

1. ^ J., Cottingham, ed (April 1996) [1986]. Meditations on First Philosophy With Selections from the Objections and Replies (revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521558181. http://books.google.com/books?id=yMwiTTpwasgC&printsec=frontcover. —The original Meditations, translated, in its entirety.

2. ^ Skirry, J. (2008-09-13). "Descartes, René: Overview [The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"]. www.iep.utm.edu. http://www.iep.utm.edu/descarte/#H1. Retrieved 2010-06-17.

3. ^ "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Descartes' Epistemology". plato.stanford.edu. 2005-04-14. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/#3.2. Retrieved 2010-06-17.

4. ^ http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/meditation2.html Descartes original meditation 2 translation

5. ^ a b http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/meditation3.html Descartes original meditation 3 translation

6. ^ Toulmin, S. (August 1996). "Descartes in His Time". In Weissman, William Theodore Bluhm, D.. Discourse on the method: and, Meditations on first philosophy. Rethinking the Western Tradition. Yale University Press. p. 139. http://books.google.com/books?id=bKzKvsbLlAEC&pg=139.

7. ^ http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/meditation5.html Descartes original meditation 5 translation

8. ^ "Appendix to Fifth Objections and Replies". Meditations, Objections and Replies. 1647. "I have not been able to discover a single objection which those who have some slight understanding of my Meditations will not, in my view, be able to answer quite easily without any help from me."

9. ^ "Objections to Descartes Meditations". http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/hmp/texts/modern/hobbes/objections/objindex.html. Retrieved 2010-06-15.

10. ^ Hobbes objections to Descartes' Meditations with Descartes' replies

11. ^ Shapiro, L., ed (June 2007) (in English). The Correspondence between Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and Rene Descartes. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226204420.

12. ^ "Introduction". www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk. http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/hmp/texts/modern/descartes/elizabeth/gmrintro.html. Retrieved 2010-06-16.

Collected works in French and Latin

* Oeuvres De Descartes, 11 vols., edited by Charles Adam and Paul Tannery (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1983).