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Has any of Nostradamus's predictions actually come true?

2012-02-03T20:01:00.001+05:30

Nostradamus, the famous astrologer of the 16th century has made about 353 predictions regarding not only the near future but also the centuries to follow.

Nostradamus and The World Trade Center

Even those who are quite good at English might find it difficult to comprehend the four lines given below. The verse-like lines were originally written in French and so the real meaning is somewhat lost in translation. The easy way is to go through the English translation once and then read the explanation given in the next paragraph.

At forty-five degrees the sky will burn,

Fire to approach the great new city

In an instant a great scattered flame will leap up,

When one will want to demand proof of the Normans.

Now, a description of these lines, which makes them a little easier to understand, though not completely: Nearly 450 years ago, French astrologer Nostradamus (picture above) spoke of a new and huge city in his verse-like prediction. This city was situated at 45° latitude. In the city, a colossal fire breaks out suddenly and huge flares of fire leap towards the sky. The proof of this event will finally be given by the Normans, that is, they are going to be asked for its proof.

After reading the description one cannot even guess which event Nostradamus had predicted in the above mentioned lines. Up to four and a half centuries the prediction of Nostradamus awaited being proved true like many of his other predictions. Finally, on September 11, 2001, when the twin towers of the World Trade Center in the USA were attacked by terrorists, Nostradamus' lines given above were flashed on to the internet within seconds and gained attention world wide. According to many people, Nostradamus had been proven correct once more. They believed that Nostradamus had foreseen the destruction of the twin towers about 450 years ago! The time when the USA was still considered as the city of Red Indians and European settlers had not reached its shores.

If we try to fit the words of Nostradamus' prediction with the event that actually happened in September, 2001, the first thing that comes to mind is that the two sky scraper towers of the World Trade Center were situated in New York city, which was termed as 'great new' city by Nostradamus. However, New York's geographical location is not 45° latitude. The actual figure is 40° 5' North latitude. In other words, it is a little far from 40° latitude to the north. The exact difference is about 600 kilometers. Two lines of the prediction seem to lit the event exactly since no sooner did the two airplanes of the hijackers strike the twin towers on the morning of September 11, 2001, one after the other, than huge flares of fire reached the skies.

Now, let's turn to the next line, which somehow fails to lit with the World Trade Center attack. The word 'Normans' relates to the Viking people that inhabited Norway and settled down on the French coast about 1500 years ago. Eventually they captured entire France and as time passed they accepted French rites and rituals. what connection these people have with the World Trade Center and its grotesque episode is anybody's guess.

Despite this, the 'intelligent' who could decipher the message in Nostradamus' deep and mysterious words caught the thread of his meaning and understood what he wanted to say. It was just a question of somehow fitting the words to the actual event. So even if the World Trade Center/WTC was not situated at 45° latitude, the hijackers' Boeing-757 that crashed into the northern tower of the WTC came at it exactly at an angle of 45°. Approximately during 150 BC geologist Ptolemy had made about 3,000 dots on his haphazard map of the Earth and then, based on this, had chalked out various longitudes and latitudes. In those days the word 'latitude' meant 'angle' as well as 'latitude' though.

People who had faith in the farsightedness of Nostradamus found the connection between the Normans and the WTC. They considered Normans as French. Now the only question was of proof of the terrorist attack. The French spy federation had complete information about the attack a day earlier (on September 10, 2001). They had sent the information across to the USA's intelligence agency FBI but even so they (the Americans) paid no heed.

There are many more such events and examples which proved Nostradamus' predictions as true and strengthened the faith of his believers and followers. As a result, the predictions of the events of the world up to the year 3797 made by Nostradamus who was born in 1503, are still considered authentic even today - almost 500 years later. They are still a rich source of, and a favorite subject for articles, events and shows for all sorts of newspapers, magazines, TV channels, etc. No sooner does a huge event or accident happen than Nostradamus and his predictions are remembered. There are still 1786 years for the 'expiry date' of the predictions made by Nostradamus since his predictions go on up to the year 3797.

Who Was Nostradamus?

Who actually was Nostradamus who became so famous (or notorious as some people will have it) for his predictions that encompassed centuries? If looked at this from the parameters of the fame he has achieved due to his predictions which have proved true time and again, then he was one in a million. Nevertheless, this infant who was born on December 14, 1503, in the French village of Remy, was not even accounted for in the census of that village since his parents and whole family were Jews. Politically speaking, Remy was then part of Provence and many Jews resided there. A couple of years before Nostradamus' birth, on September 26, 1501, the then French emperor Louis the VII had given an ultimatum to all the Jews to take up Christianity and had given them three months' time in which to do so. Those who flaunted this declaration were not permitted to stay on in the region.

Nostradamus' parents and all other family members embraced Christianity, since no place was safe for Jews in those days. Louis the VII wished to convert all the people residing in France into Christians since he needed the support of Pope Alexander the VI to ensure that his reign continued. Even after the family gave up their Jewish culture and embraced Christianity, the doors to prosperity did not open up for Nostradamus because of his original name which was Michel de Nostredame (meaning — Michel of our Lady) was as it is and had no overtones of Christian Latin in it. The name itself proclaimed him to be a French Jew. Over and above this, Michel de Nostredame started being interested in subjects that opposed the then beliefs and thoughts of the Christian church: medicine, chemistry and astronomy.

In 1517, Michel went to Avignon situated to the north of St. Remy for his primary education. Three years later, in 1520, due to the epidemic of plague that hit Europe his education remained incomplete. Since many children had gone down with plague, the management shut down the school. Fortunately, Michel was not infected by the disease but even then instead of returning to St. Remy he started off on the long journey to Europe. He wanted to know and understand the medical aspect of the epidemic. This journey was to continue for eight long years. Who knows which paths he took and which places he visited. Nevertheless, that arduous journey was the proof of his deep rooted interest in medical science and finally, in 1529, he gained admission to the Montpelier University of France to study medical science. He graduated after 4 years and started his medical practice in the prosperous city of Eigen, where some years later he got married.

Around 1538, plague struck once again. Michel de Nostredame's wife and two sons lost their lives to plague and so a heartbroken Michel started out on a 6 year long journey. On the way, he treated hundreds of people suffering from plague. After studying medicine further in the Marseilles University of France, he settled down in the city named Solon and got married once again. The terrace of the house he purchased here on November 11, 1547, was ideal for viewing planets and proved to be the reason for his interest and subsequent fame in the field of astrology. He even changed his name in Solon. To get rid of the 'Jew' stamp he changed it to Nostredamus from Nostredame. In English the pronunciation changed from the hard 'd' to the soft 'd’ and finally to Nostradamus.

As per some historical records, one fine day, Nostradamus felt that he came to know about important events of the future automatically. It was a natural inspiration. Intuition, as his followers would like to call it. After 1547, the physician Nostradamus started gaining fame as an astrologer. Many citizens of Solon used to come to his place to have their horoscope made or to understand the detailed meaning of what was written in their horoscopes. Every night, after dinner, Nostradamus would sit in solitude in the attic on the terrace and practice deep thinking. He would sometimes go on the terrace and observe the daily movements of Venus, Mars and Jupiter in the skies with his naked eyes. He would return to the attic and according to the so-called inspiration he felt, would pen down his predictions for whichever future event he had envisioned.

Nostradamus published the first edition of his evergreen book of predictions in 1555. The book which was written in French was called 'Les Propheties de M. Michel Nostradamus' - The prophecies of Mr. Michel Nostradamus. The sub—title was 'Centuries' but the word 'century’ was not used to literally mean 100 years. There were a total of 100 prophecies in the book. All of them were in the form of short 4-lined verse. If each of his predictions which were written in the form of a 'quatrain' are to be considered as short verses or poems, then along with being a physician and an astrologer, Nostradamus was a poet too. A good linguist too, as he had used Latin, Italian as well as Greek words along with French in many places. He published books named Centuries 2, 3 and 4 after this first book named Century 1. The last book had only 53 predictions instead of the usual 100. Thus, the total number of predictions was 353, while the aim of Nostradamus was to take this score up to 1000.

when a person is depressed he takes the support of astrology to comfort and console himself. For the French people the 16th century was depressing in many ways. Bloody battles were fought in the name of religion. Fatal epidemics like plague broke out time and again. The farmers were exploited, and it was a time of droughts and famines. In short, the time for the French citizens was full of sadness, depression and hopelessness; so Nostradamus' books which showed them a trailer of their future started selling like hot cakes. However, many of Nostradamus' predictions were for the distant future and not for the near future or tomorrow and so most of his fame (that gave him instant success) came not from the written word but from the verbal prophecies he made. It is quite possible that each prediction was a rumor that was attributed to Nostradamus, but let us see one event as an example:

In 1555, Nostradamus was lying on the sick bed. He was alone in the house. All the doors were shut. Late at night one of the servants of the landlord was looking for a dog that had wandered off and was lost. The servant roamed far and wide and searched for the dog everywhere but did not find it. So that servant started venting his anger on all the residents of the city. He finally reached Nostradamus' house and knocked on the door. Nostradamus who was still in bed answered him saying, "Why are you making so much noise? Go to the Orleans road which is a short distance away from here. Your landlord's dog, tied to a lamp post, has been sitting there since long!"

This incident can in no way be considered as gospel truth, nevertheless, there are innumerable such events which have been credited to Nostradamus name. His fame continued to grow; so much so that the French queen Catharine also heard of him. Catharine sent for his book and read it. Who knows what meaning she gleaned about which prediction but she asked the then king of France (Henry the II) and sent for Nostradamus and invited him to Paris. Nostradamus started out from Solon and reached the king's court after an arduous journey of about 30 days. Catharine held quatrain number 35 in front of him, the suspense creating English translation of which is as under:

The younger lion will overcome the older,

In single combat, on the field of war,

His eyes will be pierced in their golden helm,

Two wounds become one and he dies a cruel death.

Catharine feared that these lines had been written for King Henry. Whatever explanation Nostradamus gave to the queen when he was face to face with her no one knows, but this much is certain that the answer was as confusing as his words in the verse were. Predicting the death of the king was like signing your own death warrant. Nostradamus returned to Solon after making many predictions in the queen's presence and earning quite a few gold coins along with the promise of a life-time pension.

Catharine alerted King Henry due to the fear she herself had (and perhaps because of the indications given by Nostradamus). But even so, on July 10, 1558, the king who was fond of the sport of fencing fought a duel with the commander-in-chief of his body guards, Count Montgomery, in a tournament that was to be held on that day. According to the rules of the game, both of them were wearing a ’helm' meaning ’helmet.’ In Henry's case, the metal used for the head gear was gold. During the duel an accident which rarely takes place occurred and the point of the count's sword pierced King Henry's left eye right up to his brain. There were two wounds - the eye was lost and the brain too was injured and so after suffering a lot and fighting a losing battle for 10 days, Henry finally passed away.

What more was needed to make Nostradamus, the soothsayer, world famous? The said prediction did not pertain to an ordinary man. The emperor of France had to bow down to his prediction. Most obviously, all four of Nostradamus' books proved to be a 'ready reference' for all the small and big believers of astrology. As time passed, people felt that many of his predictions were coming true. Each and every event could be likened to one or the other prediction. The rising of Hitler to power, the commencement of the Second World War, the dropping of atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the assassination of American president Kennedy, Saddam's anti-America revolt, etc nothing was left out.

According to the believers of Nostradamus absolutely nothing was left out. If one thinks on the lines of science, logic and intelligence then what actually are all these predictions of Nostradamus? Before ending Nostradamus' story let us take a peek at this side also. Read each event described hereafter with a steady and unbiased mind and full concentration.

Nostradamus has described many events but he has not given the date, year, or even the century of any of the future events. Though he has written about the events that will happen, but there is absolutely no clue about when they will take place. On the other hand in the 4 books titled 'Centuries,' the total predictions made are 353. Each one is different from the other; meaning there is a lot of variety. Thirdly, during the 450 years that have passed after the penning down of 'Centuries,' all types of incidents have happened. Therefore, just as everyone finds something to match his/her shape or size in a shop selling ready made clothes, according to the law of probability, it is not at all difficult to relate some or the other words written by Nostradamus to some event or the other. There is no bondage of century, year or even date in doing so, is there?

» Nostradamus became famous as an astrologer, but in actual fact the word necromancer is more applicable to him. The language used in the quatrains is so confused that one cannot find the thread of the events predicted. No one understands even one word. The believers and followers of Nostradamus scan the books written by him after the event has happened and then whichever verse resembles the event is made famous - and then wait for some other big incident to relate it with one more prediction. This will obviously go on until 3797 AD.

» Many of Nostradamus' predictions can be interpreted in more than one ways. For example: In the prediction concerning the World Trade Center he has used the French word 'Ville neuve' in his original writing. This means 'new city.' Not only does a city with such a name actually exist near Paris in France, but its geographical location is also 45° latitude. This new (neuve) city (ville) had gone up in flames during the war Napoleon had waged against England and in the Second World War, German fighter planes had bombarded it, but what is the importance of an event that is considered insignificant during a gruesome world war? At forty-five degrees latitude, the sky will burn... fire approaches the great new city... the words of this prediction were molded to fit the destruction of the World Trade Center.

» Nostradamus has played quite a lot with words in the sentences he has used. As a result, it is easy for many people to turn and twist the words according to their whims to give the words the meaning they want to. For example in the prediction about a gruesome war, the last line is "Mabus then will die." Which is this fierce battle? Obviously the one between Iraq and the USA! Then who is Mabus? Can it be anyone other than Saddam Husain? If the name does not match, ask Nostradamus' believers and you will receive a prompt reply that one should write "Sudam" according to the pronunciation and then hold this up in front of a mirror. The experiment is worth doing. The names are not going to match even after the experiment. Have another go. Play with the name of the terrorist Osama Bin Laden. First of all, replace '0' with 'U.' Now take away 'in' and write only 'B.' Now arrange all the letters in such a way that Nostradamus' prediction becomes absolutely true. Write the capital letters 'U' and 'B' in the small case as 'u' and 'b'. At the same time capitalize the letter 'm' - 'M'. Now have you got the word 'Mabus?' Therefore as soon as this 'Mabus' died, Nostradamus' prediction was hailed as gospel truth by one and all!

» I Many of the predictions that have been attributed to Michel Nostradamus are not there at all in his books 'Centuries.' There are about 50 such predictions which are famous since they were made after the event took place and so have been relegated to Nostradamus. Three predictions related to the destruction of the World Trade Center are doing the rounds and creating a lot of ripples everywhere. The writer of two of these predictions is not Nostradamus.

Besides all these facts, Nostradamus who passed away in 1556, has become immortal and each of his predictions are considered evergreen even today. Even if the predictions have no connections whatsoever with science, logic or intelligence, Nostradamus is not going to be forgotten until year 3797.

Additional reading:

Nostradamus (Wikipedia)

Related post:

Will the world really end on December 12, 2012? Or it is just a hoax?

Why does wood warp in damp weather?

2012-02-03T06:11:00.001+05:30

In a living tree, the live wood contains a certain amount of moisture in its fibres. These fibers are like small tubes packed side by side, shrinking or swelling according to the amount of moisture present. When the tree is felled and cut into timber a great deal of the moisture is set free and evaporates. Once the wood has had time to dry, it will retain its shape as long as it remains so. Let dampness creep in, however, and the fibres will begin to swell, even in a board or plank that has been dry for many years.

Drying a plank properly in the first place is not easy, for one of the difficulties is to get both sides equally dry. If you dampen one side of a thin board and place it near the heat, you will soon find your piece of wood beginning to curl. That is because the fibres in one side are shrinking; and as that side contracts, it draws the other side around with it. The shrinking and swelling take place only across the grain of the wood, leaving its length unaffected by moisture.

Additional reading:
Wood warping (Wikipedia)

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Which is the port and which the starboard side of ship?

2012-02-02T21:20:00.001+05:30

The port side is the left side looking forwards towards the bows, and the starboard is the right side. Port was originally called larboard, but the word was altered to avoid confusion in sound. Starboard means steer-board, or steering side, for the great oar used for steering ancient ships was on the right side of the stern. At night, a ship shows a red light on her starboard side. Both of these lights can be seen at the same time only when the ship is coming straight at the observer.

Additional reading:
Port and starboard (Wikipedia)

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When was the ship's distress signal SOS/Save Our Souls used for the first time?

Which countries have been under foreign rule for more than a century?

2012-01-31T09:51:00.000+05:30

Here's a list of such countries that have been subjugated by other for more than a hundred years.

Finland: Can you guess the number of years this European Country spent under foreign subjugation? Finland came under the Swedish Kingdom’s rule in 1154. After centuries of Swedish rule, Finland became a part of Russia before it gained independence in 1917. Number of years in subjection: 763.

Cape Verde: In 1498 Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese sailor, had reached India from Portugal via Cape Verde. Located off the western coast of Africa, this island nation measuring 4,033 square kilometers was annexed by Portugal in 1462 and became independent of the Portuguese rule in 1975. Number of years under foreign rule: 513.

Albania: In 1478 the Turkish Army invaded Albania—a country lying at the southeastern end of the Adriatic Sea. It was impossible for Albania, a small country having an area of 28,750 square kilometers, to wage a war against Turkey's powerful Ottoman Empire. The Turks ruled over Albania for 434 years and withdrew in 1913 after the fall of the Ottoman Empire.

Syria: This Middle Eastern nation, nine times larger than Israel, was under the rule of Turkey's Ottoman Empire in 1517. After the defeat of Turkey in the First World War and collapse of the Ottoman Empire thereafter, Syria came under the control of France as a protectorate. The French rule lasted 26 years and Syria became an independent State in 1946. Number of years under foreign dominion: 429.

Cuba: In 1492, on his voyage to discover India, when Columbus disembarked the shores of Cuba, an island in the Caribbean Sea, there were 50,000 Red Indians dwelling in Cuba. The queen of Spain, Isabella claimed Cuba for Spain. The production of coffee, sugar and tobacco in Cuba yielded huge profits for Spain. Finally at the end of the 19th century when Cuban peoples’ war of independence against Spain became aggressive and the USA declared war on Spain to protect its financial interests in Cuba, it finally became a free nation in 1902. Number of years under the yoke of foreign rule: 410.

Gambia: Gambia was the first African country to come under the heel of the Colonial British rule. in 1588, when the British slave traders first established their colony in Gambia it was not a country but a region inhabited by various tribes. The British, who always preferred to stay near the banks of the Gambia River, did not declare Gambia as a nation. Consequently in 1965 when it gained independence, the geographical map of Gambia seemed very strange as the country had a length of 322 kilometers and width of merely 59 kilometers. Number of years under colonial hegemony: 77.

Barbados: The 430 square kilometers island of Barbados was the first among the other islands of West Indies to come under the Colonial British rule in 1627. Along with the African slaves, the Indians too were employed to toil in the sugarcane fields of Barbados. This island became an independent nation in 1966. Number of years spent under the colonial regime: 339 years.

Philippines: Philippines, the country comprising of 7,100 islands was formerly ruled by Spain. Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer who led the voyage around the world was the first European to visit Philippines. Unfortunately, Magellan could not complete his around-the-world voyage. In 1521 during a battle with the native people on the coast of Philippines, he lost his life. However, his visit to Philippines marked the beginning of colonization in the Southeast Asia. Spanish explorer Miguel Lagazpi arrived in 1565 and the first European settlement was established. Philippines remained as a Spanish Colony till 1898 when Spanish-American war broke out in Cuba and Philippines. Spain was defeated by the American Navy and eventually Philippines gained independence. This island nation remained under the colonial regime for 327 years.

Estonia: After the Swedish rule and then the Russian reign, Estonia first became independent in 1921. But the freedom lasted for 20 years or so. In the year 1940 Estonia was brought under the Soviet heels and was incorporated in USSR. With the formal dissolution of USSR in 1991, Estonia became an independent state. The people of Estonia remained under foreign dominion for 259 long years.

Armenia: Armenia came under the the Czar's regime in 1813. It was in 1917 that the then reigning (zar Nicholas was brutally killed by the Russian Communists and the rule of Czars came to an end. Although the country was declared independent, the agony of its populace did not end due to the harassment of the communists who had formed the government. Like Estonia, Armenia too gained absolute freedom after the disbandment of the USSR in 1991. Period of in subjection: 178 years.

Sri Lanka: The Portuguese were the first colonial rulers of this country in the 16th century. Then it was the turn of the Dutch in the 17th century and finally the British ruled the entire island nation till 1948. As such the natives of Sri Lanka never waged the war against the British to gain independence, but it was bestowed upon them by default after the independence of India, as the British found it pointless to continue their rule in Sri Lanka. Number of years under the European colonial rule: 152.

Malia: Measuring only 316 square kilometers, this republic located in the Mediterranean Sea comprising of three islands was annexed by the British in 1814. Due to its strategic geographical location, the British established a major naval base in Malta. It gained freedom from the British rule in 1964. Period of British rule in Malta: 150 years.

Bahrain: Located in western Asia, this archipelago having an area of 678 square kilometers comprises of 35 islands. The oddity of this country is that Bahrain is the first Arabian nation where the resource of crude oil was found and also the first to have exhausted it. Britain controlled Bahrain as a protectorate from 1861 till 1971 when it finally became free from the British shackles. Bahrain remained under the British rule tor 110 years.

The list of countries that were forced into subjugation does not end here. There are still many countries who deserve a mention. Yet the significant point to be noted is that all across the world, the epoch of enslavement has come to an end. The era of colonization, when a particular country was ruled by another has become history. we are fortunate enough to breathe the air of independence and autonomy.

Why is a problem in a computer program called a bug?

2012-01-31T09:29:00.000+05:30

Grace Murray Hopper

The first functional computer program was written by Grace Murray Hopper (1906-92) an admiral of the United States Navy. She wrote a program for the Mark I computer (developed in 1944), the first fully automatic calculator. During the 1950s, Hopper (photo, right) directed the work that developed one of the most widely used computer programming languages, COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language).

She is also credited with coining the slang term "bug" to refer to computer program errors. The story goes that her machine had broken down, and when she looked into the problem, she discovered a dead moth in the computer. As she removed it, she reportedly announced that she was "debugging the machine". Grace Murray Hopper served the US Navy for 43 years. She was one of the pioneers of computer science.

Additional reading:
Grace Murray Hopper (Wikipedia)
Software bug (Wikipedia)

What is the source of the Sun's energy output?

2012-01-14T01:26:00.000+05:30

It is said that the Sun emits more energy in one second than mankind has consumed in the whole of its history! The inherent source of the solar output, in a word, is fusion! In the core of the Sun, nuclear reactions take place and convert the matter into energy. Within the core, density is about 12 times the density of solid lead or 160 times the density of water. The temperature reaches a peak of some 15 million degrees Celsius. under such extreme conditions, nucleus of one hydrogen atom fuses with that of another. The net result is the conversion of four hydrogen protons into one helium-4 nucleus, but some mass is lost during the process and transformed into energy. (See diagram below).

With many fusion reactions taking place simultaneously, the Sun loses 4.3 million tons of mass every second, by converting 600 million tons of hydrogen into just under 596 million tons of helium. Thus, only a small fraction (0.7%) of the mass of hydrogen going into nuclear fusion reaction does not show up as the mass of helium. Yet this lost mass is converted into huge amount of energy because Einstein's equation E=mc² is at work here. (e denotes energy, m is mass lost and c is speed of light, squared). To take specific example, consider the conversion of 1 kilogram of hydrogen into helium. Despite the fact that a kilogram of hydrogen goes into the nuclear reaction, only 0.993 kilogram of helium is produced. Using Einstein's formula, it is easy to ascertain the energy output:

E=mc² = (0.007 kilogram) (3,00,000)²

= 6.3 x 1014 joules

This is equivalent to energy released by burning 20,000 tons of coal. And remember, we are talking about of only 0.007 kilogram of the Sun’s lost mass, whereas the total mass it loses every second is nearly 40 million tons. Although the Sun has been releasing prodigious amount of energy since last 4.5 billion years, it has so far lost only a few hundredth of 1% of its original mass of hydrogen.

Additional reading:
Sun (Wikipedia)

How many words are in the English language?

2012-01-14T01:12:00.001+05:30

The millionth word entered the English language some time ago. This figure includes about 4,00,000 technical terms, the most in any language. Despite the rich vocabulary the Oxford English Dictionary contains, it is doubtful if any individual uses more than 60,000 words. Even those in UK who have undergone full 16 years of education use perhaps 5,000 words in speech and up to 10,000 words in written communication. The membership of International Society for Philosophical Inquiry (no admission for IQs below 148) have an average vocabulary of 36,250 words -- much better than Shakespeare who used about 33,000 words!

Additional reading:
English language (Wikipedia)

Where does a text SMS go if the receiver's phone is switched-off?

2012-01-12T18:47:00.000+05:30

The transmission route of SMS is not different from that of conversation. Whenever a person sends SMS through his mobile, first of all that data is received by the SMS center of the sender's service provider's network, which is nothing but the server meant for directing SMS traffic. It is the job of this server to contact the network of the receiver's service provider and through it the SMS message ultimately reaches the receiver's mobile. For this process to take place it is necessary that the receiver's mobile should be switched-on. This is the normal procedure but its noteworthy feature is that the sender’s network does not relay the message to the receiver's network straightway. The sender's network first ascertains from the receiver's network whether the receiver's mobile is switched-on or not, through the latter's Home Location Register (HLR).

Suppose the receiver's mobile phone is not switched-on. In that case the sender’s network requests the HLR of the receiver's network to pickup the SMS message when the receiver's mobile is switched-on and in the meanwhile it keeps the message pending. How long the SMS message will be kept pending depends upon service provider's policy. There is no uniform practice among the service providers. According to the business policy of individual service providers the period of pendency ranges from 2 hours to 2 days.

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Why are dark things warmer than light colored or simply white things?

2012-01-12T18:36:00.000+05:30

We can answer this question at once if we know the answer to the question, "Why are dark things dark?" A thing is dark, even in light, because instead of reflecting the light from its surface, it absorbs all the light rays. Light and radiant heat are essentially the same thing. So, when light-colored clothes throw back the light that strikes them, they also reflect the heat that accompanies the light rays. Probably nothing will reflect all the light and heat that strike it, and even the whitest snow will gradually melt under the Sun’s rays.

But while light things keep only a little of light and heat that fall on them, dark things absorb practically the full consignment they receive and so, of course, they get warm. Thus a shirt of white cotton, for instance, will become really warmer to wear if it is simply dyed black.

Is hummingbird the smallest bird? How small is it?

2012-01-12T18:29:00.002+05:30

Bee Hummingbird

There are more than 300 species of hummingbird and they vary in size; though only a few are more than 15 retentiveness long. The smallest (shown here in actual size) is the bee hummingbird, which is a native of Cuba. An average adult male measures only 5 centimeters in total length, half of which is taken up by the bill and tail. This tiny flier weighs only 1.6 grams. It builds a thimble-size nest and its egg is less than 1 centimeter in length.

Additional reading:
Bee Hummingbird (Wikipedia)

What kind of atmosphere does Mars have?

2012-01-12T11:02:00.001+05:30

Certainly, quite inhospitable. Thin Martian atmosphere is composed of 95% carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon and traces of several other gases, including 0.15% oxygen. The abundance of CO2 is simply forbidding. Besides, surface atmospheric pressure is less than 1% of the Earth’s atmospheric pressure, though it does vary by season because most of the atmosphere becomes frozen at the planet's polar caps during the winters. A jet plane flying at about 1,00,000 feet (30,500 meters) from the Earth's surface would encounter an atmospheric pressure similar to the surface of the red planet Mars.

Temperatures on Mars vary widely between day and night, winter and summer, mainly because it is about 80 million kilometers farther from the Sun than the Earth. In the northern hemisphere, summer temperatures range from a low of -88 degrees Celsius just before dawn to a high of -12 degrees Celsius in the mid afternoon. Polar temperatures during the winter drop as low as -140 degrees Celsius.

If an astronaut stepped from his spacecraft onto the Martian surface without protection, he would suffocate from lack of oxygen after only half a minute or so -- much before he would freeze from the cold or would get scorched by cosmic radiation, the influx of which is about 100 times as intense as that on Earth.

Additional reading:
Atmosphere of Mars (Wikipedia)

Which has been the longest and heaviest freight train on record?

2012-01-12T10:23:00.000+05:30

In 1968, a U.S. railroad's freight train made up of 500 coal cars traveled from Iaeger, West Virginia to Portsmouth, Ohio. It had six locomotives, three pulling and three pushing. The train was 6.5 kilometers long. This world record stood until 1989, when a South African freight train consisting of 660 wagons (each loaded to some 106 tons) was moved by nine electric and seven diesel-electric locomotives. This train was 7.3 kilometers long and weighed 70,500 tons excluding locomotives which were distributed along the train. It traveled a distance of 861 kilometers in 22 hours and 40 minutes!

Additional reading:
Longest trains (Wikipedia)

Who invented torpedo and how does it work as an anti-ship and anti-submarine weapon?

2012-01-12T10:17:00.001+05:30

The first successful torpedo was developed by Robert Whitehead (standing right in the picture above), a British engineer who demonstrated the new weapon in 1867. It was driven by compressed air and had a range of 700 meters at 7 knots, i.e. 13 kilometers per hour. (1 knot = 1.85 kilometers). By 1889, the range had been doubled and the speed quadrupled, but the accuracy was still unsatisfactory. This defect was overcome by the introduction of gyroscopic stabilizers. By World War II, most countries had developed variants of the original weapon. They were about 6 meters (20 feet) long arid 54 centimeters (21") in diameter, had a speed of 45 knots, a maximum range of 4.5 kilometers and carried nearly 270 kilograms of high explosive. Millions of tons of shipping fell victim to this weapon.

Click to enlarge

Yet there was a rub: Air contains 78% nitrogen, an inert gas that is insoluble in water, so it leaves a trail of bubbles behind a speeding torpedo. This streak of white foam could be readily recognized by the target ship and enabled it to take evasive action. It was after many years that this disadvantage was eliminated by the introduction of battery-driven electric motors to replace the compressed air propellant system.

Today, a torpedo consists of a warhead, battery, motor, propeller and rudder. Most have sophisticated wire-guided system or, alternatively, acoustic homing device. (See diagram above). They are launched by submarines as well as ships and can have a range of 50 kilometers or more.

Additional reading:
Torpedo (Wikipedia)

What is a hurricane? How is it different from a typhoon?

2012-01-11T17:23:00.000+05:30

Both of these names apply to great tropical storms that begin in the oceans near the Equator, that is, in all the great oceans except the South Atlantic. Such storms in the West Indies are called hurricanes from the Carib Indian name for them. In the China Sea and the East Indies they are called typhoons; in the Indian Ocean, cyclones; and in Australian waters, willy-willies.

Such storms usually blow up in the autumn; the wind, which has a speed of more than 110 kilometres, is often accompanied by thunder, lightning and rain. Before the days of steamships, sailors used to look forward with dread to these storms. Often seamen would battle with the elements for days together. The sails would be torn to shreds by the fury of the wind. Mighty, foaming seas would charge upon the ship like an invading host, beating with terrific force upon the decks, sometimes carrying away the masts. These storms are not such a danger to shipping as they once were, for nowadays steamships are given warning by radio of approaching hurricanes, so that they are often able to get out of the way of the great storms.

Additional reading:
Typhoon (Wikipedia)

Can any animal live for years without food?

2012-01-11T17:17:00.002+05:30

There is a very small creature, a distant relative of the spider, that can live for years without food. It is often known as the water bear (photo, left). Its real name is tardigrada.

These creatures live naturally in a damp atmosphere, but if the atmosphere becomes dry they also dry up. All movements graduaily cease, the body shrinks until it looks like a wrinkled seed, and thus it will remain year alter year. To all it appears dead. If placed in water, however, in a few minutes it will swell out, the wrinkles will disappear, the legs will stretch out, and gradually it will move, in an hour or so the creature is as active as ever, and crawls away.

Some snails, too, can remain apparently dead for years without food, and then revive and live as though they had been eating just as usual all that long time.

Why ten basic numerals are called Arabic numerals even though their script is not Arabic?

2012-01-06T17:07:00.001+05:30

The modern system of numbering, in which the digits depend on their position for their value, has been wrongly designated as Arabic numerical notation. The method is, in fact, of Indian origin. By the 9th century, much of the Hindu science was available in Arabic, thanks in good measure to frequent visits by Arab merchants to India. Sometime around 830 AD, the Persian mathematician, Al-Kwarizimi, in his Arithmetic used the Hindu method of notation. Since he had gathered information from the Arabs, he mentioned the numerals as Arabic system of numbering. Gradually, the methud spread to Europe, taking the place of the Roman system which was useless for calculations. Imagine trying to multiply VII by XL and eventually you hope getting CCLXXX! By using Indian method, the multiplication can be done instantly. It's simply 7 times 40. Modern mathematics is indebted to the Indians who invented decimal system about 2,000 years ago!

Additional reading:
Arabic numerals (Wikipedia)

How are bombs made out of chemical fertilizers?

2012-01-06T17:00:00.002+05:30

If media reports are to be believed, terrorists make some of their bombs out of chemical fertilizer. Do they really? How? One wonders.

Forget the 'how' part of the question, since bomb-making is the last thing one would risk to describe at length. Only the underlying principle can be summerised in a few words. The major ingredient of fertilizer is ammonium nitrate. It is somewhat unstable chemical that would degrade violently with a bit of encouragement. In fact, nitric acid which is needed to make explosive like TNT (trinitrotoluene) is derived from oxidised ammonia. Many fertilizer bombs made by terrorists also contain extra sources of carbohydrates to help stoke up the explosive power of the fertilizer, In addition, diesel is used, besides phosphorus compounds that react to simple friction. Packing all these materials into a container that will compress them on impact can create enough friction to cause the phosphorus to ignite. Alternatively, a detonating spark can be generated with battery linked to a timer device.

Why do stars have different colors?

2012-01-06T16:56:00.001+05:30

Some stars are yellow, like our Sun. Some are blue and some are white. There are even green, purple, rose and amethyst-colored stars. The color of a star depends very largely on its temperature. The red stars are cooler than the yellow ones. The yellow stars are cooler than the white, and the white are cooler than the blue-white. If you have ever seen a blacksmith or a worker in metals heating a piece of iron, you know that at first the iron glows with a reddish color. As it becomes hotter, it changes to yellow, then white, and, if the temperature becomes very high, sometimes it takes on a bluish white color.

If you look carefully at the stars on a clear night, you may be able to discover the colors of some of them for yourself. Many stars appear white, but some show a definite tint of color. Sirius, the dog star in the constellation Canis Major the Great Dog, is a white star, with a temperature of almost 11,000° Celsius. Capella, the bright star in the constellation Auriga, is a yellow star like the Sun, and has a temperature of about 6,000° Celsius. Both Arcturus, in Bootes, and Aldebaran, in Taurus, are orange stars with temperatures of more than 3,500° Celsius. In the case of a binary star, one star of the pair may be one color, and the other star, another.

Additional reading:
Stellar classification (Wikipedia)

How do botanists know the exact age of a tree?

2012-01-05T10:37:00.002+05:30

In climates that regularly have a season of growth and a season of rest each year, trees grow with a series of 'annual rings', which can be seen in a cross section of the trunk. (See image below.) In some trees these rings are clearly marked and we have only to count them to have a good idea of the tree's age. Sometimes, however, the count may not tell the entire story. So long as the tree goes on living healthily a fresh ring will be formed each year, but the growth of a tree may be interrupted and begin again during the same season, and then two false rings appear. The false rings are much thinner than the true rings and do not always extend right round the tree. A drought or a severe attack by caterpillars or other insects may lead to interrupted growth and give rise to the false rings. The tree forms both true and false rings by adding new wood around the trunk just beneath the bark.

Botanists can distinguish between one year's growth and the next because the wood added in the earlier part of the year is different from the wood added later in the summer. In the spring, when growth begins and fresh leaves and twigs are put out, much water is needed in the crown of the tree to supply these new, springtime cells with thin walls and wide openings so that the water can rise rapidly. In summer, however, when there is less demand for water, the cells formed are thick walled and have small openings. That explains why the summer wood in each year's growth is heavier and stronger than the spring wood.

Additional reading:
Botany (Wikipedia)
Dendrochronology (Wikipedia)

Related posts:

Why do we see the flash from a gun before we hear noise?

2012-01-05T10:27:00.001+05:30

When a gun goes off, the flash and the report of the gun occur at the same moment. If we are very near the gun, we see the flash and hear the noise at the same time. If we are some distance away, however, we see the flash before we hear the report. The length of time before we hear the report will be determined by our distance from the gun.

The sound of the gun, as we know, is carried to our ears by sound waves that pass through the air. Light, too, is composed of waves. Both kinds of waves—those of sound and those of light—take time to travel from one place to another. The speed of sound waves is very much slower than the speed of light waves. Light travels 2,99,792 kilometers in just one second. Sound, on the other hand, travels only about 330 meters in a second. It is easy to see, then, that the light waves will far out-distance the sound waves. We always see the flash of light, no matter how far away we may be, within a tiny fraction of a second after it has happened. But if we are, for instance, about 10 kilometer from the gun when it is fired we will not hear the sound for nearly half a minute.

You have probably noticed, too, when you watched a game of cricket from a distance that you see the bat hit the ball before you hear it. This, too, is because light, by which you see, travels so much faster than sound.

What are Polarized sunglasses? How do they work?

2012-01-05T10:16:00.002+05:30

Edwin H. Land

Before we answer these questions it will be necessary to explain what Polarized sunglasses do. As you know, ordinary light travels in waves, or vibrations. When the waves hit a smooth surface, such as a mirror, a pool of water, a wall or even the leaves of trees, they behave like a handful of flat skipping-stones thrown across a pond. Those that happen to strike the surface edge-on will plunge in, those that strike the surface with their flat sides do not plunge in, but I skip off. The light waves that skip off are the ones that make up most of the dazzling glare you see on a bright day. Since most glare surfaces are horizontal, these glare waves strike at your eyes with their vibrations running side to side rather than up and down. Polarized sunglasses have lenses of a special plastic that can block these side to side vibrations. Think of two boys, one on either side of a picket fence, each holding the end of a jumping rope passed between two pickets. The boys can make the rope go up and down in a wave-like motion; but they cannot give it a circular motion as for jumping rope. Polarized material acts somewhat like picket fence. In the sunglasses, the Polarized lenses are set with their ‘pickets’ vertical. They permit light vibrations that are moving crosswise.

There are certain natural substances that will polarize light. A mineral called Iceland spar is one ot them; tourmaline is another. Researchers have tried for a long time to find or invent a polarizing material that would be available on a large scale, for polarized light has many uses in industry and in optics. Shortly after 1925 an American scientist, Edwin H. Land, (photo, above) brought out a plastic polarizing sheet that he called Polarized film. In the plastic were tiny polarizing crystals. Later polarizers invented by Land have no crystals. Instead, their molecules are lined up in such a way that they polarize light.

Sometimes even light that has passed through a Polarized lens is much too bright for comfort. Polarized sunglasses with double lenses, or discs, reduce the light as much as you wish. One disc rotates. You may set it so that the two discs polarize the light in the same direction, or you may turn it so that they partly cancel each other. You can even block off all the light. (To go back to your picket fence, you could set a second fence crosswise, behind the upright fence. Now your rope could not move freely in any direction). Perhaps you have ridden in a train that has Polarized windows. They have double panes that can be adjusted, like the need shades, for you can block out a little, or all, of the light by turning one of the discs. Perhaps someday all our automobiles will have their headlights and windshields made of Polarized glass. This would block off glare and make driving far safer and more comfortable.

Additional reading:
Sunglasses (Wikipedia)

Will the world really end on December 12, 2012? Or it is just a hoax?

2012-01-04T20:54:00.001+05:30

Many articles regarding the prophesy that December 21, 2012 will be the last day for the mankind are appearing in the print media. Internet is swamped with websites claiming 2012 to be the end of the world. Which factors underlie dreadful foreboding of cataclysm in 2012? Here’s the interesting answer.

Put your common sense aside for a while. Simply start reading with an open mind without any objection, bias or preconceived notion. In the USA, there is a middle-aged chemical engineer named Patrick Geryl. Although not exactly a man of distinction, he is in the news frequently these days. The reason for his fame is that not only he is a leading member of that somewhat ‘batty’ group of people that firmly believe in ‘The End’ like annihilation of the world but his preparations for self-preservation from the cataclysm verge on madness.

Patrick Geryl gave up his job more than two years ago. He has saved sufficient money to pull on till 2012. It hardly matters if no money is left after that because according to firm belief of Geryl (and of many other people like him) humankind will have ceased to exist then, or nearly so. December 21, 2012 is the last date. Only those few that have made full preparations beforehand alone would survive the world devastating cataclysm. Billions of other human beings on the Earth would perish.

It is difficult to believe these things even after putting one’s intelligence away but as of now this apprehension—whether it is matter of fact-fiction, illusion-reality or belief-superstition—is not occupying the minds of Patrick Geryl and the members of his group alone. You can get hundreds of thousand web pages on the Internet by typing ‘End of the world 2012’ on Google search engine whereas there are thousands of video clips on YouTube. In short, the apprehension of cataclysm is assuming worldwide proportion.

As on today, the question uppermost in the mind is: What is the possibility of a devastating cataclysm befalling Earth? Who knows what the future has in store, but all the prophecies of cataclysm made in the past had turned out to be hollow. As many as 63 prophecies of doom have been recorded up to the beginning of the 20th century and each time the so-called doomsday had passed like any other ordinary day.

Following questions naturally arise in mind? Many instances took place in the era of ignorance and superstition in the past but today is the age of internet and information technology—an age in which science predominates and where there is no place for unfounded beliefs or superstition, Then why there is so much commotion about so-called cataclysm on December 21, 2012? Secondly, on what basis is the annihilation of humankind predicted on that specific date? And what is the basis for pinpointing exactly 23:11 hours (GMT) as the precise time for the cataclysm?

Maya civilization

Answers to all these questions are centered on the calendar of the Central America’s ancient Maya civilization. This calendar does not go beyond December 21, 2012. The Mayas had devised about 20 different types of calendars to cover the periods of different lengths. Out of these, the calendar covering the maximum span of time, the one that is known as the Long Count and covers the longest span, viz. 5,125.36 years, is going to come to an end on December 21, 2012. Expert ancient Maya astronomers have not kept any provision for measuring the time after the end of Long Count because (according to some present day experts) a major cataclysm devastates the Earth after every 5,125.36 years. Most of the living beings get wiped out in the catalyzing and a new cycle of evolution starts with whichever animates that have managed to survive. The measurement of time according to the Maya Long Count starts from zero all over again. The dawn of such a new Long Count era is not far but before the commencement of new Long Count era devastating cataclysm is going to wipe out most of the life on the Earth.

Maya civilization of the Central America was one of the well developed ancient civilizations. It was spread in Yucatan peninsula of the present day Mexico as well as in the parts of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and EI Salvador. Although Mayas settled down in this region and became cultivators around 1500 B.C., their golden age started around 250 B.C. Mayas acquired considerable expertise in astronomy, pictographic script, architecture, calendar making etc. They built cities and stepped pyramids for religious rites. Chichen-ltza was their largest city. Other cities included Palenque, Bonampak, Uxmal, Uaxactun, Tikal etc. Maya civilization thrived up to 800 AD after which the decline began. It is believed that rivalry among the rulers of various Maya cities to construct mega structures like pyramids led to tussle amongst them for skilled workers and laborers that culminated in warfare and decimation of the populace. Ultimately the Spanish conquistadors defeated the Mayas in the early 16"‘century. Their civilization except hieroglyphic carvings on the monuments and only four manuscripts was destroyed. Much later the archeologists learned that ancient Maya scholars had devised 20 types of circular calendars to represent different cycles of Nature. Long Count was the only calendar that was not depicted in circular shape but in the linear shape—as if the era denoted by it started from one point and terminated at the other end unlike other calendars which represented various continuous cycles. Long Count Calendar comes to an end after each period of 5,125.36 years. Current Long Count that started in 3114 BC must come to an end in 2012.

There were three main calendars of Maya civilization. These calendars were used for measuring short, medium and long periods of time. The study of remains of Maya monuments reveals that Maya were obsessed by time, dates, periods of days, and their astrological and magical influence. The calendar meant for measuring short span of time was known as ‘Tzolkin’ whereas the calendar meant for measuring medium span of time was known as ‘Haab’.

According to Long Count dates up to 13.0.0.0.0. only can be recorded. This period of 13 baktun is equal to 18,72,000 days. Dividing this number by 365.2420 days of the solar year, one gets 5,125.36 years. Hence, the period of 5,125.36 years that started in the year 3114 BC must come to an end in the year 2012. December 21, 2012 is the exact date calculated by the scholars. Maya calendar does not provide for any time after this date. According to the ancient Maya civilization a terrible cataclysm takes place after every 18,72,000 days and wipes out most of the living beings on the Earth. Thereafter, gradually, living beings start thriving again. The prevalent belief firmly attributes that ancient Maya scholars had purposefully stopped the calendar at 18,72,000 days because the cataclysm unfailingly devastates the Earth at the end of this period. Many people are convinced that the cataclysm will take place on December 21, 2012 and some best-selling books are strengthening their belief.

It will not be proper to end the discussion abruptly after meticulously describing the sinister forecast up to the expected date of its occurrence. The question crying for an answer is:

Which kind of event or happening will cause devastating cataclysm?

The ancient Maya scholars did not elaborate the event or events that will cause unparalleled damage. They simply stopped mapping the time after Long Count. This ultimately made many people believe that end of Long Count tantamount to cataclysm. They associated some catastrophic events threatening the existence of the living beings with the ancient Maya calendar. Each of these threats has always been likely—and very much so today. Here are some examples.

» The solar system is situated near the edge of one of the spiral arms of our Galaxy, the Milky Way. Like other spiral galaxies, Milky Way is flattened and disc-shaped with a bulge in the center where the maximum number of stars is concentrated. Solar system is orbiting the center or the nucleus of 1,00,000 light years expanse of the Milky Way at a distance of about 30,000 light years from the nucleus but its orbital course is not on a plane level. It is an undulating course like a roller-coaster. The present stage of solar system’s course is a descending one. Here, the space is filled with hydrogen gas clouds and dust. This is potentially dangerous situation.

If huge clouds of gas and dust invade the Earth’s atmosphere as it hurtles through the space at the velocity of hundreds of kilometers per second, resultant obstruction to the sunrays will go on increasing and decreasing temperature can cause ice age on the Earth. Major ice ages come once in every 25,625 years, this period is equal to five long counts (5,125 X 5). Incidentally, according to ancient Maya scholars, four cycles of Long Count are over and the fifth cycle is nearing its end on December 21, 2012 which is also the portentous 25,625th year.

» Here is another ominous prophecy for the believers of apocalypse. Eruption of the word’s most potent volcano is long overdue. It can take place any time. This volcano situated in the USA’s Yellowstone National Park is not a mountain like other volcanoes because its gargantuan magma chamber or the lava reservoir is trapped in a geological fault 30 kilometers beneath the surface. Underground water above the magma chamber is transforming into steam and then condensing into water it is spewed as 55 meters high geyser at hourly intervals. This geyser scrupulously maintains its hourly timetable and therefore, the Americans have named it ‘0ld faithful’.

As far as the probability of cataclysm is concerned, geyser is not important but the huge lava reservoir beneath it. No other volcano on the Earth has such as a vast reservoir of lava. Geological studies have confirmed that this volcano at Yellowstone has been erupting every 6,50,000 years and wrecking havoc on the living creatures by throwing giant clouds of millions of tons of dust and ash in the sky. Eventually blocking the sunrays for months together. More than 6,50,000 years have elapsed since its last eruption. The believers of cataclysm are treating the year 2012 as yet another year of Yellowstone’s deadly eruption.

» The time is also ripe for the reversal of the Earth’s magnetic poles. Studies of magnetic specs embedded in subterranean rocks have revealed that magnetic North and South Poles have interchanged their position about 400 times in the past 170 million years. Each time the Earth’s magnetic field had nearly vanished for about 100 years before becoming normal again. During the period of absence of the magnetic field the Earth received tremendous amounts of radiation from the outer space. Deprived of the magnetic shield the living creatures fell prey to the effects of radiation. Hundreds of thousand years have passed since the last reversal of magnetic poles and this event with its calamitous effects is also due any time. End of the world lobby has not failed to connect this phenomenon with 2012.

» Astronomers have forecast 2012 as the year of the most intense solar activity. Huge solar flares and ejection of vast quantities of charged particles of energy (protons and electrons) known as solar wind is expected in this year. It was estimated that the number of sunspots might exceed 140 by the August of this year and might reach 155 by the year end in December. Solar flares known as coronal mass ejections/CME may nearly burn the living creatures on the Earth. Average solar flare has temperature of 1,00,000⁰ Celsius and mass of one billion tons. A large number of people believe that Sun’s wrath will be unbearable this year.

Besides perils discussed above, apprehensions are expressed about the possibility of a number of other destructive natural forces. Among them are explosion of supernova in the outer space near the solar system and cascades of deadly gamma rays emanating from the collision between two black holes or neutron stars engulfing the Earth. Collision of a large meteoroid or comet on the Earth is also possible.

However, the question is: Do any of these phenomena have even the remotest connection with the calendar of Maya civilization? We don’t know! Wait till December 12, 2012 for the answer!

Additional reading:

2012 phenomenon (Wikipedia)
Maya civilization (Wikipedia)
Maya calendar (Wikipedia)

Related post:

Has any of Nostradamus's predictions actually come true?

What did the American astronauts leave behind on the Moon?

2012-01-03T19:09:00.001+05:30

Last year (i.e. 2011) marked the completion of 42 years of the most significant event in the history of manned space flights. Forty-two years ago, Neil Armstrong had first landed on the Moon in July 1969 and his one small step had meant a giant leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong's Apollo-11 was the first manned spacecraft to land on the Moon in July 1969—and Eugene Cernan’s Apollo-17 was the sixth (last) to visit the Moon in December 1972. During the six visits to the Moon, astronauts have brought on the Earth, nearly 2,200 Moon rocks whose aggregate weight is 382 kilograms. (The ‘return gifts’ also include the 300 grams of Moon rocks brought by the 3 robotic spacecrafts from Russia). A question definitely arises in the curious mind that if these astronauts have brought rocks as souvenirs from their trip to the Moon, what did they carry along with them and leave on the Moon as an insignia of their visit?

Lunar Roving Vehicle/LRV

Even after four decades, there is a list of things that still exists on the Moon which was left behind as a mark of mankind's visit to the Moon. There are in all 23 vital mementoes left behind by the 12 expeditors who visited the Moon as a part of the Apollo project. These include the 3 Lunar Roving Vehicles/LRVs (photo, above) used to taxi around the surface of the Moon that were used during the mission Apollo-15, 16 and 17. These 3.1 meters long, 1.82 meters wide and 209.5 kilograms heavy (its weight on the Moon is just 35 kilograms) two-seater vehicles, capable of running at a maximum speed of 14 kilometers, were used by the astronauts to roam on the surface of the Moon. Not only these expensive vehicles were abandoned there but all the 6 lunar modules which were used for the purpose of landing on the Moon are also left there. The other things, scattered across on the Moon, include the bags used to carry the life support systems, Neil Armstrong's as well as other astronauts' shoes, a device to measure the earthquake-like tremors on the Moon, a laser reflector which is used to measure the distance between the Earth and the Moon, the golf stick along and a golf ball that was struck by Alan Shepard, the national fldg of the USA, the urine collection bags of the astronauts, tools used to break the rocks, etc. Personal belongings like the astronauts' family photographs are also included in the list. Every spot of human landing on the Moon includes some or the other thing to mark his visit on that spot.

Apart from human landings, there are also the insignias that mark the virtual landings of mankind on the Moon. Luna-2, the 390 kilograms first spacecraft sent to the Moon by Russia in 1959 is still lying on the Moon's land. The three surveyor spaceships of the USA are also lying there in the form of junk, while the first robotic spaceship,‘Lunokhod' sent by Russia in 1973 is also in the same state. Analysing the statistics since 1969 till date, it is evident that 40 spacecrafts have landed on the Moon, be it softly or recklessly. These mementoes that have left a mailft of mankind on the Moon will definitely not leave its surface for at least the next millions of years. Mementos include the first footprint of Neil Armstrong, the first man to land on the Moon as well.

How do sound waves travel through air? Why do they move faster in water than in air?

2012-01-03T18:34:00.001+05:30

If you touch a temple bell after ringing it, you would feel it vibrating—and vibration is due to the production of sound. The ringing temple bell passes on its vibrations to the surrounding air. It compresses the air as it moves outwards. Then it moves back, and the air expands back to occupy the space which its contracting side has left. (See diagram below).

The air in the immediate vicinity of the vibrating object itself passes on the vibrations to air adjacent to it, and in this way, the vibrations spread out from the source in all directions. These vibrations, which travel through the air are what we call sound waves. We hear them as sound when they strike our eardrums and cause them to vibrate. The vibrating eardrums send impulses to the brain, which interprets them as sound.

Sound waves travel in other things besides air—in water, for example. Surprisingly enough it travels faster in water than in air—more than four times as much. In fact, the denser the medium sound travels in, the higher its speed. (See table). It does not travel in a vacuum, of course, because there is no medium present to pass on the vibrating.

Additional reading:
Sound (Wikipedia)

Why an automobile's windscreen glass shatters into rounded pieces when it breaks?

2012-01-03T18:21:00.001+05:30

It is because this particular type of glass has undergone the process of toughening or lamination. Automobile windscreen and aircraft windshields must withstand severe impacts without shattering. The kind of special glass used for such purposes is called safety glass. It is far stronger than ordinary glass and does not shatter into sharp, dangerous splinters.

Two main kinds of safety glass are produced—toughened and laminated glass. Toughened glass is made by heating glass sheet in a furnace. It has its temperature uniformly raised until it is just beginning to become plastic. It is then quickly lifted out of the furnace, bent where necessary between matching tools and then cooled rapidly and uniformly all over by jets of cold air blown forcibly on to it. This process is called tempering. When toughened glass breaks, it shatters into hundreds of blunt, rounded particles which cannot cause bad cuts.

Laminated glass is a kind of glass and plastic sandwich. Two sheets of flat glass with a layer of polyvinyl butyral in between are gently heated under vacuum which evacuates all air from the laminates and is then heated to bonding temperature under pressure. Laminated glass is safe because when it breaks the pieces of glass stick to the sandwiched layer of plastic.

Additional reading:
Toughened glass (Wikipedia)
Laminated glass (Wikipedia)