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National Disaster Medical System

2013-03-16T08:54:00.002-07:00

National Disaster Medical System

Background on the Origins of NDMS

Presidential Initiative

-1981 – Establish Emergency Mobilization Preparedness Board (EMPB)/Principle Working Groups

-Directed to Develop National Policies and Programs for Domestic Disasters and National Security Emergencies

What is NDMS

Is a partnership of private and public sectors to provide care to the victims of great disasters. The system is being develop as a voluntary cooperative effort off our major Federal agencies, State and Local government, and the American professional and hospital communities. A combines Federal and non-Federal medical resources into a unified response to meet natural and man-made disaster needs, as well as support patient treatment requirements from military contingencies.

What Emergencies does NDMS Responses to?

· Natural Disasters

· Major Transportation Accidents

· Technological Disasters

· Acts of Terrorism

NDMS Function in Disaster

· Assessment of Health and Medical Needs

· Health Surveillance

· Medical Care Personnel

· Health/Medical Equipment and Supplies

· Patient Evacuation

· In-Hospital Care

· Food/ Drug/ Medical Device Safety

· Worker Health/ Safety

· Mental Health Services

· Public Health Information

· Vector Control

· Potable Water/ Wastewater and Solid Waste Disposal

· Victim Identification/ Mortuary Services

· Veterinary Services

Purpose of NDMS

It was originally developed to supplement and support the medical care of evacuated military and civilian casualties from and overseas war. Now, it provides health services, health-related social services, other appropriate human services, and appropriate auxiliary services to respond to the needs of victims of a public health emergency. It supplement state and local medical resources during disaster or major emergencies. It also provides backup medical support to the DOD/VA medical care system during an overseas conventional conflict.

Objective of NDMS

· To provide assistance to a disaster area in the form of medical assistance teams, supplies, and equipment,

· To evacuate patient who cannot be cared for in an affected area to designated location elsewhere in the nation, and

· To provide hospitalization in a national network of hospitals that have agreed to accept patients in the event of a national emergency.

Major Components of NDMS

1. Medical Response

2. Patient Evacuation

3. Definitive Medical Care

NDMS Teams

1. Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) - provides medical care during a disaster or other incident.

2. National Medical response Team (NMRT) – provides mass decontamination and medical care to victims of a release of Weapons of Mass Destruction, or large scale release of Hazardous Material.

3. Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) – provide victim identification and mortuary services during a disaster or other incident.

4. National Veterinary Response team (NVRT) – provides assistance in assessing the need for veterinary services following major disaster or emergencies.

5. Federal Coordinating Centers (FCCs) – recruit hospitals and maintain local non-Federal hospital participation in the NDMS and coordinate exercise development and emergency plans.

6. National Pharmacy Response Team (NPRT) – assists in chemoprophylaxis or vaccination of large numbers of citizen in response to an emergency involving a disease outbreak.

7. International Medical Surgical Response Team (IMSuRT) – widely recognized as a specialized team, trained and equipped to establish a fully capable field surgical facility anywhere in the world.

8. National Nurse Response Team (NNRT) – A specialty DMAT designed for a scenario requiring hundreds of nurses to assist in chemoprophylaxis, mass vaccination programs, or situation that overwhelm the nation’s supply of nurses.

Importance of NDMS

· Improves Federal Mission Readiness

o Ability to Mobilize and Deploy Medical teams, Supplies, and Equipment

o Ability to Provide Patient evacuation System

o Ability to Provide Definitive Medical Care

· Adds Value to America

Benefits of NDMS

· Maximizes the Utilization of existing resources

· Provides Identified Level of Care

· Integrates Pre-Hospital Phase with Medical Facilities

· Helps Contain Health Care Cost

· Designed to Reduce Mortality and Morbidity

National Disaster Medical System

2013-03-16T08:53:00.003-07:00

National Disaster Medical System

Background on the Origins of NDMS

Presidential Initiative

-1981 – Establish Emergency Mobilization Preparedness Board (EMPB)/Principle Working Groups

-Directed to Develop National Policies and Programs for Domestic Disasters and National Security Emergencies

What is NDMS

What Emergencies does NDMS Responses to?

· Natural Disasters

· Major Transportation Accidents

· Technological Disasters

· Acts of Terrorism

NDMS Function in Disaster

· Assessment of Health and Medical Needs

· Health Surveillance

· Medical Care Personnel

· Health/Medical Equipment and Supplies

· Patient Evacuation

· In-Hospital Care

· Food/ Drug/ Medical Device Safety

· Worker Health/ Safety

· Mental Health Services

· Public Health Information

· Vector Control

· Potable Water/ Wastewater and Solid Waste Disposal

· Victim Identification/ Mortuary Services

· Veterinary Services

Purpose of NDMS

Objective of NDMS

· To provide assistance to a disaster area in the form of medical assistance teams, supplies, and equipment,

· To evacuate patient who cannot be cared for in an affected area to designated location elsewhere in the nation, and

· To provide hospitalization in a national network of hospitals that have agreed to accept patients in the event of a national emergency.

Major Components of NDMS

1. Medical Response

2. Patient Evacuation

3. Definitive Medical Care

NDMS Teams

1. Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) - provides medical care during a disaster or other incident.

2. National Medical response Team (NMRT) – provides mass decontamination and medical care to victims of a release of Weapons of Mass Destruction, or large scale release of Hazardous Material.

3. Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) – provide victim identification and mortuary services during a disaster or other incident.

4. National Veterinary Response team (NVRT) – provides assistance in assessing the need for veterinary services following major disaster or emergencies.

5. Federal Coordinating Centers (FCCs) – recruit hospitals and maintain local non-Federal hospital participation in the NDMS and coordinate exercise development and emergency plans.

6. National Pharmacy Response Team (NPRT) – assists in chemoprophylaxis or vaccination of large numbers of citizen in response to an emergency involving a disease outbreak.

7. International Medical Surgical Response Team (IMSuRT) – widely recognized as a specialized team, trained and equipped to establish a fully capable field surgical facility anywhere in the world.

Importance of NDMS

· Improves Federal Mission Readiness

o Ability to Mobilize and Deploy Medical teams, Supplies, and Equipment

o Ability to Provide Patient evacuation System

o Ability to Provide Definitive Medical Care

· Adds Value to America

Benefits of NDMS

· Maximizes the Utilization of existing resources

· Provides Identified Level of Care

· Integrates Pre-Hospital Phase with Medical Facilities

· Helps Contain Health Care Cost

· Designed to Reduce Mortality and Morbidity

National Disaster Medical System

2013-03-16T08:53:00.001-07:00

National Disaster Medical System

Background on the Origins of NDMS

Presidential Initiative

-1981 – Establish Emergency Mobilization Preparedness Board (EMPB)/Principle Working Groups

-Directed to Develop National Policies and Programs for Domestic Disasters and National Security Emergencies

What is NDMS

What Emergencies does NDMS Responses to?

· Natural Disasters

· Major Transportation Accidents

· Technological Disasters

· Acts of Terrorism

NDMS Function in Disaster

· Assessment of Health and Medical Needs

· Health Surveillance

· Medical Care Personnel

· Health/Medical Equipment and Supplies

· Patient Evacuation

· In-Hospital Care

· Food/ Drug/ Medical Device Safety

· Worker Health/ Safety

· Mental Health Services

· Public Health Information

· Vector Control

· Potable Water/ Wastewater and Solid Waste Disposal

· Victim Identification/ Mortuary Services

· Veterinary Services

Purpose of NDMS

Objective of NDMS

· To provide assistance to a disaster area in the form of medical assistance teams, supplies, and equipment,

· To evacuate patient who cannot be cared for in an affected area to designated location elsewhere in the nation, and

· To provide hospitalization in a national network of hospitals that have agreed to accept patients in the event of a national emergency.

Major Components of NDMS

1. Medical Response

2. Patient Evacuation

3. Definitive Medical Care

NDMS Teams

1. Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) - provides medical care during a disaster or other incident.

2. National Medical response Team (NMRT) – provides mass decontamination and medical care to victims of a release of Weapons of Mass Destruction, or large scale release of Hazardous Material.

3. Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) – provide victim identification and mortuary services during a disaster or other incident.

4. National Veterinary Response team (NVRT) – provides assistance in assessing the need for veterinary services following major disaster or emergencies.

5. Federal Coordinating Centers (FCCs) – recruit hospitals and maintain local non-Federal hospital participation in the NDMS and coordinate exercise development and emergency plans.

6. National Pharmacy Response Team (NPRT) – assists in chemoprophylaxis or vaccination of large numbers of citizen in response to an emergency involving a disease outbreak.

7. International Medical Surgical Response Team (IMSuRT) – widely recognized as a specialized team, trained and equipped to establish a fully capable field surgical facility anywhere in the world.

Importance of NDMS

· Improves Federal Mission Readiness

o Ability to Mobilize and Deploy Medical teams, Supplies, and Equipment

o Ability to Provide Patient evacuation System

o Ability to Provide Definitive Medical Care

· Adds Value to America

Benefits of NDMS

· Maximizes the Utilization of existing resources

· Provides Identified Level of Care

· Integrates Pre-Hospital Phase with Medical Facilities

· Helps Contain Health Care Cost

· Designed to Reduce Mortality and Morbidity

Disaster and Crisis Assessment, Mitigation and Ethics

2012-12-08T23:45:00.001-08:00

INTRODUCTION

DISASTER

Calamitous, distressing, or ruinous effects of a disastrous event (such as drought, flood, fire, hurricane, war) of such scale that they disrupt (or threaten to disrupt) critical functions of an organization, society or system, for a period long enough to significantly harm it or cause its failure. It is the consequences of a disastrous event and the inability of its victims to cope with them that constitute a disaster, not the event itself. Although there is no universally accepted definition of a disaster, the following observation by the US disaster relief specialist Frederick C. Cuny (1944-1995) comes close, "A situation resulting from an environmental phenomenon or armed conflict that produced stress, personal injury, physical damage, and economic disruption of great magnitude."

The definition adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) terms a disaster as "The result of a vast ecological breakdown in the relations between man and his environment, a serious and sudden (or slow, as in drought) disruption on such a scale that the stricken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or international aid." The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) describes it as "An occurrence of a natural catastrophe, technological accident, or human caused event that has resulted in severe property damage, deaths, and/or multiple injuries." Dr. Kathleen J. Tierney (Director, Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware) puts the matter in a different perspective: "Many people trying to do quickly what they do not ordinarily do, in an environment with which they are not familiar."

CRISIS - Critical event or point of decision which, if not handled in an appropriate and timely manner (or if not handled at all), may turn into a disaster or catastrophe.

MITIGATION - The elimination or reduction of the frequency, magnitude, or severity of exposure to risks, or minimization of the potential impact of a threat or warning.

ETHICS - The basic concepts and fundamental principles of right human conduct. It includes study of universal values such as the essential equality of all men and women, human or natural rights, obedience to the law of land, concern for health and safety and, increasingly, also for the natural environment.

LEGAL BASIS OF NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, and adopted the present Framework for Action 2005-2015:

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (here after referred to as the “Framework for Action”). The Conference provided a unique opportunity to promote a strategic and systematic approach to reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards. It underscored the need for, and identified ways of, building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters.

Challenges posed by disasters

Disaster loss is on the rise with grave consequences for the survival, dignity and livelihood of individuals, particularly the poor, and hard-won development gains. Disaster risk is increasingly of global concern and its impact and actions in one region can have an impact on risks in another, and vice versa. This, compounded by increasing vulnerabilities related to changing demographic, technological and socio-economic conditions, unplanned urbanization, development within high-risk zones, under-development, environmental degradation, climate variability, climate change, geological hazards, competition for scarce resources, and the impact of epidemics such as HIV/AIDS, points to a future where disasters could increasingly threaten the world’s economy, and its population and the sustainable development of developing countries. In the past two decades on average more than 200 million people have been affected every year by disasters.

Disaster risk arises when hazards interact with physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities. Events of hydrometeorological origin constitute the large majority of disasters. Despite the growing understanding and acceptance of the importance of disaster risk reduction and increased disaster response capacities, disasters and in particular the management and reduction of risk continue to pose a global challenge.

There is now international acknowledgement that efforts to reduce disaster risks must be systematically integrated into policies, plans and programmes for sustainable development and poverty reduction, and supported through bilateral, regional and international cooperation, including partnerships. Sustainable development, poverty reduction, good governance and disaster risk reduction are mutually supportive objectives, and in order to meet the challenges ahead, accelerated efforts must be made to build the necessary capacities at the community and national levels to manage and reduce risk. Such an approach is to be recognized as an important element for the achievement of internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration.

The importance of promoting disaster risk reduction efforts on the international and regional levels as well as the national and local levels has been recognized in the past few years in a number of key multilateral frameworks and declarations

The Yokohama Strategy: lessons learned and gaps identified

The Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster

Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action (“Yokohama Strategy”), adopted in 1994, provides landmark guidance on reducing disaster risk and the impacts of disasters.

The review of progress made in implementing the Yokohama Strategy identifies major challenges for the coming years in ensuring more systematic action to address disaster risks in the context of sustainable development and in building resilience through enhanced national and local capabilities to manage and reduce risk.

The review stresses the importance of disaster risk reduction being underpinned by a more pro-active approach to informing, motivating and involving people in all aspects of disaster risk reduction in their own local communities. It also highlights the scarcity of resources allocated specifically from development budgets for the realization of risk reduction objectives, either at the national or the regional level or through international cooperation and financial mechanisms, while noting the significant potential to better exploit existing resources and established practices for more effective disaster risk reduction.

Specific gaps and challenges are identified in the following five main areas:

(a) Governance: organizational, legal and policy frameworks;

(b) Risk identification, assessment, monitoring and early warning;

(d) Reducing underlying risk factors;

(e) Preparedness for effective response and recovery.

These are the key areas for developing a relevant framework for action for the decade 2005–2015

World Conference on Disaster Reduction: Objectives, expected outcome and strategic goals

A. Objectives

The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was convened by decision of the General Assembly, with five specific objectives.

(a) To conclude and report on the review of the Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Action, with a view to updating the guiding framework on disaster reduction for the twenty-first century.

(b) To identify specific activities aimed at ensuring the implementation of relevant provisions of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development on vulnerability, risk assessment and disaster management.

(c) To share good practices and lessons learned to further disaster reduction within the context of attaining sustainable development, and to identify gaps and challenges.

(d) To increase awareness of the importance of disaster reduction policies, thereby facilitating and promoting the implementation of those policies.

(e) To increase the reliability and availability of appropriate disaster-related information to the public and disaster management agencies in all regions, as set out in relevant provisions of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

B. Expected outcome

Taking these objectives into account, and drawing on the conclusions of the review of the Yokohama Strategy, States and other actors participating at the World Conference on

Disaster Reduction (hereinafter referred to as “the Conference”) resolve to pursue the following expected outcome for the next 10 years:

The substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries.

The realization of this outcome will require the full commitment and involvement of all factors concerned, including governments, regional and international organizations, civil society including volunteers, the private sector and the scientific community.

C. Strategic goals

To attain this expected outcome, the Conference resolves to adopt the following strategic goals:

(a) The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction.

(b) The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels, in particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience7 to hazards.

(c) The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in the reconstruction of affected communities.

Priorities for action 2005–2015

A. General considerations

In determining appropriate action to achieve the expected outcome and strategic goals, the Conference reaffirms that the following general considerations will be taken into account.

(a) The Principles contained in the Yokohama Strategy retain their full relevance in the current context, which is characterized by increasing commitment to disaster reduction.

(b) Taking into account the importance of international cooperation and partnerships, each State has the primary responsibility for its own sustainable development and for taking effective measures to reduce disaster risk, including for the protection of people on its territory, infrastructure and other national assets from the impact of disasters. At the same time, in the context of increasing global interdependence, concerted international cooperation and an enabling international environment are required to stimulate and contribute to developing the knowledge, capacities and motivation needed for disaster risk reduction at all levels.

(c) An integrated, multi-hazard approach to disaster risk reduction should be factored into policies, planning and programming related to sustainable development, relief, rehabilitation, and recovery activities in post-disaster and post-conflict situations in disaster-prone countries.

(d) A gender perspective should be integrated into all disaster risk management policies, plans and decision-making processes, including those related to risk assessment, early warning, information management, and education and training.

(e) Cultural diversity, age, and vulnerable groups should be taken into account when planning for disaster risk reduction, as appropriate.

(f) Both communities and local authorities should be empowered to manage and reduce disaster risk by having access to the necessary information, resources and authority to implement actions for disaster risk reduction.

(g) Disaster-prone developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States, warrant particular attention in view of their higher vulnerability and risk levels, which often greatly exceed their capacity to respond to and recover from disasters.

(h) There is a need to enhance international and regional cooperation and assistance in the field of disaster risk reduction through, inter alia:

• The transfer of knowledge, technology and expertise to enhance capacity building for disaster risk reduction

• The sharing of research findings, lessons learned and best practices

• The compilation of information on disaster risk and impact for all scales of disasters in a way that can inform sustainable development and disaster risk reduction

• Appropriate support in order to enhance governance for disaster risk reduction, for awareness-raising initiatives and for capacity-development measures at all levels, in order to improve the disaster resilience of developing countries

• The full, speedy and effective implementation of the enhanced Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, taking into account the impact of disasters on the debt sustainability of countries eligible for this programme

• Financial assistance to reduce existing risks and to avoid the generation of new risks

(i) The promotion of a culture of prevention, including through the mobilization of adequate resources for disaster risk reduction, is an investment for the future with substantial returns. Risk assessment and early warning systems are essential investments that protect and save lives, property and livelihoods, contribute to the sustainability of development, and are far more cost-effective in strengthening coping mechanisms than is primary reliance on post-disaster response and recovery.

(j) There is also a need for proactive measures, bearing in mind that the phases of relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction following a disaster are windows of opportunity for the rebuilding of livelihoods and for the planning and reconstruction of physical and socio-economic structures, in a way that will build community resilience and reduce vulnerability to future disaster risks.

(k) Disaster risk reduction is a cross-cutting issue in the context of sustainable development and therefore an important element for the achievement of internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration. In addition, every effort should be made to use humanitarian assistance in such a way that risks and future vulnerabilities will be lessened as much as possible.

B. Priorities for action

Drawing on the conclusions of the review of the Yokohama Strategy, and on the basis of deliberations at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction and especially the agreed expected outcome and strategic goals, the Conference has adopted the following five priorities for action:

1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation.

2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.

3. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels.

4. Reduce the underlying risk factors.

5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

In their approach to disaster risk reduction, States, regional and international organizations and other actors concerned should take into consideration the key activities listed under each of these five priorities and should implement them, as appropriate, to their own circumstances and capacities.

Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong

institutional basis for implementation

Countries that develop policy, legislative and institutional frameworks for disaster risk reduction and that are able to develop and track progress through specific and measurable indicators have greater capacity to manage risks and to achieve widespread consensus for, engagement in and compliance with disaster risk reduction measures across all sectors of society.

Key activities:

National institutional and legislative frameworks

(a) Support the creation and strengthening of national integrated disaster risk reduction mechanisms, such as multi sectoral national platforms, with designated responsibilities at the national through to the local levels to facilitate coordination across sectors. National platforms should also facilitate coordination across sectors, including by maintaining a broad based dialogue at national and regional levels for promoting awareness among the relevant sectors.

(b) Integrate risk reduction, as appropriate, into development policies and planning at all levels of government, including in poverty reduction strategies and sectors and multi sector policies and plans.

(c) Adopt, or modify where necessary, legislation to support disaster risk reduction, including regulations and mechanisms that encourage compliance and that promote incentives for undertaking risk reduction and mitigation activities.

(d) Recognize the importance and specificity of local risk patterns and trends, decentralize responsibilities and resources for disaster risk reduction to relevant subnational or local authorities, as appropriate.

Resources

(a) Assess existing human resource capacities for disaster risk reduction at all levels and develop capacity-building plans and programmes for meeting ongoing and future requirements.

(b) Allocate resources for the development and the implementation of disaster risk management policies, programmes, laws and regulations on disaster risk reduction in all relevant sectors and authorities at all levels of administrative and budgets on the basis of clearly prioritized actions.

(c) Governments should demonstrate the strong political determination required to promote and integrate disaster risk reduction into development programming.

Community participation

(a) Promote community participation in disaster risk reduction through the adoption of specific policies, the promotion of networking, the strategic management of volunteer resources, the attribution of roles and responsibilities, and the delegation and provision of the necessary authority and resources.

Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning

The starting point for reducing disaster risk and for promoting a culture of disaster resilience lies in the knowledge of the hazards and the physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities to disasters that most societies face, and of the ways in which hazards and vulnerabilities are changing in the short and long term, followed by action taken on the basis of that knowledge.

Key activities:

National and local risk assessments

(a) Develop, update periodically and widely disseminate risk maps and related information to decision-makers, the general public and communities at risk in an appropriate format.

(b) Develop systems of indicators of disaster risk and vulnerability at national and sub-national scales that will enable decision-makers to assess the impact of disasters on social, economic and environmental conditions and disseminate the results to decision makers, the public and populations at risk.

(c) Record, analyze, summarize and disseminate statistical information on disaster occurrence, impacts and losses, on a regular bases through international, regional, national and local mechanisms.

Early warning

(a) Develop early warning systems that are people centered, in particular systems whose warnings are timely and understandable to those at risk, which take into account the demographic, gender, cultural and livelihood characteristics of the target audiences, including guidance on how to act upon warnings, and that support effective operations by disaster managers and other decision makers.

(b) Establish, periodically review, and maintain information systems as part of early warning systems with a view to ensuring that rapid and coordinated action is taken in cases of alert/emergency.

(c) Establish institutional capacities to ensure that early warning systems are well integrated into governmental policy and decision-making processes and emergency management systems at both the national and the local levels, and are subject to regular system testing and performance assessments.

(d) Implement the outcome of the Second International Conference on Early Warning held in Bonn, Germany, in 2003, including through the strengthening of coordination and cooperation among all relevant sectors and actors in the early warning chain in order to achieve fully effective early warning systems.

(e) Implement the outcome of the Mauritius Strategy for the further implementation of the Barbados Programme of Action for the sustainable development of small island developing States, including by establishing and strengthening effective early warning systems as well as other mitigation and response measures.

Capacity

(a) Support the development and sustainability of the infrastructure and scientific, technological, technical and institutional capacities needed to research, observe, analyze, map and where possible forecast natural and related hazards, vulnerabilities and disaster impacts.

(b) Support the development and improvement of relevant databases and the promotion of full and open exchange and dissemination of data for assessment, monitoring and early warning purposes, as appropriate, at international, regional, national and local levels.

(c) Support the improvement of scientific and technical methods and capacities for risk assessment, monitoring and early warning, through research, partnerships, training and technical capacity- building. Promote the application of in situ and space-based earth observations, space technologies, remote sensing, geographic information systems, hazard modelling and prediction, weather and climate modelling and forecasting, communication tools and studies of the costs and benefits of risk assessment and early warning.

(d) Establish and strengthen the capacity to record, analyze, summarize, disseminate, and exchange statistical information and data on hazards mapping, disaster risks, impacts, and losses; support the development of common methodologies for risk assessment and monitoring.

Regional and emerging risks

(a) Compile and standardize, as appropriate, statistical information and data on regional disaster risks, impacts and losses.

(b) Cooperate regionally and internationally, as appropriate, to assess and monitor regional and trans-boundary hazards, and exchange information and provide early warnings through appropriate arrangements, such as, inter alia, those relating to the management of river basins.

(c) Research, analyze and report on long-term changes and emerging issues that might increase vulnerabilities and risks or the capacity of authorities and communities to respond to disasters.

Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels

Disasters can be substantially reduced if people are well informed and motivated towards a culture of disaster prevention and resilience, which in turn requires the collection, compilation and dissemination of relevant knowledge and information on hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities.

Key activities:

Information management and exchange

(a) Provide easily understandable information on disaster risks and protection options, especially to citizens in high-risk areas, to encourage and enable people to take action to reduce risks and build resilience. The information should incorporate relevant traditional and indigenous knowledge and culture heritage and be tailored to different target audiences, taking into account cultural and social factors.

(b) Strengthen networks among disaster experts, managers and planners across sectors and between regions, and create or strengthen procedures for using available expertise when agencies and other important actors develop local risk reduction plans.

(c) Promote and improve dialogue and cooperation among scientific communities and practitioners working on disaster risk reduction, and encourage partnerships among stakeholders, including those working on the socioeconomic dimensions of disaster risk reduction.

(d) Promote the use, application and affordability of recent information, communication and space-based technologies and related services, as well as earth observations, to support disaster risk reduction, particularly for training and for the sharing and dissemination of information among different categories of users.

(e) In the medium term, develop local, national, regional and international user friendly directories, inventories and national information-sharing systems and services for the exchange of information on good practices, cost-effective and easy-to-use disaster risk reduction technologies, and lessons learned on policies, plans and measures for disaster risk reduction.

(f) Institutions dealing with urban development should provide information to the public on disaster reduction options prior to constructions, land purchase or land sale.

(g) Update and widely disseminate international standard terminology related to disaster risk reduction, at least in all official United Nations languages, for use in programme and institutional development, operations, research, training curricula and public information programmes.

Education and training

(a) Promote the inclusion of disaster risk reduction knowledge in relevant sections of school curricula at all levels and the use of other formal and informal channels to reach youth and children with information; promote the integration of disaster risk reduction as an intrinsic element of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2015)

(b) Promote the implementation of local risk assessment and disaster preparedness programmes in schools and institutions of higher education.

(c) Promote the implementation of programmes and activities in schools for learning how to minimize the effects of hazards.

(d) Develop training and learning programmes in disaster risk reduction targeted at specific sectors (development planners, emergency managers, local government officials, etc.).

(e) Promote community-based training initiatives, considering the role of volunteers, as appropriate, to enhance local capacities to mitigate and cope with disasters.

(f) Ensure equal access to appropriate training and educational opportunities for women and vulnerable constituencies; promote gender and cultural sensitivity training as integral components of education and training for disaster risk reduction.

Research

(a) Develop improved methods for predictive multi-risk assessments and socioeconomic cost–benefit analysis of risk reduction actions at all levels; incorporate these methods into decision-making processes at regional, national and local levels.

(b) Strengthen the technical and scientific capacity to develop and apply methodologies, studies and models to assess vulnerabilities to and the impact of geological, weather, water and climate-related hazards, including the improvement of regional monitoring capacities and assessments.

Public awareness

(a) Promote the engagement of the media in order to stimulate a culture of disaster resilience and strong community involvement in sustained public education campaigns and public consultations at all levels of society.

Reduce the underlying risk factors

Disaster risks related to changing social, economic, environmental conditions and land use, and the impact of hazards associated with geological events, weather, water, climate variability and climate change, are addressed in sector development planning and programmes as well as in post-disaster situations.

Key activities:

Environmental and natural resource management

(a) Encourage the sustainable use and management of ecosystems, including through better land-use planning and development activities to reduce risk and vulnerabilities.

(b) Implement integrated environmental and natural resource management approaches that incorporate disaster risk reduction, including structural and non-structural measures, such as integrated flood management and appropriate management of fragile ecosystems.

(c) Promote the integration of risk reduction associated with existing climate variability and future climate change into strategies for the reduction of disaster risk and adaptation to climate change, which would include the clear identification of climate related disaster risks, the design of specific risk reduction measures and an improved and routine use of climate risk information by planners, engineers and other decision-makers.

Social and economic development practices

(a) Promote food security as an important factor in ensuring the resilience of communities to hazards, particularly in areas prone to drought, flood, cyclones and other hazards that can weaken agriculture-based livelihoods.

(b) Integrate disaster risk reduction planning into the health sector; promote the goal of “hospitals safe from disaster” by ensuring that all new hospitals are built with a level of resilience that strengthens their capacity to remain functional in disaster situations and implement mitigation measures to reinforce existing health facilities, particularly those providing primary health care.

(c) Protect and strengthen critical public facilities and physical infrastructure, particularly schools, clinics, hospitals, water and power plants, communications and transport lifelines, disaster warning and management centres, and culturally important lands and structures through proper design, retrofitting and re-building, in order to render them adequately resilient to hazards.

(d) Strengthen the implementation of social safety-net mechanisms to assist the poor, the elderly and the disabled, and other populations affected by disasters. Enhance recovery schemes including psycho-social training programmes in order to mitigate the psychological damage of vulnerable populations, particularly children, in the aftermath of disasters.

(e) Incorporate disaster risk reduction measures into post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes and use opportunities during the recovery phase to develop capacities that reduce disaster risk in the long term, including through the sharing of expertise, knowledge and lessons learned.

(f) Endeavor to ensure, as appropriate, that programmes for displaced persons do not increase risk and vulnerability to hazards.

(g) Promote diversified income options for populations in high-risk areas to reduce their vulnerability to hazards, and ensure that their income and assets are not undermined by development policy and processes that increase their vulnerability to disasters.

(h) Promote the development of financial risk-sharing mechanisms, particularly insurance and reinsurance against disasters.

(i) Promote the establishment of public–private partnerships to better engage the private sector in disaster risk reduction activities; encourage the private sector to foster a culture of disaster prevention, putting greater emphasis on, and allocating resources to, pre-disaster activities such as risk assessments and early warning systems.

(j) Develop and promote alternative and innovative financial instruments for addressing disaster risk.

Land-use planning and other technical measures

(k) Incorporate disaster risk assessments into the urban planning and management of disaster-prone human settlements, in particular highly populated areas and quickly urbanizing settlements. The issues of informal or non-permanent housing and the location of housing in high-risk areas should be addressed as priorities, including in the framework of urban poverty reduction and slum-upgrading programmes.

(l) Mainstream disaster risk considerations into planning procedures for major infrastructure projects, including the criteria for design, approval and implementation of such projects and considerations based on social, economic and environmental impact assessments.

(m) Develop, upgrade and encourage the use of guidelines and monitoring tools for the reduction of disaster risk in the context of land-use policy and planning.

(n) Incorporate disaster risk assessment into rural development planning and management, in particular with regard to mountain and coastal flood plain areas, including through the identification of land zones that are available and safe for human settlement.

(o) Encourage the revision of existing or the development of new building codes, standards, rehabilitation and reconstruction practices at the national or local levels, as appropriate, with the aim of making them more applicable in the local context, particularly in informal and marginal human settlements, and reinforce the capacity to implement, monitor and enforce such codes, through a consensus-based approach, with a view to fostering disaster-resistant structures.

Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels

At times of disaster, impacts and losses can be substantially reduced if authorities, individuals and communities in hazard-prone areas are well prepared and ready to act and are equipped with the knowledge and capacities for effective disaster management.

Key activities:

(a) Strengthen policy, technical and institutional capacities in regional, national and local disaster management, including those related to technology, training, and human and material resources.

(b) Promote and support dialogue, exchange of information and coordination among early warning, disaster risk reduction, disaster response, development and other relevant agencies and institutions at all levels, with the aim of fostering a holistic approach towards disaster risk reduction.

(c) Strengthen and when necessary develop coordinated regional approaches, and create or upgrade regional policies, operational mechanisms, plans and communication systems to prepare for and ensure rapid and effective disaster response in situations that exceed national coping capacities.

(d) Prepare or review and periodically update disaster preparedness and contingency plans and policies at all levels, with a particular focus on the most vulnerable areas and groups. Promote regular disaster preparedness exercises, including evacuation drills, with a view to ensuring rapid and effective disaster response and access to essential food and non-food relief supplies, as appropriate, to local needs.

(e) Promote the establishment of emergency funds, where and as appropriate, to support response, recovery and preparedness measures.

(f) Develop specific mechanisms to engage the active participation and ownership of relevant stakeholders, including communities, in disaster risk reduction, in particular building on the spirit of volunteerism.

Implementation and follow-up

A. General considerations

The implementation of and follow-up to the strategic goals and priorities for action set out in this Framework for Action should be addressed by different stakeholders in a multi-sectoral approach, including the development sector. States and regional and international organizations, including the United Nations and international financial institutions, are called upon to integrate disaster risk reduction considerations into their sustainable development policy, planning and programming at all levels. Civil society, including volunteers and community-based organizations, the scientific community and the private sector are vital stakeholders in supporting the implementation of disaster risk reduction at all levels.

While each State has primary responsibility for its own economic and social development, an enabling international environment is vital to stimulate and contribute to developing the knowledge, capacities and motivation needed to build disaster resilient nations and communities. States and regional and international organizations should foster greater strategic coordination among the United Nations, other international organizations, including international financial institutions, regional bodies, donor agencies and nongovernmental organizations engaged in disaster risk reduction, based on a strengthened International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. In the coming years, consideration should be given to ensuring the implementation and strengthening of relevant international legal instruments related to disaster risk reduction.

States and regional and international organizations should also support the capacities of regional mechanisms and organizations to develop regional plans, policies and common practices, as appropriate, in support of networking, advocacy, coordination, exchange of information and experience, scientific monitoring of hazards and vulnerability, and institutional capacity development and to deal with disaster risks.

All actors are encouraged to build multi-stakeholder partnerships, at all levels, as appropriate, and on a voluntary basis, to contribute to the implementation of this Framework for Action. States and other actors are also encouraged to promote the strengthening or establishment of national, regional and international volunteer corps, which can be made available to countries and to the international community to contribute to addressing vulnerability and reducing disaster risk.

The Mauritius Strategy for the further implementation of the Barbados Programme of

Action for Small Island Developing States underscores that small island developing States are located among the most vulnerable regions in the world in relation to the intensity and frequency of natural and environmental disasters and their increasing impact, and face disproportionately high economic, social and environmental consequences. Small island developing States have undertaken to strengthen their respective national frameworks for more effective disaster management and are committed, with the necessary support of the international community, to improve national disaster mitigation, preparedness and early warning capacity, increase public awareness about disaster reduction, stimulate interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral partnerships, mainstream risk management into their national planning process, address issues relating to insurance and reinsurance arrangements, and augment their capacity to predict and respond to emergency situations, including those affecting human settlements stemming from natural and environmental disasters.

In view of the particular vulnerabilities and insufficient capacities of least developed countries to respond to and recover from disasters, support is needed by the least developed countries as a matter of priority, in executing substantive programmes and relevant institutional mechanisms for the implementation of the Framework for Action, including through financial and technical assistance and for capacity building in disaster risk reduction as an effective and sustainable means to prevent and respond to disasters.

Disasters in Africa pose a major obstacle to the African continent’s efforts to achieve sustainable development, especially in view of the region’s insufficient capacities to predict, monitor, deal with and mitigate disasters. Reducing the vulnerability of the African people to hazards is a necessary element of poverty reduction strategies, including efforts to protect past development gains. Financial and technical assistance is needed to strengthen the capacities of African countries, including observation and early warning systems, assessments, prevention, preparedness, response and recovery.

The follow-up on the World Conference on Disaster Reduction will, as appropriate, be an integrated and coordinated part of the follow-up to other major conference in fields relevant to disaster risk reduction.17 This should include specific reference to progress on disaster risk reduction taking, into account agreed development goals, including those found in the Millennium Declaration.

The implementation of this Framework for Action for the period 2005-2015 will be appropriately reviewed.

B. States

All States should endeavour to undertake the following tasks at the national and local levels, with a strong sense of ownership and in collaboration with civil society and other stakeholders, within the bounds of their financial, human and material capacities, and taking into account their domestic legal requirements and existing international instruments related to disaster risk reduction. States should also contribute actively in the context of regional and international cooperation.

(a) Prepare and publish national baseline assessments of the status of disaster risk reduction, according to the capabilities, needs and policies of each State, and, as appropriate, share this information with concerned regional and international bodies.

(b) Designate an appropriate national coordination mechanism for the implementation and follow up of this Framework for Action, and communicate the information to the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

(c) Publish and periodically update a summary of national programmes for disaster risk reduction related to this Framework for Action, including on international Cooperation.

(d) Develop procedures for reviewing national progress against this Framework for Action, which should include systems for cost benefit analysis and ongoing monitoring and assessment of vulnerability and risk, in particular with regards to regions exposed to hydrometeorological and seismic hazards, as appropriate.

(e) Include information on progress of disaster risk reduction in the reporting mechanisms of existing international and other frameworks concerning sustainable development, as appropriate.

(f) Consider, as appropriate, acceding to, approving or ratifying relevant international legal instruments relating to disaster reduction, and, for State parties to those instruments, take measures for their effective implementation.

(g) Promote the integration of risk reduction associated with existing climate variability and future climate change into strategies for the reduction of disaster risk and adaptation to climate change; ensure that the management of risks associated with geological hazards, such as earthquakes and landslides, are fully taken into account in disaster risk reduction programmes.

C. Regional organizations and institutions

Regional organizations with a role related to disaster risk reduction are called upon to undertake the following tasks within their mandates, priorities and resources:

(a) Promote regional programmes, including programmes for technical cooperation, capacity development, the development of methodologies and standards for hazard and vulnerability monitoring and assessment, the sharing of information and effective mobilization of resources, in view of supporting national and regional efforts to achieve the objectives of this Framework for Action.

(b) Undertake and publish regional and sub-regional baseline assessments of the disaster risk reduction status, according to the needs identified and in line with their mandates.

(c) Coordinate and publish periodic reviews on progress in the region and on impediments and support needs, and assist countries, as requested, in the preparation of periodic national summaries of their programmes and progress.

(d) Establish or strengthen existing specialized regional collaborative centers, as appropriate, to undertake research, training, education and capacity building in the field of disaster risk reduction.

(e) Support the development of regional mechanisms and capacities for early warning to disasters, including for tsunami.

D. International organizations

International organizations, including organizations of the United Nations system and international financial institutions, are called upon to undertake the following tasks within their mandates, priorities and resources:

(a) Engage fully in supporting and implementing the International Strategy for

Disaster Reduction, and cooperate to advance integrated approaches to building disaster resilient nations and communities, by encouraging stronger linkages, coherence and integration of disaster risk reduction elements into the humanitarian and sustainable development fields as set out in this Framework for Action.

(b) Strengthen the overall capacity of the United Nations system to assist disaster-prone developing countries in disaster risk reduction through appropriate means and coordination and define and implement appropriate measures for regular assessment of their progress towards the achievement of the goals and priorities set out in this Framework for Action, building on the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

(c) Identify relevant actions to assist disaster-prone developing countries in the implementation of this Framework for Action; ensure that relevant actions are integrated, as appropriate, into each organization’s own scientific, humanitarian and development sectors, policies, programmes and practices and that adequate funding is allocated for their implementation.

(d) Assist disaster-prone developing countries to set up national strategies and plans of action and programmes for disaster risk reduction and to develop their institutional and technical capacities in the field of disaster risk reduction, as identified through the priorities in this Framework for Action.

(e) Integrate actions in support of the implementation of this Framework into relevant coordination mechanisms such as the United Nations Development Group and the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (on humanitarian action), including at the national level and through the Resident Coordinator system and the United Nations Country teams. In addition, integrate disaster risk reduction considerations into development assistance frameworks, such as the Common Country Assessments, the United Nations Development Assistance Framework and poverty reduction strategies.

(f) In close collaboration with existing networks and platforms, cooperate to support globally consistent data collection and forecasting on natural hazards, vulnerabilities and risks and disaster impacts at all scales. These initiatives should include the development of standards, the maintenance of database the development of indicators and indices, support to early warning systems, the full and open exchange of data and the use of in situ and remotely sensed observations.

(g) Support States with the provision of appropriate, timely and well coordinated international relief assistance, upon request of affected countries, and in accordance with agreed guiding principles for emergency relief assistance and coordination arrangements. Provide this assistance with a view to reducing risk and vulnerability, improving capacities and ensuring effective arrangements for international cooperation for urban search and rescue assistance.21 Ensure that arrangements for prompt international response to reach affected areas are being developed at national and local levels and that appropriate linkages to recovery efforts and risk reduction are strengthened.

(h) Strengthen the international mechanisms with a view to supporting disaster stricken States in the transition phase towards sustainable physical, social and economic recovery and to reducing future risks. This should include support for risk reduction activities in post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes and sharing of good practices, knowledge and technical support with relevant countries, experts and United Nations organizations;

(i) Strengthen and adapt the existing inter-agency disaster management training programme based on a shared, inter-agency strategic vision and framework for disaster risk management that encompasses risk reduction, preparedness, response and recovery.

E. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

The partners in the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, in particular, the

Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction and its members, in collaboration with relevant national, regional, international and United Nations bodies and supported by the inter-agency secretariat for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, are requested to assist in implementing this Framework for Action as follows, subject to the decisions taken upon completion of the review process22 of the current mechanism and institutional arrangements.

(a) Develop a matrix of roles and initiatives in support of follow-up to this Framework for Action, involving individual members of the Task Force and other international partners;

(b) Facilitate the coordination of effective and integrated action within the organizations of the United Nations system and among other relevant international and regional entities, in accordance with their respective mandates, to support the implementation of this Framework for Action, identify gaps in implementation and facilitate consultative processes to develop guidelines and policy tools for each priority area, with relevant national, regional and international expertise.

(c) Consult with relevant United Nations agencies and organizations, regional and multilateral organizations and technical and scientific institutions, as well as interested States and civil society, with the view to developing generic, realistic and measurable indicators, keeping in mind available resources of individual States. These indicators could assist States to assess their progress in the implementation of the Framework of Action. The indicators should be in conformity with the internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration. Once that first stage has been completed, States are encouraged to develop or refine indicators at the national level reflecting their individual disaster risk reduction priorities, drawing upon the generic indicators.

(d) Ensure support to national platforms for disaster reduction, including through the clear articulation of their role and value added, as well as regional coordination, to support the different advocacy and policy needs and priorities set out in this Framework for Action, through coordinated regional facilities for disaster reduction, building on regional programmes and outreach advisors from relevant partners.

(e) Coordinate with the secretariat of the Commission on Sustainable Development to ensure that relevant partnerships contributing to implementation of the Framework for Action are registered in its sustainable development partnership database.

(f) Stimulate the exchange, compilation, analysis, summary and dissemination of best practices, lessons learned, available technologies and programmes, to support disaster risk reduction in its capacity as an international information clearinghouse; maintain a global information platform on disaster risk reduction and a web-based register “portfolio” of disaster risk reduction programmes and initiatives implemented by States and through regional and international partnerships.

(g) Prepare periodic reviews on progress towards achieving the objectives and priorities of this Framework for Action, within the context of the process of integrated and coordinated follow-up and implementation of United Nations conferences and summits as mandated by the General Assembly,24 and provide reports and summaries to the Assembly and other United Nations bodies, as requested or as appropriate, based on information from national platforms, regional and international organizations and other stakeholders, including on the follow-up to the implementation of the recommendations from the Second International Conference on Early Warning (2003).

F. Resource mobilization

States, within the bounds of their financial capabilities, regional and international organizations, through appropriate multilateral, regional and bilateral coordination mechanisms, should undertake the following tasks to mobilize the necessary resources to support implementation of this Framework for Action:

(a) Mobilize the appropriate resources and capabilities of relevant national, regional and international bodies, including the United Nations system.

(b) Provide for and support, through bilateral and multilateral channels, the implementation of this Framework for Action in disaster-prone developing countries, including through financial and technical assistance, addressing debt sustainability, technology transfer on mutually agreed terms, and public–private partnerships, and encourage North–South and South–South cooperation.

(c) Mainstream disaster risk reduction measures appropriately into multilateral and bilateral development assistance programmes including those related to poverty reduction, natural resource management, urban development and adaptation to climate change.

(d) Provide adequate voluntary financial contributions to the United Nations Trust Fund for Disaster Reduction, in the effort to ensure the adequate support for the follow-up activities to this Framework for Action. Review the current usage and feasibility for the expansion of this fund, inter alia, to assist disaster-prone developing countries to set up national strategies for disaster risk reduction.

(e) Develop partnerships to implement schemes that spread out risks, reduce insurance premiums, expand insurance coverage and thereby increase financing for post disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation, including through public and private partnerships, as appropriate. Promote an environment that encourages a culture of insurance in developing countries, as appropriate.

Republic of the Philippines
CONGRESS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Metro Manila

Fourteenth Congress
Third Regular Session

Begun and held in Metro Manila, on Monday, the twenty-seventh day of July, two thousand nine.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10121

AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PROVIDING FOR THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND INSTITUTIONALIZING THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PLAN, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled:

Section 1. Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010".

Section 2. Declaration of Policy. - It shall be the policy of the State to:

(a) Uphold the people's constitutional rights to life and property by addressing the root causes of vulnerabilities to disasters, strengthening the country's institutional capacity for disaster risk reduction and management and building the resilience of local communities to disasters including climate change impacts;

(b) Adhere to and adopt the universal norms, principles and standards of humanitarian assistance and the global effort on risk reduction as concrete expression of the country's commitment to overcome human sufferings due to recurring disasters;

(c) Incorporate internationally accepted principles of disaster risk management in the creation and implementation of national, regional and local sustainable development and poverty reduction strategies, policies, plans and budgets;

(d) Adopt a disaster risk reduction and management approach that is holistic, comprehensive, integrated, and proactive in lessening the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of disasters including climate change, and promote the involvement and participation of all sectors and all stakeholders concerned, at all levels, especially the local community;

(e) Develop, promote, and implement a comprehensive National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) that aims to strengthen the capacity of the national government and the local government units (LGUs), together with partner stakeholders, to build the disaster resilience of communities, and' to institutionalize arrangements and measures for reducing disaster risks, including projected climate risks, and enhancing disaster preparedness and response capabilities at all levels;

(f) Adopt and implement a coherent, comprehensive, integrated, efficient and responsive disaster risk reduction program incorporated in the development plan at various levels of government adhering to the principles of good governance such as transparency and accountability within the context of poverty alleviation and environmental protection;

(g) Mainstream disaster risk reduction and climate change in development processes such as policy formulation, socioeconomic development planning, budgeting, and governance, particularly in the areas of environment, agriculture, water, energy, health, education, poverty reduction, land-use and urban planning, and public infrastructure and housing, among others;

(h) Institutionalize the policies, structures, coordination mechanisms and programs with continuing budget appropriation on disaster risk reduction from national down to local levels towards building a disaster-resilient nation and communities;

(i) Mainstream disaster risk reduction into the peace process and conflict resolution approaches in order to minimize loss of lives and damage to property, and ensure that communities in conflict zones can immediately go back to their normal lives during periods of intermittent conflicts;

(j) Ensure that disaster risk reduction and climate change measures are gender responsive, sensitive to indigenous know ledge systems, and respectful of human rights;

(k) Recognize the local risk patterns across the country and strengthen the capacity of LGUs for disaster risk reduction and management through decentralized powers, responsibilities, and resources at the regional and local levels;

(l) Recognize and strengthen the capacities of LGUs and communities in mitigating and preparing for, responding to, and recovering from the impact of disasters;

(m) Engage the participation of civil society organizations (CSOs), the private sector and volunteers in the government's disaster risk reduction programs towards complementation of resources and effective delivery of services to the Citizenry;

(n) Develop and strengthen the capacities of vulnerable and marginalized groups to mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of disasters;

(o) Enhance and implement a program where humanitarian aid workers, communities, health professionals, government aid agencies, donors, and the media are educated and trained on how they can actively support breastfeeding before and during a disaster and/or an emergency; and

(p) Provide maximum care, assistance and services to individuals and families affected by disaster, implement emergency rehabilitation projects to lessen the impact of disaster, and facilitate resumption of normal social and economic activities.

Section 3. Definition of Terms. - For purposes of this Act, the following shall refer to:

(a) "Adaptation" - the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

(b) "Capacity" - a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level of risk, or effects of a disaster. Capacity may include infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills and collective attributes such as social relationships, leadership and management. Capacity may also be described as capability.

(c) "Civil Society Organizations" Or "CSOs" - non-state actors whose aims are neither to generate profits nor to seek governing power. CSOs unite people to advance shared goals and interests. They have a presence in public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, and are based on ethical, cultural, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations. CSOs include nongovernment organizations (NGOs), professional associations, foundations, independent research institutes, community-based organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations, people's organizations, social movements, and labor unions.

(d) "Climate Change" - a change in climate that can' be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period typically decades or longer, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.

(e) "Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" or "CBDRRM" - a process of disaster risk reduction and management in which at risk communities are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities, and where the people are at the heart of decision-making and implementation of disaster risk reduction and management activities.

(f) "Complex Emergency" - a form of human-induced emergency in which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted IS complicated by intense level of political considerations.

(g) "Contingency Planning" - a management process that analyzes specific potential events or emerging situations that might threaten society or the environment and establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate responses to such events and situations.

(h) "Disaster" - a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences, Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human, physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, Social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.1avvphi1

(i) "Disaster Mitigation" - the lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. Mitigation measures encompass engineering techniques and hazard-resistant construction as well as improved environmental policies and public awareness.

(j) "Disaster Preparedness" - the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the Impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk reduction and management and aims to build the capacities needed to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response to sustained recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risk and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency planning, stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by formal institutional, legal and budgetary capacities.

(k) "Disaster Prevention" - the outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. It expresses the concept and intention to completely avoid potential adverse impacts through action taken in advance such as construction of dams or embankments that eliminate flood risks, land-use regulations that do not permit any settlement in high-risk zones, and seismic engineering designs that ensure the survival and function of a critical building in any likely earthquake.

(l) "Disaster Response" - the provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected. Disaster response is predominantly focused on immediate and short-term needs and is sometimes called "disaster relief".

(m) "Disaster Risk" - the potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihood, assets and services, which could occur to a particular community or a Society over some specified future time period.

(n) "Disaster Risk Reduction" - the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposures to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.

(o) "Disaster Risk Reduction and Management" - the systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster. Prospective disaster risk reduction and management refers to risk reduction and management activities that address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks, especially if risk reduction policies are not put m place.

(p) "Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System" - a specialized database which contains, among others, information on disasters and their human material, economic and environmental impact, risk assessment and mapping and vulnerable groups.

(q) "Early Warning System" - the set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. A people-centered early warning system necessarily comprises four (4) key elements: knowledge of the risks; monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards; communication or dissemination of alerts and warnings; and local capabilities to respond to the warnings received. The expression "end-to-end warning system" is also used to emphasize that warning systems need to span all steps from hazard detection to community response.

(r) "Emergency" - unforeseen or sudden occurrence, especially danger, demanding immediate action.

(s) "Emergency Management" - the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and initial recovery steps.

(t) "Exposure" - the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard events of different magnitudes.

(u) "Geographic Information System" - a database which contains, among others, geo-hazard assessments, information on climate change, and climate risk reduction and management.

(v) "Hazard" - a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

(w) "Land-Use Planning" - the process undertaken by public authorities to identify, evaluate and decide on different options for the use of land, including consideration of long-term economic, social and environmental objectives and the implications for different communities and interest groups, and the subsequent formulation and promulgation of plans that describe the permitted or acceptable uses.

(x) "Mitigation" - structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation, and technological hazards and to ensure the ability of at-risk communities to address vulnerabilities aimed at minimizing the impact of disasters. Such measures include, but are not limited to, hazard-resistant construction and engineering works, the formulation and implementation of plans, programs, projects and activities, awareness raising, knowledge management, policies on land-use and resource management, as well as the enforcement of comprehensive land-use planning, building and safety standards, and legislation.

(y) "National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework" or "NDRRMF" - provides for comprehensive, all hazards, multi-sectoral, inter-agency and community-based approach to disaster risk reduction and management.

(z) "National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan" or "NDRRMP" - the document to be formulated and implemented by the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) that sets out goals and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with related actions to accomplish these objectives.

The NDRRMP shall provide for the identification of hazards, vulnerabilities and risks to 'be managed at the national level; disaster risk reduction and management approaches and strategies to be applied m managing said hazards and risks; agency roles, responsibilities and lines of authority at all government levels; and vertical and horizontal coordination of disaster risk reduction and management in the pre-disaster and post-disaster phases. It shall be in conformity with the NDRRMF.

(aa) "Post-Disaster Recovery" - the restoration and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihood and living conditions. of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors, in accordance with the principles of "build back better".

(bb) "Preparedness" - pre-disaster actions and measures being undertaken within the context of disaster risk reduction and management and are based on sound risk analysis as well as pre-disaster activities to avert or minimize loss of life and property such as, but not limited to, community organizing, training, planning, equipping, stockpiling, hazard mapping, insuring of assets, and public information and education initiatives. This also includes the development/enhancement of an overall preparedness strategy, policy, institutional structure, warning and forecasting capabilities, and plans that define measures geared to help at-risk communities safeguard their lives and assets by being alert to hazards and taking appropriate action in the face of an Imminent threat or an actual disaster.

(cc) "Private Sector" - the key actor in the realm of the economy where the central social concern and process are the mutually beneficial production and distribution of goods and services to meet the physical needs of human beings. The private sector comprises private corporations, households and nonprofit institutions serving households.

(dd) "Public Sector Employees" - all persons in the civil service.

(ee) "Rehabilitation" - measures that ensure the ability of affected communities/areas to restore their normal level of functioning by rebuilding livelihood and damaged infrastructures and increasing the communities' organizational capacity.

(ff) "Resilience" - the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.

(gg) "Response" - any concerted effort by two (2) or more agencies, public or private, to provide assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected and in the restoration of essential public activities and facilities.

(hh) "Risk" - the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.

(ii) "Risk Assessment" - a methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that together could potentially harm exposed people, property, services, livelihood and the environment on which they depend. Risk assessments with associated risk mapping include: a review of the technical characteristics of hazards such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability; the analysis of exposure and vulnerability including the physical, social, health, economic and environmental dimensions; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of prevailing and alternative coping capacities in respect to likely risk scenarios.

(jj) "Risk Management" - the systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss. It comprises risk assessment and analysis, and the implementation of strategies and specific actions to control, reduce and transfer risks. It is widely practiced by organizations to minimize risk in investment decisions and to address operational risks such as those of business disruption, production failure, environmental damage, social impacts and damage from fire and natural hazards.

(kk) "Risk Transfer" - the process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular risks from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state authority will obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other party.

(ll) "State of Calamity" - a condition involving mass casualty and/or major damages to property, disruption of means of livelihoods, roads and normal way of life of people in the affected areas as a result of the occurrence of natural or human-induced hazard.

(mm) "Sustainable Development" - development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two (2) key concepts: (1) the concept of "needs", in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and (2) the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organizations on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs. It is the harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion and harmony, and ecological integrity to ensure that human development now and through future generations is a life-enhancing process.

(nn) "Vulnerability" - the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. Vulnerability may arise from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors such as poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental management.

(oo) "Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups" - those that face higher exposure to disaster risk and poverty including, but not limited to, women, children, elderly, differently-abled people, and ethnic minorities.

Section 4. Scope. - This Act provides for the development of policies and plans and the implementation of actions and measures pertaining to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and management, including good governance, risk assessment and early warning, knowledge building and awareness raising, reducing underlying risk factors, and preparedness for effective response and early recovery.

Section 5. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council. - The present National Disaster Coordinating Council or NDCC shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council, hereinafter referred to as the NDRRMC or the National Council.

The National Council shall be headed by the Secretary of the Department of National Defense (DND) as Chairperson with the Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Preparedness, the Secretary of the Department of Social

Welfare and Development (DSWD) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Response, the Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, and the Director-General of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) as Vice Chairperson for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery.

The National Council's members shall be the following:

(a) Secretary of the Department of Health (DOH);

(b) Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR);

(d) Secretary of the Department of Education (DepED);

(e) Secretary of the Department of Energy (DOE);

(f) Secretary of the Department of Finance (DOF);

(g) Secretary of the Department of Trade and Industry (DT!);

(h) Secretary of the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC);

(i) Secretary of the Department of Budget and Management (DBM);

(j) Secretary of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH);

(k) Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA);

(l) Secretary of the Department of Justice (DOJ);

(m) Secretary of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE);

(n) Secretary of the Department of Tourism (DOT);

(o) The Executive Secretary;

(p)Secretary of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP);

(q) Chairman, Commission on Higher Education (CHED);

(r) Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP);

(s) Chief, Philippine National Police (PNP);

(t) The Press Secretary;

(u) Secretary General of the Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC);

(v) Commissioner of the National Anti-Poverty Commission-Victims of Disasters and Calamities Sector (NAPCVDC);

(w) Chairperson, National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women;

(x) Chairperson, Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC);

(y) Executive Director of the Climate Change Office of the Climate Change Commission;

(z) President, Government Service Insurance System (GSIS);

(aa) President, Social Security System (SSS);

(bb) President, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth);

(cc) President of the Union of Local Authorities of the Philippines (ULAP);

(dd) President of the League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP);

(ee) President of the League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP);

(ff) President of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP);

(gg) President of the Liga ng Mga Barangay (LMB);

(hh) Four (4) representatives from the CSOs;

(ii) One (1) representative from the private sector; and

(jj) Administrator of the OCD.

The representatives from the CSOs and the private sector shall be selected from among their respective ranks based on the criteria and mechanisms to be set for this purpose by the National Council.

Section 6. Powers and Functions of the NDRRMC. - The National Council, being empowered with policy-making, coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and evaluation functions, shall have the following responsibilities:

(a) Develop a NDRRMF which shall provide for a comprehensive, all-hazards, multi-sectoral, inter-agency and community-based approach to disaster risk reduction and management. The Framework shall serve as the principal guide to disaster risk reduction and management efforts in the country and shall be reviewed on a five(5)-year interval, or as may be deemed necessary, in order to ensure its relevance to the times;

(b) Ensure that the NDRRMP is consistent with the NDRRMF;

(c) Advise the President on the status of disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation, response and rehabilitation operations being undertaken by the government, CSOs, private sector, and volunteers; recommend to the President the declaration of a state of calamity in areas extensively damaged; and submit proposals to restore normalcy in the affected areas, to include calamity fund allocation;

(d) Ensure a multi-stakeholder participation in the development, updating, and sharing of a Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System and Geographic Information System-based national risk map as policy, planning and decision-making tools;

(e) Establish a national early warning and emergency alert system to provide accurate and timely advice to national or local emergency response organizations and to the general public through diverse mass media to include digital and analog broadcast, cable, satellite television and radio, wireless communications, and landline communications;

(f) Develop appropriate risk transfer mechanisms that shall guarantee social and economic protection and increase resiliency in the face of disaster;

(g) Monitor the development and enforcement by agencies and organizations of the various laws, guidelines, codes or technical standards required by this Act;

(h) Manage and mobilize resources for disaster risk reduction and management including the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund;

(i) Monitor and provide the necessary guidelines and procedures. on the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF) releases as well as utilization, accounting and auditing thereof;

(j) Develop assessment tools on the existing and potential hazards and risks brought about by climate change to vulnerable areas and ecosystems in coordination with the Climate Change Commission;

(k) Develop vertical and horizontal coordination mechanisms for a more coherent implementation of disaster risk reduction and management policies and programs by sectoral agencies and LGUs;

(l) Formulate a national institutional capability building program for disaster risk reduction and management to address the specific' weaknesses of various government agencies and LGUs, based on the results of a biennial baseline assessment and studies;

(m) Formulate, harmonize, and translate into policies a national agenda for research and technology development on disaster risk reduction and management;

(n) In coordination with the Climate Change Commission, formulate and implement a framework for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and management from which all policies, programs, and projects shall be based;

(o) Constitute a technical management group composed of representatives of the abovementioned departments, offices, and organizations, that shall coordinate and meet as often as necessary to effectively manage and sustain national efforts on disaster risk reduction and management;

(p) Task the OCD to conduct periodic assessment and performance monitoring of the member-agencies of the NDRRMC, and the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils (RDRRMCs), as defined in the NDRRMP; and

(q) Coordinate or oversee the Implementation of the country's obligations with disaster management treaties to which it IS a party and see to It that the country's disaster management treaty obligations be incorporated in its disaster risk reduction and management frameworks, policies, plans, programs and projects.

Section 7. Authority of the NDRRMC Chairperson. - The Chairperson of the NDRRMC may call upon other instrumentalities or entities of the government and nongovernment and civic organizations for assistance In terms of the use of their facilities and resources for the protection and preservation of life and properties in the whole range of disaster risk reduction and management. This authority includes the power to call on the reserve force as defined in Republic Act No. 7077 to assist in relief and rescue during disasters or calamities.

Section 8. The Office of Civil Defense. - The Office of Civil Defense (OCD) shall have the primary mission of administering a comprehensive national civil defense and disaster risk reduction and management program by providing leadership in the continuous development of strategic and systematic approaches as well as measures to reduce the vulnerabilities and risks to hazards and manage the consequences of disasters.

The Administrator of the OCD shall also serve as Executive Director of the National Council and, as such, shall have the same duties and privileges of a department undersecretary. All appointees shall be universally acknowledged experts in the field of disaster preparedness and management and of proven honesty and integrity. The National Council shall utilize the services and facilities of the OCD as the secretariat of the National Council.

Section 9. Powers and Functions of the OCD. - The OCD shall have the following powers and functions:

(a) Advise the National Council on matters relating to disaster risk reduction and management consistent with the policies and scope as defined in this Act;

(b) Formulate and implement the NDRRMP and ensure that the physical framework, social, economic and environmental plans of communities, cities, municipalities and provinces are consistent with such plan. The National Council shall approve the NDRRMP;

(d) Develop and ensure the implementation of national standards in carrying out disaster risk reduction programs including preparedness, mitigation, prevention, response and rehabilitation works, from data collection and analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation;

(e) Review and evaluate the Local Disaster risk Reduction and Management Plans (LDRRMPs) to facilitate the integration of disaster risk reduction measures into the local Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) and Comprehensive Land-Use Plan (CL UP);

(f) Ensure that the LG U s, through the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Offices (LDRRMOs) are properly informed and adhere to the national standards and programs;

(g) Formulate standard operating procedures for the deployment of rapid assessment teams, information sharing among different government agencies, and coordination before and after disasters at all levels;

(h) Establish standard operating procedures on the communication system among provincial, city, municipal, and barangay disaster risk reduction and management councils, for purposes of warning and alerting them and for gathering information on disaster areas before, during and after disasters;

(i) Establish Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Training Institutes in such suitable location as may be deemed appropriate to train public and private individuals, both local and national, in such subject as disaster risk reduction and management among others. The Institute shall consolidate and prepare training materials and publications of disaster risk reduction and management books and manuals to assist disaster risk reduction and management workers in the planning and implementation of this program and projects. The Institute shall conduct research programs to upgrade know ledge and skills and document best practices on disaster risk reduction and management. The Institute is also mandated to conduct periodic awareness and education programs to accommodate new elective officials and members of the LDRRMCs;

(j) Ensure that all disaster risk reduction programs, projects and activities requiring regional and international support shall be in accordance with duly established national policies and aligned with international agreements;

(k) Ensure that government agencies and LGUs give toppriority and take adequate and appropriate measures in disaster risk reduction and management;

(l) Create an enabling environment for substantial and sustainable participation of CSOs, private groups, volunteers and communities, and recognize their contributions in the government's disaster risk reduction efforts;

(m) Conduct early recovery and post-disaster needs assessment institutionalizing gender analysis as part of it;

(n) Establish an operating facility to be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center (NDRRMOC) that shall be operated and staffed on a twenty-four (24) hour basis;

(o) Prepare the criteria and procedure for the enlistment of accredited community disaster volunteers (ACDVs). It shall include a manual of operations for the volunteers which shall be developed by the OCD in consultation with various stakeholders;

(p) Provide advice and technical assistance and assist in mobilizing necessary resources to increase the overall capacity of LGUs, specifically the low income and in high-risk areas;

(q) Create the necessary offices to perform its mandate as provided under this Act; and

(r) Perform such other functions as may be necessary for effective operations and implementation of this Act.

Section 10. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Organization at the Regional Level. - The current Regional Disaster Coordinating Councils shall henceforth be known as the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils (RDRRMCs) which shall coordinate, integrate, supervise, and evaluate the activities of the LDRRMCs. The RDRRMC shall be responsible in ensuring disaster sensitive regional development plans, and in case of emergencies shall convene the different regional line agencies and concerned institutions and authorities.

The RDRRMCs shall establish an operating facility to be known as the Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center (RDRRMOC) whenever necessary.

The civil defense officers of the OCD who are or may be designated as Regional Directors of the OCD shall serve as chairpersons of the RDRRMCs. Its Vice Chairpersons shall be the Regional Directors of the DSWD, the DILG, the DOST, and the NEDA. In the case of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), the Regional Governor shall be the RDRRMC Chairperson. The existing regional offices of the OCD shall serve as secretariat of the RDRRMCs. The RDRRMCs shall be composed of the executives of regional offices and field stations at the regional level of the government agencies.

Section 11. Organization at the Local Government Level. - The existing Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Coordinating Councils shall henceforth be known as the Provincial, City, and Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils. The Barangay Disaster Coordinating Councils shall cease to exist and its powers and functions shall henceforth be assumed by the existing Barangay Development Councils (BDCs) which shall serve as the LDRRMCs in every barangay.

(a) Composition: The LDRRMC shall be composed of, but not limited to, the following:

(1) The Local Chief Executives, Chairperson;

(2) The Local Planning and Development Officer, member;

(3) The Head of the LDRRMO, member;

(4) The Head of the Local Social Welfare and Development Office, member;

(5) The Head of the Local Health Office, member;

(6) The Head of the Local Agriculture Office, member;

(7) The Head of the Gender and Development Office, member;

(8) The Head of the Local Engineering Office, member;

(9) The Head of the Local Veterinary Office, member;

(10) The Head of the Local Budget Office, member;

(11) The Division Head/Superintendent of Schools of the DepED, member;

(12) The highest-ranking officer of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) assigned in the area, member;

(13) The Provincial Director/City/Municipal Chief of the Philippine National Police (PNP), member;

(14) The Provincial Director/City/ Municipal Fire Marshall of the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), member;

(15) The President of the Association of Barangay Captains (ABC), member;

(16) The Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC), member;

(17) Four (4) accredited CSOs, members; and

(18) One (1) private sector representative, member.

(b) The LDRRMCs shall have the following functions:

(1) Approve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of the LDRRMPs and regularly review and test the plan consistent with other national and local planning programs;

(2) Ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into local development plans, programs and budgets as a strategy in sustainable development and poverty reduction;

(3) Recommend the implementation of forced or preemptive evacuation of local residents, if necessary; and

(4) Convene the local council once every three (3) months or as necessary.

Section 12. Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (LDRRMO). - (a) There shall be established an LDRRMO in every province, city and municipality, and a Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committee (BDRRMC) in every · barangay which shall be responsible for setting the direction, development, implementation and coordination of disaster risk management programs within their territorial jurisdiction.

(b) The LDRRMO shall be under the office of the governor, city or municipal mayor, and the punong barangay in case of the BDRRMC. The LDRRMOs shall be initially organized and composed of a DRRMO to be assisted by three (3) staff responsible for: (1) administration and training; (2) research and planning; and (3) operations and warning. The LDRRMOs and the BDRRMCs shall organize, train and directly supervise the local emergency response teams and the ACDVs.

(c) The provincial, city and municipal DRRMOs or BDRRMCs shall perform the following functions with impartiality given the emerging challenges brought by disasters of our times:

(1) Design, program, and coordinate disaster risk reduction and management activities consistent with the National Council's standards and guidelines;

(2) Facilitate and support risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the local level;

(3) Consolidate local disaster risk information which includes natural hazards, vulnerabilities, and climate change risks, and maintain a local risk map;

(4) Organize and conduct training, orientation, and knowledge management activities on disaster risk reduction and management at the local level;

(5) Operate a multi-hazard early warning system, linked to disaster risk reduction to provide accurate and timely advice to national or local emergency response organizations and to the general public, through diverse mass media, particularly radio, landline communications, and technologies for communication within rural communities;

(6) Formulate and implement a comprehensive and - integrated LDRRMP in accordance with the national, regional and provincial framework, and policies on disaster risk reduction in close coordination with the local development councils (LDCs);

(7) Prepare and submit to the local sanggunian through the LDRRMC and the LDC the annual LDRRMO Plan and budget, the proposed programming of the LDRRMF, other dedicated disaster risk reduction and management resources, and other regular funding source/s and budgetary support of the LDRRMO/BDRRMC;

(8) Conduct continuous disaster monitoring and mobilize instrumentalities and entities of the LGUs, CSOs, private groups and organized volunteers, to utilize their facilities and resources for the protection and preservation of life and properties during emergencies in accordance with existing policies and procedures;

(9) Identify, assess and manage the hazards vulnerabilities and risks that may occur in their locality;

(10) Disseminate information and raise public awareness about those hazards. vulnerabilities and risks, their nature, effects, early warning signs and counter-measures;

(11) Identify and implement cost-effective risk reduction measures/strategies;

(12) Maintain a database of human resource, equipment, directories, and location of critical infrastructures and their capacities such as hospitals and evacuation centers;

(13) Develop, strengthen and operationalize mechanisms for partnership or networking with the private sector, CSOs, and volunteer groups;

(14) Take all necessary steps on a continuing basis to maintain, provide, or arrange the provision of, or to otherwise make available, suitably-trained and competent personnel for effective civil defense and disaster risk reduction and management in its area;

(15) Organize, train, equip and supervise the local emergency response teams and the ACDV s, ensuring that humanitarian aid workers are equipped with basic skills to assist mothers to breastfeed;

(16) Respond to and manage the adverse effects of emergencies and carry out recovery activities in the affected area, ensuring that there is an efficient mechanism for immediate delivery of food, shelter and medical supplies for women and children, endeavor to create a special place where internally-displaced mothers can find help with breastfeeding, feed and care for their babies and give support to each other;

(17) Within its area, promote and raise public awareness of and compliance with this Act and legislative provisions relevant to the purpose of this Act;

(18) Serve as the secretariat and executive arm of the LDRRMC;

(19) Coordinate other disaster risk reduction and management activities;

(20) Establish linkage/network with other LGUs for disaster risk reduction and emergency response purposes;

(21) Recommend through the LDRRMC the enactment of local ordinances consistent with the requirements of this Act;

(22) Implement policies, approved plans and programs of the LDRRMC consistent with the policies and guidelines laid down in this Act;

(23) Establish a Provincial/City/Municipal/Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center;

(24) Prepare and submit, through the LDRRMC and the LDC, the report on the utilization of the LDRRMF and other dedicated disaster risk reduction and management resources to the local Commission on Audit (COA), copy furnished the regional director of the OCD and the Local Government Operations Officer of the DILG; and

(25) Act on other matters that may be authorized by the LDRRMC.

(d) The BDRRMC shall be a regular committee of the existing BDC and shall be subject thereto. The punong barangay shall facilitate and ensure the participation of at least two (2) CSO representatives from existing and active community-based people's organizations representing the most vulnerable and marginalized groups in the barangay.

Section 13. Accreditation, Mobilization, and Protection of Disaster Volunteers and National Service Reserve Corps, CSOs and the Private Sector. - The government agencies, CSOs, private sector and LGUs may mobilize individuals or organized volunteers to augment their respective personnel complement and logistical requirements in the delivery of disaster risk reduction programs and activities. The agencies, CSOs, private sector, and LGUs concerned shall take full responsibility for the enhancement, welfare and protection of volunteers, and shall submit the list of volunteers to the OCD, through the LDRRMOs, for accreditation and inclusion in the database of community disaster volunteers.

A national roster of ACDVs, National Service Reserve Corps, CSOs and the private sector shall be maintained by the OCD through the LDRRMOs. Accreditation shall be done at the municipal or city level.

Mobilization of volunteers shall be in accordance with the guidelines to be formulated by the NDRRMC consistent with the provisions of this Act. Any volunteer who incurs death or injury while engaged in any of the activities defined under this Act shall be entitled to compensatory benefits and individual personnel accident insurance as may be defined under the guidelines.

Section 14. Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction Education into the School Curricula and Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) Program and Mandatory Training for the Public Sector Employees. - The DepED, the CHED, the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in coordination with the OCD, the National Youth Commission (NYC), the DOST, the DENR, the DILG-BFP, the DOH, the DSWD and other relevant agencies, shall integrate disaster risk reduction and management education in the school curricula of secondary and tertiary level of education, including the National Service Training Program (NSTP), whether private or public, including formal and nonformal, technical-vocational, indigenous learning, and out-of-school youth courses and programs.

The NDRRMC, the RDRRMCs, the LDRRMCs, the LDRRMOs, the BDRRMCs and the SK councils shall encourage community, specifically the youth, participation in disaster risk reduction and management activities, such as organizing quick response groups, particularly in identified disaster-prone areas, as well as the inclusion of disaster risk reduction and management programs as part of the SK programs and projects.

The public sector employees shall be trained in emergency response and preparedness. The training is mandatory for such employees to comply with the provisions of this Act.

Section 15. Coordination During Emergencies. - The LDRRMCs shall take the lead in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from the effects of any disaster based on the following criteria:

(a) The BDC, if a barangay is affected;

(b) The city/municipal DRRMCs, If two (2) or more barangays are affected;

(d) The regional DRRMC, if two (2) or more provinces are affected; and

(e) The NDRRMC, if two (2) or more regions are affected.

The NDRRMC and intermediary LDRRMCs shall always act as support to LGUs which have the primary responsibility as first disaster responders. Private sector and civil society groups shall work in accordance with the coordination mechanism and policies set by the NDRRMC and concerned LDRRMCs.

Section 16. Declaration of State of Calamity. - The National Council shall recommend to the President of the Philippines the declaration of a cluster of barangays, municipalities, cities, provinces, and regions under a state of calamity, and the lifting thereof, based on the criteria set by the National Council. The President's declaration may warrant international humanitarian assistance as deemed necessary.

The declaration and lifting of the state of calamity may also be issued by the local sanggunian, upon the recommendation of the LDRRMC, based on the results of the damage assessment and needs analysis.

Section 17. Remedial Measures. - The declaration of a state of calamity shall make mandatory the Immediate undertaking of the following remedial measures by the member-agencies concerned as defined in this Act:

(a) Imposition of price ceiling on basic necessities and prime commodities by the President upon the recommendation of the implementing agency as provided for under Republic Act No. 7581, otherwise known as the "Price Act", or the National Price Coordinating Council;

(b) Monitoring, prevention and control by the Local Price Coordination Council of overpricing/profiteering and hoarding of prime commodities, medicines and petroleum products;

(d) Granting of no-interest loans by government financing or lending institutions to the most affected section of the population through their cooperatives or people's organizations.

Section 18. Mechanism for International Humanitarian Assistance. - (a) The importation and donation of food, clothing, medicine and equipment for relief and recovery and other disaster management and recovery-related supplies is hereby authorized in accordance with Section 105 of the Tariff and Customs Code of the Philippines, as amended, and the prevailing provisions of the General Appropriations Act covering national internal revenue taxes and import duties of national and local government agencies; and

(b) Importations and donations under this section shall be considered as importation by and/or donation to the NDRRMC, subject to the approval of the Office of the President.

Section 19. Prohibited Acts. - Any person, group or corporation who commits any of the following prohibited acts shall be held liable and be subjected to the penalties as prescribed in Section 20 of this Act:

(a) Dereliction of duties which leads to destruction, loss of lives, critical damage of facilities and misuse of funds;

(b) Preventing the entry and distribution of relief goods in disaster-stricken areas, including appropriate technology, tools, equipment, accessories, disaster teams/experts;

(c) Buying, for consumption or resale, from disaster relief agencies any relief goods, equipment or other and commodities which are intended for distribution to disaster affected communities;

(d) Buying, for consumption or resale, from the recipient disaster affected persons any relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities received by them;

(e) Selling of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities which are intended for distribution to disaster victims;

(f) Forcibly seizing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities intended for or consigned to a specific group of victims or relief agency;

(g) Diverting or misdelivery of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities to persons other than the rightful recipient or consignee;

(h) Accepting, possessing, using or disposing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities not intended for nor consigned to him/her;

(i) Misrepresenting the source of relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities by:

(1) Either covering, replacing or defacing the labels of the containers to make it appear that the goods, equipment or other aid commodities came from another agency or persons;

(2) Repacking the! goods, equipment or other aid commodities into containers with different markings to make it appear that the goods came from another agency or persons or was released upon the instance of a particular agency or persons;

(3) Making false verbal claim that the goods, equipment or other and commodity m its untampered original containers actually came from another agency or persons or was released upon the instance of a particular agency or persons;

(j) Substituting or replacing relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities with the same items or inferior/cheaper quality;

(k) Illegal solicitations by persons or organizations representing others as defined in the standards and guidelines set by the NDRRMC;

(l) Deliberate use of false at inflated data in support of the request for funding, relief goods, equipment or other aid commodities for emergency assistance or livelihood projects; and

(m) Tampering with or stealing hazard monitoring and disaster preparedness equipment and paraphernalia.

Section 20. Penal Clause. - Any individual, corporation, partnership, association, or other juridical entity that commits any of the prohibited acts provided for in Section 19 of this Act shall be prosecuted and upon conviction shall suffer a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (Php50,000.00) or any amount not to exceed Five hundred thousand pesos (php500,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than six (6) years and one (1) day or more than twelve (12) years, or both, at the discretion of the court, including perpetual disqualification from public office if the offender IS a public officer, and confiscation or forfeiture in favor of the government of the objects and the instrumentalities used in committing any of herein prohibited acts.

If the offender is a corporation, partnership or association, or other juridical entity, the penalty shall be imposed upon the officer or officers of the corporation, partnership, association or entity responsible for the violation without prejudice to the cancellation or revocation of these entities license or accreditation issued to them by any licensing or accredited body of the government. If such offender is an alien, he or she shall, in addition to the penalties prescribed in this Act, be deported without further proceedings after service of the sentence.

However, the prosecution for offenses set forth in Section 19 of this Act shall be without prejudice to any liability for violation of Republic Act No. 3185, as amended, otherwise known as the Revised Penal Code, and other civil liabilities.

Section 21. Local Disaster Risk" Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF). - The present Local Calamity Fund shall henceforth be known as the Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (LDRRMF). Not less than five percent (5%) of the estimated revenue from regular sources shall be set aside as the LDRRMF to support disaster risk management activities such as, but not limited to, pre-disaster preparedness programs including training, purchasing life-saving rescue equipment, supplies and medicines, for post-disaster activities, and for the payment of premiums on calamity insurance. The LDRRMC shall monitor and evaluate the use and disbursement of the LDRRMF based on the. LDRRMP as incorporated in the local development plans and annual work and financial plan. Upon the recommendation of the LDRRMO and approval of the sanggunian concerned, the LDRRMC may transfer the said fund to support disaster risk reduction work of other LDRRMCs which are declared under state of calamity.

Of the amount appropriated for LDRRMF, thirty percent (30%) shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs in order that situation and living conditions of people In communities or areas stricken by disasters, calamities, epidemics, or complex emergencies, may be normalized as quickly as possible.

Unexpended LDRRMF shall accrue to a special trust fund solely for the purpose of supporting disaster risk reduction and management activities of the LDRRMCs within the next five (5) years. Any such amount still not fully utilized after five (5) years shall revert back to the general fund and will be available for other social services to be identified by the local sanggunian.

Section 22. National Disaster Risk" Reduction and Management Fund. - (a) The present Calamity Fund appropriated under the annual General Appropriations Act shall henceforth be known as the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Fund (NDRRM Fund) and it shall be used for disaster risk reduction or mitigation, prevention and preparedness activities such as but not limited to training of personnel, procurement of equipment, and capital expenditures. It can also be utilized for relief, recovery, reconstruction and other work or services in connection with natural or human induced calamities which may occur during the budget year or those that occurred in the past two (2) years from the budget year.

(b) The specific amount of the NDRRM Fund and the appropriate recipient agencies and/or LGUs shall be determined upon approval of the President of the Philippines in accordance with the favorable recommendation of the NDRRMC.

(c) Of the amount appropriated for the NDRRM Fund, thirty percent (30%) shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund (QRF) or stand-by fund for relief and recovery programs in order that situation and living conditions of people in communities or areas stricken by disasters, calamities, epidemics, or complex emergencies, may be normalized as quickly as possible.

(d) All departments/agencies and LGUs that are allocated with DRRM fund shall submit to the NDRRMC their monthly statements on the utilization of DRRM funds and make an accounting thereof in accordance with existing accounting and auditing rules.

(e) All departments, bureaus, offices and agencies of the government are hereby authorized to use a portion of their appropriations to implement projects designed to address DRRM activities in accordance with the guidelines to be issued by the NDRRMC in coordination with the DBM.

Section 23. Funding of the OCD. - As lead agency to carry out the provisions of this Act, the OCD shall be allocated a budget of One billion pesos (Php1,000,000,000.00) revolving fund starting from the effectivity of this Act.

Section 24. Annual Report. - The National Council, through the OCD, shall submit to the Office of the President, the Senate and the House of Representatives, within the first quarter of the succeeding year, an annual report relating to the progress of the implementation of the NDRRMP.

Section 25. Implementing Rules and Regulations. - The NDRRMC. through its Chairperson. shall issue the necessary rules and regulations for the effective implementation of this Act within ninety (90) days after approval of this Act. The OCD. in consultation with key stakeholders. shall take the lead in the preparation of the implementing rules and regulations with the active involvement of the technical management group of the NDRRMC.

Section 26. Congressional Oversight Committee. - There is hereby created a Congressional Oversight Committee to monitor and oversee the implementation of the provisions of this Act. The Committee shall be composed of six (6) members from the Senate and six (6) members from the House of Representatives with the Chairpersons of the Committees on National Defense and Security of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as joint Chairpersons of this Committee. The five (5) other members from each Chamber are to be designated by the Senate President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. respectively. The minority shall be entitled to pro rata represent3tion but shall have at least two (2) representatives from each Chamber.

Section 27. Sunset Review. - Within five (5) years after the effectivity of this Act, or as the need arises, the Congressional Oversight Committee shall conduct a sunset review. For purposes of this Act, the term "sunset review" shall mean a systematic evaluation by the Congressional Oversight Committee of the accomplishments and impact of this Act, as well as the performance and organizational structure of its implementing agencies, for purposes of determining remedial legislation.

Section 28. Repealing Clause. - Presidential Decree No. 1566 and all other laws, decrees, executive orders, proclamations and other executive issuance's which are inconsistent with or contrary to the provisions of this Act are hereby amended or repealed accordingly.

Section 29. Separability Clause. - If any provision of this Act shall be held unconstitutional or invalid, the other provisions not otherwise affected shall remain m full force and effect.

Section 30. Effectivity Clause. - This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days following its complete publication in the Official Gazette or in two (2) national newspapers of general circulation.

Approved,

(Sgd.) PROSPERO C. NOGRALES
Speaker of the House of Representatives

(Sgd.) JUAN PONCE ENRILE
President of the Senate

This Act which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 3086 and House Bill No, 6985 was finally passed by the Senate and the House of Representatives on February 1, 2010.

(Sgd.) MARILYN B. BARUA-YAP
Secretary General
House of Representatives

(Sgd.) EMMA LIRIO-REYES
Secretary of Senate

Approved: May 27, 2010

(Sgd.) GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYO
President of the Philippines

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2012-12-08T23:23:00.001-08:00

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THE ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AFTER DISASTERS

2012-12-08T20:04:00.002-08:00

THE ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AFTER DISASTERS

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, participants will be able:

· To list three uses of epidemiologic methods in emergency situations.

· To describe the operational aspects of conducting epidemiologic activities post-disaster; and

· To describe three constraints in applying epidemiologic methods to emergency situations.

Disaster Defined

“ a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources” – UNITED NATIONS DISASTER

“ a disaster is the result of a vast ecological breakdown in the relation between humans and their environment, a serious and sudden event on such a scale that the sticken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or international aid.

TYPES OF DISASTERS

1. Natural: interrupts the normal function of a community, people maybe injured or killed or may loose their homes and possesions the impact is so great that the affected community often must depend on outside help in order to cope with the result.

Natural forces that can cause widespread human suffering include Earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions, wilderness fires and extreme hot or cold.

Earthquakes: buildings and the objects inside them can fall injuring those who live or work there.

The large the numbers of people who are suddenly ill or injured can exceed the capacity of the local health care system for them.

Hospitals may be damaged, roads blocked and personnel may be unable to perform their duties.

Floods: drowning

Wildfires: can cause burns and illness from smoke inhalation.

2. Technological disaster: is an event caused by a malfunction of technological structure or some human error in controlling or handling the technology. The effects of disaster may be long lasting and can endure for years. However, symptoms may appear gradually and impacts may not be seen immediately.

All types of disaster is an event caused by a malfunction of technological disasters tend to be even more difficult for the following reasons:

2.1 The threat cannot be anticipated: a technological disaster is sudden unexpected and unpredictable.

2.2 People are responsible: victims of technological disasters tend to feel anger toward people who are responsible for accidents that may have prevented.

2.3 Community breakdowns and conflicts may result: technological disaster can create disputes within communities

Example : FURUSHIMA DAICHII NUCLEAR POWER STATION IN JAPAN

Effects: Stressful, especially because they are unpredictable, individual, families and communities are affected, results include income loss, loss of job.

3. Man- made disaster

Example:

Arson: criminal intent of setting a fire with intent to cause damage.

Civil Disorder: broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe forms of diturbance like low minimum wage to racial segregation.

Terrorism: use of violence for the purpose of creating fear.

War: conflict between relatively large groups of people, which involves Physical force inflicted by the use of weapons.

EFFECTS OF DISASTER

· Interrupts the normal function of the community

· Affected population cannot cope

· Need for external assitance

AIMS OF DISASTER RESPONSE

The overall aims of disaster response are:

· To ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of victims, keeping them in the best possible health in the circumtances.

· To re establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible for all population groups.

· To repair or replace damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable economic activities.

· In situations of civil war or intetional conflict.

· In cases involving population displacements( due to any type of disaster).

DISASTER RESPONSE ACTIVITIES

1. WARNING: refers to information concerning the nature of the danger and imminent disaster threats.

Must be rapidly disseminated to government officials, institutions and the population at large in the areas at immediate risk so that appropriate actions may be taken, namely either to evacuate or secure property and prevent further damage. The warning could be disseminated via radio, television, the written press, telephone system and cell phone.

2. EVACUATION AND MIGRATION: relocation of a population from zones at risk of an imminent disaster to a safer location.

Primary concern is the protection of life of the community and immediate treatment of those who may be injured.

Evacuation is most commonly associated with tropical storms but is also a frequent requirement with technological or industrial hazards. For evacuation to work there must be:

􀂃 A timely and accurate warning system,

􀂃 Clear identification of escape routes,

􀂃 An established policy that requires everyone to evacuate when an order is given,

􀂃 A public education programme to make the community aware of the plan.

3. SEARCH AND RESCUE ( SAR ): the process of identifying the location of disaster victims that may be trapped or isolated and bringing them to safety and medical attention.

In the aftermath of tropical storms and floods, SAR usually includes locating stranded flood victims, who may be threatened by rising water, and either bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first aid until they can be evacuated or returned to their homes.

In the aftermath of earthquakes, SAR normally focuses on locating people who are trapped and/ or injured in collapsed buildings.

4. POST-DISASTER ASSESSMENT: To provide a clear, concise picture of the post-disaster situation, to identify relief needs and to develop strategies for recovery.

It determines options for humanitarian assistance, how best to utilize existing resources, or to develop requests for further assistance.

5. RESPONSE AND RELIEF: Occurred response and relief have to take place immediately; there can be no delays. It is therefore important to have contingency plans in place. Relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve human lives.

It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare food). Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster. In the case of deteriorating slow-onset emergency situations and population displacements (refugees, internally and externally displaced people), emergency relief may be needed for extended periods.

6. LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY: The delivery of emergency relief will require logistical facilities and capacity. A well-organized supply service is crucial for handling the procurement or receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies for distribution to disaster victims.

7. COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT: All of the above activities are dependent on communication.

There are two aspects to communications in disasters.

One is the equipment that is essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and their supporting systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines.

The other is information management: the protocol of knowing who communicates what information to whom, what priority is given to it, and how it is disseminated and interpreted.

8. SURVIVOR RESPONSE COPING: In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is easy to overlook the real needs and resources of the survivors. The assessment must take into account existing social coping mechanisms that negate the need to bring in outside assistance.

On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new and special needs for social services to help adjust to the trauma and disruption caused by the disaster. Participation in the disaster response process by individuals to community organizations is critical to healthy recovery. Through these appropriate coping mechanisms will be most successfully developed.

9. SECURITY: Security is not always a priority issue after a sudden onset of disasters. It is typically handled by civil defence or police departments.

However, the protection of the human rights and safety of displaced populations and refugees can be of paramount importance requiring international monitoring.

10. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT: None of the above activities can be implemented without some degree of emergency operations management. Policies and procedures for management requirements need to be established well in advance of the disaster.

11. REHABILITATION: Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and to facilitate the revival of economic activities (including agriculture).

Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life. It may be considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii) more major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

12. RECONSTRUCTION: Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy (including agriculture).

Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing longterm development plans, taking account of future disaster risks. It must also consider the possibilities of reducing those risks by the incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures. Damaged structures and services may not necessarily be restored in their previous form or locations. It may include the replacement of any temporary arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or rehabilitation. Under conditions of conflict, however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may not be feasible. For obvious reasons of safety and security, activities in rehabilitation and reconstruction may need to wait until peace allows them.

13. RECOVERY: As the emergency is brought under control, the affected population is capable of undertaking a growing number of activities aimed at restoring their lives and the infrastructure that supports them. There is no distinct point at which immediate relief changes into recovery and then into longterm sustainable development. There will be many opportunities during the recovery period to enhance prevention and increase preparedness, thus reducing vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition from recovery to on-going development.

Recovery activities are classified as short-term and long-term. During response, emergency action was taken to restore vital functions while carrying out protective measures against further damage or injury.

a Short-term recovery is immediate and tends to overlap with response. The authorities restore interrupted utility services, clear roads, and either fix or demolish severely damaged buildings.

Additionally, there may be a need to provide food and shelter for those displaced by the disaster. Although called short-term, some of these activities may last for weeks

b Long-term recovery may involve some of the same activities, but itmay continue for a number of months, sometimes years, depending on the severity and extent of the damage sustained. For example, it

may include the complete redevelopment of damaged areas. The goal is for the community to return to a state that is even better than before the emergency. This is an ideal time to implement new mitigation measures so that the community is better prepared to deal with future threats and does not leave

itself vulnerable to the same setbacks as before. Helping the community to take new mitigation steps is one of the most important roles during the recovery phase.

The Recovery Plan

The recovery process should be understood clearly and it is important to have a general plan for recovery which should be appended to emergency operation plans.

The primary purpose of the plan is to spell out the major steps for managing successful recovery. For each step you will also designate key partners and their roles and steps to mobilize them. The plan should have at least the following seven steps:

1 Gathering basic information

2 Organizing recovery

3 Mobilizing resources for recovery

4 Administering recovery

5 Regulating recovery

6 Coordinating recovery activities

7 Evaluating recovery

For the majority of disasters, local communities are able to provide the assistance needed for recovery. However, for a major disaster, it may be necessary to obtain assistance from the government and other sources. Therefore, preparations must be made to request outside aid if a major disaster occurs. This will mean informing and convincing decision makers, especially those outside the affected area. Documenting the effects of the disaster is the best way to carry this out. Documentation involves providing evidence of what happened. Photographs of the damage provide irrefutable evidence. Take pictures of

the damage, the repair work, and completed restorations. .

There can be a good documentation if the following five simple steps are followed:

1 Take pictures of damages and repairs. More is better than too little. Private citizens may have excellent shots to supplement your own.

2 Take notes on damages and repairs. Again, more is better than too

little. If there is too much to write at one time, dictate your notes into a tape recorder for later transcription.

3 Clip and file newspaper reports and stories. If you can get video footage from the television stations, do that also.

4 Record all expenditures carefully and keep all receipts and invoices.

5 Make sure anyone acting on behalf of the jurisdiction does the same.

Modern and traditional responses to disasters

The responses to disasters may employ a mix of approaches from traditional to modern with these approaches moving back and forth depending on the nature of disaster in term of their scope. The scope of disasters has influenced responses in the following ways:

􀂃 Humanitarian (aid to relieve pain and suffering),

􀂃 Remittance (Cash sent to victims),

􀂃 Relief assistance (food, medication, tents),

􀂃 Networking (contacting organizations),

Modern methods of disaster response

New technologies can be very useful and powerful tool in disaster response, namely:

1 Cell phones: cell phones as warning devices can be very useful. Short messages can be sent to recipients warning of imminent threat of tropical storms, wind storms or any severe weather likely to cause damage.

2 Spatial information – use of satellite imagery. The emergency management community is keenly aware of the potential of mapping technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS), remote

sensing (satellite imagery), and global positioning systems (GPS) in support of emergency response operations. Increasingly, geographic technologies are being utilized for hazard mitigation as well as response efforts. These range from damage assessments mapping the event and affected areas to search and rescue, risk assessment, risk perception (Hodgson and Palm, 1992), and risk communication (Hodgson and Cutter 2001). There is more information on the role of technology for managing disasters in Unit 8.

3 Social media and social networking – social media and social networking can be used as a tool to emergency response communications. Text messaging such as Twitter and the social networking system such as Face book can be used as a channel of communication in disaster response.

Examples of suggested applications of social media and social networking include:

􀂊 Use blogs to rapidly publicize the need for assistance grants.

􀂊 Create geo-tagged photo groups to document damage.

􀂊 Publicize volunteers willing to share recovery-relevant expertise.

􀂊 Use map-based mashups (combinations of data in webpages) to display relevant local information.

􀂊 Immediately share “lessons learned.”

􀂊 Integrate volunteer directories with social networks to simplify information sharing.

􀂊 Distribute weather information via methods that support geographic targeting.

􀂊 Encourage sharing of resource information among corporations that will most likely be involved in recovery work.

􀂊 Use the assistance application process as basis for voluntary sharing of information among affected populations.

Emergency Support Functions

Emergency Support Functions (ESFs) is the grouping of governmental and certain private sector capabilities into an organizational structure to provide support, resources, program implementation, and services that are most likely needed to save lives, protect property and the environment, restore essential services and critical infrrastructure, and help victims and communities return to normal following domestic incidents.

Emergency Support Functions

ESF1 Transportation
ESF2 Communications
ESF3 Public Works and Engineering
ESF4 Firefighting
ESF5 Emergency Management
ESF6 Mass Care, Housing, and Human Services
ESF7 Resources Support
ESF8 Public Health and Medical Services
ESF9 Urban Search and Rescue
ESF10 Oil and Hazardous Materials Response
ESF11 Agriculture and Natural Resources
ESF12 Energy
ESF13 Public Safety and Security
ESF14 Long-term Community Recovery and Mitigation
ESF15 External Affairs

There are 15 ESFs, and HHS is the primary agency responsible for ESF 8- Public Health and Medical Services. ESF 8 is coordinated by the Secretary of HHS principally through the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR). ESF 8 resources can be activated through the Stafford Act or the Public Health Service Act.

ESF 8 – Public Health and Medical Services provides the mechanism for coordinated Federal assistance to supplement State, Tribal, and local resources in response to an emergency.

ESF 8 – Public Health and Medical Services

ESF 8 – Public Health and Medical Services provides the mechanism for coordinated Federal assistance to supplement State, Tribal, and local resources in response to the following:

Public health and medical care needs
Veterinary and/or animal health issues in coordination with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Potential or actual incidents of national significance
A developing potential health and medical situation

ESF #8 involves supplemental assistance to State,Tribal, and jurisdictional governments in identifying and meeting the public health and medical needs of victims of major disasters or public health and medical emergencies.This support is categorized in the following functional areas:

Assessment of public health/medical needs
Public health surveillance
Medical care personnel
Medical equipment and supplies
Patient movement
Hospital care
Outpatient services
Victim decontamination
Safety and security of human drugs, biologics, medical devices, veterinary drugs, etc.
Blood products and services
Food safety and security
Agriculture feed safety and security
Worker health and safety
All hazard consultation and technical assistance and support
Mental health and substance abuse care
Public health and medical information
Vector control
Potable water/wastewater and solid waste disposal, and other environmental health issues
Victim identification/mortuary services
Veterinary services.
Federal public health and medical assistance consists of medical materiel, personnel, and technical assistance.

Health and Medical Response Lead Partners

HHS leads and coordinates the overall health and medical response to national-level incidents through coordination, along with the following.

Department of Agriculture
Department of Transportation
Department of Defense
Department of Veterans Affairs
Department of State
Agency for International Development
Department of Energy
Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Homeland Security
General Services Administration
Department of Interior
U.S. Postal Service
Department of Justice
American Red Cross
Department of Labor

THE INCIDENT COMMEND SYSTEM

The Incident Command System (ICS) is "a systematic tool used for the command, control, and coordination of emergency response" according to the United States Federal Highway Administration.A more detailed definition of an ICS according to the United States Center for Excellence in Disaster Management & Humanitarian Assistance is "a set of personnel, policies, procedures, facilities, and equipment, integrated into a common organizational structure designed to improve emergency response operations of all types and complexities. ICS is a subcomponent of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), as released by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2004.

National Incident Management System (NIMS),

Weaknesses in incident management were often due to:

Lack of accountability, including unclear chains of command and supervision.
Poor communication due to both inefficient uses of available communications systems and conflicting codes and terminology.
Lack of an orderly, systematic planning process.
No predefined methods to integrate inter-agency requirements into the management structure and planning process effectively.
Freelancing by individuals with specialized skills during an incident without coordination with other first responders
Lack of knowledge with common terminology during an incident.

An ICS is based upon a flexible, scalable response organization providing a common framework within which people can work together effectively. These people may be drawn from multiple agencies that do not routinely work together, and ICS is designed to give standard response and operation procedures to reduce the problems and potential for miscommunication on such incidents. ICS has been summarized as a "first-on-scene" structure, where the first responder of a scene has charge of the scene until the incident has been declared resolved, a more qualified responder arrives on scene and receives command, or the Incident Commander appoints another individual Incident Commander.

ICS includes procedures to select and form temporary management hierarchies to control funds, personnel, facilities, equipment, and communications.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The ICS concept was originally developed in 1968 at a Phoenix AZ meeting of Fire Chiefs. Originally the program was established to follow the management structure of the US Navy and it was mainly for fire fighting of wildfires in California and Arizona. During the 1970s, ICS was fully developed during massive wildfire suppression efforts in California and following a series of catastrophic wildfires in California's urban interface. Property damage ran into the millions, and many people died or were injured. Studies determined that response problems often related to communication and management deficiencies rather than lack of resources or failure of tactics. ICS fell under California's Standardized Emergency Management System or SEMS. ICS became a national model for command structures at a fire, crime scene or major incident. The ICS System was used in New York at the first terrorist attempt on the twin towers in the 1990s. In 2003, SEMS went national with the passage of Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5 (HSPD5) mandating all federal, state, and local agencies use NIMS or the National Incident Management System to manage emergencies in order to receive federal funding. The Superfund Amendment and Re-authorization Act title III mandated that all first responders to a hazardous waste or hazmat emergency would be trained in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.120(q). This standard recognizes the OSHA ICS program. The National Incident Management System (NIMS) came about as a direct result of the terrorist attack on the twin towers in New York on September 11, 2001.

ILOILO CITY, Aug 3 (PIA) -- The use of the Incident Command System (ICS) in the Philippines as a tool for on-scene disaster response and management in consonance with the country’s disaster risk reduction and management law is underway.

The use of the ICS mechanism is also within the framework of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations-United States (ASEAN-US) Cooperation on Disaster Management Program which was adopted during the first ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management Meeting (ACDM) in Brunei in 2003.

As the country adopts the ICS system, SSupt. Joseph B. Bacareza, head of the Health and Emergency Management Division (HEMD) of the Bureau of Fire Protection and member of the ICS National Cadre, said at the ongoing ICS Basic/Intermediate Training Course here that trainings have already been held for the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council, some Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils as well as the national offices of some national government agencies.

These agencies include the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA), Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), Department of Tourism (DOT) and Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP).

Bacareza, who is the lead trainor in the course, said trainings have also started at the level of local government units (LGUs) with the cities of Olongapo and Bacolod and the town of Surallah, South Cotabato as pilot areas. Similar trainings will also be held for other LGUs, added Bacareza, who is a medical doctor by profession.

ICS is a standard, on-scene, all-hazard incident management concept that can be used by all disaster risk reduction and management councils or emergency management and response agencies and can be used for routine incidents as well as major disasters such as typhoons, floods, disease outbreaks, hostage-taking, and even planned events such as fiestas and concerts.

Activated at first response, ICS allows users to adopt an integrated organizational structure to match the complexities and demands of single or multiple incidents without being hindered by agency or jurisdictional boundaries.

In her message at the opening of the three-day training from August 2 to 4, Office of Civil Defense (OCD) Regional Director and RDRRMC chairperson Rosario T. Cabrera said ICS could also address some persistent issues and problems arising at on-scene level such as who is in-charge, especially when the incident involves multi-agency participation and multi-jurisdictional, too many responders, too many people reporting to one supervisor, unclear lines of authority, no check-in procedures for responders, and unclear incident objectives.

Cabrera said the on-scene disaster management tool has proven to be an effective disaster response mechanism at the scene level and has been used by the United States and adopted by a number of countries.

Members of the RDRRMC Committee on Disaster Response participated at the training at Amigo Terrage Hotel. The training was designed to enhance the understanding of participants of ICS as a disaster response tool and the role of the system within the broader framework of the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management System.

The NDRRMC chaired by defense secretary Voltaire T. Gazmin has issued a memorandum circular earlier this year on the implementing guidelines on the use of ICS in disaster response and management in the country. (JCM/JSC-PIA6).

INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM

THREE PURPOSES:

· ICS helps responders and others

· ICS helps achieve objectives of response

· ICS helps with effecient use resources.

BASIC ICS STRUCTURE

Integrated communications

The use of a common communications plan is essential for ensuring that responders can communicate with one another during an incident. Communication equipment, procedures, and systems must operate across jurisdictions (interoperably). Developing an integrated voice and data communications system, including equipment, systems, and protocols, must occur prior to an incident.

Effective ICS communications include three elements:

Modes: The "hardware" systems that transfer information.
Planning: Planning for the use of all available communications resources.
Networks: The procedures and processes for transferring information internally and externally.

COMPOSITION

Incident commander

Single incident commander - Most incidents involve a single incident commander. In these incidents, a single person commands the incident response and is the decision-making final authority.
Unified command - A Unified Command involves two or more individuals sharing the authority normally held by a single incident commander. Unified Command is used on larger incidents usually when multiple agencies or multiple jurisdictions are involved. A Unified Command typically includes a command representative from major involved agencies and/or jurisdictions with one from that group to act as the spokesman, though not designated as an Incident Commander. A Unified Command acts as a single entity. It is important to note, that in Unified Command the command representatives will appoint a single Operations Section Chief.^[8]

Area command - During multiple-incident situations, an Area Command may be established to provide for Incident Commanders at separate locations. Generally, an Area Commander will be assigned - a single person - and the Area Command will operate as a logistical and administrative support. Area Commands usually do not include an Operations function.

Command staff

Safety officer - The Safety Officer monitors safety conditions and develops measures for assuring the safety of all assigned personnel.
Public information officer - The Public Information Officer (PIO or IO) serves as the conduit for information to and from internal and external stakeholders, including the media or other organizations seeking information directly from the incident or event. While less often discussed, the Public Information Officer is also responsible for ensuring that an incident's command staff are kept apprised as to what is being said or reported about an incident. This allows public questions to be addressed, rumors to be managed, and ensures that other such public relations issues are not overlooked.
Liaison Officer - A Liaison serves as the primary contact for supporting agencies assisting at an incident.

General staff

Operations Section Chief - The Operations Section Chief is tasked with directing all actions to meet the incident objectives.
Planning Section Chief - The Planning Section Chief is tasked with the collection and display of incident information, primarily consisting of the status of all resources and overall status of the incident.
Finance/Administration Section Chief - The Finance/Admin. Section Chief is tasked with tracking incident related costs, personnel records, requisitions, and administrating procurement contracts required by Logistics.
Logistics Section Chief - The Logistics Section Chief is tasked with providing all resources, services, and support required by the incident.

200-Level ICS

At the ICS 200 level, the function of Information and Intelligence is added to the standard ICS staff as an option. This role is unique in ICS as it can be arranged in multiple ways based on the judgement of the Incident Commander and needs of the incident. The three possible arrangements are:

Information & Intelligence Officer, a position on the command staff.
Information & Intelligence Section, a section headed by an Information & Intelligence Section Chief, a General Staff position.
Information & Intelligence Branch, headed by an Information & Intelligence Branch Director, this branch is a part of the Planning Section.

400-Level ICS

At the ICS 400 level, the focus is on large, complex incidents. Topics covered include the characteristics of incident complexity, the approaches to dividing an incident into manageable components, the establishment of an "Area Command", and the MultiAgency Coordination System (MACS).

DESIGN

Personnel

ICS is organized by levels, with the supervisor of each level holding a unique title (e.g. only a person in charge of a Section is labeled "Chief"; a "Director" is exclusively the person in charge of a Branch). Levels (supervising person's title) are:

· Incident Commander

· Command Staff Member (Officer)- Command Staff

· Section (Chief)- General Staff

· Branch (Director)

· Division (Supervisor) - A Division is a unit arranged by geography, along jurisdictional lines if necessary, and not based on the makeup of the resources within the Division.

· Group (Supervisor) - A Group is a unit arranged for a purpose, along agency lines if necessary, or based on the makeup of the resources within the Group.

· Unit, Team, or Force (Leader) - Such as "Communications Unit," "Medical Strike Team," or a "Reconnaissance Task Force." A Strike Team is composed of same resources (four ambulances, for instance) while a Task Force is composed of different types of resources (one ambulance, two fire trucks, and a police car, for instance).

· Individual Resource. This is the smallest level within ICS and usually refers to a single person or piece of equipment. It can refer to a piece of equipment and operator, and less often to multiple people working together.

Facilities

ICS uses a standard set of facility nomenclature. ICS facilities include: Pre-Designated Incident Facilities: Response operations can form a complex structure that must be held together by response personnel working at different and often widely separate incident facilities. These facilities can include:

Incident Command Post (ICP): The ICP is the location where the Incident Commander operates during response operations. There is only one ICP for each incident or event, but it may change locations during the event. Every incident or event must have some form of an Incident Command Post. The ICP may be located in a vehicle, trailer, tent, or within a building. The ICP will be positioned outside of the present and potential hazard zone but close enough to the incident to maintain command. The ICP will be designated by the name of the incident, e.g., Trail Creek ICP.

Staging Area: Can be a location at or near an incident scene where tactical response resources are stored while they await assignment. Resources in staging area are under the control status. Staging Areas should be located close enough to the incident for a timely response, but far enough away to be out of the immediate impact zone. There may be more than one Staging Area at an incident. Staging Areas can be collocated with the ICP, Bases, Camps, Helibases, or Helispots.

A Base is the location from which primary logistics and administrative functions are coordinated and administered. The Base may be collocated with the Incident Command Post. There is only one Base per incident, and it is designated by the incident name. The Base is established and managed by the Logistics Section. The resources in the Base are always out-of-service.

Camps: Locations, often temporary, within the general incident area that are equipped and staffed to provide sleeping, food, water, sanitation, and other services to response personnel that are too far away to use base facilities. Other resources may also be kept at a camp to support incident operations if a Base is not accessible to all resources. Camps are designated by geographic location or number. Multiple Camps may be used, but not all incidents will have Camps.

A Helibase is the location from which helicopter-centered air operations are conducted. Helibases are generally used on a more long-term basis and include such services as fueling and maintenance. The Helibase is usually designated by the name of the incident, e.g. Trail Creek Helibase.

Helispots are more temporary locations at the incident, where helicopters can safely land and take off. Multiple Helispots may be used.

Each facility has unique location, space, equipment, materials, and supplies requirements that are often difficult to address, particularly at the outset of response operations. For this reason, responders should identify, pre-designate and pre-plan the layout of these facilities, whenever possible.

On large or multi-level incidents, higher-level support facilities may be activated. These could include:

Joint Information Center (JIC): A JIC is the facility whereby an incident, agency, or jurisdiction can support media representatives. Often co-located - even permanently designated - in a community or state EOC the JIC provides the location for interface between the media and the PIO. Most often the JIC also provides both space and technical assets (Internet, telephone, power) necessary for the media to perform their duties. A JIC very often becomes the "face" of an incident as it is where press releases are made available as well as where many broadcast media outlets interview incident staff. It is not uncommon for a permanently established JIC to have a window overlooking an EOC and/or a dedicated background showing agency logos or other symbols for televised interviews. The National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) at FEMA has both, for example, allowing televised interviews to show action in the NRCC behind the interviewer/interviewee while an illuminated "Department of Homeland Security" sign, prominently placed on the far wall of the NRCC, is thus visible during such interviews.

Joint Operations Center (JOC): A JOC is usually pre-established, often operated 24/7/365, and allows multiple agencies to have a dedicated facility for assigning staff to interface and interact with their counterparts from other agencies. Although frequently called something other than a JOC, many locations and jurisdictions have such centers, often where Federal, state, and/or local agencies (often law enforcement) meet to exchange strategic information and develop and implement tactical plans. Large mass gathering events, such as a presidential inauguration, will also utilize JOC-type facilities although they are often not identified as such or their existence even publicized.

Multiple Agency Coordination Center (MACC): The MACC is a central command and control facility responsible for the strategic, or "big picture" of a disaster. A MACC is often used when multiple incidents are occurring in one area or are particularly complex for various reasons such as when scarce resources must be allocated across multiple requests. Personnel within the MACC use Multi-agency Coordination to guide their operations. The MACC coordinates activities between multiple agencies and incidents and does not normally directly control field assets, but makes strategic decisions and leaves tactical decisions to individual agencies. The common functions of all MACC's is to collect, gather and analyze data; make decisions that protect life and property, maintain continuity of the government or corporation, within the scope of applicable laws; and disseminate those decisions to all concerned agencies and individuals. While often similar to an Emergency Operations Center (EOC), the MACC is a separate entity with a defined area or mission and lifespan whereas an EOC is a permanently established facility and operation for a political jurisdiction or agency. EOCs often, but not always, follow the general ICS principles but may utilize other structures or management (such as an Emergency Support Function [ESF] or hybrid ESF/ICS model)schemas. For many jurisdictions the EOC is where elected officials will be located during an emergency and, like a MACC, supports but does not command an incident.

Equipment

ICS uses a standard set of equipment nomenclature. ICS equipment include:

Tanker - This is an aircraft that carries fuel (Fuel Tanker) or water (Water Tanker).
Tender - Like a tanker, but a ground vehicle, also carrying fuel (Fuel Tender), water (Water Tender), or even fire fighting foam (Foam Tender).

Type and kind

The "type" of resource describes the size or capability of a resource. For instance, a 50 kW (for a generator) or a 3-ton (for a truck). Types are designed to be categorized as "Type 1" through "Type 5" formally, but in live incidents more specific information may be used.

The "kind" of resource describes what the resource is. For instance, generator or a truck. The "type" of resource describes a performance capability for a kind of resource for instance,

In both type and kind, the objective must be included in the resource request. This is done to widen the potential resource response. As an example, a resource request for a small aircraft for aerial reconnaissance of a search and rescue scene may be satisfied by a National Guard OH-58 Kiowa helicopter (Type & Kind: Rotary-wing aircraft, Type II/III) or by a Civil Air Patrol Cessna 182 (Type & Kind: Fixed-wing aircraft, Type I). In this example, requesting only a fixed-wing or a rotary-wing, or requesting by type may prevent the other resource's availability from being known.

Command transfer

A role of responsibility can be transferred during an incident for several reasons: As the incident grows a more qualified person is required to take over as Incident Commander to handle the ever-growing needs of the incident, or in reverse where as an incident reduces in size command can be passed down to a less qualified person (but still qualified to run the now-smaller incident) to free up highly qualified resources for other tasks or incidents. Other reasons to transfer command include jurisdictional change if the incident moves locations or area of responsibility, or normal turnover of personnel due to extended incidents. The transfer of command process always includes a transfer of command briefing, which may be oral, written, or a combination of both.

ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN EMERGENCIES

· Role extends beyond understanding how diseases are contracted and spread.

· Epidemiology can provide the evidence base for making decisions.

· Epidemiologic methods can be used to measure and describe the adverse health effects of disasters.

Epidemiology

• The study of the distribution & determinants of health related events in human populations and the application of the study to the control of health problems

Disaster Epidemiologist: measure and describe the adverse health effects of natural and human-caused disasters and the factors that contribute to those effects, with the overall objective of assessing the needs of disaster-affected populations, matching available resources to needs, preventing further adverse effects, evaluating program effectiveness,and planning for contingencies. Disaster epidemiology evolved as a result of the increasing realization that epidemiologic methods can be used in studying the effects that disasters have on the health of populations.

Study designs in epidemiology

• Observational study

– Descriptive study: Description of the occurrence of a disease in a population

• Usually described in person, place & time

– Analytical study: Analyses relationships between health status & other variables

• Case control study

• Cohort study

• Experimental study or intervention study

Disaster epidemiology

• Use of epidemiology in disaster situations

• Epidemiologic methods can be used to measure & describe the adverse effects of natural and man made disasters

Types of studies in disaster epidemiology

• Surveillance

– Ongoing systematic collection, collation & analysis of data & the timely transmission of information to those who need to know for action to be taken

• Public Health impact evaluation

• Natural history evaluation

• Analytic studies of risk factors

Types of studies in disaster epidemiology 2

• Clinical investigation

• Population based study

• Study of the psychological effects of disasters

Historical development of disaster epidemiology

• 1950- Early review of role of epidemiology during disasters

• Late 1960 Civil war in Nigeria: Practical application of epidemiology in disaster management

• Early 1970 Establishment of Center for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters

Historical development of disaster epidemiology 2

• 1976 Earthquake in Guatemala important epidemiologic studies carried out

• 1980 Eruption of Mount St Helena was a major milestone in shaping governments response to disasters

Applications of epidemiology in disasters

· During the past 20 years, disaster epidemiology has emerged as an area of special interest.

· The applications of epidemiologic methods in disaster situations have been reviewed in a number of reports and periodic updates on the “ state of the art” appear every few years.

· The role of epidemiology in disaster situations has included a broad range of activities.

1. Rapid assessment of health needs

2. Surveillance and action-oriented infromation systems

3. Disease- control strategies for well-defined problems

4. Assessment of the use and distribution of health services

5. Etiologic research on morbidity and mortality owing to disasters

6. Development of long-term epidemiologic studies of the affected populations.

· Health decisions made during emergencies are often based on insufficient, nonexisting,or even false information, which results in inappropriate, insufficient or unnecessary health aid; waste of health resources; or counter effective measures.

Example:

Large amounts of useless drugs and other consumable supplies are frequently sent to a disaster site. After the 1976 earthquake in Guatemala, 100 tons of unsorted medicines were airlifted to the country from foreign donors. Of these supplies, 90% were of no value because they consisted of medications that had expired, that were already opened, or for which the labels were written in foreign languages.

A similar situation occured after the 1988 Armenian earthquake, when international relief operations sent at least 5000 tons of drugs and consumable medical supplies. Because of the difficulties with identification and sorting only 30% of the drugs were immediately usable by the health workers in Armenia; 11 % were useless, and 8% had expired. Ultimately , 20% of all the drugs provided by international aid had to be destroyed.

Because these relief operations were often conducted under the watchful eye of the media, medical relief efforts were often pejoratively called “ the second disaster”.

· The critical component of any disaster response is the early conduct of a proper damage assessment to identify urgent needs and to determine relief priorities for an affected population.

· Dissaster assessment provides relief managers objective information about the effects of the disaster on a population, generated on the basis of rapidly conducted field investigations.

RAPID NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Objective: to assess

· The presence of ongoing hazards

· Nature and magnitude of disaster

· Major medical and public health problems of the affected community

· Availability of resources in affected community

· Community need for external assistance

· Augmentation of existing public health surveillance to monitor the ongoing impact

During the past several years , various efforts were made to develop rapid and valid epidemiologic assessment techniques. Guha- sapir has developed useful indicators for needs assessment after earthquakes. ( “ quick and dirty” surveys ).

These indicators have been simple, easy to use quickly, and operationally feasible.

The purpose of this assessment is to estimate the following factors:

1. Overall magnitude of the effect of the disaster ( geographical extent, number of affected persons, and estimated duration)

2. Effect on health ( number of casualties)

3. Integrity of health services delivery systems

4. Specific health care needs of survivors

5. Disruption of other service sectors ( power, water, sanitation ) that are relevant to public health

6. Extent of response to the disaster by local authorities

Information collected during the rapid assessment should be used to plan and implement immediate responses.

· The emphasis of these assessments is to gather a small amount of relevant information quickly (usually 2 to 4 days after a sudden-impact disaster).

· This “ quick and dirty” approach requires a multidisciplinary team (e.g., an epidemiologist, statistician, engineer, and health planner) and relies on visual inspection, interviews with key personnel, and surveys.

The health effects of a disaster can be measured by a series of indicators that permit objective assessment and are used to guide relief efforts:

1. Such indicators include mortality, morbidity, the number of damaged houses, homeless persons, and nonfunctioning hospitals; and the status of community lifelines (e.g., water, electricity, gas, sewage disposal ).

Because everyone in the disaster area will feel needs and experience loss, the challenge of the early assessment is to decide for which needs and affected areas early intervention will prevent the greatest loss of life or severe morbidity.

SURVEILLANCE

· The ultimate goal of disaster epidemiology is to prevent or reduce the adverse health consequence of the disaster itself, as well as optimize the decision- making process associated with management of the relief effort.

· These epidemiologic objectives can be simply defined as the surveillance cycle, that is the collection of data, analysis of data, and response data.

· The surveillance cycle must turn many times: immediately, with rapid, quick, and dirty assessments of the problems using the most rudimentary data collection techniques, then with short-term assessments involving the establishments of simple but reliable sources of data, and subsequently, with ongoing surveillance to identify continuing problems and monitor the response to the interventions chosen.

· Field surveillance methods vary greatly by disaster setting and the personnel and time available. As described previously, early field surveys must be simple and address the essential basic questions requiring immediate answers that will directly prevent loss of life or injury.

· Surveillance must be sensitive to monitor the impact of relief on the health problems of the population, to determine wether the effort is having a tangible impact on the population or if new strategies are needed

· Finally, It is important to link the information is clearly an essential requirement for determining appropriate relief supplies, equipment, and personnel needed to respond effectively to a catastrophic event.

An organized approach to data collection in disaster situations can greatly improve decision making and can predict a variety of options that disater managers need to face.

The availability of questionnaires prepared before the disaster that can be adapted and modified quickly will assist in an effecient data collection operation.

Therefore, standardized procedures for collecting data in disasters need to be developed which can then be linked to operational decisions and action.

The success of epidemic investigation of a disaster can be measured directly by how rapidly data collected and analyzed can identify prevention strategies and how effectively these strategies can be implemented by decision makers to direct relief and decrease ongoing morbidity.

USE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY AFTER A DISASTER

· Generally , epidemiologic studies of natural disasters, including the studies of the preimpact and impact phases, are conducted during the postimpact phase.

Example:

Glass and coworkers have emphasized the need for such post disaster epidemiologic follow- up studies to identify risk factors for death and injury that can then serve as the basis for planning strategies to prevent or reduce impact-related morbidity and mortality in future disasters.

Specific interventions: early warning, preparation, and evacuation procedures, and life saving actions) can then be suggested to mitigate the negative consequences of disasters for high-risk populations( the aged, people living alone, and people dependent on life support systems.)

· Subsequent evaluation of the effectiveness of these prevention measures can then lead to the development of actions that are even more effective in preventing morbidity and mortality directly atrributable to disasters.

Example:

Calculations of death rates can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of prevention measures aimed at mitigating the effects of disasters, such as assessing the adequacy of warning and evacuation in an area hit by flash floods determining the safety of different types of building constructions in an area where a strong earthquake has occured.

· Epidemiologist have employed a great variety of data collection methods and strategies to study the postdisaster health effects of major disaters involving acute events, such as earthquakes and tropical cyclones.

· Primarily using descriptive epidemiology, they have collected large amounts of epidemiologic data through case studies of new and previous disasters.

Example:

Some of the few analytic epidemiologic studies conducted include risk factors for morbidity and moratality in Guatemala, italy, Armenia, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Such analytic studies have usually been of a case-control design. For example why did some people die while their neighbors, family, members, or others survive?

Isolated case studies of the relationship between death or injuries and the type of traditional housing structures have provided clear indications regarding simple measures to be implemented in order to reduce human losses.

More analytic studies such as these are needed to test conventional warnings and public safety advisories.

· PRACTICAL, APPLIED, OPERATIONAL RESEARCH can also be useful in planning medical and public health responses to future disasters as well as in providing information useful for individual patient care. Ideally, the results of such retrospective epidemiologic studies would be used in formulating predictive indices that would allow emergency managers to assess the public health impact of a subsequent disaster from a few essential elements (indicators) and thus develop an appropriate relief response.

Example:

Attack rates for various types of illness or conditions in survivors could be calculated and the indices derived from these calculations could be used in determining what kinds of supplies, equipment, and personnel are most urgently needed.

· During the post impact phase , information is also needed on the complicated process of long-term rehabilitation and health services reconstruction.

· After a disaster, epidemiologic methods can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of health intervention programs. Such evaluations in which what actually happened is compared with what was intended should be an integral part of the entire relief operation.

· In assessing disaster management, the evaluator would be looking at the “ actual “ results versus the “intended” results on two levels- the overall outcome of disaster management efforts and the impact of each discrete category of relief efforts ( provision of food and shelter, delivery of medical care, managementcommunications).

Example:

Studies of the role of effectiveness of outside medical and rescue volunteers following disasters should help settle the controversy regarding their usefulness and provide public health authorities and emergency managers with guidlines and criteria for constructively using such volunteers. Unfortunately there are are no quantifiable measures of volunteer effectiveness and no agreed- on methodology for evaluating the assistance that is provided by external sources.

PRE-IMPACT PHASE

· Conducting hazard & vulnerability analyses of the population

Hazard analysis: Collecting & assessing data on the nature, causes, frequency, distribution and effects of past events in order to make predictions about future events

Vulnerability analysis: analysis of a population risk when a hazard of a given magnitude occurs

· Modeling/ Simulating disaster scenarios

· Conducting drills

· Designing emergency protocols

· Assessing level of Emergency preparedness

· Assessing flexibility of surveillance systems

· Training health & safety personnel

· Educating defined population at risk

IMPACT PHASE

• Conducting disaster damage assessment

• Conducting rapid field investigations

• Identifying urgent needs & matching resources

• Prioritizing relief efforts

• Conducting disaster surveillance

• Conducting epidemic investigations

POST-IMPACT PHASE

· Conducting post disaster epidemiologic follow up studies

· Identifying risk factors for death & injury

· Planning strategies to reduce impact-related morbidity & mortality

· Developing specific interventions based on the nature of the disaster

· Evaluating effectiveness of interventions

· Conducting descriptive & analytical studies

· Planning medical & public health responses to future disasters

· Conducting long term follow-up of rehabilitation & reconstruction activities

Challenges to applying epidemiologic methods

• Extent of physical destruction

• Public fear

• Social disruption

• Lack of infrastructure for data collection

• Time urgency for results

• Movement of populations

• Lack of local support or expertise

Challenges for selecting study designs

• Cross sectional: Studies of frequencies of deaths, illnesses, injuries and adverse health effects

– Limited by absence of population counts

• Analytical study: Case control study is the best study to determine risk factors & study interactions among multiple factors

– Limited by definition of specific outcomes & issues of selecting cases & controls

Challenges for the Epidemiologist

. Function in rapidly changing physical and social conditions

. Collect information within frist few hours to days after disaster

. Data must be objective and accurate

Conclusion

• Epidemiology can provide much needed information on which a rational, effective & flexible policy for the management of disaster is based

• Epidemiology provides the tools for rapid & effective problem solving during public health emergencies like natural & man made disasters

. Sound epidemiologic knowledge of the morbidity and mortality caused by disasters is essential when determining what relief supplies, equipment, and personnel are needed to respond effectively in emergency situations. All disasters are unique because each affected region of the world has different social, economic, and baseline health conditions. Some similarities exist, however, among the health effects of different types of disasters, that if recognized, can ensure that the limited health and medical resources of the affected community are well managed.

http://www.phe.gov/preparedness/support/esf8/pages/default.aspx

https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fy1230

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_effects_of_man-made_disasters_on_environment

http://www.bt.cdc.gov/preparedness/

http://www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?article=901343977941

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_Command_System

Biological Terrorism

2012-12-01T11:00:00.002-08:00

What is Terrorism?

-is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change” (Hoffman, 1998).

-involves political aims and motives. It is violent or threatens violence. It is designed to generate fear in a target audience that extends beyond the immediate victims of the violence (James Lutz & Brenda Lutz).

Some Major Event

Anthrax Letter Attacks Fatalities: 5; Injuries: 17

Some Major Event

1st World Trade Center Bombing

Fatalities: 6; Injuries: 1,040

9/11 Attack Fatalities: 2,993; Injuries: 8,900

Different Bioterrorism Agents

Bacterial agents (including rickettsial organisms)

Viral agents

Toxins (derived from plants or animals)

Parasites (less likely)

Bacterial Agents

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Dysentery (Shigella dysenteriae)

Typhoid (Salmonella typhi)

Plague (Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis))

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei.)

Brucellosis (inhalation B. microti)

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei.)

Brucellosis (inhalation B. microti)

Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)

E.Coli (Escherichia coli)

Salmonellosis (Salmonella)

Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)

Viral Agents

Smallpox (Variola virus)

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers ( Arenavirus, Ebola Virus, Lassa Virus, Marburg Virus)

Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses )

Toxic Agents

Epsilon toxin (Clostridium perfringens)

Botulism (Clostridium botulinum.)

Ricin Toxin (Ricinus communis[castor beans])

Parasites Agents

Cryptosporidium parvum

Giardia lamblia

ADVANTAGES OF BIOWEAPONS (BW) IN WAR:

A single microbial bioweapon can, because it reproduces in the host, theoretically produce the desired detrimental outcome in a target host. That is, a single smallpox virus or plague bacillus, if deposited in the right place in the host, can grow and produce a disease.

Biological toxins are among the most toxic agents known.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES TO THE USE OF BIOWEAPONS (BW) IN WAR:

Most bioweapons grade microbes are relatively easy and inexpensive to grow.

Large quantities of biological weapons can, in most cases, be produced in a short period (a few days to a few weeks) at small facilities scattered over a large area.

DISADVANTAGES OF BIOWEAPONS (BW) IN WAR:

Difficulty of protecting the workers at all stages of production, transportation, loading of delivery systems and final delivery:

Difficulty in maintaining quality control and sufficient containment during growth and harvesting of agents:

Effective delivery problems:

Poor storage survival:

Difficult to control once released:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERFECT BIOLOGICAL WEAPON

• Highly infectious; requiring only a few organisms to cause the desired effect (e.g. smallpox) or highly effective; requiring a small quantity of material to cause the desired effect (e.g. botox).

• Efficiently dispersible, usually in the air; contagious or effective on contact.

• Readily grown and produced in large quantities.

• Stable in storage; preferably in a ready-to-deliver state.

• Resistant enough to environmental conditions so as to remain infectious or operational long enough to affect the majority of the target, but not so persistent as to affect the occupying army.

• Resistant to treatment; e.g. antibiotics, antibodies, pharmaceutical drugs etc.

THE TOP BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS

SMALLPOX:

smallpox virus is a prime candidate for a BW because of the following characteristics:

It is a DNA virus whose genetic code has been sequenced.

It is easily (for a virus) cultivated and large quantities of the virus could be produced in a relatively short period of time.

It is highly infectious, being spread by close human contact. It can be contracted by inhaling the virus.

It is extremely hardy; surviving on fomites for days or weeks.

Most of the world's population is susceptible to this virus as routine vaccination was stopped when the WHO declared its eradication in 1979.

ANTHRAX:

is an aerobic spore forming, gram positive bacterium that is highly infections and lethal to man and many of his domestic animals. It is naturally contracted through wounds, commonly by farm workers, but it can also be inhaled. Inhaled spores germinate in the lungs and produce a pulmonary anthrax which is rapidly fatal in 80% of the cases.

BOTULINUM TOXIN

The advantages of botox are that since its symptoms are delayed, the damage is done (walking dead) before victims realize what has occurred.

Clostridium perfringens

An anaerobic gram positive spore former that grows well in the absence of oxygen and produces spores resistant to adverse conditions. It enters the body through wounds, particularly the jagged, deep, and dirty type produced in war, where it causes gas gangrene.

Gas gangrene is an especially nasty disease that eats away the body while producing a stench that would gag a maggot. It is one disease that physicians can diagnose a block away from the patient.

RICIN: a protein toxin (view with the helper application Chime) extracted from the castor bean plant. It works as a slow poison, eventually causing a total body collapse as necessary proteins are not replaced. The structure and mechanism of action of ricin are well understood, thus making it an excellent candidate for genetic manipulation. That is, because of this knowledge, it should be possible to genetically modify ricin so as to make it a more effective BW.

Fusarium oxysporum: The potential use of genetic engineering in the production of biological weapons is illustrated by the on-going studies on the possible of the use of the mold Fusarium oxysporum as a candidate for drug plant eradication.

Aspect in Bioterrorism

Hidden and undetected

Causes small and large casualty cases

May run in long time

Risk of Bioterrorism

The wide-ranging number of variables and lack of hard data make a reliable risk assessment extremely difficult.

“The true threat of superterrorism is not a Hiroshima-like disaster, but a widespread panic caused by a relatively small CBW incident involving a few dozen fatalities” (Sprinzak, 2000)

Reason for Bioterrorism

Intent on causing large-scale death and disruption

The use of such unconventional agents greatly affect the targeted population (Falkenrath, Newman, & Thayer, 1998).

The purpose of these weapons is to wreak destruction via psychological means—by inducing fear, confusion, and uncertainty in everyday life. These effects will take two forms, acute and long term. (Wessely, Hyams, & Bartholomew, 2001,

p. 878)

God's Message

2012-12-01T10:29:00.002-08:00

Almar NuñezOctober 21, 2012 11:04 AM

But let patience have her perfect work, that ye may be perfect and entire, wanting nothing.
James 1:4

Be patient in all things, for this is the will of God in Christ for us. :)
wait for His plan patiently :)
and the result will be overwhelming :)
GOD Bless us all :)

Bible

Entertainment

2012-12-01T10:28:00.002-08:00

Hello everyone! I created this page to give you guys a break on your research. Take your time to enjoy and relax..
Here are the links of cool games, entertainment and other stuff:

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We will continue to update this page from time to time. Thank you.

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2012-12-01T10:27:00.002-08:00

For your Computer

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download - SPSS Statistics
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Statistics

2012-12-01T10:16:00.001-08:00

Statistics

Refers to the method applied in manipulating data to make it more meaningful. This includes the process of collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of the result of the analysis in order to draw conclusions that would be of great help in decision-making.

Divisions of Statistics
-deals with procedures that organize, summarize and describe quantitative data. It involves tabulating the data into various categories and indicating the quantities and percentages corresponding to each category. It includes graphs, averages and standard deviations to describe some of the features of the population.

Inferential Statistics
-is a scientific discipline concerned with the developing and using mathematical tools to make forecasts and judgement or conclusion about a population based on the study of the sample that is taken from the population.

Some Uses of Statistics
1. Explore the characteristics of a large group of items on the basis of a few.
2. In politics: Find disposition of voters toward a certain candidate.
3. In business: For a retailer who is interested whether the bolts in a large shipment are within specifications. Advertising agencies might be interested in consumer preferences in hair shampoos.
4. In Manufacturing Industry: Quality control division is interested to find out the life span of electric bulbs produced.
5. In education: The dean of the college might be interested to find out the academic performance predictive value of its entrance test.

Basic Terms in Statistics

1. Variable- is a quantity that may assure any set of values. Ex. Math Grade, average grade, monthly income, price, harvest per hectare, etc.
2. Constant- a quantity that does not change its value. Ex: 1 meter = 3.28 ft, etc.
3. Ungrouped(or raw) Data- data which are not organized systematically. They are simply the collection of data as they are gathered.
4. Array- arrangement of data in an ascending or descending order.
5. Grouped Data- are raw data organized into groups or categories with corresponding frequencies. Data organized is referred to as Frequency Distribution.
6. Population- is the group/subject/focus of research or study. It is the entire collection of all conceivable observations of a particular characteristics of sample.
7. Sample- is a fraction of the population carefully taken as to be truly representative of the population. It reflects the characteristic of the whole population.
8. Parameter- any quantitative measure that describes a characteristic/feature of the population. Parameters are constant peculiar to a given population.
9. Statistic- a quantitative measure that describes a characteristic of a sample.
10. Qualitative Variable- a feature of the subjects under study identified simply by noting its presence. It enables the researcher to classify the subjects into groups and each group is given an identify mark or name. Some ex: color of the eye, gender, and outcomes of tossing a coin. It is possible to assign numerical values to a quantitative value.
11. Quantitative variable- consists of numerical values. Ex: Heights of students in a certain school, waiting time at a bus stop, volume of sales in a day. Some quantitative variables may be regrouped and given names and become qualitative variables.

Readers

2012-12-01T09:59:00.001-08:00

Message from Peter Frias:

Hello everyone! I have created this site to help you guys in making your research easier.. Here you can find different researches related to nursing practice and other things that may help you in doing your own research.. Feel free to browse and enjoy!....

Message from Almar Nuñez:

Hello brother's and sister's, we are here to help you in this needed matter, Research. We will provide everything we have in order to achieve your goal. We are most thankful to God.

Hope that GOD bless us with much more wisdom.

GOD Bless :)

Chemical Terrorism

2012-12-01T09:13:00.001-08:00

What is Terrorism?

-according to Bruce Hoffman, Terrorism is defined as the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change.

Chemical Agents?

-Chemical agents are those chemical compounds synthesized artificially and include the many toxic chemicals that may be available to terrorists. Everything from chlorine gas to the highly potent nerve agents (i.e.,

organophosphate compounds) are considered in this category

Chemical Terrorism?

- The use of Chemical agents by individuals or groups to create fear through violence

History

Chemical Warfare is not new. In ancient times, war was not all swords and bows. Here are some examples:

• 1000 BC. Arsenic smoke used by the Chinese.

• Dating back to at least the 1100s, there are many examples of hurling the bodies of plague or smallpox victims over city walls.

World War I

Unrestricted use of chemical agents caused 1 million of the 26 million casualties suffered by all sides in WWI. It started with the French and British use of tear gas, but soon escalated to more toxic poisons.

Some deadly landmarks:

• October 1914: German artillery fire 3,000 shells filled with dianisidine chlorosulfate, a lung irritant, at British troops. The shells contained too much TNT and apparently destroyed the chemical.

• In July 1917, Germany introduced mustard gas, which burned the skin as well as the lungs.

• Chemical weapons were used in 1915, when the German military released 168 tons of chlorine gas at Ypres, Belgium, killing an estimated 5,000 Allied troops.

• Two years later, the same battlefields saw the first deployment of sulfur mustard. Sulfur

• mustard was the major cause of chemical casualties in World War I.

World War II

Between the two world wars, scientists from many nations came up with evermore horrible chemical weapons. The U.S. developed seven chemical agents -- but the winner in this chemical arms race was in Germany. First, in 1936, German chemist Gerhart Schrader came up with a nerve agent that came to be called tabun (later it was called German agent A or GA). Around 1938, Schrader came up with a new nerve gas several times more deadly than tabun. It came to be called sarin (later known also as GB).

CHEMIICAL WEAPON AGENTS

Nerve Agents

Vesicating or Blistering Agents

Pulmonary Agents or Lung Intoxicants

Blood Agents

Incapacitating Agents

Pesticides

Chemical Agents Used in Terrorism

1. Nerve Agents (such as sarin, soman, cyclohexylsarin, tabun, VX)

- extremely potent organophosphorus compounds that cause biological effects by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase

- Accumulation of excess acetylcholine at nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

Effects of Nerve Agents:

Eyes: Miosis, tearing, conjunctival injection (pain, dim vision, blurred vision)

Nose: Rhinorrhea

Airways: Bronchoconstriction, bronchosecretions (dyspnea, cough)

Gastrointestinal : Hypermotility, secretions (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps)

Skeletal muscles: Fasciculations, twitching, paralysis (weakness)

Central nervous system: Immediate--loss of consciousness, seizures, apnea. Later--possible difficulty in thinking, impaired judgement, and other minor effects.

Other: Salivation, sweating

Principal Route of Entry:

- Respiratory, Dermal, Ocular, Mucous Membrane, GI Tract

Question: Antidote?

yes, Atropine and 2-PAMCl (2- Pyridine Aldoxime Methochloride) or Pralidoxime Chloride

2. Vesicating or blistering agents (such as mustards, lewisite)

- Causes blisters; most widely used agent is mustard

- In addition to causing blisters, mustard also damages the eyes and airways by topical contact and the gastrointestinal tract and bone marrow after absorption. Mustard evaporates at about the same rate as thin motor oil, but despite this low volatility most battlefield casualties have been from vapor.

Signs and Symptoms

Eyes: Eye damage can occur with an exposure of just 10 mg min/m3.

-mild to severe conjunctivitis

-mild to severe corneal involvement

Skin: Erythema, Blisters, Deep burning, leading to full thickness skin loss

Respiratory Tract: rhinorrhea, burning pain in the throat and hoarseness.

Bone Marrow: A reactive leukocytosis can occur during the first three days, followed by leukopenia

Gastrointestinal Tract: ingestion can cause nausea, vomiting, pain,

diarrhea and prostration. Vomit and feces may be bloody. Shock may occur.

Systemic Action: Systemically absorbed mustards, by any route, may cause signs similar to those of irradiation, such as headache, nausea, vomiting, leukopenia and anemia. Gastrointestinal pain commonly occurs. Absorption of high doses may result in CNS excitation and convulsions, followed by CNS depression. Cardiac irregularities, AV block and/or cardiac arrest, may occur.

Question: Antidote?

No, Management consists of keeping the skin lesions clean by frequent irrigation and application of topical antibiotics, good pulmonary care including intubation and assisted ventilation, and irrigation of the eyes followed by frequent application of topical antibiotics.

3. Pulmonary Agents or Lung Toxicants (such as chlorine, phosgene, diphosgene)

-is a chemical weapon agent designed to impede a victim's ability to breathe. They operate by causing a build-up of fluids in the lungs which then leads to suffocation.

-commonly used agent is phosgene

What is Phosgene? Phosgene is a major industrial chemical used to make plastics and pesticides.

At room temperature (70°F), phosgene is a poisonous gas.

Signs and Symptoms:

• Coughing

• Burning sensation in the throat and eyes

• Watery eyes

• Blurred vision

• Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath

• Nausea and vomiting

• Skin contact can result in lesions similar to those from frostbite or burns

• Following exposure to high concentrations of phosgene, a person may develop fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema) within 2 to 6 hours.

Question: Antidote?

No, removing phosgene from the body as soon as possible and providing supportive medical care is the treatment.

4. Blood Agents (Cyanide)

- a rapidly acting, potentially deadly chemical that can exist in various forms.

- Cyanide prevents the cells of the body from using oxygen. When this happens, the cells die.

- Cyanide is more harmful to the heart and brain than to other organs because the heart and brain use a lot of oxygen.

- Has 2 forms: Solid salts (sodium, potassium, and calcium) and the volatile liquids (hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride)

Immediate Signs and Symptoms:

People exposed to a small amount of cyanide by breathing it, absorbing it through their skin, or eating foods that contain it may have some or all of the following symptoms within minutes:

• Rapid breathing

• Restlessness

• Dizziness

• Weakness

• Headache

• Nausea and vomiting

• Rapid heart rate

Exposure to a large amount of cyanide by any route may cause these other health effects as well:

• Convulsions

• Low blood pressure

• Slow heart rate

• Loss of consciousness

• Lung injury

• Respiratory failure leading to death

Showing these signs and symptoms does not necessarily mean that a person has been exposed to cyanide.

Long Term Effects:

Survivors of serious cyanide poisoning may develop heart and brain damage.

Question: Antidote?

yes, Hydroxocobalamin reacts with cyanide to form cyanocobalamin, which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys.

5. Incapacitating Agents (such as anticholinergic compounds)

- An agent that produces temporary physiological or mental effects, or both, which will render individuals incapable of concerted effort in the performance of their assigned duties.

- Lethal agents are primarily intended to kill, but incapacitating agents can also kill if administered in a potent enough dose, or in certain scenarios.

Signs and Symptoms:

Mental Symptoms: Hallucinations, symptoms often resemble alcoholic drunkenness, mentally confused, prevents sleep

Physical Symptoms:

Staggering gait, dizziness and blurred visions

-These agents generally do not kill, but they can make a person non-effective. Many of them do not produce effects until several hours after inhalation. The effects of incapacitating agents can last from 8 hours to 4 days

6. Pesticides (such as Thalium, arsenic, sodium flouroacetate and the anticoagulant warfarin)

- Pesticides refer to a group of agents used to kill a number of different “pests,” such as weeds, insects, ticks, rats, and so forth.

General Management:

- Don Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

- Remove from source

- Immediate decontamination

- Appropriate Antidote and drug therapy

Some Unique Aspects of a Chemical Terrorist Incident

-Use of Some chemical agents may not be recognized for sometime

Ex: the use of chemical agent sarin by a Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo in 1994

-it took about a week before authorities discovered that sarin was responsible for the death of 7 people and 280 injured victims.

-2 people died in the hospital and the other 5 was found dead in their apartments

- He intended to assassinate local magistrates in Matsumoto City, but none of those intended targets were killed.

-it can cause massive injury and poisoning

-another attack was made by Shinrikyo in 1995 using the same agent sarin, sending 5,000 casualties to the hospitals and 12 people were found dead.

Risk of Chemical Terrorism

The terrorism at the plant level

one of the most important risk is "the terrorism at the plant level". In

the days following the September 11 terrorist attacks, chemical plant U.S. officials say they have increased security through greater plant surveillance. The chemical industry understands the risk ! Recently Greenpeace posted a map on its website showing the distance that chemicals could travel from a facility during a worst-case accident scenario. From (approximately) Baton Rouge to New Orleans, 40 to 50 miles diameters circles can be drawn, each circle representing a chemical plant along the Mississippi River !

Last 21 sept., in Toulouse, France, 300 tons of ammonium nitrate have exploded killing 30 people; 5500 were injured and nearly 20 000 houses or apartments were totally or partially destroyed. At this time we don't know the reason of this explosion, but the impact of this event was very important and, it seems to me, it is a good illustration of this risk.

-Although terrorists have for the most part opted for conventional weapons, the use of chemical or biological agents by terrorists has already occurred, albeit in rather limited fashion

-scholar of modern terrorism wrote, “The true threat of superterrorism is not a Hiroshima-like disaster, but a widespread panic caused by a relatively small CBW incident involving afew dozen fatalities” (Sprinzak, 2000).

Why was chemical used as a weapon for terrorism?

Several characteristics of chemical weapon agents lend themselves to terrorist use.

• Chemicals used in CWAs are widely available, and recipes for CWA production may be found on the Internet.

• CWAs are transported easily and may be delivered by a variety of routes.

• Chemical agents often are difficult to protect against and quickly incapacitate the intended targets.

• Most civilian medical communities are inadequately prepared to deal with a chemical terrorist attack.

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