Human Anatomy And Physiology Blog

Anatomy of the Nose: Human Nose Structure

2012-02-04T20:53:00.000-08:00

The nose organ is responsible for sensing smell, filtering air, and breathing. Understanding the human nose anatomy helps in determining the distinctive appearance and confirming problems (if any). Here, we will be discussing the nose structure in detail.

Nose is the most prominent feature located in the middle of the face of humans. An organ of the upper respiratory tract, it is actively involved in inhalation. The most important functions of nose are to filter the atmospheric air before passing it further into the respiratory system and to provide the sense of smell. In fact, it acts as an interface between the air of the body's respiratory passage and the atmospheric air. At the time of breathing, air entering through the nostrils is led to the nasal cavity, which further passes to the pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and finally, to the lungs.

The Human Nose: Anatomy and Structure

The structure of a human nose is composed of bones, cartilage, and fibrofatty tissues. And the external feature of a nose or the type of nose depends upon the bone and cartilage. According to the shapes and sizes of human nose, they can be classified into different types such as the Roman or aquiline, the Greek or straight, the Nubian, the hawk, the snub, and the turn up types. Human races can be identified by the type of nose; for example, the Europeans have long, narrow, large elevation (height of the nose tip above the lip), and vertically set nostrils.

Supporting structure of the upper part of nose is mostly made up of bones. The topmost portion near the eye sockets consists of twonasal bones, which is linked to the frontal bone of the forehead. These nasal bones are joined to form the nose bridge. On the sides, they are connected with the lateral process of the maxilla by a tough fibrous membrane. At the base, nasal bones are connected with septal and lateral nasal cartilage. The lower part of the nose is made up of cartilages. These cartilages give shape to the external feature of the nose.

To speak in simple words, the nasal bone can be felt in between the eyelids, while the cartilage extends from the nose tip to the middle portion. Coming to the nasal septum, the nose bridge continues with the septal cartilage to form the septum. As we all know, the nasal septum separates the nostrils, which in turn, continue with the nasal cavity. Again, there are three horizontal outgrowths of bones, called turbinate or conchae that divide the nasal cavity into three groove-like air passages. Main purpose of conchae is to increase the surface area of the nasal cavity.

The three turbinates are named as inferior, middlen and superior turbinates, according to their position and functions. They are also important for maintaining the temperature, humidification (up to 98% water saturation), and filtration of the air when it travels the nasal cavity. On either side of the septal cartilage, there lies the lateral nasal cartilage. Just below the lateral nasal cartilages, the greater alar cartilage is present, which is a thin, flexible plate that forms the medial and lateral wall of the nostril. In addition to greater alar cartilages, there are three or four small cartilages that are called lesser alar cartilages. Both the greater and lesser alar cartilages give the overall shape of the nostrils.

Hair are present inside the nostrils, which play a major role in filtration and humidification of atmospheric air as it passes them. Indirectly, nose hair serve as a defense mechanism against the harmful pathogens and solid particulate matter present in the air. Both the nostrils and nasal cavity are lined by mucous membrane and cilia. The membrane secretes a sticky substance called mucus. Together, this mucus and cilia filter the air and prevent entry of foreign particles such as microorganisms, dust, and particulate matter inside the respiratory system. The mucus also helps in moistening the air. Underneath the mucous membrane, there are blood capillaries that warm the air so that it matches the body temperature.

You might have already heard about the sinuses and sinus infections. The bones of the face around the nose region contain the sinuses. Anatomically, sinuses are hollow air cavities that are lined by mucous membrane (similar to the nasal cavity), and they are also known as paranasal sinuses. There are four subgroups of sinus, classified based on the bones to which the sinuses are present. They are frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid sinus. Among these four sinuses, ethmoid sinus is located around the area of nose bridge. An abnormality in any of these paranasal sinuses cause sinus problems.

To sum up, nose is responsible for respiration and olfactory perception. At present, nose surgery or rhinoplasty is performed to improve the appearance, and also, to correct medical problems related to the bone, which impair the respiration process. People with deviated septum frequently participate the procedure. This septum condition may be present at birth or may be resulted due to an accident. Giving satisfactory results in terms of improved appearance and function, nose surgery has become an important procedure in the field of cosmetic or plastic surgery.

Biology 103A - Comprehensive / Final Exam (sample exam only) (version 1)

2011-11-15T18:08:00.001-08:00

Biology 103A - Professor Kauffman Comprehensive Exam

1. The extracellular matrix is made up of which of the following marcromolecules?
a. carbohydrates
b. triglycerides
c. proteins
d. nucleic acids
e. a and c

2. the Na+/K+ pump:
a. moves more Na+ out of the cell than K+ into the cell
b. is an example of secondary active transport
c. is an example of a symport
d. only exists in cell with excitable membrane
e. b and c

3. Calcitonin is:
a. released by the parathyroid gland
b. formed from vit. D by the kidney
c. released by the thyroid gland
d. secreted when blood calcium levels are too high
e. c and d

4. More osteoid is secreted and calcified when:
a. PTH levels rise
b. Calcitriol is secreted
c. osteoclast activity increases
d. blood calcium levels trigger calcitonin
e. a and b

5. which of the following cells in the skin act as sensory receptors?
a. keratinocytes
b. Langerhan’s cells
c. Melanocytes
d. Merkel cells
e. Fibrocytes

6. the equilibrium potential for an ion is the membrane potential when:
a. there is no net movement of that ion across the membrane
b. the membrane is impermeable to that ion
c. the electrical gradient on that ion exceeds the concentration gradient
d. the concentration gradient on that ion exceeds the electrical gradient
e. more ions flow out of the cell then into it

7. which of the following is/are found in both excitable and inexcitable cells?
a. chemically gated channels
b. k+ leakage channels
c. voltage gated K+ channels
d. voltage gated Na+ channels
e. all of the above

8. Muscle fibers that employ the sliding filament theory for contraction include:
a. skeletal
b. cardiac
c. smooth
d. a and b
e. a, b and c

9. fast glycolytic skeletal muscle fibers:
a. fatigue slowly
b. fatigue less easily
c. are red in color
d. are richest in glycosomes
e. a and b

10. Acettcholine affects both skeletal muscles and cardiac muscle by:
a. binding nicotinic receptors
b. indirect neurotransmitter mechanisms
c. depolarizing the muscle’s membrane
d. causing an increase in intracellular K+ levels
e. changing the membrane potential

11. ATP can NOT be formed in skeletal muscles by:
a. transfer of a phosphate from creatine phosphate to ADP
b. oxidative respiration in the mitichondria
c. high enery phosphate released from storage on myoglobin
d. the metabolic breakdown of glycogen by glycolysis and fermentation
e. none, all of the above from ATP

12. which of the following in NOT a role of Ca++?
a. released through voltage gates from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
b. prolongs the duration of the action potential as it enters through voltage gates
c. binds to calmodulin tpermit myosin to bind to actin
d. hyperpolarizes an excitable membrane when chemically actived gates open
e. enters the axon terminal to increase exocytosis of neurotransmitter

13. Glial cells that myleinate CNS axons are:
a. astrocytes
b. satellaite cells
c. ependymal cells
d. microglia
e. oligiodendrocytes

14. Inhibitory synaoses:
a. often are found near the axon hillock
b. may increase the permeability of the postsynaptic cell to Cl-
c. can only spatially summate with excitatory synapses
d. may increase the permeability of the postsynaptic cell to K+
e. all of the above

15. Which of the following is true of the somactic motor nervous system, but NOT true for the autononmic nervous system?
a. they innervate muscles
b. reflexes are an important part of their function
c. every muscle fiber receives input from only one motor neuron
d. they use Ach as a neurotransmitter
e. none of the above, all are true for both

16. cones in the retina:
a. are primarily located in the fovea centralis
b. have three different types of opsin
c. hyperpolarize when light acts on rhodopsin
d. b and c
e. a,b and c

17. First order sensory neurons are fond
a. in the ventral gray matter of the spinal cord
b. in the dorsal gray matter of the spinal cord
c. in the dorsal root ganglia
d. in the autonomic ganglia
e. in the medulla

18. the left cerebral cortex in most people:
a. control speech
b. excites muscles on the right side of the body
c. is connected to the right side by the corpus callosum
d. contains Wernicki’s area
e. all of the above

19. Pyramidal neurons of the cortex:
a. end axons to the cerebellum and the spinsl cord
b. are in a primary sensory area
c. send axons across the corpus callosum to control motor neurons on the other side of the body
d. are part of the limbic system
e. all of the above

20. the hypothalamus
a. is part of the diencephalons
b. is important in controlling the pituitary
c. is the thermoregulatory control center
d. is posterior to the optic chiasm
e. all of the above

Fill in the blank

-GAGS -microfilaments -tight junctions -glycocaylx -desmosome
-intermediate filaments -collagen -elastic fibers -gap junctions
-tubulin -Phospholipids -Na+/K+ pump -cholesterol -glucose/Na+ symport

______________the primary fiber in both extracellular matrix

______________moves chromosomes across cell in mitosis and meiosis

______________permit membrane movement such as phagocytosis

______________proteoglycans that form the ground substance of the EMC

______________pervent membrane proteins from migrating and thus polarize the cell

_______________are made of the protein keratin in skin cells

________________sugars bound to membrane phospholipids and proteins

________________a steroid

________________aids in maintaining the normal membrane potential

________________exracellular fibers that enlarge a tissue to be stretchy

Function (State the function of the listed structures and terms)

-Stratum basale of skin
-Chondroblasts in epiphyseal plate
-Sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle
-Myleination of Axon
-Inactivation gate on voltage sensitive Na+ channels
-Graded potential
-Bipolar neurons of retina
-Pre-frontal cortex
-Limbic system
-Negative feedback mechanisms

Short Answers

Use an example of negative feedback mechanisms to explain how homeostasis is maintained by such mechanisms.

Explain how an action potential is generated starting with the opening of chemically gated ion channels leading to a depolarizing graded potential.

Biology 103A - Comprehensive / Final Exam (sample exam only) (version 2)

2011-11-15T18:07:00.000-08:00

Biology 103A - Professor Kauffman Comprehensive Exam

1. the plasma membrane of the cell contains:
a. phospholipids
b. cholesterol
c. proteins
d. glycoproteins
e. all the above

2. one adaptation that does NOT aid cells to adhere to each other is:
a. the ECM
b. desmosomes
c. microtuules
d. tight junctions
e. the glycocalyx

3. which if the following is TRUE of most epithelial cells?
a. they manufacture large amount of ECM
b. they are highly vascularized
c. they are polarized by a rich supply of tight junctions
d. they have no membrane potential
e. they are always filled with keratin

4. which of the following is found in the secretions of sedaceous glands but not in sweat glands secretions?
a. water
b. lipids
c. salts
d. urea
e. antibodies

5. the membrane potential in many body cells:
a. is the same as the Na+ equilibrium potential
b. is close in value to the K+ equilibrium potential
c. is zero
d. requires the Na+/K+ pump to be turned off
e. c and d

6. keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum are rick in:
a. intermediate filaments
b. extracellular matrix
c. tight junctions
d. gap junctions
e. a and c

7. bone remodeling by osteoclasts occurs during long bone development:
a. to maintain its proper proportions
b. to deposit Ca++ in the ECM
c. to kill the chondroblasts
d. when blood Ca++ levels are too high
e. to stop the enlongation of the bone

8. the hormone that decreases the activity of osteoclasts is:
a. insulin
b. calcitriol
c. parathyroid hormone (PTH)
d. calcitonin
e. b and c

9. An example of an effecter in thermoregulation is/are:
a. arrector pili
b. the hypothalamus
c. the parathyroid
d. the parasympathetic nervous system
e. b and d

10. the epidermis is enriched in which of the following cell structures:
a. GAGs (proteoglycans)
b. Collagen
c. Tubulin
d. Intermediate filaments
e. None of the above

11. whick of the following will cross through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane by simple diffusion?
a. oxygen
b. glucose
c. amino acids
d. cholesterol
e. a and d

12. which of the following is typically found in large numbers in most epithelial cells, but is rare in most connective tissues?
a. cytoskeleton
b. ribosomes
c. tight junction
d. mitochondria
e. blood vessels

13. positive feedback mechanisms is homeostasis:
a. are rare
b. end in a crisis which stops the feedback mechanism
c. often are pathological
d. work to increase the change and move the variable further from its setpoint
e. all of the above

14. osmoregulation by the skin includes
a. being rich in collagen
b. being rich in keratin
c. c. manufacturing lipids to bins to keratin and the plasma membrane
d. being rich in tight junctions
e. c and d

Fill in the blanks

Ion channels in th plasma membrane are selective by ___________ and ___________.

The Na+/K+ pump moves ______ Na+ of the cell and _____K+ into the cell.

Two proteins that add tensile strength to tissues include ___________ and _________.

Hyperthermia affects the __________ of the thermoregulatory negative feedback loop (name one of the five roles) while fever alters the __________.

The control center for high blood calcium is the ___________ while for thermorgulation is the ________.

true/false (if the statement is false, change it to make it correct)

In negative feedback regulation, all individuals have identical receptors, setpoint, control center and effectors.

Simple diffusion can ony move substances from high to low concentration while facilitated diffusion permits the cell to move substances from low to high concentration.

The cell cell junction that aid in polarizing the cell by limiting the movement of membrane proteins is the desmosome.

If the Na+ K+ pump were poisoned the membrane potential would become more negative and water would enter the cell.

The stratum basale is an example of stem cell that divides to form one daughter that remains in the stratum basale and one that enters the stratum spinosum.

Vitamin D is manufactured in the kidney when blood calcium levels are low.

Short Answer

Citing 2 similarities and 3 differences compare and contrast the roles of the skin in thermoregulation to the parathyroid in calcium homeostasis.

Describe the role of the three types of cytoskeletal fibers in a living keratinocyte.

Contrast the electrochemical gradient acting on Na+ to those acting on K+ at the normal membrane (resting) potential of -70mv and at the na+ equilibrium potential of +30

Use the Na+/K+ pump and the Na+/ glucose symport to compare and contrast two different types of active transport. Cite two similarites (not including their being active transport) and three differences.

Biology 103A - Comprehensive / Final Exam (sample exam only) (version 3)

2011-11-15T18:04:00.000-08:00

Biology 103A - Professor Kauffman Comprehensive Exam

1. Which of the following is only found in cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers, but not in smooth?
a. myosin
b. aerobic respiration
c T tubules
d. actin
e. Ca++ pumps in the sarcoplasmic reticulum

2. Which of the following is not found in smooth muscle?
a. calmodulin
b. anaerobic resporation
c. actin
e. a and c

3. Creatine phosphate:
a. binds oxygen with greater affinity then hemoglobin
b. stores glucose for energy
c. stores high energy phosphate bonds
d. binds Ca++ to maintain low concentration in the sarcoplasm
e. split ATP to alter the myosin head

4. If T tubules were no longer functional what would not happen in a skeletal muscle fiber?
a. chemical gates would not open at the NMJ
b. voltage sensitive Ca++ gates would not open in the terminal cisternae
c. relaxation of the muscle could not happen
d. the high energy head position of the myosin couls not re-set
e. none of the above could occur

5. Why do slow oxidative skeletal muscle fibers and smooth muscle both contract slowly?
a. they both primarily use anaerobic respiration
b. they both have slow myosin ATPase enzymes
c. they both have voltage sensitive Ca++ channels in their sarcolemma
d. they both contain very large amounts of glycogen compared to other fibers types
e. all of the above

6. Which of the following form fascicles?
a. epimysium
b. perimysium
c. endomysium
d. sarcolemma
e. actin and myosin

7. In a fully relaxed muscle fiber what is the state of the myosin head and its position?
a. low energy and more vertical relative to the tail part of the molecule
b. low ebergy and bent reative to the tail part of the molecule
c. high energy and more vertical relative to the tail part of the molecule
d. high energy and bent relative to the tail part of the molecule
e. none of the above, the myosin head does not move.

8. Which of the following neutotransmitters opens chemically gated channels in both smooth and cardiac muscle?
a. Ca++
b. acetylcholine
c. norepinephrine
d. b and c
e. a, b and c

9. Which of the following is a feature of graded potentials?
a. they can be of any value
b. they can be both depolarizing and hyperpolarizing
c. they are highly localized
d. they decrease in size with distance
e. all of the above

10. ATP is used by skeletal muscle fibers to:
a. energize the myosin head
b. unbind the myosin head from actin
c. pump Ca++ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
d. maintain the membrane potential via the Na+/K+ pump
e. all of the above

11. The refractory period causes:
a. the same number of Na+ voltage gates to open
b. the same amount of Na+ and K+ ions to move
c. enough gates to open to reach Na+’s equilibrium potential
d. the membrane to be able to bind Ach
e. the action potential to move in one direction away from the point of excitation

12. Membrane resistance:
a. moves ions across the membrane
b. limits the spread of current during an action potential
c. changes when Ach binds
d. determines the height of the action potential
e. limits the action potential to 1-2ms in length

Fill in the blanks

Compared to normal cells skeletal muscle fibers can generate more ATP due to having ____________ and ____________.

When Ach binds to its receptor at the NMJ chemical gates open and _______________ enters the fibers causing a __________ potential.

When Ca++ concentration is very low in the cytoplasm the myosin head is in the
________ energy position and __________ prevents myosin and actin from binding.

Contraction is ened when Ca++ levels fall in the cytoplasm due to _____________ in the sarcomplasmic reticulum and the sarcomere returns to its original length due to _________.

The role of troponin is to bind ________ and to move ____________.

During contration the length of the thin and thick filaments _______________ while the length of the sarcomere ____________.

If membrane resistance decreased the speed of action propagation would ___________ and the electrical currents would spread over a ___________ distance along the sarcrolemma.

Sarcomeres are linked end to end by the _____ disc and these dics are aligned in perfect register with each other and llinked to the sarcolemma by the protein ___________.

If ATP is used up before Ca++ levels decrease in the muscle fiber, the myosin head will not be able to ___________. After death this is know as __________.

In skeletal muscle the role of Ca++ is to permit ___________ binding, while in smooth muscle the role of Ca++ is to bind ________________ to activate myosin ATPase.

The cardiac action potential has three types of voltage sensitive ion channels: _______, ________ and ________.

Skeletal muscle action potential last 1-2mc, while cardiac action potential last ____ms, nearly as long as the fiber contration. This means that ____________ is not possible in cardiac muscle.

Correct the FALSE statements

Each sarcomere shortens at a different time then neightboring sarcomeres.

Sarcomeres in cardiac muscle fibers are at near optimal length prior to contration.

Postural muscles are primaril made up of fast oxidative skeletal muscle fibers.

Recruitment increases the concentration of Ca++ in the cytoplasm, resulting in greater tension in that muscle fiber.

Voltage gated Ca++ channels are found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and sarcolemma of smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers.

Thin filaments are made up of troponin, tropomyosin and myosin

Short Answers

Briefly describe three morphological differences and two biochemical between an average cell and a skeletal muscle fiber and give an explanation for why each of these differences exist.

Explain how the action potential is propagated in terms of electrical currents, membrane resistance and voltage activated ion channels.

Explain how muscle tone arises and explain how tome affects the muscle fibers ability to develop tension when it contracts.

Contrast wave summation and recruitment using three differences between how these mechanisms control the amount of tension developed by the whole muscle.

Forensic Anthropologist Job Description

2011-11-10T08:21:00.000-08:00

The work profile of a forensic anthropologist is vast and requires a strong academic background to handle variety of challenging tasks. Before getting into the job description of these professionals, let us understand some of the basics of forensic anthropology. The term, forensic anthropology is formed of two words, forensic and anthropology. Forensic means anything that can be used in or which belongs to the court of law. Anthropology on the other hand is the study of Homo sapiens, i.e., human beings. So, if we try to decipher the meaning of both terms combined together, the description would be something like this: use of knowledge of human body to solve legal matters. Standard definition is as follows:the science of forensic anthropology deals with the application of study of human body (specifically the skeleton) to gather evidence for legal purposes. Most often, the information gathered by forensic anthropologists is used to solve criminal cases.

Responsibilities of a Forensic Anthropologist

The first and foremost task of a forensic anthropologist is to identify whether a particular bone is that of a human being or not. Resemblance of human bones with that of animals is often the cause of confusion in the identification process. After completing this identification process, there are other details the forensic anthropologists have to find out. Some of these details are gender of the deceased, age at death, growth of bones, height and defects if any, etc. The forensic anthropologist job description can be presented in a better manner with the help of following facts.

Determining the Height
The femur bone is used in determining height of the body. Height of the body is 2 and 2/3 times the length of femur. Sometimes, all bones of the body are found in a sound condition. These bones can be reassembled to find the actual height of the body.

Gender Determination
It is possible to determine the gender of a person by studying the hip and skull bones. Bones that are located below the lower back of skull and ear prove to be useful in determining the gender. These bones in men are much more prominent than that in women. In case of hip bones, the bones present in females are wider than males.

Body Growth
The age of body can be determined with the help of following signs and indications. Wisdom teeth generally appears around the age of 18. Depending on the growth of wisdom teeth, it is possible to determine whether a skeleton is that of a teenager or an adult. Similarly, the presence of milk teeth should confirm that it is a skeleton of a child.

Apart from these, the other things to be determined may be the time and cause of death, the type of weapon used (if any), traces of any poisonous or illegal substances present in and around the body, etc.

Forensic Anthropology Education

To become a proficient forensic anthropologist, you need to have a Doctoral degree. One has to study for about 10 years after the post-secondary education.

Apart from the required qualification, great mental strength also is a prerequisite for this job. You have to stay prepared to deal with mutilated bodies. If you are really interested in working as forensic anthropologist, start preparing from the undergraduate level itself. At the master's levels, students are taught about the skeletal and biological anthropology. Different techniques and procedures used to study the human body are included as part of the curriculum. The most important subject studied at the Master's level is Osteology.

At the doctoral level, coursework becomes much more extensive and diversified. Subjects included in the Ph. D. program are Osteology, Zooarchaelogy, Biomechanics, Water and Soil Sciences, Genetics, Human Evolution, Functional Anatomy, etc. Lots of hands-on experience is gained while pursuing a doctoral degree.

Forensic anthropology provides you with a lucrative career, given that you have the necessary qualification and experience. The forensic anthropologist salary depends on how experienced s(he) is; the range can be $32,060 - $83,144. If you are ready to work hard and have the guts to dissect bodies, this profession should be ideal for you. The forensic anthropologist job description presented above should be of some help to the readers.

Human Brain Diagram Preview

2011-11-09T20:32:00.000-08:00

The most complex organ of the human body system is invariably the human brain. Unraveling the human brain has been a long journey that is still going on and each day there is a new discovery that adds to the unending functions of the human brain. The first people to call the brain the commander and controller of the human body were the Greeks and the Egyptians of 4000 BC. It was Hippocrates, father of medicine who discovered that brain plays a part in sensation and intelligence. In 387 BC, Plato taught his pupils in Athens, that brain is where the mental thought process take place. Aristotle, claimed that it is the human brain that is the hand behind all the body actions and not the heart. This makes the ancient idiom 'memorize by heart' sound superficial. Soon scholars of the 0 AD till 1500 AD confirmed that brain is the power behind the successful working of the body.

After the ban on dissection of human body was lifted by the Church during Renaissance, great minds like Leonardo da Vinci and Rene Descartes take a look behind other minds and documented the parts of the brain. Let us look at few of these facts on the human brain and its functions.

Facts about the Human Brain

The average dimension of the adult human brain is 5.5 inches in width and 6.5 inches in length. The height of the human brain is about 3.6 inches and it weighs about 4 to 5 lbs at birth and 3 lbs in adults. The total surface area of the cerebral cortex is about 2,500 cm² and when stretched, it will cover the area of a night table.

The brain is composed of 77 to 78% water and 10 to 12% lipids. It contains 8% proteins 1% carbohydrates, 2% soluble organics and 1% insoluble salts. More than half of the neurons in the brain are found in the cerebellum and only 10% neurons make up the brain. 85% of the brain is cerebral cortex, divided as, 41% frontal lobe, 22% temporal lobe, 19% parietal lobe and 18% occipital lobe. There are 186 million more neurons in the left hemisphere of the brain than the right hemisphere.

About 750 to 1000 ml of blood flows through the brain every minute. This means the blood volume is equal to 3 full soda cans! 94% of the oxygen consumed in the brain is taken up by the gray matter and only 6% by the white matter. The slowest speed at which the information travels between the neurons is 260 mph. This is more than the Bugatti EB 16.5 Veyrons car's top speed of 253 mph. The brain can stay alive for 4 to 6 minutes without oxygen, then the brain cells die. The brain is divided into three layers that are interconnected. Let us have a look at these three layers and learn about the human brain diagram and functions.

Human Brain Diagram and Functions

The human brain is an astonishing organ that takes care of each function and action of the body. All the functions are carried out without a single glitch and before you even bat an eyelid. The following are the different regions of the human brain and their functions.

Central Core

The central core consists of the thalamus, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation and medulla. These five regions are the central areas that regulate breathing, pulse, arousal, balance, sleep and early stages of processing sensory information. The thalamus interprets the sensory information and helps determine what is good and bad. It then sends the message across the cerebral cortex to the region where further analysis of the information continues. The area that helps you dream and wake up from your sleep is the pons. The body coordination and control of posture and maintenance of equilibrium is taken care by the cerebellum. The signals sent to the cerebral cortex that helps in attending stimulation and remain alert while sleeping is taken care of by the reticular formation. Last but not the least, the medulla helps you breath, walk, sleep and signal the heart to continue beating.

Limbic System

The limbic system is present only in mammals and helps in the liaison between motivated behavior, emotional conditions and memory processes. The regions under the limbic system are hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus. The emotions, learning and memory actions are taken care of by the hippocampus and amygdala takes care of aggression, eating, drinking and the carnal instincts, that is, sexual behavior. On the other hand, hypothalamus looks after the blood glucose, salt, blood pressure and hormones. It regulates the body processes, as it is connected to both the central and autonomic nervous systems and the endocrine systems.

Cerebral Cortex

This is the region that makes humans as humans. It is the region of higher cognitive and emotional functions. It is divided into two symmetrical halves called the cerebral hemispheres. Each individual hemisphere contains four lobes, the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe and temporal lobe. The frontal lobe controls the actions like planning, decisions, setting goals and connecting the present to future. The visual images are passed to the parietal and temporal lobes through the occipital lobe. The sensory processes, spatial interpretation, attention and language comprehension is controlled by the parietal lobe. Lastly, the auditory perception, language comprehension and visual recognition is controlled by the temporal lobe.

Labeled Diagram of the Human Brain

The following is the labeled human brain diagram that will help you learn more about the brain and understand its functions.

I hope this article on human brain diagram proves useful to you. Even with the vast advancement in science and human anatomy, we still have not been able to realize the full potential brain power that can help change the world entirely. Human brain is capable of much more. The day Homo sapiens understand the hidden brain powers, the dream of becoming super humans will turn into reality.Click here to read my human anatomy course review

Head Disaster And The Brain Explode.

2011-11-08T20:53:00.000-08:00

Just look at this picture so hot too much blood.That is why it is important to protect our head with wearing a helmet.

Now you can earn rewards by sharing through facebook and twitter with #ChurpChurp! How cool is that?

2011-11-08T06:32:00.000-08:00

Now you can earn rewards by sharing through facebook and twitter with #ChurpChurp! How cool is that?

Work, play, music all rolled into one with #CelcomSamsungGalaxy !

2011-10-12T00:30:00.000-07:00

Work, play, music all rolled into one with #CelcomSamsungGalaxy !

Types of Arrhythmia

2011-07-14T07:43:00.001-07:00

The human heart is a muscle that facilitates the incessant distribution of life-sustaining blood throughout the body and assimilation of cellular waste for oxygenation. This important function is the result of a rhythmic beating of the heart muscle. A disorder of the rhythmic pulsation is referred to as an arrhythmia...

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The Human Heart: Functions

The human anatomy comprises a myriad of internal systems that function in-sync, to promote longevity. However, the most vital of all the internal systems is that controlled by the heart. This chambered organ is primarily divided into the atrium and the ventricle. As the terms suggest, the atrium refers to the upper segment or chamber, while the ventricle is the lower chamber. The function of each heart chamber is facilitated by blood vessels and valves. This intricate system not only receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, but also assimilates and rejuvenates cellular waste and deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body. The blood vessels and valves control the flow of oxygenated blood to the different organs of the body and redirect the deoxygenated blood towards the lungs. The heart muscle incessantly builds up blood pressure by pulsating. The contraction and relaxation of theheart muscle pumps blood throughout the body, and revitalizes its own inherent capacity.

What is Arrhythmia?

Arrhythmia refers to a disorder of the rhythmic pulsating of the heart. The clinical term refers to a heterogeneous group of heart conditions that result from abnormal electrical activity in the heart muscle. The irregularity or disorder manifests in the form of increased or decreased heart beats. Arrhythmias also occur in a healthy heart, but depending on heart health, they can either lead to a serious health problem or be of minimal consequence. Arrhythmias cause heart diseases, paralytic strokes and even cardiac death.

Different types of Arrhythmia:

Some arrhythmias are life-threatening, while some result in completely controllable palpitations and weakness. However, if not addressed in time, arrhythmias can result in cardiac arrest and death. There are different types of arrhythmias categorized according to the location of occurrence. Atrial arrhythmias include PACs or Premature Atrial Contractions, multifocal atrial tachycardia and atrial fibrillation. The junctional arrhythmia category includes supraventricular and AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, while the atrioventricular category comprises AV reentrant tachycardia and the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Arrhythmias are broadly categorized into asymptomatic and symptomatic.

Asymptomatic Arrhythmias: Sinus arrhythmia refers to the acceleration or slowing of heart rate. The condition is experienced during inhalation and exhalation of oxygen. These arrhythmias are commonly experienced during breathing exercises and breath-holding patterns that are introduced as part of weight loss techniques. Palpitations are another type of arrhythmia that involve infrequent heartbeats. Asymptomatic arrhythmias are not necessarily harmless and can result in an increased risk of blood clotting within the heart muscle and/or the transportation of insufficient blood to this vital organ.

Symptomatic Arrhythmias: An irregularity in the electrical impulse within the sinoatrial node can cause synchronized contraction of the heart muscle. Bradycardias or periods of transient loss of heart beats, tachycardias or the addition of abnormal impulses to the normal cardiac cycle, and automaticity or an automatic impulse triggered by the cardiac muscle could result in irreversible damage to the heart muscle. Re-entry arrhythmias are the result of concentrated electrical impulse. Symptomatic arrhythmias result in cardiac arrest and even death.

What is Atrial Fibrillation?

Atrial fibrillation refers to the atrium or upper chamber of the heart being exposed to multiple micro-reentry circuits and erratic electrical impulses. The condition is imminently life-threatening and could culminate in a medical emergency if not addressed in time. The abnormal electrical impulses in the atrium of the heart are treated via CPR, to prolong brain survival during a lapse in normal heart pulse and/or defibrillation, to restore the normal heart rhythm. The latter is a treatment option that involves the application of an electric shock to reset cells and trigger a normal beating pattern.

How to Become a Doctor of Physical Therapy

2011-07-14T07:38:00.000-07:00

Becoming a doctor of physical therapy (D.P.T.) requires patience, labor, hard work and intelligence. In this article, you get to know the basic requirements, the examinations and other procedures that need to be cleared for becoming a D.P.T.

If you have decided to become a physical therapist, then you must know the prerequisites required for physical therapy jobs. Before going into the subject matter, we shall discuss what exactly physical therapists do. Their work is basically concerned with taking care of patients undergoing treatment for injuries or while recovering from disabilities. Physical therapists should have a sound knowledge on body exercises, physiotherapy and handling specialized machines. They are employed in clinics, hospitals and nursing homes to taking care of patients. Schools also hire physical therapists for providing guidance to students on fitness. Preceding this comes the question, how to become a doctor of physical therapy. The steps to become a doctor in physical therapy become easier if you have a strong base in biology and a conceptual knowledge on human anatomy.

Becoming a Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T.)

Physical therapy is a necessity for patients with fractures, paralysis or other types of disorders that restrict movement of body. Regular sessions of physiotherapy is essential for complete recovery. Thus, you can well assume that you must have an in depth knowledge in the mechanics of the human body and its structure. Explained below are the ways for becoming a doctor of physical therapy.

Obtaining an undergraduate degree is the first step towards becoming a physical therapist. A bachelor's degree in science, with major subjects as biology and chemistry is the basic requirement for obtaining a degree in physical therapy. Students who are pursuing bachelor's degree in arts need to keep these science subjects in addition to their course modules to become eligible for taking up entrance exams in the future.
After completion of your bachelor degree, you need to take admission in a medical school to obtain a degree in physiotherapy. Doctorate schools that are accredited by the American Physical Therapy Association have a genuine course structure that is recognized all over the world. You have to take up the medical entrance examination to pursue the post graduate medical course. The course is usually of 4 years during which students are taught human anatomy, pharmacology, physiology, body kinetics, medical laws, microbiology, neurosciences, human development, diagnostic imaging, health promotion and injury prevention and primary care practice.
When medical schooling is over, you have to undergo residential programs where you get to practice your skills under guidance of senior doctors. This is also known as a fellowship where students are paid on the job. You attend to patients at hospitals and clinics and assist them in quick recovery.
Possessing a license for practicing legally is a must. In the U.S., it's compulsory to pass the United States Medical Licensing Exam to get permission for practice. You must also get a license for practicing in other countries. Once you have the license in your hand you can apply for jobs.
After knowing the entire process, it's natural to wonder if physical therapy is a good career or not. If you are genuinely inclined towards it, then you will definitely excel in this field with a good pay package. Scope is ample since the need for medical care can never be subdued. Your chances of getting placed in a reputed clinic or hospital increases if you have passed out from a reputed school.
The average salary for doctors of physical therapy depends on their experience and the economic condition of the country where they have been licensed. In developed countries, doctors having 8-10 years of experience are paid in the range of USD 70,000 to USD 80,000. Their salary also depends on the reputation of the institution, hospital, clinic or the organization where he/she is practicing.

I hope the steps required for becoming a doctor of physical therapy is now clear to you. You should gather all information before hand and start preparing yourself to get admitted in a reputed medical school. A higher degree is always preferred to reach the pinnacle of success. Apart from your potential, your instincts should encourage you to help your patients in every possible way for their complete recovery. All the best!

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Useless Facts About the Human Body

2011-07-13T04:17:00.000-07:00

There are so many useless facts about the human body, that it would take you months to peruse through them all. So, here is a comprehensive collection of carefully selected, utterly useless facts about the human body.

Every kind of information and every kind of education comes in handy at some or the other time in life - so my grand mom used to tell me. Of course, I don't blame her - half the things that we know now weren't probably known back in her heydays. Yet, while there are millions being spent on cancer and AIDS research, there are also millions of people who are hell bent on clogging our brains with facts and trivia that won't help us in a million years. While trying to further this futile cause, I have enlisted below a few useless facts about the body, complemented by comments. So, read on and enjoy them, for they will definitely tickle your funny bone (by the way, the funny bone is not a bone - it is a nerve in the elbow!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 1
It takes around 17 muscles to smile and 43 muscles to frown. (I think Walt Disney came up with this one)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 2
The thyroid cartilage is what is more commonly known as Adams apple. (Firstly, it was Eve that picked the apple. Plus, the bulge doesn't even look like an apple!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 3
The substance that our blood resembles most closely in terms of its chemical composition is sea water. (Mirror mirror on the wall, whose the saltiest of them all?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 4
The human brain is 80 percent water, which is more watery than our blood. (As Ron would say after hearing this fact - bloody hell!) Read more on facts on the human brain.

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 5
A woman's heart, beats much faster than a man's. (Hence, we can deduce that a woman's organs get more blood than a man's, hence a woman's brain works faster than a man's!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 6
False teeth are often radioactive. (Yet another reason to not go to the dentist)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 7
You are twice as likely to have a heart attack, if you have gum diseases in your mouth. (Okay, so now it comes down to choosing between dying of radiation or dying of a heart attack. I prefer dying of slow radiation poisoning - so I will go to the dentist)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 8
Fingernails, toenails and hair are all made up of dead cells. (Yet they require maintenance. Sigh)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 9
The easiest sounds for the human ear to hear, and which are carried best when pronounced properly, are in order, "ah", "aw," "eh," "ee," and "oo." (Is it a mere coincidence that this is the order of the Hindi alphabets?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 10
Unlike other organs, a person's nose and ears continue to grow throughout his or her life. (So Pinocchio, Spock and all elves, stop complaining)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 11
Heavy beer drinkers hardly ever get diarrhea because bacteria causes diarrhea, and beer makes stomach acid which kills bacteria. (So even if you die of liver cirrhosis, at least you don't have to worry about diarrhea!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 12
The average cough comes out of your mouth at 60 miles (96.5 km) per hour, while a sneeze can travel as fast as 100 miles per hour (Blow and steady wins the race)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 13
The strongest voluntary muscle in the body is the tongue. (Now you know what defense to use, if your dentist drills in too deep)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 14
Children grow faster in springtime compared to other seasons. (What about places that don't have three seasons?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 15
Every second, 15 million blood cells are destroyed in the human body. (Who needs enemies, when you have a spleen like that?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 16
The only part of the body that has no blood supply, is the cornea in the eye. It actually takes up oxygen directly from the air. (Moral of the story: If you drown and die, you go blind first and then die)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 17
The human body has over 40 miles of nerves. (The guy who measured this had some nerve to do so)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 18
Every humans tongue prints are as unique as fingerprints (It takes a hawk's eye to analyze the human tongue like that)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 19
An average human scalp has 100,000 hairs. (Who ever counted that? The mad hatter?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 20
If you unfolded your brain completely, it would cover an ironing board. (Whoever discovered that, has one soiled iron board lying around at home!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 21
8% of human beings in the world have an extra rib. (Aww, they'll probably remain single all their life, I think God forgot to make their Eve out of the extra rib!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 22
Human bones are much stronger than concrete. (Whoever discovered that, I am sure, even if he stands by this fact, still has broken bones)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 23
The scientific name of ear wax is cerumin. (This is not taken from the last Harry Potter book)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 24
It takes the combined interaction of 72 different muscles to produce audible human speech. (So the next time a person around you is talking too much, you can always quote this fact and ask him to keep quiet)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 25
In the time interval between death and the onset of rigor mortis in a body, the contraction of muscles can cause the body to turn over on its side. (Is that how they came up with the saying 'turning in the grave'?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 26
A healthy adult can draw in about 200 to 300 cubic inches (3.3 to 4.9 liters) of air in a single breath, but at rest, will use only about 5% of this inhaled volume. (Well, if nothing else, at least we're recycling our oxygen)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 27
Your body, if normal, makes its own alcohol; about 1 oz. each day. (Just because you know this fact now, doesn't mean you have to become cannibalistic - if you feel like having a drink go out and buy one)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 28
Your spinal cord, if typical, is around half an inch thick. (If it's lesser than that, does it make a person spineless?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 29
Right handed people live, on an average, nine years longer than left handed people do. (So for all the left-handed people out there - it's not too late to become ambidextrous)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 30
The human heart creates enough pressure to squirt blood 30 feet (9 m) into the air. (I hope this fact wasn't accidentally discovered in the midst of a surgery)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 31
The average person is about one-fourth an inch taller at night. (And I always thought the moon only had a pull effect on tides. Silly me)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 32
One-fourth of the 206 bones present in the human body are located in the feet. (So there are a lot options when it comes to breaking bones in the feet. So you might go from Happy feet to snappy feet in a second!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 33
During a 24-hour period, the average human will breathe around 23,040 times. (Whoever sat and counted his breaths, must have been breathless by the end of this ordeal)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 34
The average life of a taste bud in the mouth is 10 days. (So every ten days, your taste bud turns into waste bud)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 35
Human blood travels around 60,000 miles (96,540 km) per day on its journey through the various vessels of the body. (Around the blood in 80 ways?)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 36
On an average, the human head weighs about 8 pounds. Also, an average brain can hold the same amount of information as 500 sets of encyclopedias. (Results may vary)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 37
The sound heard by a listener when holding a seashell to his ear, does not come from the shell itself but in fact, is the echo of the blood pulsing in the listener's own ear. (Now that's what I call bloody music!)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 38
The distance between the eyes is typically equal to the width of each eye. (That's why all aliens are shown to have widely spaced eyes)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 39
After you die, your body starts to dry out, creating the false illusion that your hair and nails are still growing even after death. (Someone was really dying to find out this one)

Useless Facts About the Human Body # 40
Your stomach produces a new layer of mucus every 2 weeks, or else it will digest itself. (Would this phenomenon be called 'in-digestion' then?)

So, I sincerely hope you just spent the last few minutes reading this long and ineffectual article on utterly useless facts about the human body. Although, no one will guarantee the truthfulness of these facts, everyone can safely guarantee that they are, beyond a shade of doubt, useless.

Click here to read my human anatomy course review

By Dr. Sumaiya Khan

Interesting Facts About the Human Body

2011-07-13T04:07:00.000-07:00

Read through these interesting facts about the human body, that'll make you ponder about its many amazing abilities. What you've ignored or passed over as ordinary, will now come as a surprise to you, as you delve deeper into this write up...

The body that encapsulates us, is an interesting specimen that embodies functions that sum up as weird, shocking and something to really think about. Different body parts play a key role to play out a certain bodily function, thereby making us do what we do, react to things/elements and act in a certain manner. It holds a lot of complexities that we tend to ignore, and not really pay attention to. Here you'll discover a lot about the body that you may have already known about, or will find out for the first time. If you've always wondered about the little things your body does, then these interesting facts about the human body are going to really surprise you.

10 Interesting Facts About the Human Body

These interesting human body facts will educate you about how your body responds to outside influences, what goes on within your body, why certain spasms or reactions take place and more.

Average life of a taste bud is said to last up to 10 days.
A cough comes out from one's mouth at the speed of 60 miles/hour.
The human thigh bone is stronger than concrete. Here are some more skeletal system facts. You'll surely find it as a good read.
Women blink twice as much as men do.
Cow milk takes one hour to break down in the human stomach.
Children grow at a higher rate during the springtime.
Blondes have more hair compared to those with dark hair.
When the human body dries up, it creates an illusion that makes one think that hair and nails still grow after death.
When the brain suffers from a traumatic injury like from an infection, accident or stroke, some people develop 'alien hand syndrome'. This syndrome causes one to feel no sensation in either hand, losing the ability to control its movements. It feels like the hand has a mind of its own and isn't a part of the body, and can randomly play out functions like tearing up one's clothes or grabbing at items. Here we bring you some intriguing facts about nervous system.
A human can survive without food intake, but not without sleep. Find out how long can you go without sleep.

Here's something more on human body facts:

Interesting Facts About the Human Body for Kids

Head on over to 'Medropolis', and browse through the virtual body, to get in depth information about the human body, and its various functions. It's great if you want to learn about the human body, and gain knowledge in different arenas from the nervous system to the digestive system. Its easy-to-access and user friendly interface makes it ideal for kids and adults alike. It also gives you the human body diagram in its skeletal form, to maneuver your way to find out what is what from within. These amazing facts about the human body are sure to get you thinking.

The strongest muscle in the human body is the tongue. You might like to go through muscular system facts.
The skull is made up of 29 different kinds of bones. Also see, how many bones in the human body.
The human heart and other body functions stop all at once, when one sneezes.
It takes 72 muscles to flex, for one to speak.
The body is made up of 80% water.
It isn't possible to sneeze with your eyes open. Find out the answer to, why do we sneeze.
An average human blinks about 6,205,000 times a year.
The stomach needs to produce a new mucus layer every 2 weeks, else it would digest itself.
Humans have unique tongue prints, just like finger prints.
Only humans can secrete tears from emotion; when animals do, it is due to some physical reasons.
It takes the body about 12 hours to completely digest the food present in the digestive system. Here are some more facts about the digestive system.
Humans experience REM (Rapid Eye Movement), when witnessing vivid dreams.
Your ears and nose continue to grow throughout your life.
Some of the body parts that we don't require are - the appendix, pinkie toe, wisdom teeth and tonsils.
It takes 43 muscles to frown, and 17 to smile.
Average head of hair, has about 100,000 strands.
If you work on a computer for hours, staring at a blank piece of white paper will appear pink.
Humans lose at least 40-100 strands of hair per day.
It isn't possible for one to tickle themselves.
All babies are born with blue eyes, until they acquire their true eye colors as they grow up.

These human body systems, make up the whole of our bodies and allows each of us to function in a certain way. What the body experiences, whether good/bad, we are able to identify and rectify/satisfy depending upon what signals are sent by the body to our brains. There are many factors that go into the workings of our bodies, including the many weird facts about the human body. I hope these interesting facts about the human body will help you understand yours better, and give you more to understand when it comes to how your body operates.

By Naomi Sarah

Human Nervous System Diagram

2011-07-13T03:59:00.000-07:00

Diagrams! They remind me of school textbooks which used to have plenty of them, providing a visual aid to understanding difficult subjects. This article explains the nervous system function and structure with the help of a human nervous system diagram and gives you that erstwhile 'textbook feel'. Read on...

Human nervous system diagram; the title brought back the memories of school days; the scent of those textbooks; the sight of the classroom and my teacher's voice that said, "C'mon class, open your science books, page 41, chapter 3, Human Body Systems". Studying human anatomy became interesting, thanks to her. She used to say, "Thehuman body systems are the most accurately engineered machines that possess an intellect of their own. Look at the brain, for example; man will never be able to replicate its intricate design or recreate intelligence and emotion". It was wonderful to pick up the intricacies of a seemingly boring subject like human anatomy from her. She was a person who looked at science through a philosopher's eye.

Reading this article will be like reading about the human nervous system from your science textbook as this article carries a labeled human nervous system diagram to help you understand its design and working. For me, diagrams and illustrations that textbooks carried, were always of great help in understanding the topic. It was the labeled animal cell diagram that 'magnified my image' of the microscopic cell. It was the skeletal system diagram that helped me understand the "skeleton" of human bodies. And it was when I first studied the diagram of a human heart, I realized that the heart is not exactly heart-shaped!

Now let me come to the point. And the point is that I have to explain the human nervous system function and parts with the help of a labeled human nervous system diagram. Before going to the details of the structure and functioning of the human nervous system, you should know what the nervous system actually is and what it does. The nervous system is a network of special cells, neurons and ganglia, that work together to carry out the transmission and reception of signals between the different parts of our body. The signals are transmitted in the form of electrochemical waves or chemicals. Before you proceed to understand the human nervous system function and parts, you might like to go through some human nervous system facts. So here are some interesting facts about nervous system for you along with an answer to how does the nervous system work.

Neurons
Neuron can be considered as the basic unit of the nervous system, which processes and transmits information by means of electrochemical signals. Sensory neurons respond to external stimuli that affect the sensory organ cells. Motor neurons, on receiving signals from the central nervous system, bring about responses at the target organs. Interneurons act as the connectors between neurons. Neurons are of different shapes and sizes and their complex interconnections add to the complexity of the nervous system. The complexity is pretty evident from the human nervous system diagram given above. The human brain contains 86.1 billion neurons.

Glia
Glia or glial cells, as they are called, are non-neural cells that play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis and protecting the brain's neurons. The glial cells surround the neurons to hold them in place, supply them with oxygen and nutrients, isolate the neurons from one another and remove dead neurons. The human brain contains about 84.6 billion glia; that's almost equal to the number of neurons it contains.

The human nervous system can be divided into two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves. Here is a labeled human nervous system diagram that you can refer to, while you read about the human nervous system function and parts.

Organs on the Right Side of the Human Body

2011-07-13T03:54:00.000-07:00

Are you wondering about the different organs on the right side of the human body? Refer to this article to understand the right oriented human organs and their functions.

Studying the human anatomy or the different parts of the body always fascinates us. After all, we are analyzing the organs and the coordination of the human body systems. When we take a glance at the external features of human beings, it appears quite symmetrical; the head the top center with its associated parts and two hands and two legs on each side of the head. Nevertheless, if you study the internal organs, you will agree to the point that human body is not symmetrical at all.

An organ is made up of a group of cells that coordinate to perform a specific bodily function. Together, organs make up an organ system for example; the respiratory system, cardiovascular system and excretory system. Coming to the point of discussion, specific organs are present on the left side and right side of the body, while some are located at the center, sharing both the orientations. This article highlights the organs on the right side of the human body.

What Organs are on Right Side of the Body?

When you check for organs on right side of body, you will come across many such organs that are located in the center. For simple understanding, let's take the example of the nose and mouth. These two vital organs are situated in the central plane that divides the body into two equal halves. So the nose and mouth are neither oriented to the left, nor to the right side of the body. Rather, we can say half of the organ is in the left and the other half in the right side. The following is a list of organs that are present on the right side of the body:

Skin
Being the largest organ of the human body, the skin is equally distributed both in the left side and right side of the human body. The skin performs the function of protection and elimination of waste products from the body, particularly by means of sweating or perspiration. Thus, the skin is an important organ of the defense and excretory system.

Right Brain
Take a look at the brain anatomy and parts of the brain, you will find that the right hemisphere is responsible for controlling certain functions, mostly pertaining to creative thinking, imagination and perception of audio and visual stimuli. Read more on diagram of the brain and its functions.

Right Eye
Be the right side or the left eye, the human eye is a visual organ that allows us to see things around us. It works in coordination with the brain to receive light waves and convert them into vision. The shape of the human eye is nearly round, which is retained by the aqueous humor. Read more on how does the human eye work.

Right Ear
Needless to say, the right ear is located in the right side of the human body. It collects sound waves from the surrounding environment and transfers them to the brain, which are then perceived by us in the form of audio sound. There are different parts of the human ear, which altogether works for sound perception. Read more on diagram of the ear and its function.

Breast
Humans have a pair of breasts, one in the left side and the another present in the right side of the body. Functionally, the right breast is not different from the left breast. Histologically, they are a modified type of sweat glands, which produce breast milk in females. The main function of these glands is to nurture the newborn babies.

Right Lung
The right side lung is shorter than the left lung by about 5 cm. But, it is larger and has more volume than the left lung. Anatomically, the right lung has three unequal sized lobes, namely, superior, middle and inferior. Besides respiration, lungs are important for protection of the heart and regulation of blood pH. Read more on organs of the respiratory system.

Right Kidney
Kidneys are paired bean-shaped organs, located on either side of the spine. They are the primary organs of the urinary system. Before excreting body fluid as urine, the kidneys absorb essential nutrients and electrolytes. Thus, the right and left kidneys are also important for electrolyte balancing and nutrient re-absorption. Read more on histology of kidney.

Liver
One of the internal organs on right side of body is the liver, which is also the largest glandular organ. It is reddish brown in color and located underneath the diaphragm. Anatomically, the liver is divided into four unequal lobes. The main function of the liver is the secretion of enzymes for digestion of fats and maintenance of the blood glucose level.

Gallbladder
Another right side organ of the human body is the gallbladder, a small organ that stores the bile juice secreted by the liver. It is divided into three different parts, viz. fundus, body and neck. The Gallbladder helps in the overall process of digestion, but there are no adverse effects even if it is removed from the body.

Small Intestine
Nearly half of of the small intestine is present on the right side of the human body. The duodenum is not actually an organ, but a part of the small intestine, which is oriented towards the right side. Over here, the digestive juices secreted by the pancreas and the liver are mixed together for food digestion. Read more on small intestine function.

Large Intestine
Similar to the small intestine, the large intestine is distributed both in the left and right side of the human body. Among the different parts of the large intestine, you will find the ascending colon and cecum towards the right hand side. The cecum is followed by the vermiform appendix, which is also an organ of the right side of the human body. Read more onlarge intestine anatomy.

Appendix
The appendix is a small pouch shaped organ (about 10 cm in length), situated between the small intestine and the large intestine. It is preceded by the cecum and has no distinctive functions. Read more on appendix location.

Reproductive Organs
The reproductive organs, testes for males and ovaries for women are located in the central plane of the body. Thus, half of the reproductive organs are present in the left, while the remaining half is oriented towards the right side. They perform the function of producing gametes, which after fertilization give offspring. Read more on organs on left side of body.

With this information, I hope you have understood all about the various organs on the right side of the human body. Irrespective of the orientation, all the organs either on the left or right side, work in coordination for normal functioning of the body.

By Ningthoujam Sandhyarani

Anatomy of Human Abdomen

2011-07-13T03:43:00.001-07:00

The human abdomen extends from the thorax to the pelvis. The anatomy of the abdomen comprises all the internal organs between the thoracic diaphragm to the pelvic brim. At the lower end, the segment between the lumbosacral angle or the inter-vertebral disks and the pubic symphysis form the cavity walls...

The anatomy of the human abdomen comprises most of the alimentary tract. This is the region where the food is digested and the nutrients are absorbed. The tract includes the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, colon and rectum. The vital organs, other than those that are directly associated with digestion, include the liver, kidneys, spleen and pancreas. The wall of the abdominal cavity is segmented by the posterior, lateral and anterior walls. Ideally, the region above the pelvic inlet and below the thoracic diaphragm is referred to as the abdominal cavity.

Abdominal Muscles:

The external oblique muscle is the outermost abdominal muscle that shields the sides of the abdomen. This broad and irregularly quadrilateral muscle mass extends from the ribs, curving downwards into the outer anterior ilium crest and the linea alba. The triangular internal oblique muscle is smaller and thinner than the external oblique muscle. This muscle mass originates in the inguinal ligament and the internal anterior ilium crest. The transversus abdominis muscle fibers extend between the internal oblique and transversalis fascia. This muscle mass stretches over the ilium, lumbar fascia and the cartilages of last six ribs, extending till the rectus abdominis. The rectus abdominis muscle has three tendinous linae transversae. The other muscle mass in the human abdomen is the small and triangular pyramidalis muscle, located in front of the rectus abdominis.

Abdominal Organs:

The abdominal organs are all tubular in nature. The digestive tract comprises several organs that are connected and interdependent. The hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, small intestine, colon and appendix. The liver, gallbladder and pancreas also aid digestion and are connected to the main digestive organs via ducts. The kidneys, spleen and adrenal glands are the other abdominal cavity organs that are connected via blood vessels like the aorta and inferior vena cava. The anatomy of the human abdomen includes the urinary bladder, uterus, ovaries and fallopian tubes. These pelvic organs are covered by the same elastic peritoneum membrane that covers most of the abdominal organs.

The abdominal cavity is the largest in the body. The wall of the abdomen is a muscular structure. It is lined with or protected by fascia, skin and fat. The organs, muscles and systems that function within the cavity are studied as part of either the 'abdomen proper' or the upper region and the 'pelvis' or the lower region. Though the cavity is not separated or segmented, a bifurcation of function is marked by the superior pelvis aperture. The abdominal wall apertures are the umbilical cord, allantois, vitelline duct, vena caval opening, aortic hiatus, esophageal hiatus and lumboinguinal nerve. In the case of males, the rectovesical excavation pouch lies between the rectum and the bladder. In females, the rectouterine excavation pouch is extended over the posterior vaginal fornix.

The abdominal cavity is a major body division of the vertebrate. The abdominal or peritoneal cavity is distinctly separated from the pleural and pericardial cavities. There is a large coelomic cavity that comprises the viscera and peritoneal sac. All parts of the abdominal cavity are connected via sheets of peritoneum and omenta. Colloquially called the stomach, the abdomen is an important part of the human anatomy. The shape of a healthy abdomen varies. While in children it protrudes, in young adults it is slightly in-drawn or subtly prominent.

By Gaynor Borade

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