HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

What was the first professional organization of physiologists?

2013-03-25T12:37:00.002-07:00

The first organization of physiologists was the Physiological Society founded in 1876 in England. In 1878 the Journal of Physiology began publication as the first journal dedicated to reporting results of research in physiology. The American counterpart, the American Physiological Society, was founded in 1887. The American Physiological Society first sponsored publication of the American Journal of Physiology in 1898.

Who is considered the founder of experimental medicine and physiology?

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The French physiologist Claude Bernard (1813–1878) is credited with originating the experimental approach to medicine and establishing general physiology as a distinct discipline. His classic work, Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, was published in 1865. He was elected to the Académie Française in 1869 for this work.

What discovery of the 17th century helped establish the science of physiology?

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The English physician William Harvey (1578–1657) published On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals in 1628. This important medical treatise proved that blood continuously circulated within the vessels. Harvey’s discoveries contradicted many beliefs about blood circulation that dated back to the time of Galen. Harvey is considered the father of modern physiology for introducing the experimental method of scientific research.

Who improved the microscope in a way that greatly impacted anatomy and physiology studies?

2013-03-25T12:34:00.000-07:00

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was a Dutch microscopist and scientist. Although he did not invent the microscope, he greatly improved the capability of the microscope. His expert skill in grinding lenses achieved a magnification of 270 times, which was far greater than any other microscope of the era. He was able to observe bacteria, striations in muscle, blood cells, and spermatozoa.

Who became known as the “reformer of anatomy” during the Renaissance?

2013-03-25T12:33:00.002-07:00

Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) became known as the “reformer of anatomy” during the Renaissance. His masterpiece and most famous work, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, published in 1543, described various body systems and individual organs. It also included beautiful anatomical illustrations. Vesalius challenged many of Galen’s teachings, which had become accepted as fact though they were incorrect.

Whose work during the Roman era became the authority on anatomy?

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Galen (130–200), a Greek physician, anatomist, and physiologist living during the time of the Roman Empire, was one of the most influential and authoritative authors on medical subjects. His writings include On Anatomical Procedures, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body, On the Natural Faculties, and hundreds of other treatises. Since human dissection was forbidden, Galen made most of his observations on different animals. He correctly described bones and muscles and observed muscles working in contracting pairs. He was also able to describe heart valves and structural differences between arteries and veins. While his work contained many errors, he provided many accurate anatomical details that are still regarded as classics. Galen’s writings were the accepted standard text for anatomical studies for 1,400 years.

Who is considered the father of physiology?

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The Greek physician and anatomist Erasistratus (304–250 B.C.E.) is considered the father of physiology. Based on his numerous dissections of human cadavers, he accurately described the brain, including its cavities and membranes, stomach muscles, and the differences between motor and sensory nerves. He understood correctly that the heart served as a pump to circulate blood. Anatomical research ended with Erasistratus until the thirteenth century, in a large part because of public opinion against the dissection of

human cadavers.

What were Aristotle’s contributions to anatomy?

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Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) wrote several works laying the foundations for comparative anatomy, taxonomy, and embryology. He investigated carefully all kinds of animals, including humans. His works on life sciences, On Sense and Sensible Objects, On Memory and Recollection, On Sleep and Waking, On Dreams, On Divination by Dreams, On Length and Shortness of Life, On Youth and Age, and On Respiration, are collectively called Parva Naturalia.

When did the study of anatomy and physiology first become accepted as sciences?

2013-03-25T12:27:00.002-07:00

Anatomy and physiology were first accepted as sciences during ancient Greek times. Hippocrates (c. 460–377 B.C.E.), who is considered the father of medicine, established medicine as a science, separating it from religion and philosophy. His application of logic and reason to medicine was the beginning of observational medicine.

What are some specialties of physiology?

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Specialties and subdivisions of physiology include cell physiology, special physiology, systemic physiology, and pathological physiology, often called simply pathology. Cell physiology is the study of the functions of cells, including both chemical processes within cells and chemical interactions between cells.Special physiology is the physiological study of specific organs, such as cardiac physiology, which is the study of heart function. Systemic physiology is comparable to systemic anatomy since it is the study of the functions of different body systems, such as renal physiology and neurophysiology. Pathology (from the Greek pathos, meaning “suffering” or “disease”) is the study of the effects of diseases on organs or systems and diseased cells and tissues.

How is the field of anatomy divided into subdivisions?

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The field of anatomy is generally divided into macroscopic, or gross anatomy (not requiring a microscope), and microscopic anatomy.

Gross anatomy includes the subdivisions of regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, developmental anatomy, and clinical anatomy.

Regional anatomy studies specific regions of the body, such as the head and neck or lower and upper limbs. Systemic anatomy studies different body systems, such as the digestive system and reproductive system.

Developmental anatomy describes the changes that occur from conception through physical maturity.

Clinical anatomy includes medical anatomy (anatomical features that change during illness) and radiographic anatomy (anatomical structures seen using various imaging techniques).

The two major subdivisions of microscopic anatomy are cytology and histology. Cytology (from the Greek cyto, meaning “cell”) is the study and analysis of the internal structure of individual cells. Histology (from the Greek histos, meaning “web”) is the study and examination of tissues.

Which scientific disciplines study the human body?

2013-03-25T12:22:00.000-07:00

The scientific disciplines of anatomy and physiology study the human body. Anatomy (from the Greek ana and temnein, meaning “to cut up”) is the study of the structure of the body parts, including their form and organization. Physiology (from the Latin, meaning “the study of nature”) is the study of the function of the various body parts and organs. Anatomy and physiology are usually studied together to achieve a complete understanding of the human body.

What is Osteoarthritis?

2011-12-11T09:45:00.000-08:00

Osteoarthritis (OA) can be defined as the degeneration of the hyaline cartilage covering articular surfaces. Secondary effects of the disease include the inflammation of the synovial membrane and subchondral bone (the bone in contact with the cartilage) and the formation of bony growths around the edges of the joint surface.

Osteoarthritis causes pain and functional impairment. It is closely linked to age, mostly affecting people in their 50s and 60s, and has a predisposition for the knee, certain joints in the hand (the distal and proximal interphalangeal joints), the hip and the small joints in the spine. However, the disease can occur in any joint and can affect one or more joints (polyarthritis).

Inside the Human Skull

2011-12-09T15:43:00.000-08:00

The human skull is a bony structure, part of the skeleton, that is in the human head and which supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain.

Understanding Our Food and Ankle

2011-12-09T15:18:00.000-08:00

The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates including human. It is the terminal portion of a let which bears weight and allows us to move freely with balance. The ankle joint is formed where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle, or talocrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus bone in the foot.

How Shoulder and Elbow works together in Human Body?

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How Hip & Knee works in human boday

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The hip is one of your body's largest weight-bearing joints. It consists of two main parts: a ball (femoral head) at the top of your thighbone (femur) that fits into a rounded socket (acetabulum) in your pelvis. Bands of tissue called ligaments connect the ball to the socket and provide stability to the joint.

The bone surfaces of your ball and socket have a smooth durable cover of articular cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones and enables them to move easily.

All remaining surfaces of the hip joint are covered by a thin, smooth tissue called synovial membrane. In a healthy hip, this membrane makes a small amount of fluid that lubricates and almost eliminates friction in your hip joint.

Normally, all of these parts of your hip work in harmony, allowing you to move easily and without pain.

What is Vertebral Column?

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The spine (also called the vertebral column or spinal column) is composed of a series of bones called vertebrae stacked one upon another. There are four regions of the spine:

cervical (neck)
thoracic (chest/trunk)
lumbar (low back)
sacral (pelvic)

The cervical spine is made up of seven cervical vertebrae. The main function of the cervical spine is to support the weight of the head which is approximately 10-12 pounds. The cervical spine has the greatest range of motion, in part because of two specialized vertebra that move with the skull. Cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the vertebrae. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas and is significantly different from the other vertebrae. It is ring-like in shape with two large protrusions on the sides to support the weight of the head. The second cervical vertebra is called the axis.The axis is also unique in that it has a bony peg-like protrusion, called the dens or odontoid on its upper surface that fits within the ring of the atlas. The curve of the neck is described as a lordosis or lordotic curve, and looks like a “C” in reverse.

The main function of the thoracic spine is to protect the organs of the chest, especially the heart and lungs. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae with one rib attached on each side, to create a thoracic cage, which protects the internal organs of the chest. The thoracic spine has a normal kyphosis, or “C” curve. The thoracic spine is less mobile than the cervical and lumbar spine because of the thoracic cage.

The lumbar spine has five lumbar vertebrae, which are the largest vertebrae. These vertebrae are also aligned in a reverse “C” like the cervical spine, creating a normal lumbar lordosis. The five lumbar vertebral bodies are the weight-bearing portion of the spine and are the largest in diameter compared to the thoracic and cervical vertebral bodies. They sit atop the sacrum, which is formed by five vertebrae fused together into a solid unit. There are usually no identifiable disc spaces between the sacral segments. At the end of the spinal column is the coccyx or tailbone. Most people have 33 vertebrae in total, although there may be 32 or 34. Variations are usually found in the lumbar or sacral regions.

Human Skeleton System and Its Different Parts

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The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs and heart.

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. We are actually born with more bones (about 300), but many fuse together as a child grows up. These bones support your body and allow you to move. Bones contain a lot of calcium (an element found in milk, broccoli, and other foods). Bones manufacture blood cells and store important minerals.

The longest bone in our bodies is the femur (thigh bone). The smallest bone is the stirrup bone inside the ear. Each hand has 26 bones in it. Your nose and ears are not made of bone; they are made of cartilage, a flexible substance that is not as hard as bone.

Joints: Bones are connected to other bones at joints. There are many different types of joints, including: fixed joints (such as in the skull, which consists of many bones), hinged joints (such as in the fingers and toes), and ball-and-socket joints (such as the shoulders and hips).

Differences in males and females skeleton system: Males and females have slightly different skeletons, including a different elbow angle. Males have slightly thicker and longer legs and arms; females have a wider pelvis and a larger space within the pelvis, through which babies travel when they are born.

The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the thigh and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 30–40% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water.

What are the levels of structural organization in vertebrate animals, including humans?

2011-12-07T17:58:00.000-08:00

Every vertebrate animal has four major levels of hierarchical organization: cell, tissue, organ, and organ system. Each level in the hierarchy is of increasing complexity, and all organ systems work together to maintain life.

10 Questions That You Must Know About Tennis Elbow

2011-12-07T15:55:00.000-08:00

What is Tennis Elbow?

Tennis Elbow is more technically know as Lateral epicondylitis or lateral epicondylalgia. It is popularly also referred as shooter's elbow and archer's elbow. Basically a tennis elbow is a condition where the outer part of the elbow becomes sore and tender. It is commonly associated with playing tennis and other racquet sports, though the injury can happen to almost anyone.

Overall Population of world 1-3% People affects elbows tennis and a big percentage of tennis approximately 50% tennis player during their careers. Over 5% of all tennis elbow diagnoses are actually related playing tennis. Tennis elbow affects women less than men. People can affect any time and any age. It most affects people 30 to 50 ages.

Tennis elbow most commonly affects people in their dominant arm (that is, a right-handed person would experience pain in the right arm), but it can also occur in the nondominant arm or both arms.

Although tennis elbow mainly affects tennis player also other athletes and who use arms, and wrist movement. Such as golfers, baseball players, bowlers, gardeners or landscapers, house or office cleaners carpenters, mechanics, and assembly-line workers.

Who Gets Tennis Elbow?

Tennis elbow affects 1% to 3% of the population overall and as many as 50% of tennis players during their careers. Less than 5% of all tennis elbow diagnoses are related to actually playing tennis. Tennis elbow affects men more than women. It most often affects people between the ages of 30 and 50, although people of any age can be affected.

Although tennis elbow commonly affects tennis players, it also affects other athletes and people who participate in leisure or work activities that require repetitive arm, elbow, and wrist movement. Examples include golfers, baseball players, bowlers, gardeners or landscapers, house or office cleaners (because of vacuuming, sweeping, and scrubbing), carpenters, mechanics, and assembly-line workers.

How Is Tennis Elbow Diagnosed?

Tennis elbow cannot be diagnosed from blood tests and rarely by X-rays. Rather, it is usually diagnosed by the description of pain you provide to your doctor and certain findings from a physical exam. Since many other conditions can cause pain around the elbow, it is important that you see your doctor so the proper diagnosis can be made. Then your doctor can prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Tennis elbow usually is successfully treated by medical means -- such as cortisone injections and only rarely requires surgery. The type of treatment prescribed for tennis elbow will depend on several factors, including age, type of other drugs being taken, overall health, medical history, and severity of pain. The goals of treatment are to reduce pain or inflammation, promote healing, and decrease stress and abuse on the injured elbow.

What is Golfer's Elbow and how it is different from Tennis Elbow?

Golfer's elbow is pain and inflammation on the inner side of your elbow, where the tendons of your forearm muscles attach to the bony bump on the inside of your elbow. The pain may spread into your forearm and wrist.

Golfer's elbow also known as medial epicondylitis is similar to tennis elbow. But it occurs on the inside rather than the outside of your elbow. And it's not limited to golfers. Tennis players and others who repeatedly use their wrists or clench their fingers also can develop golfer's elbow.

How Pain and Inflammation can be reduced in Tennis Elbow?

To reduce the pain and inflammation of tennis elbow, try:

Rest and avoid any activity that causes pain to the sore elbow.
Apply ice to the affected area.
Take nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen.
Cortisone-type medication may be injected into the sore area by your doctor.

What can you do for yourself in case of Pain with Tennis Elbow?

Even though you are in pain, it is important for you to stay active. Being active can help prevent long-term problems.
If your pain is acute, ice or anti-inflammatory medication may help.
Rest the sore arm for a few days to a week, to give the tissues a chance to heal.
Find exercises, which don’t require repetitive movements of the arm and hand.
Examine which activities make your arm, wrist, and hand feel better or worse. Try to limit those activities, which make you feel worse.
Switch to power driven tools, which allow you to limit repetitive arm turning motions.
Vary your activities frequently.
Take “mini breaks” to rest arm, wrist, and hand, and to correct your posture.

How Corticosteroids is used in Tennis Elbow?

A local anesthetic (lidocaine) may be used first to help with diagnosis. If this shot improves the pain, then a corticosteroid injection is given. Lidocaine is sometimes given with a corticosteroid to reduce the pain of the injection. A corticosteroid injection is sometimes used to treat tennis elbow. Corticosteroids are given to relieve the pain of tennis elbow when other forms of treatment haven't helped.

If you don't find long-term relief after a total of three injections over the course of a year, more injections aren't likely to help and may cause harm. Some doctors believe that corticosteroids should not be given to children. It should be also avoided when infection is suspected.

Is surgery only option to treat tennis elbow?

Surgery is considered a last resort for treating tennis elbow. But if you still have elbow and forearm pain and stiffness after more than 6 to 12 months of non-surgical treatment (rest, ice, rehabilitation), you may consider surgical treatment. When making your decision, keep in mind:

Resting the tendon is important. A typical case of tennis elbow takes 6 to 12 months to heal. In some cases, the pain lasts for 2 years or longer.1 With tendon rest and rehabilitation and (possibly) 1 to 3 corticosteroid shots, most people with tennis elbow heal within a year.

Tennis elbow tendon damage gets worse when you continue painful, aggravating activity.

There are various surgical procedures for treating tennis elbow. But there is no evidence to support any one technique as being most effective or to prove that surgery is better than other treatment.

"Tennis elbow surgery does not guarantee a cure".

What kind of surgery is done for tennis elbow?

Your doctor may recommend an arthroscopic exam of your outer elbow area, with a plan to do surgery if necessary. Types of tennis elbow surgery are:

Removal of scar tissue from the damaged tendon area.
Release (cutting) of the tendon that attaches the extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) muscle to the bone. The ECRB attachment is thought to be the most common site of tennis elbow damage.
Repairing (reattaching) tendon tears if it's possible to do it without overtightening the tendon.

What Is the Outlook for People With Tennis Elbow?

Overall, 90% to 95% of people with tennis elbow will improve and recover with the treatment plan described. However, about 5% of people will not get better with conservative treatment and will need surgery to repair the injured muscle-tendon unit around the elbow. For 80% to 90% of people who have surgery, it results in pain relief and return of strength.

The Kidney

2011-12-06T22:55:00.000-08:00

Kidney: One of a pair of organs located in the right and left side of the abdomen which clear "poisons" from the blood, regulate acid concentration and maintain water balance in the body by excreting urine. The kidneys are part of the urinary tract. The urine then passes through connecting tubes called "ureters" into the bladder. The bladder stores the urine until it is released during urination.

The Effects of Alcohol / Laminated - Scientific Publishing

2011-12-06T21:48:00.000-08:00

The Effects of Alcohol / Laminated - Scientific Publishing:

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What is an organ?

2011-12-06T14:59:00.000-08:00

An organ is a group of several different tissues working together as a unit to perform a specific function or functions. Each organ performs functions that none of the component tissues can perform alone. This cooperative interaction of different tissues is a basic feature of animals, including humans. The heart is an example of an organ. It consists of cardiac muscle wrapped in connective tissue. The heart chambers are lined with epithelium. Nerve tissue controls the rhythmic contractions of the cardiac muscles.

What are the general characteristics of the different types of tissue?

2011-12-06T14:09:00.000-08:00

Each of the four major types of tissue have different functions, are located in different parts of the body, and have certain distinguishing features. The table below explains these differences.