1.Stress-related disorders – i.e. all stress disorders can be considered a consequence of the excessive arousal of the limbic system,

2. Neuro-physiological changes- i.e. stress via the limbic system pathway potentially affects organs through activating excitatory (Post, Rubinow…1986) or inhibitory (Cain, 1992) neurotransmitters. Furthermore prolonged stress can also affect the micromorphological brain structures of hypocampus and amygdala (Cain, 1992), as well as the nucleus of neurons therefore potentially altering genetic messages (Cain, 1992),

3. Cognitive changes – i.e. all psychological mechanisms such as cognition, emotions, memory, and attention can be affected by stress. For example, studies show that cognition and information processing are affected when stress reaches a certain threshold (). Perceptual narrowing by which an individual focuses entirely on the source of the distress to the relative exclusion of other stimuli is one such change that can take place (Wickens, Hollands, 2000) whereas the term cognitive tunnelling defines an individual’s focus on well learned and practiced material when faced with distress (). Beversdorf, Hughes…(1999) have demonstrated that the experience of chronic stress effects the prefrontal cortex and so can lead to a reduction in creativity and flexible problem solving.

4. Similarly, stress has been linked to certain emotions such as surprise, fear or joy for example (Lupien, 2007). However, Lupien () points out that although all stressful experiences elicit an emotional response and concludes that these responses are overlapped, not all emotions cause the individual to have feelings of distress, hence, there is a clear distinction between the experience of stress and emotions under certain conditions and situations. Stress due to stressful life events too have been linked to mood fluctuations in individuals (Bolger, DeLongis…1989).

5. Stress significantly affects memory and learning as studies by Roozendaal (2000) show. Whereby the type of stressor, gender and emotional excitement are all factors that play part in how memory and learning are affected, it has been shown that stress experienced after a learning experience enhance memory retrieval however, if excessive feelings of stress are experienced before a learning experience memory retrieval can be negatively affected. This is due to increased levels of cortisol in the hippocampus area of the brain where memory and learning processing takes place(). This follows that increases in glucocorticoids in the hippocampus area can not only affect an individual’s declarative memory (Lupien, McEwen, 1997) but also his or her working memory (Young, Sahakian…1999) as well as emotional memory (Buchanan & Lovallo, 2001).
There are a number of researchers who have also looked at the positive effects of stress and found that increases in glucorticoids can actually improve the encoding of emotionally loaded information with individual’s being able to better recall the information thus learned and processed at a later stage (Buchanan & Lovallo, 2001). However, Lemaire, Koehl….(2000) emphasise that intense experiences of stress early in life can lead to lasting learning deficits.

6. The effects of stress on attention have also been well researched. On the one hand Oitzel & De Kloet (1992) found that stress causes the activation of Type 1 receptors which in turn increases an individual’s ability to be more vigilant and focus his or her attention on the source of the stressful stimuli rather than on what is happening around it.
On the other hand chronic stress evident through high levels of cortisol can have the effect of significantly interfering with tasks that require focus and attention (Lupien et al 1994).

7. Similarly, interpersonal relationships can also be affected through stress as studies show that people experiencing stressful events together can form a long lasting strong bond with each other (Lindy,1985) whereas on the more negative side traumatic stress could lead to problems with intimacy or closeness with significant others (Escobar et al 1983).

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We are often asked about if we also use Neuro-Linguistic-Programming (NLP) as part of our Hypnosis sessions here in Perth and Fremantle and the answer is yes…we do. However, it would probably be best to explain what Neuro Linguistic Programming actually is.

In essence NLP is an approach that aims to do two things. Firstly, NLP can be used as a desensitization technique and secondly we can use it to form new thought associations to stimuli that previously brought on some undesired responses.

Now… desensitization techniques are generally an excellent way to eliminate phobias, and the ability to retrain our mind to have new thought processes which help to change behaviours when faced with a certain unwelcome set of circumstances.

There are a number of well known NLP techniques such as for example:

The Rewind Technique – typically used with people suffering from fear and is designed to address the various unwanted thoughts, feelings, fears and memories of situations that are connected to an experience of phobia or trauma. This technique requires a person to dissociate (imagined safe place), and run through the traumatic experience in a specific (safe) way over and over until the fear stimulus reduces significantly.

The Swish Technique– is similar to the Rewind Technique in so far as it requires a person to imagine a problem situation or image that needs to be changed and then swish it over to a more positive image. This is repeated many times until the initial negative stimulus is reorganised.

As mentioned at the beginning, the re-programming of a negative stimulus into something more pleasant is the main aim of NLP. There is no doubt in my mind that the various methods by which NLP is applied to undesired mental stimuli, has in many cases the desired effect. For instance, fears and phobias are generated by traumatic experiences that have been stored in the parts of the brain that are known as ‘amygdala’ and the ‘hippocampus’ because for some reason these parts of the brain have come to identify and label an experience as deadly or severely dangerous to our survival.

Consequently, each time the fear stimulus is triggered, the amygdala encourages the secretion of hormones that puts the sufferer of this condition into a fight or flight response.

However, this fight and flight response is something that most certainly has its rational purpose, which is getting away from danger and survive.

And so in order for us to do this quick enough, as soon as our mind has recognised the fear stimulus the amygdala bypasses the parts of the brain that would slow things down with the aim to bring up all the necessary measures to do what needs to be done to survive the situation (faster breathing, adrenaline production, etc). In other words, the parts of our brain that would normally rationalise and think through things before reacting have been sidelined for the benefit of ‘reaction speed’.

Now… there is just one problem with this process. When we are facing a lion running towards us, reacting like this is probably a good and very beneficial idea, but when we have for some reason come to falsely believe that driving through a tunnel is going to kill us, then that ‘automatic reaction’ will be a challenging nuisance rather than a benefit.

NLP techniques can assist in reprogramming how the stimulus is perceived by using a number of available methods. For example in the Rewind Technique the anxiety sufferer learns to view the stimulus from a safe distance and from a variety of different angles without triggering the anxiety. In simple terms, by doing this over and over again, and from different perspectives, the amygdala ‘releases’ (is desensitised) the disturbing information we hold, and allows the information to be stored in different parts of the brain where it no longer triggers the same sort of response. In other words, the person suffering from the anxiety now has the ability to use those parts of the brain that allows for objectively ‘thinking’ through the experience rather than simply ‘reacting’.

Our mind has undoubtedly the ability to be trained and retrained, no matter what the circumstances we might be facing. NLP provides an approach that can be compared to modelling and projecting a better set of thoughts and associated feelings, and if done repeatedly our mind gets used to the models and projections, and thus when we are facing the ‘real’ situation we are prepared and the ‘better’ image (thoughts and feelings) that we are holding comes into play.

This is similar to being trained as a special-forces soldier. The more soldiers in addition to the actual physical training have been subjected to mental images to prepare them for battle, the more they get used to it and when eventually faced with a real battle, they are able to stay in control and face the situation without panic.

As such, we are all somewhat conditioned to react positively, negatively or undecided to various stimuli. As such, when we come to think of it, even a cup of tea can be associated with danger if someone hits us over the head with a stick each time we want to take a sip. If repeatedly exposed to such treatment, we eventually come to get an uneasy feeling just seeing the cup standing there on the table while part of us already anticipates that ‘something terrible’ is going to happen.

In many instances we have already consciously forgotten why we perceive certain things a certain way and all we notice are perhaps some dull uncomfortable feelings. However, if we bring those feelings into awareness and analyse their source we will quickly be able to make a connection between stimulus and response. Once this is done, we can start retraining our mind to produce a more desirable outcome.

NLP provides some very good easy to use mental imaging techniques that help the restructuring process.    Most NLP techniques can be incorporated into hypnosis sessions, which in my opinion, makes them more effective.

by Jorg Thonnissen (2010) Registered Psychologist

We all have been ‘stressed out’ at some point in our lives. In fact, the term ‘stress management’ has gained much popularity over the last few decades. How to practice ‘stress reduction’ when anxiety seems to win the upper hand is a question that many seem to ask. But what is this condition that we call stress, and what does it do? Most importantly, what can we do about stress when we feel all ‘stressed out’?

Being “stressed out” covers a vast array of phenomena ranging from mild irritation to a level of problems that are so severe that they could result in a breakdown of an individual’s health.

The term stress in psychology is defined as the consequences of a person failing to respond appropriately to physical or emotional threats. Here it doesn’t really matter whether these threats are actual or imagined, either way they are real to the person suffering from stress.

There are a multitude of consequences resulting from stress. The most common symptoms include a feeling of a state of alarm, heightened adrenaline production, exhaustion, irritability and difficulties concentrating. There are also a whole range of physiological problems associated with stress such as tension headaches, aches and pains such as chest pain, increased blood pressure, dizziness and nausea as well as constipation and diarrhoea.

Besides the obvious physiological problems caused by stress there are cognitive as well as resulting behavioural signs that include excessive worrying and moodiness, agitation and irritability, feelings of depression, loneliness and isolation. All of these symptoms can typically result in social withdrawal, disrupted sleep patterns, eating excesses, neglect of responsibilities or procrastination. Consequently nervous habits such as nail biting and increased nicotine, alcohol or drug use can result as a coping mechanism to stress.

The effects of stress have been thoroughly researched and divided into three stages.

1.     The first stage is ‘alarm’. This is when we perceive a certain stressor as threatening and in response our body produces adrenaline to be ready for ‘fight or flight’. Consequently, our body produces cortisol which an anti-inflammatory.

2.     The second stage is defined as ‘resistance’. If we keep perceiving a certain situation as stressful, we will need to find ways of coping with the stress. However, even though our body aims to adapt to the situation, the continuous threat   eventually leads to a gradual depletion of resources which will eventually lead to the next stage.

3.     Thus, the third and final stage is ‘exhaustion’. This is the point where the body’s resources have run down to a point where it is unable to maintain its normal function.

It is in this stage that if extended for too long, long term damage may result as a consequence of stress. The exhausted immune system is impaired and illnesses such as digestive problems, ulcers, diabetes, cardiovascular problems or diabetes can occur as a result of prolonged stressors.

In other words, unresolved persistent stress that has not been successfully addressed through coping or adaptation could ultimately lead to anxiety or depressive (withdrawal) behaviours.

Studies indicate that the causes for stress can be manifold and varied. Stress can be caused by pain, relationships, unemployment, employment, insufficient sleep, project deadlines, poverty, exams, abuse, etc. to name only a few.

As mentioned earlier, the effects of chronic stress have been extensively researched and there seems to be no doubt that the body’s immune system can be severely affected by persistent stress. Studies have shown that chronic stress can significantly increase vulnerability to infections and skin disorders, impair developmental growth in children and may even affect the levels of visceral fat production in the body which in turn increases the chances of developing heart disease or other related health problems.

The diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder is probably one of the most extreme types of diagnosis relating to severe stressors. As such it is a severe reaction to a traumatic experience or ongoing experiences.

Understanding the potential damaging effects of ongoing stress it is crucial to understand that stress must be managed if one wants to avoid increased propensity to psychological and physiological illness.

Stress management are techniques that can be learned and which have the purpose to equip people with effective coping skills when faced with psychological stress.

Hypnotherapy has much to offer in terms of stress management and in my experience I found that once a stressor has been removed or the perception of the stressor altered clients quickly find relieve from anxiety and the kind of doom and gloom feeling that hangs over their head most of the time.  Sometimes it really doesn’t take much and the world that looked so dark and heavy all of a sudden looks a lot brighter and lighter.

By Jorg Thonnissen (2010) Psychologist

Food is often used as a substitute for things that are missing in our lives. For this reason, we will need to first and foremost, identify what triggers the kind of eating pattern/s you wish to change.
Many people come to realise that these triggers, and their eating, are closely linked to the way they feel. In other words, individuals may come to discover that they eat because they feel stressed, sad, depressed, unloved, bored, etc. Then, based on these triggers and the associated feelings, clients may unknowingly develop a certain behavioural pattern which they keep reinforcing throughout their day.
For instance, think of how easy or automatic a habit or ritual it is to come home from a day at work, walk through the door, take off your jacket, look at the mail while turning on the kettle and grab something out of the fridge or cupboard to eat or, snacking on a bag of chips or some cheese and wine while watching your favourite TV show or a movie, so as to make yourself comfortable and give yourself that feeling of being ‘nurtured’.

For these and other instances, food can give us the impression of feeling ‘full’ inside, especially when we are emotionally drained. In fact, certain foods have a definite physiological effect on how we feel. For instance, there is evidence that eating chocolate increases the levels of endorphins released into the brain, giving credence to the claim that chocolate is a comfort food. Another common neurotransmitter affected by chocolate is serotonin – a brain chemical that when low, is linked to depression. Either way, the more often the daily food ritual is repeated, the more we tend to have the desire to eat when the triggers are evident.

With such seemingly harmless habits or rituals as those mentioned above, you can see why for most of us, starting and maintaining a strict exercise or healthy food routine seems extremely difficult if not nearly impossible for a lot of people. This is particularly so when we are so busy trying to balance work life and home life that we often have very little time left for anything else.
By using hypnosis, a person can be trained at a subconscious level to achieve the goals that they set for themselves. Hypnosis can help you feel more relaxed and to deal with stress in a different, more productive manner. It can induce positive thinking, and a needed change in attitude to get you where you want to go.
As with any diet or exercise program, to make weight loss effective through using hypnosis, the person who is being hypnotised has to make the commitment to achieving the goals that are set.

The first and most important stage is to identify when you eat, and what the underlying beliefs and issues are that lead to excessive eating. Following this, we will aim to instil specific commands at a conscious and subconscious level to help achieve the goals you have set out to accomplish, and to deal with the beliefs and behaviours associated with your weight.
There is little doubt that a change in belief and behaviour will ultimately lead to a more desired outcome. Hypnotherapy, therefore, is a form of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), with the difference from other forms of CBT being that hypnotherapy seems to overcome our somewhat subconscious resistance to changing behaviours much faster.
Using hypnosis can be an effective tool towards losing weight. Simple commands can assist in shedding habits that most overweight people share, such as eating too fast, dealing with stress by eating, and using food as a substitute to addressing emotional issues. To tailor hypnotic commands to your specific needs, such commands are derived from the list of commands that you will have nominated to be incorporated into your hypnosis session.

By tailoring a program to your specific needs, you are helping to ensure success towards your chosen goals.

By Jorg Thonnissen (2010) Registered Psychologist

Many people ask me if our thoughts can truly affect our body. I guess because I have just so firmly come to accept this, that it still surprises me that one should think that this may not be so. In fact, our mind has the power to affect our cells in a most fundamental way. For this to happen we don’t even have to be in a hypnotic state. For instance, the mind can select specific cells and ignore others. For those of us who find this hard to believe, let me outline a few scenarios where this becomes quite clear.

For example when walking down a restaurant strip we may encounter the smell that reminds us of our favourite food and this stimulus makes us salivate and if the desire is strong enough we may stop by and buy one of those seemingly irresistible food items. Now…if we simply keep walking and thus get out of reach of the stimulus this desire would eventually come to pass and salivation stop. Looking at it from this perspective, we can say that the mere thought of food (instigated by the smell which we associate with the food) has influenced us on a cellular level to display a physiological response.

Similarly, the mother of an infant hearing a baby cry will automatically lactate even if the baby crying is not hers. This process operates on a subconscious level without the mother even needing to be aware of it. Likewise, the mere thought of sexual activity can potentially arouse us without physical sexual stimulation needing to be present.

So, one could easily argue that thoughts are most definitely influential on the physiology of the body. Thus, it is no surprise that many people believe that our thoughts have the power to substantially alter the course of illness and disease. If the right sort of suggestions is given, the body will actively respond.

Everyone at some point in their life will suffer from anxiety; it is a regular experience for most people. Anxiety can increase alertness and performance in certain situations although it can quickly become an awkward feeling of fear or disaster close at hand, this is a very normal emotional response to danger.

The triggers that make one person feel anxious may not trigger the same response in someone else. However, people who experience ongoing fears or episodes can feel so powerless that it interferes with their normal day-to-day activities.

These people are said to suffer from an anxiety disorder. It may be triggered by certain situations or there may seem to be no visible trigger at all. Anxiety Disorders affect at least 12 % of Australians at some time in their lives and unfortunately, only a small percentage will seek treatment.

What causes anxiety disorders?

Nobody really knows for certain the cause. One explanation explain that it is a response of the body to a stressful situation. Most of the signs of an anxiety disorder imitate the flight or fright response. This reaction is caused by a biochemical or physiological response the body goes through when open to danger. This process affects the release of hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline in the body. This can make the heart pump faster and faster and the person affected will become more alert.

Types of anxiety disorders ;
- Social Anxiety
- Panic Disorder
- Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

When an anxiety disorder goes untreated they can cause secondary conditions like depression, drug or alcohol abuse and agro phobia. The good news is that generally anxiety disorders can be effectively treated with Hypnotherapy.

Hypnotherapy works by amplifying your mind to feel calm and relaxed. By using your subconscious mind, hypnotherapy can relieve anxiety using direct suggestion and by changing your behavioral patterns. Hypnotherapy allows you to better control over how you feel, react and behave.

If you would like to discover how hypnotherapy can help you to manage your anxiety please Contact Us and we will be happy to discuss a treatment plan specifically for you.

by Jorg Thonnissen, psychologist

According to Lifeline Australia 91% of adults reported feelings of stress in areas of health (55%), relationships (41%), work worries (72%), finances (67%) and thoughts about their future (65%) (Lifeline, 2008). Considering that prolonged stress is an overwhelming reality for Australians and is known to cause not only harm to mental, but also physical health the article suggests some urgency in addressing the issue through the development of effective coping strategies (Lifeline, 2008)

What is Stress?

“Stress results from an imbalance between demands and resources. It is a psychological, physiological and behavioural response by individuals when they perceive a lack of equilibrium between the demands placed upon them and their ability to meet those demands” Bakker, Terluin, van Marwijk, Gundy, Smit., van Mechelen&Stalman, (2006)

“Stress has been defined in different ways over the years. Originally, it was conceived of as pressure from the environment, then as strain within the person. The generally accepted definition today is one of interaction between the situation and the individual. Stress is the psychological and physical state that results when the resources of the individual are not sufficient to cope with the demands and pressures of the situation. Thus, stress is more likely in some situations than others and in some individuals than others” (Michie, 2002).

(Monroe, 2008) conceptualizes stress as the organisms response to challenging or harmful conditions.

Classification of stress in research

Put simply, researchers agree that stress has two components, one is psychological and the other is physiological in nature. It is commonly assumed that we respond to external events whether they are real or imagined with a set of responses that is referred to as General Adaptation Syndrome, also called the stress response which is adapted to the nature of the event.

Based on the notion that stress is a set of adaptive neurological and physiological reactions    stress research has been traditionally focused on studies investigating the organism’s response to stressful stimuli as well as cognitive processes influencing stress perception (Franken, 1994)

However, Seyle (1982) found that very few people can actually classify their experience of stress in the same way and even less are able to clearly define what exactly stress means to them. However, Seyle (1982) also found that not only pain, fear, fatigue or effort can cause stress but also success and these rather dissimilar stress producing aspects have led to a great variety of definitions of stress, causes, consequences and treatments in research.

Thus, there are a number of interpretations for the concept of ‘stress’ in psychology (Joshi, 2005).

(Khoozani & Hadzic, 2010) point out, that there is little agreement on the precise definition of the term, which in turn has led to a great degree of ambiguity in how to measure the various causes and corresponding effects of stress simply because researchers based their studies on different interpretations of stress (Monroe, 2008).

Realizing the need for better classification (Khoozani & Hadzic, 2010) proposed a human stress ontology model with the aim to define the concept in a way that would enable researchers to compare data collected on the basis of similar interpretations of the human stress concept. Their research led them to a model in which they defined the human stress concept by organizing it into 5 sub ontologies consisting of stress causes, stress treatment, stress measurements, stress mediators, and stress effects (see table below).

Stress causes

1. a.        Psychological Relative
2. b.       Biogenic Absolute
3. c.        Objective
4. d.       Subjective
5. e.        Acute
6. f.         Chronic
7. g.       Psychological

Stress mediators

                                                               i.      Coping patterns

                                                             ii.      Cognitive factors

1. 1.        Cognitive appraisal
2. 2.        Dysfunctional beliefs
3. 3.        Perceived control
4. 4.        Perceived support

                                                           iii.      Personality patterns

1. 1.        Type A personality
2. 2.        Neuroticism
3. 3.        Negative affect tendencies
4. 4.        Trait anxiety
5. 5.        Hardiness
6. 6.        Conscientiousness

                                                            iv.      Developmental factors

1. 1.        Childhood
2. 2.        Adolescents
3. 3.        Adulthood
4. 4.        Elderly

                                                              v.      Gender related factors

1. h.       Neurophysiological

                                                               i.      HPA axis

                                                             ii.      Limbic system reactions

1. 1.        Limbic hypersensitivity

                                                           iii.      Stress hormones

1. 1.        Glucocorticoi
2. 2.        Catecholamine

                                                            iv.      Stress hormone receptors

1. 1.        Type 1
2. 2.        Type 2
   1. i.         Situational

                                                               i.      Socioeconomic factors

                                                             ii.      Cultural factors

Stress effects

1. j.         Stress related disorders
2. k.       Neurophysiological alterations

                                                               i.      Lymbic system hypersensitivity

                                                             ii.      Insulin secretion

1. l.         Cognitive alterations

                                                               i.      Perceptual tunnelling

                                                             ii.      Creativity

                                                           iii.      Perceptual narrowing

                                                            iv.      Cognitive tunnelling

                                                              v.      Retrieval threshold

                                                            vi.      Cognitive activation

                                                          vii.      Flexible problem solving

                                                        viii.      Dysfunctional cognitive processing

1. m.     Emotion alterations

                                                               i.      Mood fluctuations

                                                             ii.      Fear

                                                           iii.      Joy

                                                            iv.      Surprise

1. n.       Memory and learning alterations

                                                               i.      Learning deficits

                                                             ii.      Memory consolidation

                                                           iii.      Memory retrieval

                                                            iv.      Declarative memory

                                                              v.      Working memory

                                                            vi.      Long term memory

                                                          vii.      Emotional memory

1. o.       Attention alterations

                                                               i.      Arousal

                                                             ii.      Divided attention

                                                           iii.      Selective attention

                                                            iv.      Vigilance

1. p.       Interpersonal relationships

                                                               i.      Emotional bonding

                                                             ii.      Sexual relationships

                                                           iii.      Intimacy relationships

Stress treatments

1. q.       Psychotherapy
2. r.        Pharmacotherapy
3. s.        Physiological techniques
4. t.         Alternative therapies
5. u.       Measurement of stressors
6. v.        Measurement of stress feelings
7. w.      Measurement of stress physiology

Stress measurements

1. a.        Measurement of stressors
2. b.       Measurement of stress feelings
3. c.        Measurement of stress physiology

The Stress Article Series: 

Stress Article 1

Stress Article 2

Stress Article 3

Stress Article 4

Stress treatment can consist of psychotherapy techniques, pharmacotherapy in conjunction with psychiatric interventions, physiological techniques and a number of other complimentary therapies.

Psychotherapy

The aim of psychotherapy is to change an individual’s cognitive style in order to better function emotionally and more positively when exposed to stressful stimuli. For example, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) focuses on identifying irrational and therefore stress -inducing thought patterns and their modification into more rational constructs. Group CBT designed to treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in individuals has shown to yield effective results.

However in order to get better results from psychotherapeutic interventions a number of other psychological factors need also be considered. For instance Zinbarg and Uli (2008) identified personality factors as a significant contributor of how conditions such as anxiety, depression, and other stress related disorders should be diagnosed and consequently treated.

Everly (1987) too pointed out that an individual’s personality should be taken into consideration when designing psychotherapy strategies as a person’s distinctive style of personality can inform which kind of psychological stressors are most likely to cause distress. As such personality offers an opportunity to diagnose, monitor the progress and responsiveness to treatment strategies and subsequent recovery from stress related diseases in individuals (Everly 1987).

Pharmacotherapy

A number of studies suggest that hormone imbalances and imbalances in homeostasis can be instigated by a disruption in inhibitory factors which in turn could lead to a physiological positive feedback factor consequently causing stress related disorders to occur (Greengaard 1987).  A number of psychiatric medications have been developed to assist individuals regaining their homeostatic equilibrium suffering from this condition (Greengaard, 1987).

Physiological strategies

The hypersensitivity phenomenon within the limbic system has also been the focus of specific methods or techniques of physiologically based therapies aiming to reduce stress via exercise, nutrition, breathing, muscular relaxation, or massage for example.

Alternative therapies

Other modes of therapies designed to tackle stress disorders include hydrotherapy, meditation, per- suggestion and prayer (Benson 1984).

The measurement of stress

The problem that comes with the measurement of stress is largely due to the often subjective variables aiming to define the construct. What is stressful to one person may not be so for another and so various definitions of what constitutes stress are the consequence. Thus, measurement tools designed to capture the construct are varied and plentiful and some argue that this has led to inconsistencies and consequently resulted in phenomenological and methodological mistakes in their design (Khoozani).  Monroe (2008) points out that especially some self-report measures specifically designed to measure stressful life events also ask participants to appraise their feelings of stress therefore bringing in an element of subjectivity which in itself constitutes a flaw in methodological design.

Generally speaking, there are three areas of measurement in stress research, measurement of life stressors, measurements of stress feelings and measurements of stress physiology.

Measurement of stressors

There are a number of tools designed to measure stress causing events in an individual’s life. For example Holmes and Rahe (1967)examined a sample of 5000 people by correlating their medical records to a rating list of 43 stressful life events in an investigation aiming to find out if these events could have caused  their medical condition and thus found that a significant positive correlation of 0.118 existed.

In 1970, in an attempt to test the reliability of the scale over time a further sample consisting of 2500 people was asked to rate their life events over the previous 6 months after which medical records were examined over the next 6 months following thereafter with the result that the hypothesis of a positive correlation of 0.118 between stress scale scores and illness could be confirmed  (Holmes & Rahe, 1967)

Since then many more have been designed notably the Hassles Scale (Lazarus 1985), the Life Stressor Checklist (Wolfe 1997), and the Stressful Life Experience Screening measure (Stamm 1996)

Measurement of stress feelings

As stress feelings are the response of subjective (perceived) cognitive and emotional processing some scales like the on interactional stress theory based Derogatis Stress Scale (DSS) (Derogatis 1994) evaluate a combination life events, personality factors, as well as emotional responses to capture the construct. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen 1983) is perhaps one of the most widely used tools aiming to measure how certain situations are perceived as stressful or uncontrollable.

Measurement of stress physiology

The measurement of stress physiology based on its focus can be divided into four subclasses:

Neural axis

The measurement of the neural axis involve technologies such as for example electrodermal, electromyographic , or cardiovascular techniques to investigate the state stress response there and then instead of the long term effects of stress.

Neuroendocrine axis

Here urine, plasma and saliva are used to investigate the levels of the adrenal medullary catecholamines such as adrenaline or noradrenaline to find out how stress affects the organism.

Endocrine axis

The measurement of cortisol indicating the level of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and catecholamines in the blood is considered one of the most effective measures of the organisms stress response. (Kirschbaum 1995)

Target organ

Other measurements of the stress response are focused on specific target organs, i.e. an investigation into how organs like the heart, stomach or intestines for example may be affected though exposure to stress.

The Stress Article Series: 

Stress Article 1

Stress Article 2

Stress Article 3

Stress Article 4

By Barbara Saba (2010)
(M.H.C., Grad. Dip. H C., Dip. Ed., Cert. Hyp., QMACA)
Counsellor/Hypnotherapist, NLP Practitioner)

Over the past two decades, there has been a significant rise in the number of people who have problems conceiving. It is not uncommon to take two or three years to conceive a first child. And for those who seek medical help, 30% are told they have “unexplained infertility’ – infertility for which medical science can offer no explanation.

When trying to have a baby, the chances of conceiving in any given month is 20%. For woman over 40, the odds reduce to 5%. In recent years the average age of women having their first baby has increased as women seek to establish their careers first. They are so often faced by a constant barrage from the media and well meaning friends and colleagues about their age and “ticking of the biological clock” -creating a pre-occupation with falling pregnant and increasing levels of stress and anxiety when the test comes back negative. The relationship between stress and infertility is still not very well understood.

There is little doubt that infertility causes stress and now there appears to be a growing body of evidence to suggest that stress may cause infertility. Whilst the exact pathways between fertility and stress remain a mystery, Allen Morgan, MD, director of Shore Institute of Reproductive Medicine in N.J, USA, says that when stress-reduction techniques are used, something happens to women that allows them to get pregnant when they have been unable to do so in the past. Where does hypnotherapy fit in? Our minds have a powerful effect over our bodies. When stress is lifted, the body starts to function as it is meant to.

Hypnotherapy can release your fears and the stress of infertility by: o Clearing the subconcious blocks to conception such as fear of childbirth or parenting.

• Teaching you to relax and gain confidence in your mind and body
• Boosting your self esteem and emotional well being
• Optimizing your chances of conceiving naturally.

A reduction in stress is known to enhance the immune system, restore balance to your hormonal system thus creating a healthier body which is needed to accept and nurture a pregnancy.

What about IVF Whilst the success rate of modern fertility is high, for the majority of couples it has been a long and hard journey to this point and multiple IVF treatment cycles may be necessary before a successful pregnancy. Learning to manage stress is an important step towards realizing this goal. Hypnotherapy offers invaluable support to women undergoing IVF or other medical interventions. Researchers at the University of Oroka in Israel found that hypnosis doubles the success rate of IVF.

These findings were presented to the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology Conference in 2004. The researchers found that hypnosis had a significant effect on successful embryo transfer in IVF. Studies conducted by Alice Domar, PhD, director of the Beth Israel Deaconess Behavioural Medicine Program for Infertility in Boston suggest unresolved issues about having a baby can be removed with counselling and mind/body techniques such as hypnotherapy.

In the first study published in 1999 in the Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 42% of 132 infertile women in the program conceived within six months of completing it. In the second study, published in 2000 in the journal Fertility and Sterility, 55% of the previously infertile women who met regularly in a mind/body program conceived, compared with 20% of the control group who used no mind/body techniques and who did not attend meetings.

The causes of infertility remain complicated and diverse and despite daily breakthroughs in medical research, there are no guarantees. What we can do is maximize the chances of conceiving naturally or increase the success of medical intervention. Hypotherapy is safe and complements any medical procedure. By reducing stress and increasing confidence, it instills a sense of control in the client with impressive results.

By Barbara Saba (2010)
(M.H.C., Grad. Dip. H C., Dip. Ed., Cert. Hyp., QMACA)
Counsellor/Hypnotherapist, NLP Practitioner)

What is Hypno-birthing?

Expectant Motherhood is a massive life change for all those involved. There are always uncertainties, anxieties and a range of emotions experienced. Many women have now turned to hypno-birthing as a natural alternative to help them through the course of their pregnancy.

Hypno-birthing is a series of hypnosis sessions that deals with the many aspects of pregnancy. It may start at pre conception when a woman wants to be able to conceive and finish weeks after the baby is born. Hypno-birthing helps the expectant mother along in helping to deal with the many aspects of pregnancy. Hypno-birthing helps the mother prepare herself and gain confidence that she is capable to pull from her own resources and experience her pregnancy in a rewarding and stress free manner.

Hypno-birthing also helps the expectant mother learn to work with her body as opposed to fight against it. It also helps the mother understand the changes in her body and feel comfortable with every step along the way.

Things that may be achieved through hypno-birthing:

-Reduced anxiety

In some cases pain free natural childbirth.

-Overcoming fertility issues

- Reduced stretch marks

- Reduced weight gain

- No morning sickness

- Shorter labor

- Lessen the chance of being susceptible to Post Natal Depression.