Ignoring Friction

Plastic Flow

2009-01-28T00:41:00.002-05:00

The ability for plastic to change shape and absorb impact without shattering is described as plastic flow. Plastics absorb energy instead of shattering. Plastics therefore are used instead of glass to make bulletproof “glass,” windshields, and eyeglass lenses. This property, although very useful, is also not well understood, or, at least, the characteristics of plastics which make this possible are not well understood. Currently research is being conducted to explore this property of plastics at the University of Wisconsin, Madison by chemistry professor Mark Ediger.

Professor Ediger is using nanotechnologies to examine the processes that plastics undergo at high impacts. Nanotechnology has made it possible to understand so much more about the world around us. Nanotechnology has provided new ways of understanding why computer technology works, new ways of visualizing bacteria, and new ways of creating models of behavior. At the nano-level behavior is less easily understood than at a macro level. At the high levels of impact, Ediger has reported that the movement plastics’ constituent molecules “increases dramatically…with molecular rearrangements occurring up to 1,000 times faster than without the stress.” Only recently, have scientists been able to examine molecular behavior on a grand scale and the rearrangements can actually be observed.

It is important to be able to observe the behavior in order to understand the behavior. And it is important to understand the behavior in order to know how the material will react under certain circumstances so that it can be used appropriately. More observation also can lead scientists to understand how a material will react later in its life after undergoing stresses. Ediger hopes to create models of stress on plastics, so that plastics can be better used in the future and so that the life of plastic parts can be extended.

References: http://www.nano.org.uk/news/nov2008/latest1706.htm

What's Gonna Get You?

2008-12-22T21:27:00.001-05:00

How have the leading causes of death in the United States changed since World War I? By compiling values recorded by the Center for Disease Control, I have created graphs of these causes in 1918, 1958, and 1998 for comparison. The first observation I would like to point out is the large percentage of Pneumonia and Influenza deaths in 1918. It was the number one cause of death that year (33% of deaths) and many of the surrounding years as well, yet by 1958 we can see it had declined to a measly sixth cause of death (4% of deaths). It was again sixth in 1998 (3% of deaths). In 1918 nearly four times as many people died from Pneumonia and Influenza than the number 2 leading cause of death, heart disease, so falling from 1st to 6th is a large drop. Why this large defenestration? One solid explanation is the development of antibiotics and vaccines. In 1918 there was a large influenza pandemic and in the 1940's the U.S. military developed the first approved vaccine for influenza, which explains the 1958 ranking. The development of antibiotics did not mature until the 1940's, which explains why Tuberculosis fell from 3rd place to off the charts in 1958, 1998, and hopefully for good in the United States.

Another rather drastic change is the rise of Cancer as a leading cause in death in the United States. In 1918 it was the number six leading cause of death (4% of deaths) yet by 1958 it became the number 2 cause of death (15% of deaths) and remained number 2 in 1998 (23% of deaths). This is due to a combination of two basic factors. The first is probably the most recognized today, and that is the rise in use of machines, materials and foods that give off a significant amount of radiation; this is, however, not an object of real concern because the amount of radiation released is often insignificant and of no real danger. The more likely culprit is the increase in lifespan of individuals living in the United States. Cancer is an old age disease. The reason cancer "didn't exist" hundreds of years ago is that it actually did exist, only nobody lived quite long enough for enough genetic mutations to manifest themselves. As life expectancy went up after 1918, so did incidence of cancer.

The last most apparent observation I would like to point out is the apparent rise and dominance of Heart Disease as the leading cause of death in the United States after 1918. Similar to cancer you could argue a larger presence of heart-weakening factors increases Heart Disease risk, however a more valid explanation may lie in the lessening of risk of the other methods of mortality. As risk of infectious disease goes down, other causes seem to go up, only because they are simply what remains.

Acknowledgements:
The values on the graphs were created based on information compiled by the Center for Disease Control, which may be found on the following online pdf (last checked 11/20/2008): http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/dvs/lead1900_98.pdf

Luke...I am your father.

2008-12-21T11:28:00.009-05:00

Think about how many times during the day you use your hands, whether it be to pick up something, to hold something, or to even feel something. Now imagine you no longer have your hands. You no longer have the ability to perform simple tasks like picking up an object. This is the case for millions of Americans who have lost their arm(s) and are unable to perform the same tasks that many of us take for granted every day.

Before the Luke arm, prosthetic arms only had three powered joints as well as three degrees of freedom. A user could move their elbow, their wris t, and open and close some type of hook where the hand would normally be. The problem with this type of prosthetic is that it is frustrating to control and does not provide that much functionality (IEEE Spectrum). Often people who had lost their arms opted to not even wear this type of prosthetic because wearing the burdensome prosthetic was simply not justified by the small amount of assistance it provided. For as technologically advanced as this world had become, prosthetics was living in the age of the Flintstones. A new prosthetic had to be created that would give amputees’ more range of motion and fine motor control but it also had to be modular, usable by anyone with any level of amputation.

Technology has finally caught up and the Luke arm has been created. The Luke arm is a prosthesis named after the lifelike prosthetic worn by Luke Skywalker in Star Wars and was created by Dean Kamen. The Luke arm is a scientific breakthrough in the world of prosthetics due to its remarkable ability to act like a real human arm and hand. Microprocessors have been made small enough and power consumption has become efficient enough to place control electronics, lithium batteries, motors and wiring into a compartment the same size, shape and weight as the human arm. A human arm has a total of twenty two degrees of freedom, a lot more than the prosthetic arms most people are using now. What makes the Luke arm better than previous prosthetics is the fact that the Luke arm has eighteen degrees of freedom. The Luke arm has many degrees of freedom due to the enormous amount of circuitry inside the arm, which allows for its agility (technovelgy.com).

The Luke arm has tremendous motor control so that people who use the arm are able to pick up coffee beans one at a time, hold a power drill and even unlock a door.The reason the Luke arm has such fine motor control is the use of tactors. A tactor is a small vibrating motor-about the size of a bite size candy bar- that is placed against the user’s skin. A sensor on the Luke hand, which is connected to a microprocessor, sends a signal to a tactor, and that signal adjusts the grip strength of the hand. When a user grips something lightly, the tactor vibrates slightly. As the user’s grip tightens, the frequency of the vibrations increase (IEEE Spectrum). This is a non-operative way that allows users to pick up a paper cup without crushing it or firmly hold objects without dropping them.

Another way to control the Luke arm was discovered by neuroscientist Todd Kuiken of the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, who has successfully been able to surgically connect amputees’ residual nerves, which connect the upper spinal cord to the 70,000 nerve fibers in the arm, to the pectoral muscles. The patient thinks about moving the arm and signals travel down the nerves that were previously connected to the arm but are now connected to the chest. The chest muscles now contract in response to the nerve signals, instead of the arm muscles. The contractions are sensed by electrodes on the chest and those electrodes send signals to the Luke arm, allowing it to move (IEEE Spectrum). By using the Luke arm, amputees are still able to create signals from their brain to their arm; the only difference is that there is a robotic arm there instead.

Before the Luke arm is available to the public it must first be approved by the FDA, and it cannot be approved until several clinical trials have been performed.

Below is a video demonstrating how the Luke arm works and its capabilities.

References

Adee, Sarah. (February 2008). Dean Kamen’s “Luke Arm” Prosthesis Readies for Clinical Trial. Retrieved November 25, 2008, from http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/feb08/5957

Chistensen, Bill. (2008, February 3). Luke Arm Robotic Prosthesis. Retrieved November 25, 2008, from http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/Science-Fiction-News.asp?NewsNum=1432

Pictures

http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/feb08/5957

http://robotslife.wordpress.com/2008/02/07/dean-kamens-luke-artificial-arm-gets-demoed-on-video/

Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0_mLumx-6Y

Coriolis Effect

2008-12-20T20:28:00.008-05:00

The Coriolis Effect is the apparent deflection of a moving object when viewed from a rotating frame of reference. The effect is named after the French scientist who first described it in 1835. The effect is most commonly associated with the rotation of the Earth. Objects that travel in a straight path appear to veer right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere. In actuality the object stays on a straight path and only appears to curve due to our rotating due to our rotating frame of reference on the Earth.

The apparent force causing a Coriolis Effect is a fictitious force because the effect is only obtained in a rotating frame of reference. When visualized from the inertial frame of reference it is apparent that there is not actual force working on the object. However, despite the fictitious nature of the force, it can be describes in mathematical terms.

F= -2mΩ x v

Where: F is the Coriolis Force; m is the mass of the rotating object; v is the velocity of the particle; and Ω is the angular velocity vector of the rotating object.

Mathematically explaining the Coriolis Effect is important in order to make predictions on the observed path of objects on the Earth. Two common uses of the Coriolis Effect are in long range ballistics and meteorology.

Coriolis Effect on Ballistics

The Coriolis Effect has implications on long range ballistics, such as artillery shells. Due to the rotation of the Earth, the ballistic will appear to hit to the right of the target in the Northern Hemisphere. The ballistic itself is not curving but following a straight path. It is the rotation of the Earth that makes the ballistic miss.

An object that moves longitudinally along the Earth will appear to deflect to the right because of the eastward rotation of the Earth. In order to compensate for this deflection, the artillery round must be aimed to the left of the actual target in order to hit the target.

The principles of the Coriolis Effect are best exemplified on a smaller frame of reference. This animation of two figures passing a ball on a moving carousel demonstrates the principles of the Coriolis Effect as seen on Earth. When the one figure passes the ball from the center of the rotating carousel to the outside, the ball's trajectory will remain straight; however it will miss the recipient because of the rotation of the carousel. When both figures are on the outside of the carousel and pass the ball, the ball will travel straight but will appear to swerve in relation to the figures on the carousel.

Coriolis Effect on Meteorology

Air tends to flow from low pressure areas to high pressure areas. However, when we observe the actual flow of air masses notice a tendency to flow perpendicular to low pressure areas. This phenomenon can be explained by the Coriolis Effect. As the following video shows, we would predict the flow of air to go directly towards the low pressure zone. However, since the Earth is rotating, we observe an air flow perpendicular to the expected path. Meteorologists need to account for this effect when making weather forecasts.

References:

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/crls.rxml

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/coriolis_effect.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU

http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDhOKR6gKzc

Skyscraper Structural Support: What holds 'em up?

2008-12-20T17:43:00.014-05:00

The development of skyscrapers is a process which had its birth in the ancient world, with the construction of such wonders as the pyramids of Egypt and the Great Lighthouse Pharos of Alexandria. Yet these ancient structures remained the exceptions to the norm of structural height until the dawn of American industrialization. Throughout most of human architectural history, cathedrals and temples were the largest structures to be built, but their heights were limited by the engineering limitations of the time. Today, skyscrapers are an ordinary feature of most modern industrialized cities. There were countless advances in engineering over the centuries which led to the development of modern skyscrapers, but none so influential as those in the late 19th and 20th centuries. I will explore a few main factors which contributed to the ability to build modern skyscrapers which have become such a necessity in modern industrialized cities.

Skyscraper with steel and concrete core: Photo from allaboutskyscrapers.com

The primary factor which has allowed engineers to overcome the boundaries of building tall structures is the use of steel frames. In the past, attaining any significant height required that a structure’s base be wide to compensate for the increase in the force of gravity created by the weight of the upper levels. This situation meant that as the height of a structure increased, its base had to increase by an increasingly larger factor. The layout of modern cities does not provide the space for such buildings to be erected, and so an alternative is necessary. The use of steel frames (preceded by iron frames) allows for very high construction with no need for a large base. A steel skeleton of rails, riveted together with steel plates, and connected to massive steel columns is what makes up the frames of average skyscrapers today. The huge columns, encased in concrete, are what support the brunt of the force of gravity acting on a building. Functioning like a spine at the core they channel the gravitational forces down through the frame and into the piled foundation below, which is supported by the bedrock beneath. The support structure of some buildings, such as the Sears Tower, is located on the outer perimeter of the building. This so-called “hollow tube” design works in much the same way. (Wells 20)

Skyscraper foundation support (several of these hold up the main columns): Photo from howstuffworks.com

Generally, all of the steel support structure is coated in fire-resistant material to ensure that it is protected from warping under extreme heat. The “flimsy fire cladding” (Wells 19) of the steel structure was a factor in the collapse of the World Trade Center towers during the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001. It is believed that the impact of the hijacked airplanes largely stripped away this coating, and exposed the superstructure to fire. Once weakened, the beams gave way and resulted in unequal distributions of weight onto lower beams, which were not designed for the strain and collapsed in a domino effect.

The physics associated with the support systems of skyscrapers is complex and fascinating. Virtually every aspect of this science is applied in the design and construction of the supports. The force of gravity, as mentioned above, must be considered thoughtfully when designing the foundation, so that its surface area distributes the weight of the structure effectively. The frictional forces between the steel and concrete foundations and their surroundings must be assessed as well for the distribution of weight. Compressive and tensile strengths of both steel and other materials used in construction must be known in order to assure their proper use and maintain structural integrity. Thermal expansion characteristics of all the supporting material must be known in every conceivable temperature they may endure.

Additionally, buildings must be constructed so that they can be subjugated to natural forces and still maintain structural stability. Wind is prime among these forces. A building must be able to withstand the forces associated with high winds; a problem which must be addressed with care in the tallest of buildings, as wind pressure increases by a power of three with height (Wells 15). Skyscrapers built in earthquake zones are particularly complex. A thicker, stronger-than-normal internal structure is required, as well as complex dampening systems of springs and flexible materials which absorb and distribute the kinetic energy of earthquakes, maintaining the vertical equilibrium of the building.

Today’s skyscrapers, though enormous, are limited by the imperfections of human technology. We can only build them so high. Matthew Wells describes the theoretical vertical limit of a skyscraper, using current building materials, as being 18 kilometers high. However, due the deficiencies of construction, and the unpredictability of environmental forces, he sets the practical limit at 1.60 kilometers. And yet, as of today, we have yet to achieve more than half that height. The Burj Dubai, still under construction, will be the tallest man-made structure on the planet when completed, and stand at 818 meters or more. That is a formidable accomplishment for structural engineers, and yet it is well below the highest conceivable limit.

Burj Dubai: Photo from Dvice.com

It is easy to imagine going beyond the heights achieved by modern skyscrapers, (science fiction authors do it all the time), but actually building futuristic supertall structures requires overcoming many engineering obstacles. One of these is the fundamental problem of base size. Steel can only do so much, and eventually we reach the point where we need to augment or buttress the base in order to compensate for the increasing force of gravity applied to the foundations by the materials high up. Just looking at the photo of the Burj Dubai above reveals that the engineers still needed to follow a somewhat pyramid-like design even with the most up-to-date building materials.

Going beyond the 1.6 kilometer mark will require strong materials. Talk has been made about the possibility of using carbon nanotubes, which have a tensile strength fifty times that of steel, and a Young’s modulus five times greater than steel. Maybe with this technology, and some radical engineering practices, the human race will one day see that 1.6 kilometer barrier broken. I am not optimistic, however, of seeing such things come about in my lifetime.

Works Cited

Wells, Matthew. Skyscrapers: Structure and Design. New Haven: Yale, 2005.
http://dvice.com/archives/2007/07/new_record_for_worlds_tallest.php
http://science.howstuffworks.com/skyscraper2.htm
http://people.howstuffworks.com/wtc6.htm
http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~scsharip/tubes.htm
http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/skyscraper_design.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallest_building

Does the Swimsuit Make the Man?

2008-12-20T15:42:00.011-05:00

Michael Phelps has the record for most gold medals in a single Olympic games, was voted Sportsman of the Year in 2008 by Sports Illustrated, and holds world records for the 200m freestyle, 200m butterfly, 200m medley, 400m medley, 4x100m freestyle relay, 4x200m freestyle relay, and the 4x100m medley relay (Wikipedia, 2008). Michael Phelps truly is great at swimming; no one can deny it. However, is it really viable to say that his technique is the sole reason for his continued success in breaking records?

If we look at men’s and women’s 200m butterfly world records since 1959, we notice that the men’s times have dropped 17.9% whereas the women’s times have dropped 20.9% (see figure). There has not been a particular standout female swimmer in the past 50 years who everyone claims has changed women’s swimming, so then why is Michael Phelps considered to be the cause of the incredible decrease in men’s race times seen recently? American swimmer Mark Spitz improved upon the record by 5 seconds and broke it seven times from 1967-1972; from 2001-2008, when Michael Phelps broke the record seven times, it decreased by a mere 2.55 seconds, only half of the decrease achieved by Mark Spitz. Limits exist in all things, so does this mean that we are approaching the limit for the fastest possible time in the 200m butterfly? Have we already surpassed the actual physical limit and now it is only changing because of technology? I don’t know, but let’s take a look at the technology of the swimsuit Phelps used in the Beijing Olympics, Speedo’s LZR Racer Swimsuit, to see how the swimsuit helped him and the other swimmers who raced with it.

This video from youtube.com explains how the LZR swimsuit works to improve efficiency of movement through water, which is what the swimmers are looking for. In order to get better times, they need to increase their efficiency, be it through better technique or a better suit. This Speedo suit decreases drag by 24% and makes the body more streamline, increasing the efficiency of the swimmer (Brain, 2008). All athletes are looking to improve their times and technology facilitates this. The big controversy is whether or not the LZR swimsuit is the same as doping in other sports. On one hand, the swimsuit increases efficiency; on the other hand, the swimmer still needs to perfect his or her technique in order to perform at the elite level. It’s up to you to decide.

References:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dvMdqvO3R9g
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_phelps
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_record_progression_200_metres_butterfly

Flying Buttresses

2008-12-20T15:16:00.011-05:00

Flying buttresses are an architectural feature mainly seen used in medieval cathedral designs. First developed in Romanesque architecture and later perfected in Gothic architecture, flying buttresses are built projecting from the walls of a structure down to the foundation in an half arched shape. The purpose of such projections is to support the weight and horizontal thrust of the high arches and domes spanning the interior space. The flying buttress serves as a bridge, carrying the lateral thrust produced at the base of the arches and domes due to their weight, across to the outer buttress, which is massive enough to absorb the pressure (Watterson 103). The stability of the entire building depends upon the balance of pressures and with the existence of flying buttresses, cathedrals were able to be built taller and more glorious than ever before (Statham 370).

(Photo Above: Flying Buttress, http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1329/T173_1_060i.jpg)

Flying buttresses originated from the idea of internal buttresses used in Romanesque architecture dating back to the 10th century. Buttresses were used for support on the inside of the church walls because it was thought that such large flat structures were unfitting to be seen on the outside of the churches. Towards the end of the Romanesque period, as architects challenged one another to build churches and cathedrals higher than ever before, the use of flying buttresses on the outside of these structures became necessary. With the beginning of the Gothic period, flying buttresses not only became used more for their function, but for their appearance as well. Gothic architecture began in the 12th century in France and lasted until the 16th century. Mainly used in the construction of cathedrals, abbeys, and churches, the Gothic style is characterized by the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the use of flying buttresses.

(Photo Above: Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France,

http://www.destination360.com/europe/france/images/s/france-notre-dame-cathedral.jpg)

One of the first, and most famous, cathedrals to incorporate the use of flying buttresses was the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. Its construction began in 1163 and the cathedral was finally completed around the year 1345. Many different architects and ideals went into the construction of Notre Dame. Flying buttresses were incorporated into the architecture for the primary use of balancing the pressure produced by such vaulted spaces. Another very important reason flying buttresses were used in the Notre Dame Cathedral was to allow adequate sunlight into the building (Temko 127). With such high walls and lack of windows the cathedral proved to be quite dark. Architects then realized that with the addition of more flying buttresses, they could place large stained glass windows along the walls of the cathedral to allow in more light. The incorporation of these large windows would further weaken the stability of the walls; however the strength of the flying buttresses solved such issues.

(Photo Above: Flying Buttress of Notre Dame, Paris, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:NotreDameFlyingButtress.jpg)

Influenced by the architecture of Notre Dame, the architect of the Chartres Cathedral in France utilized the flying buttress to reorganize the whole appearance of the interior church structure and achieve a look of simplicity and coherence (Henderson 111). The cathedral was begun in the 12th century and went through a multitude of disasters including multiple fires before its final completion and dedication in 1260. Chartres stands with a nave of 120 feet, a south-west tower of 340 feet, and a north-west tower of 370 feet and contains 176 stained glass windows. This magnificent feat and defiance of gravity was made possible by the abundant use of flying buttresses.

(Photo Left: Flying Buttresses of Chartres Cathedral, http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/gothic/chartres/chartres023.jpg)

(Photo Right: Chartres Cathedral, France, http://media-2.web.britannica.com/ebmedia/79/93579-004-45C763BC.jpg)

Bibliography

Henderson, George. Chartres. Penguin Books. Baltimore, Md. 1968.

Statham, H. Heathcote. A Short Critical History of Architecture. Charles Scribner’s Sons. New York, NY. 1927.

Temko, Allan. Notre Dame of Paris. The Viking Press. New York, NY. 1955.

Watterson, Joseph. Architecture: Five Thousand Years of Building. W.W. Norton and Company Inc. New York, NY. 1950.

Shampoo: the Beauty Industry’s Dirty Little Secret

2008-12-20T12:39:00.025-05:00

With regard to shampoo, the qualities expected by today’s consumer exceed the basic function of cleansing, as there are products for every texture, color, and length of hair. With so many products available on the market, there must be chemical differences to make each one unique, which is where the problem lies. What is actually in these products that are rubbed into our scalps and skin daily and what affects do they have on our bodies?

In the United States, chemicals are being dumped into the products that we use daily with the intent of cleansing ourselves, while in reality these products are disturbing our bodies’ natural pH balance and introducing compounds whose effects on the human body are deleterious, still unknown, or not fully understood. The cosmetic industry has fought resolutely throughout the past several decades to avoid strict regulation by the FDA and we, the consumers, are suffering as a consequence. The FDA does not require safety testing of cosmetic products before their introduction to the public and does not have firm rules for the cosmetic labeling process (Schapiro 2007). Without stringent controls in place, the cosmetic industry is allowed to ignore the potential deleterious effects of cosmetic ingredients. Some companies knowingly use carcinogens or developmental toxins and continue to use them because there have not been specific complaints related to their products. Other companies use chemicals that are untested and could possibly have harmful effects but nobody knows whether or not they do.

The potentially harmful chemicals that are used in cosmetics enter the body in large amounts as base ingredients, seeping in directly through the skin, going straight to the bloodstream, and accumulating, rather than being digested and filtered like trace contaminants in water or food (Skin Deep 2008). One chilling fact is that more than one-third of all personal care products contain at least one ingredient linked to cancer (EWG 2007). These possible carcinogens have the potential to spread throughout the body and accumulate significantly, especially when they are rubbed on the skin and lathered into the scalp on a daily basis. Currently the problem with the cosmetic industry is not the ingredients in shampoo that are labeled. Obviously, if there was an ingredient listed on a product’s label that has been shown to be unsafe, it would send up a red flag and no one would purchase it. The problem actually lies within the ingredients, such as phthalates and 1,4 dioxane, that are not included on the labels due to loopholes.

Independent studies found that more than 70% of health and beauty products tested, such as shampoos, contain chemicals called phthalates. Phthalates are used in cosmetic products as alcohol denaturants, film formers, plasticizers, solvents, and fragrance ingredients. These phthalates are classified as “fragrances” on the label or are part of trade secret formulas, both of which are exempt from federal labeling requirements and are not required to specifically be included on the ingredient labels. The problem with leaving phthalates off the labels is that consumers buy these products not knowing what they are spraying, brushing, or rubbing on their bodies, which can be harmful. These phthalates are known to cause problems with the kidneys, liver, lungs, and blood clotting, but the main concern is underdevelopment of the male reproductive tract (Aggregate 2002). A study that was conducted testing 136 women and their sons between the ages of 2 and 36 months found that the mothers’ increased urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites and subsequent prenatal phthalate exposure were correlated with decreased anogenital distance and impaired testicular function in the boys after birth (Swan 2005). These lab results indicate that a significant percentage of cosmetics companies may be hiding phthalates on store shelves within the containers of their products, with no warning for pregnant or potentially pregnant women who might want to avoid purchasing products that contain chemicals linked to birth defects.

Another problem with labeling is with contaminants. Many companies have attempted to reformulate shampoo so it does not contain sodium lauryl sulfate, the chemical that causes shampoos and soaps to have a lathering effect, which also potentially damages the lipid layer of the skin and has associated health risks (Malkan 2007). This chemical is too harsh for hair and strips away the natural oils in hair over time, leaving hair frizzy and dull with split ends and breakage (Schulman 2007). In the process of chemically removing this harsh foaming cleanser, it is converted to sodium laureth sulfate in some shampoos. This change looks better on the ingredients labels, but one thing that is overlooked is the fact that this process of converting the lauryl to laureth produces a byproduct called 1,4 dioxane, which is a petrochemical linked to cancer (Malkan 2007).

All of this information can certainly be overwhelming and people may not know how to go about making changes for a healthier lifestyle. There are a few solutions that can be combined to change the face of beauty products in today’s market. Ideally, companies should publicly pledge to voluntarily remove phthalates, sulfates, and other potentially unsafe chemicals from their products, manufacturers should clearly label all phthalate-containing products on the container that can be read easily before purchase, and manufacturers should test cosmetics ingredients and final products thoroughly, only marketing products that meet rigid safety standards, just as is the case with food products (Houlihan 2002). But honestly, without strict regulation none of this is ensured to happen because it requires research and change, both of which cost money. Therefore, the next step is for the federal government to set strict safety standards for personal care products, which would call for a change in the way the cosmetic industry does business; companies would have to reformulate their products to exclude ingredients that could potentially be harmful to people, whether it be because they have been found to be detrimental or because there is no toxicity data available for them. Consumers could also live a healthier lifestyle by doing their part. When reading the labels on beauty products, people cannot even pronounce half the words, let alone know what these ingredients do and how they affect the human body. Researching specific products, finding manufacturers than can be trusted who follow reputable standards, and decreasing the number of products that are used are key steps in reducing the risk of encountering harmful chemicals in beauty products. When choosing shampoos it is important to remember that the consumers are the ones who drive the market, and without their support and purchases, companies and products mean nothing. Demanding better quality means getting better quality because the industry wants what you want — customer satisfaction.

Some people may be wary of the claims of toxicity and danger in personal care products, stating that the levels of the chemicals are not high enough to experience problems or that the hazardous claims are just false. But when looking at the larger picture, what harm could be done in being cautious? Why use chemicals that may be associated with some risk when it is not necessary? In my opinion, it is worth taking the European approach to cosmetic safety, banning ingredients that have ever been shown to have deleterious effects on the body, even if it is just for peace of mind (Shapiro 2007). There is a reason why people still use the phrase “it’s better to be safe than sorry”.

Watch the video clip above of Stacy Malkan, the author of
"Not Just a Pretty Face", on News 7 discussing the harmful
effects of common beauty products.

References:

"Aggregate Exposures to Phthalates in Humans". Health Care Without Harm. July 2002 http://www.safecosmetics.org/docUploads/Aggregate%20report%20final.pdf

Environmental Working Group, “Skin Deep”. http://www.cosmeticdatabase.com/

Environmental Working Group. 2007. http://www.ewg.org/

Houlihan, Jane; Brody Charlotte; Schwan, Bryony. "Not Too Pretty: Phthalates, Beauty Products & the FDA". July 2002 http://www.safecosmetics.org/docUploads/NotTooPretty_r51.pdf

Malkan, Stacy, "Not Just a Pretty Face". Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers, July 2007.

Schapiro, Mark. "Exposed: The Toxic Chemistry of Everyday Products and What’s at Stake for American Power". White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 2007.

Schulman, Audrey. "The No 'Poo Do". The Boston Pheonix. May 25, 2007. http://thephoenix.com/Boston//Life/40141-No-Poo-Do/

Swan, Shanna H., "Decrease in Anogenital Distance among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure". Environmental Health Perspectives Volume 113, Number 8, August 2005

Global Warming: 4 Things You Thought You Knew

2008-12-20T11:53:00.014-05:00

First off, I feel like I should explain myself. You see, most of what you hear on the news and read in newspapers about Global Warming is wrong. And when I say "wrong", I mean an outright fabrication of facts. Unfortunately, whenever I try to tell people about this, the general reaction goes something like this: "What?! You don't believe in Global Warming?! You're worse than Hitler!!". Alright, so maybe that's slightly hyperbolic, but only slightly. So, in the interest of setting the facts straight, I present 4 popular misconceptions about Global Warming and the actual realities.

4) What You Thought You Knew:

Polar Bears Are About To Become Extinct

In Reality:

No, they aren't. Polar bear populations have increased by almost 50% in less than a decade, from 1480 animals in 1992 to 2272 animals in 2001 (http://alaska.fws.gov/fisheries/mmm/stock/finalpbbeaufortsea.pdf). That data comes from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services. Prior to that, polar bear populations had indeed been decreasing, largely due to over-hunting, but after polar bear hunting was curtailed, the bears made an amazing comeback. So, the next time someone says they're worried about polar bears, tell them that the bears are fine and that they should worry about all the animals that are really becoming extinct.

Chillin'
(image: http://www.joe-ks.com/)

3) What You Thought You Knew:

Melting polar ice caps are going to flood coastal cities.

In Reality:
It may surprise you to learn that the movie Waterworld did not, in fact, have a sound scientific basis. Between 1986 and 2000, Antarctic valleys cooled 0.7 degrees celcius per decade, with serious ecosystem damage (including cute little penguins) resulting from the cold (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6871/full/nature710.html). In fact, Antarctic ice is increasing at 26.8 gigatons per year, reversing the melting trend that has been in place for the last 6000 years (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;295/5554/476?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=positive+mass+balance+of+the+the+ross+ice+streams%2C+west+antarctica&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT). In case you didn't know, a gigaton is one billion tons. And the fact that Antarctica had been melting for the past 6000 years seems to suggest that people may not be the only influence on climate.

Surprisingly, not science.

2) What You Thought You Knew:

Global Warming is causing more hurricanes, like Katrina.

In Reality:

Total hurricane strikes in the U.S. are at an all-time low. There were more hurricanes in the 1850's than the 1990's, and during years in between, the hurricanes go up and down, but generally down (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdec.shtml). Obviously, hurricane Katrina has colored all our opinions, but the fact is: you have less chance of being hit by a hurricane than people did 150 years ago.

"Hurricanes don't care about Global Warming"
(image: http://www.willisms.com/archives/kanyewest.gif)

1) What You Thought You Knew:

That this graph:

....showed something significant.

The Reality:

This graph shows nothing. I'm sure you've seen it before, or others like it. Have you ever actually taken a good look at it? It looks like it shows the planet in the midst of exploding, but it actually shows an average temperature increase of 0.8 degrees C. As you read above, Antarctica has cooled by nearly that amount every decade for the past 25 years.

What We've Learned:

That you can't believe everything you hear about Global Warming. There are many more holes in the theory, from the drops in global temperature between 1940 and 1970, the reliability of the data, the urban heat island effect, and countless more. I urge you to go out and research these things, and verify what I've posted, because peer review and proper interpretation of data is essential for science to be taken seriously. At the end of the day, Global Warming might be a political issue, or a social issue, or an economic issue, but without proper consideration as a scientific issue, it means nothing.

The Heart: Powerhouse of the Body

2008-12-20T10:00:00.001-05:00

The heart truly is an amazing organ. It alone is responsible for circulating blood to every organ and cell of the body, and from the moment it starts beating, it does not cease until death. It is regulated to increase its beats per minute during exercise, and to slow down after exercise ceases. It responds to the body’s need for nutrients and oxygen by increasing circulation of the blood. Here are a few facts about this life sustaining organ that most people don’t know.

1) Even at rest, the muscles of the heart are contracting harder than the leg muscles in a person sprinting.
2) There are roughly 5.6 liters of blood in the human body; the heart is able to circulate this volume of blood 3 times around the human body in a minute.
3) The average heart beats about 100,000 times a day, equal to 35 million times a year and 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime (70 years).
4) The system of blood vessels in the human body (including arteries veins and capillaries) is over 60,000 miles long, and the human heart is able to supply blood to every inch of it.
5) The heart pumps enough blood during its lifetime to fill 3 super tankers.
6) The heart is able to accomplish all these amazing tasks, and only weights between 8 and 10 ounces in a grown adult.

The primary responsibilities of the heart are to transport oxygen and nutrients to organs and cells throughout the body, and pick up and rid the body of carbon dioxide and wastes from these cells. The nutrients are transported in the blood’s medium, plasma, while the oxygen is bound to the incredibly important protein hemoglobin, found in red blood cells. Each of these hemoglobin molecules can bind 4 oxygen molecules, and there are over 270 million molecules of hemoglobin in each red blood cell. Therefore red blood cells are able to transport very large amount of oxygen. These red blood cells give the blood its characteristic red color, and are pumped throughout the body at an astonishing rate by the heart.

With each beat the heart pumps two to three ounces of blood into circulation. For the heart to work efficiently the blood passes through a series of chambers in the heart, the blood first enters either the right or left atrium, then is pumped into the right or left ventricles to be pumped to the lungs or throughout the body. There are several valves in the heart to prevent backflow of blood that would otherwise occur due to the high pressure that the blood is subjected to in order to speedily and effectively travel throughout the body.

The contractions of the heart are actually controlled by an electrical signal that travels along the heart. The first signal originates at the SA node which causes both atria to contract and force blood into the ventricles, this signal travels down the heart to the AV node located on the other side, where there is a pause while the ventricles fill with blood, then the AV node signals both the ventricles to contract. This electrical system accounts for the rhythmic beating which allows blood to be pumped most effectively. The resting phase of this system is called diastole, while the contracting phase is called systole. The flow of blood through the heart causes the valves talked about earlier to open and close, giving rise to the lub-dup sound of the heart beating.

The pulse is usually an accurate reading of the heart rate of a human adult, it is a result of arterial expansion due to the increase in pressure of the blood during systole. This wave of arterial expansion begins as blood leaves the heart and travels the lengths of the arteries in the body, gradually weakening in strength as it goes. As you place your fingers on your artery you can feel the expanding and shrinking of the artery as the blood passes through it. A chart of average pulse rates is given below:

Blood pressure is a measure of the systolic and diastolic pressures of the blood traveling through the human body. Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury, a common unit for pressure, and is measured by wrapping a cuff around a person’s upper arm and inflating the cuff to a high pressure and gradually releasing the pressure in the cuff. When blood is first able to pass through the artery collapsed by the inflated cuff this is the systolic pressure, because it is at a higher pressure. When blood is no longer able to be heard passing through the artery using a stethoscope this is the diastolic pressure. As we mentioned before systole is when the heart is contracting, and diastole is the phase when the heart is resting. A chart of blood pressures ranging from optimal blood pressure to stage 3 hypertension (high blood pressure) is given below:

Many factors can affect both blood pressure and pulse, exercise being the first that comes to mind when most people are asked. Exercise increases the number as well as the strength of heart contractions because the body has a higher need for oxygen and nutrients in its muscles. This therefore increases both pulse and blood pressure. Obesity affects both of these as well because, in people who don’t exercise, the heart is out of shape and does not pump as effectively, and therefore must beat more times than the average person to reach all areas of the body. Blood pressure is increased by obesity as well.

The heart truly is a miracle of the human body. It pumps an astonishing amount of blood throughout the body every day and never takes a moment of rest from the time it starts beating until death. Without this amazing organ life would not be possible.

Sources:

Why Do We Exercise?

2008-12-20T09:56:00.007-05:00

After class yesterday, I walked back to my dorm and threw my book bag on my bed and headed for the couch. Just a typical afternoon; class followed by a long date with TV and food. During the third episode of the Everybody Loves Raymond marathon, I came to realize something- it seems as though every commercial was lecturing me.

(Left: Everybody Loves Raymond Cast http://saintrichardsalmanac.blogspot.com/)

Every 30 seconds a new commercial appeared selling me some instant weight-loss supplement to help me "LOSE 20 LBS INSTANTLY!" or featuring some celebrity talking about the new foundation they started promoting active and healthy lifestyle for kids. I felt almost guilty for indulging in my Bullet Hole chicken nuggets and fries meal while watching fit kids run around on a playground. I felt worthless watching my third straight episode while Bowflex commercials assaulted me.

With this said, I am a college student. I have to defend myself and my actions against those who deem themselves "correct"-those companies that are telling me that being fit and active are the adjectives of a healthy lifestyle. So I ask them - why do we exercise?

...Ok, so I will never get a response from the TV, so I decided to go out and investigate the benefits of exercise myself.

Why Do We Exercise?

I have come to the conclusion that we exercise for three reasons:

Exercise is good for our health.

Exercise feels good.

Exercise improves our appearance.

Your internal engine is your heart. And like all engines, we must keep it in mint condition in order for it to work at maximum performance for a very long life. The only way to maintain a healthy heart (besides eating correctly) is by pushing it to do more work - conditioning it- forcing it to pump more blood through your body in a shorter time period. This is where exercise comes into play.

(Below: A heart, http://www.tailgatershandbook.com/ )

Exercise, whether it be cardio or strength training, puts stress on your body (mainly your muscles), forcing your heart to pump more blood through your circulatory system, to feed your muscles with oxygen. In doing so your heart is conditioning itself and if done consistently, will improve its efficiency. Each contraction will be stronger, and as a result, more blood will be pumped through your body with less effort and less contractions.

The normal resting heart rate for healthy adults is between 60-80 beats per minute. Athletes have a lower resting heart rate because their hearts are stronger and better conditioned, enabling them to pump more blood through their bodies with each contraction. Those of us who sit around all day, eating junk food and watching re-runs of Everybody Loves Raymond, typically have a resting heart rate in the neighborhood of the upper 90s or even 100s. This forces our hearts to do more work (even when we are resting)- putting it under more, unnecessary stress. Basically, a more conditioned heart can increase your longevity.

The second reason for why we exercise comes from the well-known feeling among athletes called the "runner's high". Supposedly, long distance runners and all athletes for that matter, gain some-sort of euphoria following a long-distance jog or some sort of long-term physical activity. Medical specialists credit the feeling to the anadamine levels that rise during strenuous activity. This substance is able to cross the highly impermeable blood-brain barrier, increasing the dopamine levels in the brain (Chris, 2005).

Exercise-induced release of anadamine is a cost-free way of receiving a high.

Lastly, we exercise to look good. In a world that focuses too much on our outer appearance, being in good shape means a lot. Exercising helps you lose unwanted fat (bad) and helps you build lean muscle (good), hopefully exposing that six-pack hidden under your college keg.

(Below: Cover of Men’s Health Magazine, http://www.menshealth.com/ )

I don't even have to explain why a physically fit appearance is desirable- just go to any local store and glance over the cover pages of magazines. Fit men and women grace the covers with bold captions telling you to "READ INSIDE TO SEE HOW TO LOOK LIKE THIS!" We are molded to understand that looking good feels good and leads to success, and as time progressed it has come to be known as fact that when we look good, we feel good. So why not go out and get a little exercise?

Many companies actually hire personal trainers to work with employees one on one. The idea (supported by many years of experiments and data) is that these employees will be happier in the office and thus increase their productivity. The company can then increase its overall productivity just by hiring a personal trainer.

You can't say that hiring a personal pastry chef would have the same effect.

Some companies actually provide exercise facilities for employees because employee’s efforts in the gym will result in decreased medical costs. A recent publication on the New York Times website discussed a few companies who have taken steps to improve the overall health of their workers.

At Great Lakes Industry, President Larry Shultz cleaned up a storage area in order to make room for a few exercise machines. He hopes that employee’s increased health will decrease the company’s healthcare costs.

At another company, “Mike Shirkey, president of Orbitform Group, said, ‘If [employees are] not healthy and alert, they can't do things like designing projects.’ The company has installed a fitness center with exercise machines and showers that workers can use at lunchtime and before and after work” (Times.com).

One of the most important reasons to exercise is to drastically reduce your risk of acquiring chronic and genetic diseases. By exercising frequently you reduce your risk of…

· High Blood Pressure by 30 – 50%

· Diabetes by about 58%

· Heart Disease

· High Cholesterol

· Stress

…and many other dangerous life-style oriented health hazards. I have included a video that gives you every reason to start exercising on a regular basis if you haven’t yet, and every reason to keep exercising if you have already started.

THAT is why we exercise.

Work Cited:

Chris, 2005. Informative Blog Post at http://www.fattyweightloss.com/what-causes-runners-high/

Retrieved Data from WebMD's Page http://www.webmd.com/cholesterol-management/high-cholesterol-tips-7/exercise

Retrieved Statistical Data from UCLA's Public Health Page http://www.ph.ucla.edu/cehd/Documents/HandoutPAandChronicDiseases.pdf

Slide Show information http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2008/10/01/business/20081001-HEALTH_index.html (

Skyscrapers: How and Why they are Built

2008-12-20T09:21:00.005-05:00

· The main reason that people build skyscrapers is because they are very convenient. They serve to fit a lot of floor space in a comparatively small amount of ground surface because of their immense height.

· The challenge in building a skyscraper is building vertically and fighting the downward pull of gravity. As the building gets taller and taller, there is more of a downward force all of which is supported by the base of the building. This is similar to the construction of a pyramid. The reason they are built as they are is because they had to build a wider, sturdier base in order to support all of the weight bearing down from the rest of the pyramid.

· The advancement of iron and steel production was a huge reason that constructing skyscrapers became a reality in the United States. Prior to that, no buildings were more than a few stories tall.

· Iron and steel beams that were relatively lightweight, could support much more weight than brick and concrete while taking up significantly less space.

· Skyscrapers are supported by their steel skeleton. Their weight is supported by a group of vertical steel columns. Each individual floor of the structure is supported by horizontal steel girders between the vertical columns. Many buildings also have diagonal steel beams to supply extra support.

· By building this grid, called the super structure, all of the weight is transferred to the vertical columns in which there is a downward force at the base which is supported by the substructure.

· A skyscrapers substructure supports the vertical beams in a cast-iron plate which sits on top of a grillage (stacks of horizontal beams laid side by side). The grillage sits on top of a level concrete surface. Once this substructure is completed, it is entirely covered with concrete to ensure stability.
· Skyscrapers were not only made possible by the advancement of steel production, but also after the introduction of elevator technology. After you build something a few stories tall stairs are problematic. In most skyscrapers, elevator shafts are placed in the core of the building so they can supply additional support to the structure.

· Skyscrapers have become more and more popular in the world today as the demand for location grows but availability of land decreases. Skyscrapers make it possible to fit a large amount of building space in a small amount of land area.

· The first ever skyscraper was built in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. It was called the Home Insurance Building and it was 10 stories high and 138 feet tall.

· Today, the largest skyscraper is the Burj Dubai in Dubai, a city of the United Arab Emirates. Although it has not yet been completed, it has 160 floors and stands at a whopping 2320 feet, nearly 17 times the height of the first skyscraper.

Burj Dubai

Home Insurance Building

· When demolishing a skyscraper, explosives are the most commonly used methods because they are both efficient and safe. More often than not, skyscrapers are surrounded by other buildings so you can’t just simply knock it over or blow it up…most demolition is done through a process called implosion.

· An implosion is an inward collapse of the building so that it all crumbles down on top of itself and does not disturb the buildings surrounding it.

· In order to pull off a proper demolition, you must place explosives on the supporting beams so and several floors of the skyscraper so that the building can no longer support itself and collapses floor by floor until it is reduced to nothing more than a pile of rubble.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ng5qwtR59A

Tides Are Neat

2008-12-19T18:08:00.013-05:00

Many People understand that there is a high tide and a low tide but few know what actually causes these tides and that there are different patterns of tides and tide cycles. There are two main forces that causes tides: the first is the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun acting on the Earth; the second is the inertial (centrifugal) force due to the Earth's rotation about the center of gravity of the Earth moon system. The Moon's rotation around the Earth combined with the Earth's own rotation causes the ocean's water to bulge in the direction of the Moon. This is called the Equilibrium Tide Theory; the Moon's gravity causes a bulge on the facing side of Earth, and the centrifugal force causes a bulge on the opposite side of Earth. (2) The Sun has a gravitational pull on the Earth, which coincides with the pull of the water surface towards the Sun. The Sun has a smaller effect on tides because its distance from the Earth is that much greater than that of the Earth and Moon.

The cycle between a high tide and a low tide is roughly 13 hours. High tide and low tides occur approximately one hour later each day because as the Earth completes one rotation, the Moon has progressed 12 degrees along its orbit around Earth in the same direction. (1) So high and low tides are directly related to the position of the Moon relative to the Earth.

The two different types tide cycles are neap tides and spring tides. These are explained by the positions of the Sun and the Moon relative to the Earth and the corresponding affect on the tides. (See Illustration) A spring tide is when the Sun and the Moon align themselves with the Earth. (2) This increases the gravitational force acted on the oceans and increases the amount that the tides rise and fall. A neap tide is when the Sun and Moon align themselves in a 90-degree angle relative to the Earth and more equally distribute their gravitational pull on the oceans. (2) The time between a spring tide and a neap tide lasts about seven days.

There are three different types of tide patterns: diurnal, semidiurnal, and semidiurnal mixed tides. (2) What makes these tide patterns is how many times a high tide and low tide occur during one day and the level that those tides reach. A diurnal tide is when there is one cycle between high tide and low tide during the day with a moderate change in water level. This occurs when the Moon is aligned with either the North or South Pole. A semidiurnal tide pattern is when there are two cycles of tides during one day with a moderate change in water level (two high tides and two low tides). This happens when the Moon is aligned with the equator. A semidiurnal mixed tide is when there are two cycles of tides in one day but the tides occur at different levels. This means that there is one elevated water level high tide and one moderate water level high tide along with one elevated water level low tide and one moderate water level low tide.

Tides are also partially responsible for waves, erosion, currents, and animal migration and mating. (1) What makes them even more complicated and hard to predict is the relationship between where the ocean meets land and how fast the ocean floor drops away from the continental shelf. As you can see, there are many different factors that determine the dynamics of tides, the formation of tides, and who are effected by tides.

References:

1) ocean, (2008) In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved December 1, 2008, from Encyclopeadia Britannica Online: http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-67109

2)Sverdrup, K.A., and Armbrust, V. 2006. An Introduction to the World's Oceans 9th edition

3)http://www.sciencehelpdesk.com/img/science]_4/Tides2.gif

4) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOUi-m8UvFk

Albert Einstein: Brief Biography and 1905

2008-12-19T10:32:00.007-05:00

Brief Background:

Albert Einstein was born in Germany in 1879 to a Jewish family (Albert Einstein, Nobel Lectures 1967). He was an average student at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. While in school many professors strongly disliked Einstein. He also met and married his first wife, classmate Mileva Maric during this time (Einstein’s Big Idea, 2005). He graduated in 1896 with a degree in teaching mathematics and physics (Albert Einstein, accessed 2008).
After graduation Einstein began working as a clerk in a patent-office in order to support his wife and children, but this really wasn’t enough. During this time Einstein wrote numerous scientific papers on theoretical physics, and had a few published. It was a paper submitted in 1905 to obtain his doctorate that earned Einstein success and fame (Albert, accessed 2008). While Einstein is most well-known for his E=mc2 work he did not win the Nobel Prize for this. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize for his paper on the theory of the photoelectric effect (Albert, 1967).

Relationship:
Einstein married Mileva Maric in 1903, and they had three children. Einstein was a very solitary person, and created an ultimatum document for Maric to sign. The document contained things such as; she must bring him food to his study, she could only speak to him when he wanted to be spoken too, and that she could not expect him to be

http://www.twurl.com/Controversy/einst_wedd.jpg
affectionate. She chose not to sign the ultimatum, and moved out with the children. They did not divorce right away, and Einstein actually bribed Maric into divorce. The bribe was that he would give her and the children the prize money if he were to ever win the Nobel Prize (Einstein, The History channel, 2008). After the divorce in 1909, he remarried within the year to his cousin Elsa Lowenthal (Albert Einstein, 1967).

1905:
Einstein published three significant papers in the year of 1905. The year of 1905 is sometimes referred to as the “miracle year” for Einstein. The first paper he published in 1905 described the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is when metals emit electrons when hit by a particular wavelength of light. He based his theory on Planck’s work that described electromagnetic radiation. Planck had discovered that light energy was proportional to frequency of radiation, but Einstein further interpreted this to show that light energy was formed by a collection of radiation (Albert, accessed 2008). Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his work on this paper.

The second paper of 1905 proposed the special theory of relativity, and the third paper provided evidence of atom-sized molecules. His work on the theory of relativity was based off of Hendrik Antoon Lorentz’s theory of electrons and also on Maxwell’s equations of thermodynamics. He based the theory on the knowledge that equations describing the motion of an electron could be used to explain the motion of any particle or rigid body moving with a constant velocity. The theory of relativity describes time dilation, and how mass and energy are related. He also later wrote that in a certain way mass and energy could be considered as the same (Albert, accessed 2008). This notion that mass and energy are related is what led to the famous E=mc2 equation. This equation explains/hypothesizes that mass would be equivalent to energy if all the mass was turned into energy based on the relation of mass to the speed of light (c). His paper on the evidence of atom-sized molecules was based on calculating the average trajectories of particles during random collisions with other molecules as a fluid or gas (Albert, accessed 2008). It was these initial papers that started Einstein’s career of discoveries, theories, and equations. He later would become famous for his E=mc2 equation, and his general theory of relativity that are still being proven today,
https://www.msweb.gettysburg.edu/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?URL=http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20081120/sc_afp/sciencephysicseinstein_081120235605.

Einstein was also known for his anti-war beliefs during World War II. He did not renew his German citizenship when he returned in 1919 from Switzerland and moved to the United States in 1933. Once he moved to the United States Einstein began to urge the development of nuclear weapons, more specifically an atomic bomb before Germany did. His correspondence with President Roosevelt at this time persuaded Roosevelt to fund the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project was simply the project to develop the first nuclear weapon during WWII that was supported by the US, United Kingdom, and Canada. He later became involved in efforts towards nuclear disarmament during the 1950’s (Nobel Lectures, Physics, 1967). He became chair of the Emergency Committee for Atomic Scientists in (The Nuclear Age II, 1996), and stated,
"Here, then, is the problem which we present to you, stark and dreadful and inescapable: Shall we put an end to the human race or shall mankind renounce war? People will not face this alternative because it is so difficult to abolish war."

Einstein was very dedicated to his
stance on the war, and the use of nuclear weapons only when absolutely necessary, as well as many other civil rights issues.
Einstein died in April 15, 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey (Nobel Lectures, Physics, 1967).

Images:
Albert Einstein, http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html
http://www.twurl.com/Controversy/einst_wedd.jpg
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.andrewsavory.com/blog/einstein.010.png&imgrefurl=http://onthewritersblock.blogspot.com/2008/04/on-this-day-in-history-april-11th.html&usg=__1wx3QMmtSwRTorncrFY-YWOjg6o=&h=768&w=1024&sz=655&hl=en&start=4&tbnid=pqQAMmf7rEVsKM:&tbnh=113&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Deinstein%252Bnuclear%2Bproliferation%26hl%3Den

Sources:
(n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2008, from Famous Physicist and Astronomers: http://www.phy.hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xeinstei.html

Nobel Lectures, Physics. (1967). Noberl Prize Foundation. Retrieved November 24, 2008, from NobelPrize.org: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html

NOVA. (2005, June). Retrieved November 24, 2008, from PBS: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html

The Nuclear Age II. (1996). Retrieved December 1, 2008, from The Center for History of Physics: http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/nuclear2.htm

Physics of Cow Tipping

2008-12-18T15:14:00.010-05:00

On a late night with nothing to do but hang around cow pastures, the idea of cow-tipping may easily cross your mind. Assuming there is a cow asleep and standing up, you next want to figure out how much force is required – if applied perpendicularly – to tip the cow over.

(image on right is from shirtstats.com)

The Stat ics of Cow Tipping has provided approximate values and has performed calculations. Here, we will discuss the process undertaken as well as a critique of the work.

First, let us approximate the following dimensions of a cow:

Body (rectangular prism) = lwh = 2.5*2.5*6 = 37.5 ft³

Head (cylinder) = pi*r²*h = 3.14*.5²*1 = .785 ft³

Legs x4 (rectangular prism) = lwh = .5*.5*2.5 = .625 ft³

From here, we can find the center of mass for each body part. Shown below is the table from The Statics of Cow Tipping (source).

Center of Mass
Part	Volume	X_Center	Y_Center	Z_Center	X(V)	Y(V)	Z(V)
Body	37.5	1.25	3	3.75	46.875	112.5	140.625
Head	.785	1.25	6.5	5.5	.98125	5.1025	4.3175
Leg 1	.625	.25	.25	1.25	.15625	.15625	.78125
Leg 2	.625	2.25	.25	1.25	1.40625	.15625	.78125
Leg 3	.625	.25	2.25	1.25	.15625	1.40625	.78125
Leg 4	.625	2.25	2.25	1.25	1.40625	1.40625	.78125
Total	40.785	----	----	----	50.98125	120.7275	148.0675

In addition to leaving out units (which I have added in), the site fails to explain where exactly the body parts are located and to what point are the Center values relative. To the left is my own rendition of the cow, which is drawn more closely to scale and includes the point of relativity, noted as the origin point (0,0).

Continuing on in the table, the columns labeled X(V), Y(V), and Z(V) are found by multiplying each part’s volume by its respective X_Center, Y_Center, and Z_Center distances (columns 3-5). Of course, this is assuming that the density of the cow is uniform. In reality, the density is not uniform, thereby changing where the center of gravity is located for each part. However, we will ignore reality for this analysis. The volume components of each part are totaled and then divided by 40.785ft³, the total volume of the cow. These answers signify what distance the overall center of gravity is from the point of relativity. The distances are as follows:

X_Center = 1.25 ft

Y_Center = 2.96 ft

Z_Center = 3.63 ft

Now we move on to equilibrium/torque calculations. We will assume the same given values as The Statics of Cow Tipping:

mass of cow = 1400 lbs

height of horizontal pushing force = 5 ft

horizontal pushing force = 300 lbs

force of friction = 1400*.45 = 630 lbs

(the cow won't slide)

Although we’ll use the same equation, torque = force*radius, our radius will assume that the cow’s left hind and fore leg remain on the ground. Shown below are two images. The force vector schematic on the left is editted from The Statics of Cow Tipping (source) and includes the forces due to friction, pushing, and gravity on the cow. For the image on the right, the radii are labeled as follows:

r(f) = force radius

r(c) = cow radius

To find the correct radius, we need to consider the moment arm of the force. Since the moment arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the extended line of force, we see that r(f) is indeed perpendicular to the pushing force and r(c) is indeed perpendicular to the force of gravity on the cow.

We can easily find that r(f) = 5 ft and r(c) = 1.25 ft. Now the difference in torque is 1400*1.25-300*5=250 lbs/ft. We need the torque to be less than zero for the pushing force to be sufficient enough to overcome the cow's turning force, so it is clear that one person is not enough to tip a cow.

We're determined to tip the cow, so let's add more people. Assuming the people have identical pushing height and force and will stand in a way so as to push the cow in a uniform manner, then we can calculate that the minimum number of people required to tip a cow is 1400*1.25 < n="2.

Our results agree with The Statics of Cow Tipping. However, we must also consider some real life truths. Most likely, a real cow's legs will move or tilt when the cow is pushed. On the plus side, this moves the center of gravity, making it easier to tip the cow as the shift will shorten r(c) with time while r(f) remains the same. Unfortunately, the cow would sure counter-balance, making it more difficult to tip. Even so, these calculations are still good approximations and as such, leave the myth of cow tipping open to testing!

(above image is from freewebs.com)

References:

Semke, Matt. "The Statics of Cow Tipping", http://emweb.unl.edu/Mechanics-Pages/Matt-Semke/The%20Statics%20of%20Cow%20Tipping.htm

Images:

Author unknown. "Google Image Search on cow tipping", http://s3-external-1.amazonaws.com/wootdesigncontestentries/Wobblytoddles/Cow_tipping-hihv9v-d.jpg

Semke, Matt. "The Statics of Cow Tipping", http://emweb.unl.edu/Mechanics-Pages/Matt-Semke/The%20Statics%20of%20Cow%20Tipping.htm

Author unknown. "Google Image Search on cow tipping", http://www.freewebs.com/katseyeview/sleeping%20cow.jpg

5 Weird Disorders You Probably Never Heard Of

2008-12-18T14:37:00.000-05:00

There are many diseases and disorders known around the world, some with very serious effects. Here are just a few of some rare conditions with bizarre and unsual symptoms.

1. Pica

Pica is a rare eating disorder in which people eat nonnutritive substances persistently for at least one month at an age when such behavior is developmentally inappropriate (<18-24 size="2">(Ellis). This is usually observed in children, but most common in people with developmental disabilities. Types of things that people with Pica eat include, but are not limited to, dirt, glass, sand, wire, hair, feces, lead, plastic, ice, paper, paint chips, chalk, wood, coal, string, and needles (Ellis). Depending on what the person eats and how much of it, this could be a benign or life threatening disease. Lead, for example, could lead to lead poisoning.

In some cultures, such as ones in Kenya, southern Africa, and India, this is a practiced activity and not considered to be a problem (Ellis). The cause of this disorder is unknown, but scientists speculate that it could be caused by nutritional deficiencies, low socioeconomical status, learned behaviors, underlying biochemical disorders, or stress. Some other risk factors for the disease include pregnancy, parent/child psychopathology, epilepsy, brain damage, mental retardation, and developmental disorders. There is no specific treatment for this condition, but rather a combination of psychiatrists, physicians, and social workers that work with the patient (Ellis).

(photo from google images)

2. Alien Hand Syndrome

This is a rare disorder in which one’s hand feels possessed by a force outside of one’s control (Definition of Alien Hand Syndrome). The sufferers are able to feel sensation in that hand, but they believe it is not a part of their body and that they don’t have control over it. An example of this is when a patient doesn’t know that his/her own hand is doing something, such as pulling on their hair. This disorder usually arises after trauma to the brain, after brain surgery, stroke, or an infection in the brain (Definition of Alien Hand Syndrome). There is no treatment for this disorder except to keep the unruly hand busy by holding an object.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0uaNn_cl14&feature=related
(video from YouTube)

3. Aquagenic Pruritus

Aquagenic Pruritus is a skin disease that is characterized by the development of severe, intense, prickling-like epidermal (skin) itching that is evoked by water (Aquagenic Pruritus). This occurs without any observable skin lesions. The triggers are not only water, but also humid air, rain, sweat, or blowing air. Symptoms may appear immediately after being exposed to water and can last up to one hour or more. Although this isn’t a life threatening disease, it makes daily activities difficult, such as taking a shower. Scientists and doctors are unsure what causes this disease, but it is sometimes a symptom of primary polycythemia. Primary polycythemia is a condition where there is an increase in the total number of blood cells, mostly red blood cells (Aquagenic Pruritus). The increase in red blood cell production may be due to a primary process in the bone marrow, a reaction to chronically low oxygen levels, or rarely, a malignancy (Aquagenic Pruritus). There is no cure for this disease, however, there are several treatments for the pain and itching. Capsaicin cream can be applied to the affected areas for relief. Filtered UV-B phototherapy can be used in a hospital or health clinic setting. Also, applying baby oil before and after showering and lanolin-free aqeuous cream after drying off can help to reduce the symptoms. This disorder is sometimes believed to be a result of histamine, as with allergies, and blockers such as Claritin may be helpful. (Aquagenic Pruritus)

(photo from google images)

4. Cotard’s Syndrome

Cotard’s syndrome, which is also known as Walking Corpse syndrome, is a rare neuropsychiatric disorder in which a person believes that he/she is dead, does not exist, is putrefying, or has lost blood or internal organs (Pearn & Gardner-Thorpe). Sometimes, although rarely, this disorder includes delusions of immortality. Cotard’s syndrome usually arises in patients with neurological or mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and is often associated with depression. Some scientists believe this disorder is related to Capgras syndrome (Cotard Delusion). To find information about Capgras syndrome, you can visit http://www.psychnet-uk.com/dsm_iv/capgras_syndrome.htm. Both Cotard’s and Capgras are thought to be a consequence of a disconnection between the brain areas that recognize faces and the areas that associate emotions with that recognition. Treatment for Cotard’s syndrome is difficult and scientists and physicians are still working on treatments. Some antidepressant drugs have been tested but show little effectiveness. Electroconvulsive therapy, on the other hand, has shown better odds of success (Cotard Delusion).

(Pictures from google images)

5. Foreign Accent Syndrome

Foreign Accent syndrome is the “sudden and unexpected appearance of a seemingly ‘foreign’ accent” (Garst & Katz). This disorder usually occurs as a rare side effect of stroke or a traumatic brain injury. Although this is the most common way to acquire the condition, it may also be of unknown etiology. This disorder is not a result of psychiatric or psychological problems, though. Researchers have found that certain parts of the brain are affected in foreign accent syndrome, such as parts associated with pitch and syllables. Normally, the injury occurs to the left hemisphere of the brain; however, infrequently it occurs to the right hemisphere, which plays a role in the stress and inflection of speech (Garst & Katz). Some cases of Foreign Accent syndrome may evolve over time, but most do not. Even a few cases resolved themselves within a couple of months with no therapeutic intervention. This condition is difficult to test for and requires a number of different testing techniques to correctly diagnose. This may not be a fatal disorder, but sufferers need to get use to their new “accent” and may use speech therapy to help them speak better.

Click here to see an ABC News interview with a woman who suffers from Foreign Accent Syndrome. http://abcnews.go.com/video/playerIndex?id=6244704 (from ABC News)

If you enjoyed reading about these disorders, here are some others to check out:

Congenital Hypertrichosis Lanuginosa

Stendhal Syndrome

Capgras

Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria

Alice in Wonderland Disorder

References
“Alien Arm Syndrome” YouTube. Video <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0uaNn_cl14&feature=related>

“Aquagenic Pruritus.” Wikipedia. 29 Oct 2008. 30 Nov 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquagenic_pruritus>

Aquagenic Pruritus Picture

“Cotard Delusion.” Wikipedia. 27 Nov 2008. 30 Nov 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotard%27s_Syndrome>

Cotard’s Syndrome Picture <http://cdn-www.cracked.com/articleimages/wong/walkingcorpse1.jpg>

Cotard’s Syndrome Picture

“Definition of Alien Hand Syndrome.” MedicineNet. 12 Dec 2000. 30 Nov 2008

Ellis, Cynthia R. “Eating Disorder: Pica.” eMedicine. 18 Feb 2006. 30 Nov 2008 <http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic1798.htm>

Garst D, Katz W. “Foreign Accent Syndrome.” The ASHA Leader. 15 Aug 2006: 11(10), 10-11, 31

Pearn J, Gardner-Thorpe C. “Jules Cotard (1840-1889): his life and the unique syndrome which bears his name.” Neurology. 2002 May 14;58(9):1400-3.

Pica Picture http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://bp3.blogger.com/

“Woman Wakes Up With Foreign Accent.” ABC News. Video. < http://abcnews.go.com/video/playerIndex?id=6244704>

Torque of Car Engine

2008-12-18T14:01:00.009-05:00

Torque is very important to people who are interested in buying a new car, especially people who are interested in larger pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles. Vehicles which are going to be used for towing large loads or climbing steep hills, torque is often more important than horsepower. Scientifically, torque is the moment of force along an axis. In automobiles with internal combustion engines, torque is related to the twisting force that is applied to the crankshaft. This force is caused by the pressure that is produced from a burning fuel mixture. The pressure sequentially forces each piston into its bore. The pistons revolve around the crankshaft, which powers the vehicle. This means that torque helps a car take off from a stop and pull weight up a hill. The torque rating determines how much force an automobile can apply to the road.
Torque is proportional to the stroke which describes the diameter of rotations around the crankshaft. The stroke depends on how far the connecting rod journal is offset from the centerline of the crankshaft. When the journal is farther from the centerline, the stroke is longer, which produces a greater torque. Racecars have a very short stroke which results in a large amount of horsepower at high RPMs, but a small amount of torque is generated by the engine. But the torque is not important to racecar drivers since they begin their races already in motion, so there is no taking off from a start. On the other hand, Diesel engines have a very long stroke, which is why most construction vehicles use a diesel engine.
Many people base their opinions of car on the amount of horsepower it has. But, the Torque rating tells you more about the engine. Horsepower is more relevant to top speed, not necessarily acceleration. The feeling of your eyes going into the back of your head when you are accelerating is the feeling excessive torque produces. Again, a muscle car and a dump truck can have very similar rating is both of these categories, so, dividing these values by the vehicle weight will give a more accurate value for the acceleration and performance of a vehicle. A torque rating is defined in foot-pounds. Torque ratings are usually high for a big and powerful truck or SUV, and low for a smaller sedan. High torque engines respond easier to the accelerator pedal, while low torque engines usually need to start in a lower gear and increase the revolutions per minute, in order to attain the maximum power. Some of this torque that is produced does not get all the way to the wheels. Some of it is lost in the transmission. Different amounts of power are needed for rear-wheel, front-wheel, and all-wheel drive vehicles. You can easily calculate the horsepower of an engine with a simple conversion: (Torque x Engine speed) / 5,252 = Horsepower. SO an engine which puts out 300 foot pounds of torque at 4,000 rpms would produce 228 horsepower. ({300 ft-lbs x 4,000rpm}/5252 = 228.48)
An engine reaches its peak torque range at different rpms. This can help a person choose the right car. For cars being used around town and on the highway at moderate speeds, they should have a peak torque range of 1800-2500 rpms. For more heavy duty work, such as towing and carrying heavy cargo, a peak torque range of 4000-5500 rpms would be more suitable.

Sources:
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/towing/towing-capacity/information/fpte5.htm
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/towing/towing-capacity/information/fpte5.htm
http://ezinearticles.com/?Torque-and-Horsepower-Ratings---How-They-Affect-Performance-and-Their-Relevance-in-Comparing-Models&id=838515
http://www.giant.net.au/users/wight/Ignition%20Timing%20Background.htm

Should the Woolly Mammoth live in today’s world?

2008-12-18T13:33:00.008-05:00

The woolly mammoth is an extinct species of elephant that lived in one of two places, the high arctic and northern Siberia, and had adaptations to survive the cold environments of the northern hemisphere. The most noticeable adaptation is the wool undercoat which had long flowing hair up to 35 inches on top. The mammoth had teeth adaptated to help grind the course grasses making up most of its diet. Compared to the modern day elephant, the depth of the mammoth’s skin was no different; however the woolly mammoth had sebaceous glands that secreted fat onto their hair as well as 8cm of fat under their skin providing excellent insulation.

Woolly mammoths disappeared in North America at the end of the last ice age with the mammoths in Siberia surviving for another 2,000 years. Research suggests the extinction of the mammoths resulted from both climate change as well as human hunting; however, climate change was the foremost cause.[i] The increase in temperatures at the end of the last ice age caused their habitat, the glaciers, to melt away. Hunting by humans is what finished them off.[ii]

Preserved frozen woolly mammoths have been found in northern Siberia that still contain soft tissue. This is very uncommon as it requires the mammoths to have been covered very quickly after death with some sort of liquid that was then frozen. This most likely happened when mammoths became stuck in quicksand or drowned beneath the surface of the snow. Death not due to starvation was confirmed by undigested food in the mouths and stomach of these frozen mammoths. More evidence suggesting drowning is provided by more than 9,000 bones coming from at least 156 different mammoths found in the same spot of the Berelekh River in Siberia suggesting that the mammoths, from which these bones came, got swept away in the river causing their death.[iii]

A intact baby mammoth of 7-8 months, named Dima, was found in 1977 in the Kolyma River in northeast Siberia. Research has shown that Dima died about 40,000 years ago, and Dima’s internal organs are very similar to the current elephant.[iv] In 1997 a family found a mammoth tusk sticking out of the ground in Siberia. The 20,380 year old carcass to which it was attached was excavated and flown to an ice cave in 2000 where defrosting began using hairdryers. In May of 2007, a 6 month old female mammoth that died 37,000 years ago was discovered in Russia. Only four complete mammoths have been found to date, however mammoth tusks are more “common” and of great interest in the trading market.

Recently people began asking the question, should the woolly mammoth live again? Researchers have announced this past week that they are nearly done sequencing the genome of the woolly mammoth.[v] Biochemist Stephan Schuster from Penn State says that using the genome to bring the mammoth back can be done within the next 10-20 years, but suggests that it might be unethical to do so. New York Times calls it the “$64,000 question.” Arguments against the cloning are that the mammoth would have to spend their entire life in the captivity of a zoo with artificial environments and that if we’re going to clone mammoths why not clone a Neanderthal Man? Scientists are almost done sequencing that genome too. However, others say that we are under obligation to reintroduce them to Earth because we played a prominent role in eliminating them from it in the first place. For our own sake, the techniques of bringing back mammoths are the same techniques that would allow us to clone replacements of our own damaged or diseased body parts.

The earth today does not contain the ecosystem that the mammoths once roamed, however Russian researcher Sergey Zimov plans to recreate the environment that the mammoths lived in before the ice age to defend his theory that climate change had nothing to do with the extinction of the woolly mammoth, but that it was all due to hunting.[vi] He calls this environment Pleistocene Park and hopes to one day introduce the mammoths to this environment through cloning.

[i] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammoth
[ii] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080611161038
[iii] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammoth
[iv] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammoth
[v] The Week. December 5, 2008. Volume 8, Issue 390. pg 21.
[vi] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene_Park

Why Michael Eisner owns your soul!!!

2008-12-18T13:14:00.006-05:00

This is Michael Eisner, ex-CEO of the Disney Corporation. You may not know it yet, but this man already owns your eternal soul. Some of you may say things such as “How preposterous! How can a man I never met own a vital and completely unique part of me?” I am sad to report that it is indeed true, and I will explain to you the varying ways in which you have sold your soul to this figurative devil using two powerful concepts from the science of animal behaviorism and psychology.

1.) The Herd Mentality
The Herd Mentality is a phenomenon that shows the co-operation between units of a particular group of animals. For example, consider the flying V that Canadian geese make when flying south for the winter. The head goose leads, the other geese follow. Another good example of a herd would be a school of fish, swimming around in the sea in one large group, thus appearing more menacing to predators and gaining a sense of safety (NationMaster Encyclopedia, 2006). Many animals, including humans, exhibit a herd mentality. Humans show herd mentality when social pressures from peers compel individuals to do something, or when a leader of a group of people makes a decision that people just complacently go along with (Landis, 2008). Herd mentality in humans is present in both conscious and subconscious decisions that people make every day of their lives.

Rather than look at a herd of wildebeests on an African savannah, imagine instead when you were much younger, and you and your friends wanted to go out to see a movie. Your adult chaperone drives you away from those scary and vulgar R-rated movies and leads you into the theater that is showing ‘The Lion King’ or ‘The Little Mermaid.’ When you were younger, you just went with the flow, never asking questions or rebelling against your herd leader. That was where the brainwashing began, and that was the first step to you handing over that sweet, sweet soul to the clutches of Mr. Eisner.

2.) Mnemonic Devices
Another way that Disney has gotten to you is through the clever use of their mnemonic devices. Mnemonic devices are clever tricks that people use to enhance their short and long-term memories. There are multiple devices that can be utilized to help store things in your brain that one would not normally store. Rhyming is one of the most basic and easy methods of doing this. Acronyms, the process of taking a long title and shortening it by using letters from selected words, are also commonly used devices (ThinkQuest, 2008). Another way would be by grouping, which is splitting information into groups that often have connections with one another (ThinkQuest, 2008).

One popular method of grouping is chunking, where one sees a string of information and splits it into smaller chunks. A good example of chunking is the way phone numbers are presented. Most people will write a phone number like the following: '563 123 4567'. As such it is easy to see the first group of three numbers, the second group of three numbers, and the final group of four numbers. It is harder to recognize a number when presented like the following: '56 13234 567'. This collection of numbers makes less sense, and does not show the importance that the first string does.

Now how does this relate to Disney? If I came up to you humming a certain tune, and then sang M I C, and then KEY, tell me that you wouldn’t instantly think in your head the letters M O U S E. It has been drilled into our subconscious for ages, and it will be hard to forget. Also, think of the rhyme Hakuna Matata. Everyone remembers those two ridiculous words and knows that it means no worries, due to the inane song from a meercat and a warthog in one of the more well-known Disney movies. Are you scared yet? You should be.

After coming to these shocking realizations, you might be asking yourself what you can do to liberate your soul from the clutches of the greedy, power-hungry demon that is Michael Eisner. The answer to this question is simple: nothing. The truth has been revealed, but there will be no catharsis. There is nothing you can do that will break that peer pressure that made you go watch the new Disney movies like ‘Cars’ and ‘Wall-E.’ There is no way to break the chains that hold those demonic mnemonic devices inside your brain. Don’t worry. He has my soul too. Anyone feel like watching ‘Aladdin?’

Sources

Landis, Josh "Fear Factor: When Herd Mentality drives us" http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/10/19/home/main4531225.shtml

ThinkQuest "Out of Memory" http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110291/tricks/mnemonics/index.php

NationQuest Encyclopedia "Herd Behavior" http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Herd-behavior

Pictures courtesy of:

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://images.askmen.com/galleries/men/michael-eisner/pictures/michael-eisner-picture-1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.askmen.com/celebs/men/business_politics/46_michael_eisner.html&usg=__1JPHi17YqwnO5ZXzKyiU8XJTUwI=&h=490&w=376&sz=47&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=i5RjyB-lQlS0rM:&tbnh=130&tbnw=100&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmichael%2Beisner%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DN

"Flying Under the Radar"

2008-12-17T20:20:00.001-05:00

The stealth bomber is an incredible and awesome aircraft. It is officially named the B-2 Spirit bomber. This aircraft was the result of a project that aimed to create an aircraft capable of carrying nuclear bombs across the world in a short period of time without being detected by enemy radar. In the 1970`s the United States military wished to replace the B-52 bomber with a plane that had these characteristics.This was an extremely hard task seeing that no aircraft like this had ever been invented. Northrop Grumman spent billions of dollars over a 10 year period constructing the first B-2 in secret. We will go into the science behind the technology of this awesome aircraft.

Dimensional Analysis

Wingspan: 52m

Height: 5m

Length: 21m

Top Speed: 305 m/s (nearly the speed of sound)

Design

The design of the stealth bomber is known as the flying wing. It is far from the conventional design of modern aircraft. The photo above displays the dimensions of the aircraft, which is actually quite large. The flying wing design is much more efficient than traditional designs. It does not have two wings generating lift, instead the entire aircraft works to generate lift. This results in a drastic decrease in drag, which is the total force of air resistance acting on the plane. The pilot steers the plane and adjusts velocity and acceleration by manipulating adjustable components of the wings and stabilizers which adjust how air flows over the aircraft. This design is what allows the stealth to travel long distances at very high velocities. Four general electric F118-GE-100 non-after burning turbofan engines, each delivering 19,000 lbs of thrust, enables the stealth to travel at a top speed of 305 meters per second and reach altitudes of 50,000 ft., which is high-subsonic. The stealth can travel 6,900 miles without refueling and with one in flight fueling it can travel 10,000 miles. The stealth`s black color as well as its sleek and flat design allows it to be nearly invisible at night. (Picture above from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/stealth-bomber1.htm)

Stealth Capabilities

Video from http://fineartamerica.com/images-medium/b-2-stealth-bomber-bob-pardue.jpg

The most impressive component of the B-2 spirit is that it is undetectable by radar. Radar is the use of reflected electromagnetic waves to detect targets. Detection starts by sending out an electromagnetic pulse in the target's direction. If any energy is reflected off an object a receiving antenna will collect it. By comparing the delay time between sending and receiving, information about the target's location and shape can be derived. Stealth is achieved by absorbing or deflecting electromagnetic radar.

The B-2 spirit is made of a composite material that has a radar absorbent surface. Therefore, when flying through enemy airspace it can not be detected by the enemy's radar because the composite material actually absorbs some of the radar. Furthermore, the stealth bomber lacks flat vertical surfaces which act as radar mirrors. Instead, it is highly angled and streamlined which allows radar to be deflected away from radar recievers. Additionally, metal screens were placed over the intake vents of the engine which helps to absorb radar waves and reduce heat signature. Another component of stealth is silence, or the inability of the enemy to hear the aircraft as it makes it approach. The engine of the B-2 is actually buried inside the plane, which minimizes the noise of the engine. Also, when a mission is executed during the night, the black color of the stealth blends in with the dark sky, making it nearly invisible.

The stealth bomber has given the United States a huge advantage in air force technology and defense in general. Our military actually has the capability to enter enemy lines completely undetected. This aircraft takes advantage of anti-radar technology making it undetectable by radar. Its airfoil design generates optimal lift allowing it to travel at very high speeds for long distances. This air craft is also very deadly.

Weapons of the Stealth Bomber

The B-2 carries all its weapons internally and is fitted with 2 separate weapons bays in the center of the aircraft. It can carry 40,000 lbs of weapons, including conventional and nuclear bombs, precision-guided munitions, gravity bombs, and a range or maritime weapons.
Each weapons bay is equipped with a rotary launcher and two bomb-rack assemblies. In tests, the b-2 bomber dropped B-61 and B-83 nuclear and Mk 84 conventional bombs from the rotary rocket launcher, and Mk-82 and CBU-87 conventional weapons from the bomb racks. The b-2 can carry the AGM-129 advanced cruise missile, which is a strategic cruise missile with a range of up to 1,500 miles. Overall, the stealth aircraft is able to destroy even small targets with precise accuracy as well as large targets with massive and destructive bombs.

(Picture from http://fineartamerica.com/images-medium/b-2-stealth-bomber-bob-pardue.jpg)

Combat Missions

The stealth B-2 bomber has been used in several military campaigns. It made its debut during Operation Allied Force in the Kosovo war in 1999. It destroyed 33% of selected Serbians bombing targets in the first eight weeks. These missions consisted of flying from the U.S. to Kosovo and back non-stop. At the conclusion of this war, the stealth became the first aircraft to deploy the Global Poistioning System guided JDAM in combat. The aircraft was also utilized in the ongoing war in Afghanistan. The B-2 stealth also completed combat missions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Iraq, flying 22 sorties from a forward operating location as well as 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB in Missouri and releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions.

The B-2 is a perfect military aircraft. The creation of the B-2 spirit has allowed the United States to effectivley execute missions across the globe with minimal loss of American lives and maximal destruction of targets.

References:

Harris, Tom. "How Stealth Bombers Work", http://science.howstuffworks.com/stealth-bomber.htm

Bellis, Mary. "Background of the B2 Spirit" http://inventors.about.com/od/militaryhistoryinventions/a/B2_Bomber.htm

The Physics behind Famous Bridge Collapses

2008-12-17T15:19:00.015-05:00

The Physics behind Famous Bridge Collapses:

The history of bridge construction, both successful and unsuccessful, dates back thousands of years. In fact, both the Greek and Roman empires contributed greatly to the engineering of bridges and support systems. The people of this time not only guided us to understand the necessary materials for bridges, but more importantly the physics needed to keep a bridge up and sturdy. Since the time of the Greeks and Romans, many bridges have been built and many have fallen. However, only the spectacular and deadly bridge collapses are the ones we remember and the ones in which we point fingers. Just who is to blame for the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows, Schoharie Creek and Sliver Bridges, just to name a few?

In order to understand the engineering faults leading to bridge failure we must understand the forces (stresses) acting upon a bridge every time a car passes over. There are three main stresses in particular and six bridge designs that attempt to dissipate such stresses. These stresses include a tensile stress, better known as tension, a compressive stress and a shear stress.

Each stress is self explanatory; the tensile stress has a force at each end moving in opposite directions, thus pulling each way from the center creating tension.

The compressive stress consists of forces at each end of an object pushing toward the center creating compression.

Finally, the shear stress is forces acting in opposite directions along a parallel plane. The most common example of shear stress would be when earth’s plates move across one another creating an earthquake.

As the diagram above demonstrates, the existence of these stresses may wear on an object to the point of collapse. Here is where the job of the engineer becomes vital; he/she must create a support system which distributes, or spreads the forces along a wider area so that anticipated force/ stresses do not cause a collapse of the structure.

There are six designs which have been used to distribute loads on bridges historically: the beam, the cantilever, the arch, the suspension, the cable-strayed and the truss bridge. For the sake of discussing historical mishaps, we will only explore those designs that have specifically failed and why.

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse

Perhaps the most memorable bridge collapse was the Tacoma Narrows Bridge on November 7, 1940. The bridge had only been operating for four months and even before its collapse was famous for its swaying and rippling. In fact the bridge obtained the nickname “Galloping Gertie” for its consistent galloping movement when weather was bad.

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was one of three famous suspension bridges operating around that time. The others were the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco and New York’s George Washington Bridge, both of whom were larger than the Tacoma Narrows. The purpose of the suspension bridge was to carry rather large amounts of weight over large spans. The reason suspension bridges could carry such large loads was that it distributed the weight through several tension cables into the ground at several anchorage points.

As the diagram above shows, the cables were anchored at each end, and supported in the middle by several raised towers. This allowed for the tension in the cables due to the weight of the cars and road to be conveyed into the ground. The reason the Tacoma Narrows Bridge did not last is that engineers never considered aerodynamics and wind forces, which added both a compression and tension force to the bridge. Every time the wind blew at strong gusts the tension force of the cables would be overcome by compression, then back to tension causing galloping oscillations of the deck or road. It didn’t help that the engineers built the bridge so light either. Without the weight of the bridge to dapper the oscillations they could be very intense. The material holding the deck during these vigorous movements finally tensed to a point of collapse and the bridge went down.

The video link below shows the Tacoma Narrows Bridge as it “gallops” and eventually collapses:
http://link.history.com/services/link/bcpid1126532158/bclid1125998366/bctid1126074566

Mianus Bridge Collapse

As you can see there is another video within this link lower on the page, describing the Mianus Bridge collapse of 1983. This bridge used a beam design with pins and hangars to restrict shearing. The beam design is different from other designs in that it endures all three stresses in a major way. As you see below the compression and tension stresses work along the center of each vertical post supporting the horizontal deck. When the stresses work their way to these posts the natural movement is for the posts to shear away from the horizontal deck.

The pin and hanger design below shows this point where two separate sections of the bridge are bolted so that if shearing in one direction takes place the other bolt will hold against the movement. The problem with the Mianus Bridge was that a lack of maintenance and repair allowed for one hanger to rust through forcing all stress on one side. This one side eventually gave out and the bridge collapsed killing 4 people.

I-35 W Minneapolis Bridge Collapse

The final bridge I will discuss was the most recent notable collapse of an American bridge. The I-35 bridge collapse in Minneapolis, Minnesota was a steel deck truss bridge which eroded due to corrosive salt chemicals. In almost all cases, bridges hold up to these chemical reactions, at least those built out of concrete. According to bridge engineer expert William Miller "concrete is a very forgiving material, and so it can stand up to a lot of cracking and wear. Steel on the other hand, cannot." . The steel reacted chemically with both the pavement and salt to erode the deck and eventually collapse. Since the bridge was a truss bridge there was nothing for the deck to fall upon other than the water below. This is because truss bridges use triangular looking shapes of steel supports above the bridge to distribute loads to the anchors on each side of the bridge. If the deck gives out in any way, the steel beams will not support the uneven loads, hence the collapse of this bridge. Below is a simple model of a truss bridge.

What is most interesting about the I-35 bridge is that it was deemed “structurally deficient” in 1990, yet was never scheduled to be repaired. It was however scheduled to be replaced in 2020, 13 deaths later!

Additional Famous Bridge Collapses in History

December 1876 Ashtabula River Bridge- 92 people killed (Truss)

November 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge- 0 people killed (Suspension)

December 1967 Silver Bridge- 46 people killed (Suspension)

June 1983 Mianus Bridge- 4 people killed

April 1987 Schoharie Creek Thruway Bridge- 10 people killed

Frommer, F. J. (2008). NTSB: Design Errors Factor in 2007 Bridge Collapse. Retrieved December 01, 2008 from Time, Inc., Time: http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1858912,00.html.

Giancoli, D. C. (Ed.). (2005). Physics Principles with Applications Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Education, Inc.

Graybeal, B. A., Walther, R. A., Walsher, G. A., & Waters, A. M. (2006). Ultrasonic Inspection of Bridge Hanger Pins. Retrieved December 01, 2008 from U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, TFHRC: http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/nov00/images/hangerpins.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/nov00/ultrasonic.htm&usg=__ztsrkfubhmtzwy3j6ulqz3hrrx8=&h=178&w=350&sz=4&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=voxl_gtigzhp6m:&tbnh=61&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3fq%3dpin%2band%2bhanger%2bbridge%2bdiagram%26um%3d1%26hl%3den

Lemonick, M. D. (2007). Why Do Bridges Fall? Retrieved December 03, 2008 from Time, Inc., Time: http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1649423,00.html?cnn=yes.

Kwong, N. Physics of Bridges. Retrieved December 01, 2008 from None, Physics.ubc: http://www.physics.ubc.ca/outreach/phys420/p420_04/norman/physics_of_bridges.ppt..

Nansi, B. (2005). Famous Bridge Collapses. Retrieved December 01, 2008 from Economic Research India Ltd., Project Monitor: http://www.projectsmonitor.com/detailnews.asp?newsid=8976.

Engineering Disasters- Bridges. Retrieved December 01, 2008 from A&E Television Networks, History.com: http://www.history.com/minisite.do?content_type=minisite_generic&content_type_id=55377&display_order=6&mini_id=1335.

Bridge Type- Truss. Retrieved December 03, 2008 from Matsuo Bridge Co., Ltd. , Matsuo Bridge: http://www.matsuo-bridge.co.jp/english/bridges/basics/truss.shtm.

One Cell in the Sea

2008-12-17T00:35:00.000-05:00

a science fiction short story

Michael Nelik had always been interested in science. For as long as he could remember he was always trying to figure out why things worked. He had grown up in a small rural town in Virginia. As there was not much to do, he spent most of his childhood reading and playing outside with his friends. He was quite shy growing up, yet those who were close to him realized he had a quiet ambition for learning that most lacked. Eventually, this ambition moved him to the West coast, where he studied Marine Biology at Stanford. His graduate work and love for the ocean led him to study the biodiversity of Aurelia aurita, the common jellyfish. When it came time to settle down, he knew he would continue his research on jellyfish at Stanford. What he did not know—what he could not possibly have known—was that his love for this marine organism would almost kill him.

http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3223/2476962425_58728d79e4.jpg

“You have a telephone call on line three, Dr. Nelik.” It had been a long day in the lab, and Michael was in no mood to answer the phone. It was probably his girlfriend, Cara, wanting to know when he would be home. He loved his girlfriend deeply, but sometimes she just didn’t understand that his job required long, tiresome hours. They had met about a year ago through a mutual friend, and while the past year had been amazing, recently he found himself annoyed with her. He couldn’t really explain it. Perhaps it was because she was so vastly different from him. Her love for science only went so far and she knew little about his research with the jellyfish. He had invited her a couple of times to come out on the boat with him while he collected specimens, yet she had always declined. She had mentioned once that the transparent creatures scared her—when she was younger one had stung her in the ocean. When she told him this story, he had chuckled quietly; he knew that those types of jellyfish were harmless. Yes, if you came into contact with their tentacles you may receive a nasty sting, but it was nothing a little vinegar couldn’t fix.
“Dr. Nelik, the call is kind of important!” His coworker, Shirley, interrupted him from his thoughts. Michael picked up the phone. “Hello.” “Hi, Dr. Nelik?” “This is him, may I ask who is speaking?” “Yes, of course. My name is Dr. Jim Palo. I work for a biodiversity station in Sydney, Australia. We have heard quite a lot about your research concerning jellyfish. Are you aware of what has been happening lately off the coast of Sydney?” “No, actually I am not..”—“I don’t have time to really explain,” interrupted Dr. Palo, “but basically a large number of jelly fish have died recently and we need your help to discover why. There isn’t much time, and quite frankly we need to know now if you would be willing to fly over. You would have to leave early tomorrow morning. All expenses will be paid for of course and all of the necessary equipment is here. Are you interested?” “Well, Dr. Palo I don’t—
“Dr. Nalik, it’s your girlfriend!” Shirley shouted. “She wants to know when you’ll be home. What should I tell her?” Michael thought about this for a second. “Shirley, tell her not for while. I’m going to Australia.”

*****

Dr. Palo was surprised. He thought for sure Dr. Nelik would not be coming. In fact he thought Michael had started to say that he wasn’t going to come. But then, out of no where he had told him he would see him the next day. No questions asked. Dr. Palo thought that was a little strange, but he didn’t have to time to reason why this man would be flying halfway across the world to help him with a problem he knew nothing about. He had much more important things to worry about—like why the jellyfish were dying off so quickly and why there had been an increase in the number of stings from Australia’s largest box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri. While these jellyfish were known for their deadly stings, he hadn’t mentioned this second part to Dr. Nelik. He didn’t think the two cases were related. Besides, the one man that had died last week from the sting was in his late sixties. The pain of the sting had probably caused a heart attack, which had led to his death. He was also wearing a stinger suit—Dr. Palo had never known the sting of the box jellyfish to penetrate the suit in all his years of studying them.

*****

Michael could not wait to get off the plane. In his years of studying jellyfish he had never been to Australia and was very excited to learn more about the types of species that inhibited the strange land. He was taken back when Dr. Palo had asked him to help—he wasn’t sure how he could be of service. But then again, he really didn’t know the extent of the problem. He assumed the jellyfish were dying off because of a lack of food. He knew that in the past years the ozone layer above Australia had been deteriorating and that the sun’s strong UV rays had been penetrating the earth’s atmosphere. While most knew of the human implications, few knew about the consequences the UV rays could have on marine life. The sun is a crucial part of the food chain in the ocean. Without it, primary production stops and with no primary production marine life will essentially cease. It is perhaps obvious that without sunlight, primary producers cannot carry out photosynthesis. Yet, if the light is too strong, the photosynthetic systems of producers, such as plankton, can also suffer. He figured that the levels of plankton would directly correlate with the number of common jellyfish in the ocean because plankton is a major source of food for the creatures. He hoped he was right and that somehow his insight could help Dr. Palo.

http://www.york.ac.uk/res/caslc/FCAU/Images/australia-sydney-opera-house.jpg

About fifteen hours later, Michael landed in Australia. He was met by a taller, older man who introduced himself as Dr. Palo. Dr. Palo looked worried and this concerned Michael. Australians weren’t normally ones to worry. Was there more to this story then Dr. Palo was telling him? Michael didn’t have time to answer his own question.Dr. Palo shook Michael’s hand firmly. “Welcome to Australia, mate. I hope your flight wasn’t too bad.”“It was a little longer then I would have liked, but otherwise it was fine.”
“I know you’re probably tired, but I would like to fill you in on the recent situation with the jellyfish. We have a long day tomorrow and I want to get you up to speed as quickly as possible.”
Michael listened intently while Dr. Palo told him about the recent deaths of the jellyfish. “Dr. Palo, have you considered that the deaths of the jellyfish may be related to a decrease in the number of plankton in the ocean?”

Dr. Palo sighed. “I know what you’re thinking, Michael. My colleagues and I have already tested that theory. We have tested primary production through satellite imaging, and unfortunately the levels of plankton have not decreased in the areas where the jellyfish have been dying. Besides, the jellyfish have only just begun to die. If the deaths were related to the plankton in the ocean, we would have seen a decrease in the species over years, not a couple of weeks.”

“That’s very true,” Michael replied. He was angry at himself for not thinking of this before. If the deaths of the jellyfish were related to the plankton, of course they wouldn’t be dying off just now.
“We hope that you can help us Michael. We figured that with your expertise on the creatures we may be able to put our heads together and come up with a solution before it’s too late. There is also one more thing. I didn’t mention this to you over the phone because I didn’t think it was that important. But since I’ve called you more human casualties have occurred—“More casualties?!” Michael couldn’t help but interrupt. What was this guy talking about?

“Give me a chance to explain, mate. Recently lifeguards have been reporting deaths of beachgoers that have been stung by jellyfish. At first we thought it was the box jellyfish.”
Michael was familiar with these creatures. While he had never seen one himself, he knew about their lethal stings and prevalence in Australia. He didn’t think the deaths were that common though.
“What’s unusual is that all of the deaths occurred in people who had stinger suits on. The nematocysts (the stinging cells in the jelly fish’s tentacles) shouldn’t have gotten through the suits. What’s even weirder is that some locals who saw one of the stings reported that it was not a box jellyfish that stung one of the victims. He claimed it was a common jellyfish.”

http://www.menscience.com/blog/uploaded_images/Scuba-divers-782083.jpg

Michael thought about this for a moment. “Dr. Palo, that’s impossible. You know as well as I do that the nematocysts are not concentrated enough in the tentacles of the common jellyfish to cause death, much less excruciating pain.”
“I know Michael, that’s why I’m concerned. Lucky for us, the lifeguard that was present that day was able to collect some of the tentacles. It reached our lab yesterday and I was hoping that you and I could have a look at it tomorrow.”
“That sounds good Dr. Palo but I don’t see how that would help. I think we are wasting our time. We should be going out into the ocean to collect some of the dying jellyfish. I think we will find our answer there, not in some tentacle that may or may not belong to the common jellyfish.”
Dr. Palo sighed heavily. “I know Michael, but let’s humor these people. My boss wants us to check into every possibility. Besides, the last thing we want is this getting out of hand. If the media gets a hold of this, the public will begin to panic.”
“Very true,” Michael said.
The two caught a cab to Michael’s hotel and Dr. Palo wished him goodnight. “See you bright and early tomorrow morning Michael.”
“Goodnight Dr. Palo.”As jetlagged as Michael was, he could not sleep that night. He had a feeling that he was going to be in Australia for much longer that he anticipated.

*****

The next day Dr. Palo picked Michael up from the hotel and the two headed to the biodiversity station in Sydney. When they got there they were greeted by one of Dr. Palo’s lab technicians. He introduced himself as Rob, and the three headed to retrieve the sample.
“I’m glad you two are finally here,” Rob explained. “We had two more reports last night while you were picking up Dr. Nelik from the airport. This time it was two young kids that died from the stings. Healthy as ever, too.”
“Let me guess,” Dr. Palo said. “They were wearing stinger suits.”
“You guessed it.” Rob opened a freezer and pulled out the preserved tentacles. No longer attached to the body of the jellyfish, the tentacles were harmless. He began slicing the tentacles into thin pieces and prepared a slide from them.
“While Rob is preparing the slide, let’s have a look at the cells of a box jellyfish, Michael.” Dr. Palo put a slide under the electron microscope. He pointed out the nematocysts. “See how concentrated they are?” “The more concentrated, the more poison. And the more poison, the worse the sting.” Michael understood. He was anxious to see the prepared slide from the tentacle found at the beach. He was sure it would show a normal concentration of nematocysts.
Rob was finally done preparing the slide. He placed it under the microscope and let out a large gasp. “Dr. Palo, your never going to believe this, but the concentration of nematocysts is about equal to that of the box jellyfish.”
“So then it was a box jellyfish after all,” Dr. Palo exclaimed. “What’s the problem then Rob? Now we can focus on what is killing those common jellyfish out in the ocean.”
“No, Dr. Palo, you don’t understand. The nematocyst concentration is equal, but the tentacles are that of a common jellyfish.”
“Let me see that Rob! Are you sure?” Dr. Palo brought the specimen into focus and slowly stepped backwards. “Michael you better have a look at this.”

Michael nervously looked into the scope. Rob and Dr. Palo were right. What he was looking at was clearly the tentacles of a common jellyfish with an extremely high level of nematocysts. Maybe this was what was causing the deaths in the common jellyfish. “Dr. Palo, maybe this is why the jellyfish are dying off. They probably can’t handle this level of nematocysts.”
“Michael, you’re probably right. But what is causing the high levels of nematocysts?” Michael didn’t know. But he did know one thing. They had to stop people from swimming immediately. The common jellyfish swim in the warm waters of Australia during the summer months. And if people didn’t
get off the beach soon, there was going to be a problem. Most people were not afraid of the common jellyfish, especially if they had stinger suits on. This apparently was no ordinary jellyfish, however.

http://biology.unm.edu/ccouncil/Biology_203/Images/Microscopes/stereoscope3.jpeg

Dr. Palo called the coastguard immediately. “Hi. Yes, this is Dr. Palo from the biodiversity station in Sydney. I need you to stop all people from swimming off the coast of Sydney. We’ve discovered what’s been causing the stings of the victims.”“The box jellyfish?”
“No. Much worse, the common jellyfish.” Dr. Palo heard a click. He wasn’t surprised. The news had shocked him too. He was glad he had asked Michael to help. The three of them had to discover what was causing the rapid multiplication of nematocysts before it was too late. He wasn’t going to have most of Sydney die. Not on his watch.

*****

Michael wanted to have one more look at the tentacles before they went out in the ocean to collect more specimens. As he looked more carefully he noticed a thin filamentous structure sticking out from one of the cnidocytes, the cells that contain the nematocyst. He had missed it before because he was looking at the concentration levels. He panned over to another section of the slide and saw more of these filamentous structures. He started to feel sick to his stomach. He was no expert in microbiology, but the little he did remember from his graduate courses all came flooding back. He soon realized that he was looking at some sort of virus. He called Rob and Dr. Palo over. “Hey guys, come look at this again. I think I’ve found something interesting.” Rob and Dr. Palo looked at the slide. They too saw what Michael had just seen and all looked at each other with knowing glances. They were in way over their heads and knew it. It was time to call in a virologist.

*****

Her name was Toni. She couldn’t have been much older than twenty four. “Great,” Dr. Palo mumbled. She could be my grandchild—how is she supposed to help us discover what caused this virus in the jellyfish?” While Toni looked young and inexperienced, she moved about with a knowing presence that was wise beyond her years. She looked into the electron microscope, moving the adjustment knobs efficiently. Mumbling occasionally, she quickly made some notes. The three men stared at her, as if perhaps their staring would somehow solve this ghastly mystery. Finally, after about an hour she looked up. “I’ve got good news and bad news, guys. Good news is this virus cannot itself jump species. It doesn’t have the capability. Bad news is it is still indirectly causing deaths in humans. I have an idea of what caused the virus but I’m going to need more fresh samples to make sure. Can you guys get me more?” The three men looked at each other uneasily. They knew what they had to do.

http://www.reefs.org/library/aquarium_net/0197/images/cnida.jpg

“Well be back in a couple of hours,” Michael said. He responded quickly. He knew that if he had taken the time to think about the dangers he never would have agreed.

*****

The three decided to wear two stinger suits and work together to find as many jellyfish as they could. Two men would collect the jellyfish while the other one would stand guard. The last thing they needed was for one of them to get stung. Michael and Dr. Palo decided that they would be the divers on this excursion. They had much more experience with jellyfish and knew how to look out for them. Rob, who mostly did work in the lab, would watch out for any sudden waves which could push the free floating jellyfish against the two men. The boat slowly approached the clear waters where common jellyfish were prevalent. There were enough that could be collected, but not an overwhelming amount.

Michael and Dr. Palo jumped into the waters. Michael jumped in first. The Australian waters felt cool against his skin. “How funny,” he thought to himself, “that the first time I swim in Australia it is to capture the common jellyfish—the same common jellyfish that I have come to love all my life, that has suddenly mutated into a deadly enemy.” He stopped quickly. Right in front of him was a jellyfish. Dr. Palo had jumped in and was now swimming towards him. Michael reached out carefully and picked up the jellyfish by his body, carefully avoiding its tentacles. He placed it in the bag and passed it to Rob back on the boat. “This isn’t so bad,” Dr. Palo thought. “I can do this.”

The two men collected the species for about twenty more minutes. They were about to head back to the boat when they heard Rob scream. “Guys get back here now! A large swarm of jellyfish are headed right for you. I don’t know where they all came from. It must have been from the strong gust of wind.” Dr. Palo and Michael began swimming rapidly. They were almost at the boat when Michael screamed. He felt the tentacle of one of the jellyfish brush up against his leg. He had just been stung…

*****

Back at the lab, Toni was trying to figure out how the virus had gotten into the jellyfish. “Could they have eaten something that would have been carrying a virus,” she thought. “No that’s ridiculous. They mostly eat plankton. We would have known about any virus that would use plankton as its host by now. Maybe it could have been from another species in the ocean?” She couldn’t think clearly. She had tried to appear calm for the men, and it had worked. They hadn’t noticed that she was extremely nervous. She had never had to deal with something like this before.

*****

Rob and Dr. Palo quickly pulled Michael into the boat. He was screaming loudly now and anyone that was in half a mile radius could hear him. Rob and Dr. Palo stripped off his two stinger suits and looked at his leg. “Don’t touch it!” Michael yelled. He continued screaming and looked as if he might pass out.

“Do you have any vinegar?” Dr. Palo asked Rob. Rob rummaged around. He quickly removed the cap and doused Michael’s leg. As soon as the vinegar hit Michael’s leg he passed out. The pain was just too much for him to handle. Dr. Palo and Rob drove the boat quickly back to the lab. At this point there wasn’t much they could do for Michael—they now had to find out what had caused this virus to appear in the jellyfish.

*****

Toni was glad to see them. When she saw them carrying in Michael she felt a pang of guilt. If she hadn’t suggested they go collect more samples this poor man would not have gotten stung. She looked at his leg. Dr. Palo noticed her concerned face. “No worries, he’ll be okay. The second stinger suit saved him. He just passed out from the pain but he’ll come to. We now need to concentrate on finding what caused this virus.” Rob helped her prepare the slides and Tina began to scan them intently. While she was looking at the slides, Rob prepared some DNA samples from the cells. After looking at the slides for hours, Tina finally confirmed that her original thought about the virus was true. DNA samples from the cells also confirmed her opinion.

http://www.zyvexlabs.com/EIPBNuG/EIPBN%20images/05Ion.jpg

“Dr. Palo, I think I know what caused the virus. Let me explain. There are two types of viruses, virulent ones and temperate ones. Most know about the virulent ones. These are the ones that are always present in the lytic cycle—when they reproduce they kill their host cells. Temperate viruses don’t necessarily kill their hosts. They live most of their lives in the lysogenic phase. That is, their genome becomes associated with the genome of the host and the virus reproduces when the host does. While it does not kill its host it may change the host cells slightly.”

“I don’t understand how this is helping us Tina,” Rob stated.
“Let me finish, Rob. A temperate phage is able to switch into the lytic cycle. To put it simply the concentration of two genes, cro and cI are involved. If more of the cro gene is present the lytic cycle wins and the virus reproduces, lysing the cell. If the cI gene is more prevalent, however, the phage stays incorporated in the host genome and the lysogenic cycle continues. Another gene, called the lambda repressor is associated with the cI gene. The lambda repressor helps catalyze the incorporation of the phage into the host genome. If the lambda repressor is not present or in low levels, the virus will revert back to the lytic cycle. Now, do you want to know one of the ways the levels of the lambda repressor is lowered? By UV light…”

Dr. Palo knew exactly where Tina was going. He didn’t know why he hadn’t thought of it before. It made perfect sense. Because of the holes in the ozone layer, the intensity of UV light had increased and had been damaging the DNA in the cells of the nematocysts for a long time. The jellyfish had been dying because the virus was finally taking over the cells and killing its host. The lytic cycle was prevailing and had somehow caused the levels of the nematocysts to increase. The only way to fix the situation was to fix the damaged DNA. Once the DNA was repaired the lambda repressor would increase, and the lysogenic cycle would once again prevail. No more high levels of nematocysts and no more death-causing stings. The problem had been solved.

*****

At this point Michael had come to. He was a little disoriented but it looked like he was going to make it. “Dr. Palo, did you figure out what was causing the virus?” Michael spoke softly. Dr. Palo walked over and explained everything to Michael. “How are you going to reverse the damage to the DNA?”

“It turns out the damaged DNA was due to thymine dimers. We’re going to spray the jellyfish tomorrow morning with this new chemical that should excise the dimers. Everything is pretty much done here. I’ve updated the coastguard and let them know what’s going on. It looks like the swimmers will be able to return back to the ocean in a couple of weeks. Michael, I can’t thank you enough. Without you, I don’t know what we would have done. You risked your life out there. Australia is very grateful.”

“Thank you Dr. Palo. But it wasn’t just me. It was all of us—we did it.”
Dr. Palo smiled. “You’re right. We did, didn’t we? Well, Michael you are free to go. I’ve booked you a flight for tomorrow morning. I’m sure you’re family will be glad to have you back. And know that you are always welcomed back in Australia.”
“Thank you Dr. Palo. It has been my pleasure.”

http://static.flickr.com/2/1553069_b3a08b725c.jpg

As Michael stepped off the plane at LAX airport, he heard a familiar voice “Michael! Thank goodness you’re okay. Shirley told me you had to go to
Australia for some research and I hadn’t heard from you all week. Are you okay?” “I’m fine, dear.”

“You know,” she said, “I’ve been thinking a lot lately and I’ve decided that I want to come with you this time when you collect your specimens. I really don’t know that much about your research and I think I’m finally over my childhood fear of jellyfish. After all you’ve been working with them your whole life and nothing has ever happened.”

“Oh, Cara..,” Michael whispered. He leaned over, gave Cara a kiss on the forehead, and embraced her. As the two of them stood there hugging in the airport, Michael couldn’t help but think about all that had happened. He debated whether or not he should tell Cara. “Nah,” he thought, “she’d never believe me”. Some things are just better left unsaid.

Six Myths Busted

2008-12-16T16:05:00.004-05:00

Six Myths and Misconceptions Busted

5 second rule

Dropping a Penny from the Empire State Building

Shaving your Hair

8 Cups of Water a Day

Fingernail/Hair Growth after Death

Sugar= Hyperactivity in Children

5second Rule
Many people believe that when you drop a piece of food on the floor, if you pick it up within 5 seconds it is still safe to eat. There is always that good piece of chicken that you drop on the floor and you do not want to waste it so you hurry up and pick it up, blow it off and enjoy. What you do not know is that your body is not enjoying having to fight off all of the bacteria you just consumed.

It has been proven that the amount of time that food is in contact with the ground is irrelevant to the amount of bacteria that it will collect however the amount of bacteria that the food will collect depends on where it is dropped, the adhesiveness and moisture of the food.

The 5 second rule is a complete myth and if you drop a piece of food no matter how good it tasted pop it into the trash can and not into your mouth.

See this website for more information http://kidshealth.org/kid/stay_healthy/food/5_seconds.html

Dropping a Penny from the Empire State Building
Have you ever heard the statement, if you drop a penny from the empire state building it could kill someone if it landed on them. Don’t try this one at home kids, but if you did it would not be fatal, because if a penny were to dropped from the empire state building it would not harm a soul. The first problem is the penny probably would not even make it that far, because of the way the empire state building is designed. However even if the design of the building is ignored the conception does not hold water. The terminal velocity and the mass of the penny is too small to penetrate human skin let alone kill a human being. This video shows why a penny could not possibly kill a person if dropped from the empire state building.

Source:
http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/205/would-a-penny-dropped-from-the-empire-state-building-kill-someone-on-the-ground

Shaving Your Hair
People always say when you shave your hair it grows back thicker than what it was before you shave; so not true. After you shave the stubble on your skin feels thick although it is not. The feeling of thickness is due to the fact that the hair is cut straight across, which exposes a thicker part of the shaft.. However as the hair grows longer it feels a lot softer. In order to receive the best shave always use a new sharp razor, take your time, shave in the same direction the hair grows, and shave at the end of a shower. The idea that shaving makes your hair grow back thicker is a common misconception; one that should not hinder you from having smooth hairless body parts. Cool Shaving Ken never has a problem with his hair growing back thicker.

Source:

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hair-removal/AN00638

8 Cups of Water A Day

Everyone knows that you should drink 8 glasses of water a day, too bad everyone is wrong. There are a lot of misconceptions about the power of water. Water is said to clean your body of toxins, improve skin tones and drinking a lot helps you feel less hungry. Sorry to bust the water bubble, but water is not as magical as we think. Yes it is important to drink the amount of water you lose everyday, which is normally about a quart and a half. However sticking to 8 cups a day does not make you more or less healthier than the next person.

Source:

http://calorielab.com/news/2006/05/28/8-glasses-of-water-a-diet-urban-legend/

Fingernail/Hair Growth After Death

Some people may believe the creepy statement that fingernails and hair grow after death, a phenomenon referref to as coffin nails and hair. Unfortunately the deceased can not look forward to manicured fingernails or longer and more graceful hair while six feet below. What really happens is the body dehydrates after death and the skin dries up and pulls away from hair and nails. This gives the illusion that a person's fingernails and hair are growing when in reality the skin is shrinking. Bodies can be really creepy after death; some make noise, which is only a natural byproduct of the putrefaction process. These strange events are only part of the decomposition process and should not be confused with life or rebirth. Not even Chucky has longer nails or hair and he has died more times than anyone.

Source:

http://www.snopes.com/science/nailgrow.asp

Sugar= Hyperactivity in Children

It is time for parents to face the fact that children just have a lot of energy. They like to play rough, fight, throw tantrums and most of the time they do not listen. It is not fair to blame their reckless behavior on sugar. Sugar is good for many things and is found in many foods. Parents can not blame sugar for their children’s hyperactivity; that is just a plain myth, and an excuse parents use so they don’t have to give their children candy. Let the child be a child, let them eat candy and play in the mud.
Research has yet to find a positive correlation between sugar and the hyperactivity of children. A reason for the misconception could stem from when and where children eat lots of sweets. At social events like birthday parties, children tend to eat a lot of sweets and are usually more active than usual. They are just excited not drugged from their sugar intake. Sugar can not be responsible for the boy’s behavior in the video below; maybe research should be done on trading cards, and it’s effect on children’s hyperactivity.

Source:

http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=52516

Myths and misconceptionss are around us everywhere we go. People believe many things that are not true. If statements sound good or sound probable, they are perceived as being the truth. Even the smartest professionals fall for the oldest myths in the book. Often times myths are easier to believe than to disprove.

Why Golf Balls Have Dimples

2008-12-16T14:59:00.016-05:00

Many have wondered why do golf balls have dimples?

Golf ball dimples refer to the depressions on the surface of the golf ball, and you will be supprised to find out that the dimples are not there for looks. The dimples on a golf ball actually have a significant effect on golf ball lift and how far a golf ball travels.

Golf Ball History

The early golf ball, known as a featherie, was simply a leather pouch filled with goose feathers. Iniatially it was beleived that a golf smooth surface would travel further with more control. The typical drive with this type of ball was about 150 to 175 yards. Once this ball became wet, it was totally useless. In 1845, the gutta-percha ball (shown above) was introduced. This ball was made from the gum of the Malaysian Sapodilla tree. This resulted in a very smooth surface. The typical drive with the gutta-percha ball was shorter than that obtained with the featherie. However, according to golf legend a professor at Saint Andrews University in Scotland soon discovered that the ball flew farther if the surface was scored or marked. Used golf balls then became preferred by avid golfers. By 1930, the current golf ball with dimples was accepted as the standard design. The modern golf ball consists of rubber thread wound around a rubber core and coated with dimpled enamel. Some dimples come in different shapes such as hexagons.

Why Dimples?

The discovery of the effect of dimples on golf ball distance and trajectory was almost by accident back in the mid 1800's. It was discovered that golf balls with nicks and dents often flew straighter and further than their smooth smooth golf balls. Therefore golf balls started to be created with dimples in the surface. The dimpled golf balls fly further because of the turbulence the dimples create in the boundry layer. The boundary layer is the thin layer of air surrounding a golf ball as it flies through the air. In the boundary layer, the speed of the air varies from where it contacts the air on the surface of the ball (which is not moving relative to the ball), to where it contacts the mainstream airflow, at the outer edge of the boundary layer. Dimpled golf balls travel further than smooth golf balls is because the dimples on a golf ball create turbulence in the boundary layer. This actually helps reduce drag and increase lift. The dimples actually scoop up air and move it back towards the rear of the ball as the ball spins. By moving more air to the rear, you can -- in effect keep the air pressure behind the ball from dropping. By doing this, the amount of air pressure pulling backwards on the ball is decreased creating less drag. This affect is shown in the picture below.

Sources:

http://www.knetgolf.com/GolfBallDimp.aspx http://

http://www.golf-control.ch/images/golf_ball_web.jpg

http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0215.shtml

http://wings.avkids.com/Book/Sports/instructor/golf-01.html

http://www.howstuffworks.com/question37.htm

Assistive Technologies : Assisting Different Abilities

2008-12-16T13:55:00.017-05:00

An assitive technology is defined as any device, piece of equipment, or apparatus designed to help a child compensate for an impairment (RCDC,2007). Assistive technologies can be as simple as glasses or a Braille notebook, but can be as advanced as a robotic arm. Developments are being made each day to make it feasible for those with impairments to be able to function in society normally. Some of the most interesting technologies include

1. The iBOT Wheelchair

The iBOT is a wheel chair with 5 major configurations: balance (raising chair to reach shelves), stairs (climbing staircases), 4-wheel (allows for travel over uneven terrain), standard (operates as a regular wheelchair), and remote (foldable for easy storage) (Independence Technology, 2008). Hand function is necessary for this wheelchair. A prescription from a doctor is also needed.
Also, the company requires a test drive. A downside to the wheelchair is that it costs $26,000, which makes the technology unavailable to all that could benefit from it. The chair's ability to climb stairs makes it very appealing.

(Image above -http://www.powerchair-review.fsnet.co.uk/images/ibot-4000-powerchair-independence-technology.jpg)

iBOT in Action!

2. Ness L300

A functional electrical stimulation (FES) system for those afflicted with neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, spinal cord injury, and cerebral palsy (Deaconess Health Systems,2008). Worn on the lower leg, the device contains electrodes that place stimulation on the leg and foot muscles. The device can be customized to perform exercises that when enabled. causes certain muscles to move in different ways. The Ness L300 also allows for a more natural walk, and the ability to exercise muscles that have lost their function from no use (Deaconess Health Systems, 2008)

(Image at right- www.englandpt.com/images/Bioness2.jpg)

Check out the Ness L300!

3. Headmouse Extreme

This device is an optical sensor that allows those unable to use their hands to gain access to a computer. The computer user places a desposable target on their forehead or glasses. The headmouse is placed on top of the computer and translates the movements of the head into movements of the pointer on the screen. This technology allows for keyboard functions, gaming, drawing, and graphics. The Headmouse is compatible with other forms of assistive technologies to allow for complete computer functioning. This device retails for $1000 (Orin Instruments, 2007)

(Image above- www.tokenasians.com/news/headmouse.jpg )

Communicating with ALS

4. TTY

TTY stands for Tele Typewriter. It is a device that enables those who are deaf to use the phone. With a TTY, the conversation is typed. The device looks like a laptop keyboard and connects via a phone line. A call is placed through the TTY to a relay operator who translates what you type to the person you are trying to communicate with. It is portable and can be connected to any phone, anywhere. Some of the newer TTY's have answering machines, where messages are printed out so that those with hearing impairments do not miss messages or calls ( Brainerd, 2007).

(Image below- www.michdhh.org/assistive_devices/images/tty.jpg)

5. Vibrotactile Devices

These are devices that help people with hearing impairments by communicating sounds through physical contact with the skin. These devices receive sound through a microphone, process the information, and then send a vibrating to the skin. These devices are especially used for detecting rhythm in music. Also, they benefit the user by helping them to understand the pitch of their own voice. Many users find this as a good alternative to a cochlear implant because it is not invasive and lets them adapt to the world around them (Audiological Engineering Corp.).

(Image above-www.tactaid.com/aboutus_files/audiologicalengineering_1956_468359.gif)

http://www.captions.com/tty.html
http://www.child-dev.com/drupal/node/39
http://www.deaconess.com/body.cfm?id=2294
http://www.ibotnow.com/about-ibot.html
http://www.orin.com/access/headmouse/ http://tactaid.com/whatistactaid.html

Ignoring Friction

Plastic Flow

What's Gonna Get You?

Luke...I am your father.

Coriolis Effect

Skyscraper Structural Support: What holds 'em up?

Does the Swimsuit Make the Man?

Flying Buttresses

Shampoo: the Beauty Industry’s Dirty Little Secret

Global Warming: 4 Things You Thought You Knew

The Heart: Powerhouse of the Body

Why Do We Exercise?

Skyscrapers: How and Why they are Built

Tides Are Neat

Albert Einstein: Brief Biography and 1905

Physics of Cow Tipping

Center of Mass

5 Weird Disorders You Probably Never Heard Of

Torque of Car Engine

Should the Woolly Mammoth live in today’s world?

Why Michael Eisner owns your soul!!!

"Flying Under the Radar"

The Physics behind Famous Bridge Collapses

One Cell in the Sea

Six Myths Busted

Why Golf Balls Have Dimples

Assistive Technologies : Assisting Different Abilities