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Why does my back hurt during pregnancy

2025-06-28T20:59:00.001+03:00

Why does my back hurt during pregnancy? Back pain is a common discomfort during pregnancy, affecting about 40% of all pregnant women at some point. Having pain in your back or lower back happens for many reasons, like changing hormones or a shifting center of gravity. Pain in your back can strike at any point in pregnancy, but it’s more common in the second and third trimesters. The pain can range from slightly annoying to debilitating. While it can be hard to prevent back pain, there are steps you can take to reduce your discomfort. Possible Causes What causes back pain during pregnancy? Back pain in pregnancy happens for the following reasons: Hormonal changes. Ligaments in your body become softer and more flexible to prepare you for labor and delivery. This can put a strain on the joints in your lower back, pelvis and hips. Changes to your center of gravity. Back pain can happen when the extra weight you’re carrying in the front of your body strains your back muscles and pulls you forward. Posture and position. Your abdominal muscles stretch and weaken, which can lead to poor posture. Your back muscles try to support your abdomen, which causes more back strain. Typical movements like standing for long periods of time or bending over can also trigger back pain. You may be more at risk for back pain during pregnancy if you had back pain before pregnancy or in a previous pregnancy. Does the baby’s position cause back pain? Yes, it can. If the fetus is in a position where its head is against your tailbone or lower back, you could feel more back pain. You may also feel more pain if the fetus is larger than average. Get regular exercise. Exercise can help with aches and pains by strengthening your muscles. Walking and swimming are great options. Be careful, though. Changes to your abdominal muscles can increase your risk of hurting your back during exercise. Support your back. Use a lumbar pillow behind your lower back or wear a maternity belt to help with back pain. Find comfortable positions. Try not to stay in one position for too long, and shift if you’re starting to feel uncomfortable. Elevating your feet can also help with back pain. When lifting objects, bend at your knees and not at your waist. Wear comfortable shoes. Wear shoes that support you. Low-heeled shoes or sneakers are best. Use heat or cold therapy. You can loosen tight, painful muscles by using hot water bottles and heating pads on your lower back. Warm baths or showers can help, too. Get a massage. Pregnancy is a good time to treat yourself to a massage. It can relax you and help with tight muscles. See a physical therapist or a chiropractor. See a physical therapist to learn specific exercises to help with back pain and discomfort. One gentle stretch that may help is cat-cow. Chiropractors who specialize in pregnancy care can be helpful in realigning your pelvis. Prioritize rest. Allow your body time to rest. Avoid standing for long periods of time, if possible. If none of these treatments work, ask your healthcare provider if medications that help with inflammation are safe to use. Don’t take any medications without talking to your pregnancy care provider. Is it safe to use a heating pad on your back during pregnancy? It’s OK to use a heating pad on your back. Be mindful of how hot it is and how long you use it, though. You shouldn’t use enough heat that it raises your body temperature too high. Keep the heating pad on a low setting and limit your time to about 15 minutes. What’s the best way to sleep during pregnancy if you have back pain? Healthcare providers recommend sleeping on your left side and using a pillow under your knees. Some people find their mattress feels too hard or too soft. It might be worth it to invest in a mattress topper to find something more comfortable. Many pregnant women find their back hurts worse at night, mostly due to all the work their bodies did throughout the day. When should I worry about back pain in pregnancy? Mild back pain isn’t typically a reason to worry or call your healthcare provider. You should let them know at your next prenatal appointment, though. You should contact your provider if any of the following happen, as they could be a sign of labor: The pain is intense or severe and keeps you from completing normal everyday activities or chores. The pain starts suddenly and sharply. The pain feels more like cramping, and you feel it in your hips or abdomen. Advertisement You should also contact your provider if back pain is accompanied by a fever, pain when you pee or vaginal bleeding. These could be signs of a urinary tract infection (UTI). A note from Cleveland Clinic Pregnancy comes with a lot of happy and exciting moments. Having back pain isn’t one of them, especially when it prevents you from doing what you want to do. While it can be uncomfortable, the good news is that it usually goes away after you give birth. Until then, things like stretching, resting with your feet propped up and wearing supportive garments can help relieve your discomfort. Let your pregnancy care provider know that your back hurts. They may have other ideas to help you feel better. While it’s usually not worrisome, if the pain is intense or accompanied by other symptoms, your provider may want to take a closer look.

How to Masturbate with a Vagina: 28 Tips and Tricks for Solo Play

2022-02-08T21:47:00.001+02:00

It’s great for your health Sure, exercise is a great way to relieve stress and improve your sleep. But so is enjoying a little one-on-one time with you and your body. Masturbation is a safe and natural way to: feel good discover what gets you hot release built-up sexual tension In fact, solo play has infinite health benefits and absolutely no downsides — plus it’s fun! Keep reading to learn more about: masturbating with a vagina how you can get started what you can do to really turn up the heat What are the different types of masturbation? Here’s a list of the most common types of masturbation and the way they typically feel. Remember though: This will vary from person to person. Orgasm type Type of masturbation clitoral Most people use their fingers to play with their clitoris, but vibrators and other toys can also bring pleasure during solo play. When you orgasm, you’ll feel a tingly sensation along your skin and in your brain. vaginal You can use your fingers or a sex toy to penetrate your vagina during solo play. You’ll feel the “Big O” deeper in your body, and your vaginal walls will throb. anal You can use your fingers or a sex toy for anal play (although a toy is better for deeper penetration). Right before you orgasm, you may feel an intense need to pee — only the contractions are around your anal sphincter. combo This one is all about personal preference. You can use both hands to play with your vagina and your clitoris or a combo of a sex toy and fingers. When you stimulate your clitoris and vagina — especially the G-spot — at the same time, you’ll feel an explosive orgasm that may leave you convulsing or even lead to ejaculation. erogenous zones You can rub, pinch, pull, squeeze, or tug your nipples, inner thighs, ears, neck, and other parts of your body during solo play. These areas, known as erogenous zones, can cause pleasurable sensations throughout your body when played with. How to get started Masturbation doesn’t have to lead to orgasm. But if you’re in the mood and want that endorphin rush, there are a few things you can do to help your body achieve the Big O: Set the mood. The setting can sometimes make a big difference in whether or not you’ll have a good solo session. Think about turning down the lights, lighting some candles, and listening to relaxing music to get the mood going. Add some lube. When you’re aroused, your body self-lubricates, making masturbation a much smoother and pleasurable experience. But sometimes, that may not be enough (or it may not happen at all!). So keep a tube of lube on hand to increase your pleasure. Shop for lube now. Let your mind wander. It may go without saying, but you can turn yourself on by simply thinking about that hottie you met last week. Let your mind fantasize about people or situations that send tingles down your spine. Take your time. You don’t have to rush masturbation. Play around with techniques and take your time to enjoy all of the sensations you’re feeling throughout your body. Explore erogenous zones. Playing with your erogenous zones — think your nipples, ears, or thighs — can shoot sparks of pleasure throughout your body. Give your usual sex toys a break. Vibrators and dildos are loads of fun to play with, but they’re not the only sex toys in town. Some people, for example, like to stimulate themselves by using a showerhead on their clitoris or rubbing their vulva against a pillow. Consider erotica or pornography. It’s fun to let your mind wander, but you don’t always have to use your imagination. If you want to turn up the heat, read a dirty book or watch a sexy video. If you want to explore your clitoris The visible part of the clitoris is a pearl-sized organ, often covered by a hood, that’s found at the top of your vulva where the two inner lips meet. The glans of the clitoris is about the size of a pearl/pea, but the structure itself is much more complex and extensive. Your clitoris is packed with thousands of nerve endings, making it the most sensitive part of your genitals. That’s why most people with a vagina experience orgasm by stimulating their clitoris. Clitoral orgasm Massage the fleshy area on the top of your pubic bone, then run your fingers along the outer and inner lips of your vulva. Start rubbing or stroking your clitoris through the hood. You can also form a “V” with your pointer and middle fingers and slide them up and down the sides of the clitoral shaft. Find a rhythm that makes you feel good. Move your fingers faster and harder once your clitoris becomes wet or after you’ve applied lube. Intensify the feeling by applying heavy pressure until you orgasm. Using a vibrator is a great way to stimulate your clitoris without having to overwork your fingers. Just run your sex toy up and down the area until you get off. If you want to try for a vaginal O Despite common myths, most people with a vagina have a hard time climaxing with vaginal stimulation. That doesn’t mean it can’t be fun, though! Penetrating your vagina with your fingers or a sex toy can bring you immense pleasure, even if you don’t orgasm. But if you want to see stars, experiment with stimulating your G-spot — a pleasure point on your vaginal wall — with consistent, heavy pressure (doing so may also lead to ejaculationTrusted Source!). Vaginal orgasm First massage your vaginal opening, then slowly insert your fingers (or sex toy) into your vagina. Make sure your vagina is wet or that you’ve applied enough lube to avoid friction. Start to move your fingers or toy in a circular, in-and-out, stroking, or combination of motions. It’s best to use a “come hither” motion to stimulate your G-spot. Increase the speed and pressure as the good vibrations begin to build. You may feel an explosive orgasm, but don’t worry if you don’t. Not everyone can get off with vaginal penetration. If you want to experiment with anal Who says anal orgasms are only for people with penises? You can still get off through anal play by indirectly stimulating the G-spot through the wall shared between the rectum and vagina. But remember: You must, must, must use lube, as your anus doesn’t self-lubricate naturally. Anal orgasm Start massaging the outside and inside of your anal opening, then slowly and gently insert your finger or sex toy into your anus. Switch between a circular and in-and-out motion as you penetrate your anus. Go faster as the pleasure begins to build until you’re ready to finish. Experiment with toys! Vibrators, plugs, anal beads, and massagers can intensify your orgasm tenfold. Find anal sex toys here. If you’re going for the combo and erogenous zones Many people report Earth-shattering orgasms when stimulating the vagina and clitoris at the same time. Combo solo play intensifies feelings of pleasure by stimulating all the sensitive parts of your genitals. Touch and rub your erogenous zones while you’re at it for a steamy, full-body experience. Combo orgasm You can use both hands or a combo of fingers and sex toys for clitoral and vaginal stimulation during a solo session. Go wild! Use parallel or opposite rhythms when playing with your clitoris and vagina at the same time. Even consider switching up speeds between the two (think fast fingers, slow penetration). It’s all about experimentation! When it comes to stimulating your erogenous zones, play around with various touches (think rubbing, tugging, or pinching) and sex toys (think feathers or finger vibrators) to know what makes you feel good. 5 positions to heat things up Masturbation doesn’t have to be boring! You can use different positions to kick your solo session up a notch on the pleasure scale. Here are just a few to try out: For clitoral, try lying on your back Sure, lying on your back may seem old-fashioned, but when it comes to stimulating your clitoris, no position is better. While on your back, with a pillow propped under your head, spread your legs and bend them at the knees. Start to rub your clitoris. You can go slow or fast, hard or soft — whatever feels good to you. For vaginal, try squatting If you’re looking for an explosive orgasm, the squatting position is the one to try. Squatting makes it easier for you to locate your G-spot, which is about 2 to 3 inches inside your vaginal canal. Crouch down with your heels close to or touching the back of your thighs. Then, start to slide your fingers or toy into your vagina, moving deeper as you go. Mix it up with a range of motions, from stroking and circular, to in and out. For anal, try face-down doggy style When it comes to anal play, face-down doggy style opens you up for so much pleasure. The position gives you the room you need to insert your fingers or a toy in your behind with one hand while rubbing yourself with the other. Get on all fours, then put your face down on your bed or floor so your backside is higher in the air. Wrap one arm around your back to reach your anus while placing your other arm underneath your body, so you can touch your clitoris. For the combo and erogenous zones, try the pretend lover Think of the pretend lover as the cowgirl for one. Put your favorite dildo or vibrator on your bed and lower yourself down until you find a sensation you like — either penetration, clitoral, or both. You may need to use your hands to steady your toy. Ride your toy as fast or as slow as you want. At the same time, rub your clitoris or play with your nipples at the end of this solo session. Want to go wild? Try the reflection The reflection is a great way to really discover your body and what turns you on. Sit in front of a full-length mirror with a big tube of lube. Pour the lube all over your body — your breasts, belly, inner thighs, and vulva — and start sliding your hands over these erogenous zones. Pinch, squeeze, pull, tug, rub — do whatever feels good and pay attention to what really gets you hot and bothered. If you want to get your other senses involved A sexy solo session doesn’t have to exclude foreplay. Instead of jumping right into touching yourself, why not set off slowly and get your other senses tingling? If you’re into the written word Not only are erotic stories entertaining to read, but they also let you discover your sensual and sexual side. Kinky literature encourages you to fantasize and discover sexual pleasures in a safe, fun way. Check out literotica.com to get started with some femme-friendly stories. If you’re more visual It should be no surprise that some people love watching porn — and why shouldn’t they? Watching porn can: increase your libido relieve stress allow you to explore your sexual kinks safely Check out FourChambers for super sensual erotic films based on anonymous user stories (subscription required). If you prefer to listen Listening to sexy sounds can be just as — if not more — arousing as reading erotica or watching porn. Audio lets your imagination run wild as you lose yourself in the details of the story. Check out Audiobooks.com for a treasure trove of steamy audiobooks. The bottom line Masturbation is a fun, sexy, and safe way to explore your desires and learn what turns you on. Plus, there are so many health benefits to self-pleasure (Reduced stress! Better sleep! Sexual release!) that there’s no reason not to sneak in some pleasure every day. If you’re new to solo play, that’s OK, too. There’s no right or wrong way to masturbate, so take the time to discover your body. Bottom line: Do whatever makes you feel good — and enjoy every minute of it

The 17 Best Foods for High Blood Pressure

2022-02-08T16:59:00.002+02:00

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is the most common preventable risk factor for heart disease (1

Trusted Source).

Over 1 billion people around the world have high blood pressure, which is defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) values (the top number) of 130 mm Hg or more, diastolic blood pressure (DBP, the bottom number) of more than 80 mm Hg, or both (2Trusted Source).

Medications, including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, are commonly used to reduce blood pressure levels. However, lifestyle changes, including dietary modifications, can help lower blood pressure levels to optimal ranges and reduce your risk of heart disease.

Following a nutritious, heart-healthy diet is suggested for all people with high blood pressure, including those on blood-pressure-lowering medications (1Trusted Source).

A healthy diet is essential for lowering blood pressure and maintaining optimal levels, and research has shown that including certain foods in your diet, especially those high in specific nutrients like potassium and magnesium, reduces your blood pressure levels (1Trusted Source, 3Trusted Source).

Here are the 17 best foods for high blood pressure

1. Citrus fruits

Citrus fruits, including grapefruit, oranges, and lemons, may have powerful blood-pressure-lowering effects. They’re loaded with vitamins, minerals, and plant compounds that may help keep your heart healthy by reducing heart disease risk factors like high blood pressure (4Trusted Source).

A 5-month study involving 101 Japanese women demonstrated that daily lemon juice intake combined with walking was significantly correlated with reductions in SBP, an effect that the researchers attributed to the citric acid and flavonoid content of lemons (5Trusted Source).

Studies have also shown drinking orange and grapefruit juice may help reduce blood pressure. Yet, grapefruit and grapefruit juice can interfere with common blood-pressure-lowering medications, so consult your healthcare provider before adding this fruit to your diet (4Trusted Source, 6Trusted Source).

2. Salmon and other fatty fish

Fatty fish are an excellent source of omega-3 fats, which have significant heart health benefits. These fats may help reduce blood pressure levels by reducing inflammation and decreasing levels of blood-vessel-constricting compounds called oxylipins (4Trusted Source).

Research has linked higher intakes of omega-3-rich fatty fish to lower blood pressure levels.

A study in 2,036 healthy people found that those with the highest blood levels of omega-3 fats had significantly lower SBP and DBP than those with the lowest blood levels of these fats. Higher omega-3 intake has also been associated with a lower risk of hypertension (7Trusted Source, 8Trusted Source).

3. Swiss chard

Swiss chard is a leafy green that’s packed with blood-pressure-regulating nutrients, including potassium and magnesium. One cup (145 grams) of cooked chard delivers 17% and 30% of your daily potassium and magnesium needs, respectively (9Trusted Source).

In people with high blood pressure, every 0.6-gram per day increase in dietary potassium is associated with a 1.0 mm Hg reduction in SBP and a 0.52 mm Hg reduction in DBP. One cup (145 grams) of Swiss chard packs 792 mg of this important nutrient (10Trusted Source).

Magnesium is also essential for blood pressure regulation. It helps reduce blood pressure through several mechanisms, including by acting as a natural calcium channel blocker, which blocks the movement of calcium into heart and arterial cells, allowing blood vessels to relax (11

Trusted Source).

4. Pumpkin seeds

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Pumpkin seeds may be small, but they pack a punch when it comes to nutrition.

They’re a concentrated source of nutrients important for blood pressure control, including magnesium, potassium, and arginine, an amino acid needed for the production of nitric oxide, which is essential for blood vessel relaxation and blood pressure reduction (12Trusted Source, 13Trusted Source, 14Trusted Source).

Pumpkin seed oil has also been shown to be a powerful natural remedy for high blood pressure. A study in 23 women found that supplementing with 3 grams of pumpkin seed oil per day for 6 weeks led to significant reductions in SBP, compared with a placebo group (15Trusted Source).

5. Beans and lentils

Beans and lentils are rich in nutrients that help regulate blood pressure, such as fiber, magnesium, and potassium. Numerous studies have shown that eating beans and lentils may help lower high blood pressure levels.

A review of 8 studies that included 554 people indicated that, when exchanged for other foods, beans and lentils significantly lowered SBP and average blood pressure levels in people with and without hypertension (16Trusted Source).

6. Berries

Berries have been associated with a variety of impressive health benefits, including their potential to reduce heart disease risk factors like high blood pressure. Berries are a rich source of antioxidants, including anthocyanins, which are pigments that give berries their vibrant color.

Anthocyanins have been shown to increase nitric oxide levels in the blood and reduce the production of blood-vessel-restricting molecules, which may help reduce blood pressure levels. However, more research in humans is needed to confirm these potential mechanisms (17Trusted Source).

Blueberries, raspberries, chokeberries, cloudberries, and strawberries are just some of the berries that have been associated with blood-pressure-lowering effects (17Trusted Source).

7. Amaranth

Eating whole grains like amaranth may help lower your blood pressure levels. Studies show that diets rich in whole grains may decrease your risk of high blood pressure.

A review of 28 studies found that a 30-gram per day increase in whole grains was associated with an 8% reduced risk of high blood pressure (18Trusted Source).

Amaranth is a whole grain that’s particularly high in magnesium. One cooked cup (246 grams) provides 38% of your daily magnesium needs (19Trusted Source).

8. Pistachios

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Pistachios are highly nutritious, and their consumption has been linked to healthy blood pressure levels. They’re high in a number of nutrients essential for heart health and blood pressure regulation, including potassium (20Trusted Source).

A review of 21 studies found that among all the nuts included in the review, pistachio intake had the strongest effect on reducing both SBP and DBP (21Trusted Source).

9. Carrots

Crunchy, sweet, and nutritious, carrots are a staple veggie in many people’s diets. Carrots are high in phenolic compounds, such as chlorogenic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids, that help relax blood vessels and reduce inflammation, which may help lower blood pressure levels (22Trusted Source).

Although carrots can be enjoyed cooked or raw, eating them raw may be more beneficial for reducing high blood pressure. A study that included 2,195 people ages 40–59 found that raw carrot intake was significantly associated with lower blood pressure levels (23Trusted Source).

Another small study in 17 people demonstrated that daily intake of 16 ounces (473 mL) of fresh carrot juice for 3 months led to reductions in SBP but not DBP (22Trusted Source).

10. Celery

Celery is a popular vegetable that may have positive effects on blood pressure. It contains compounds called phthalides, which may help relax blood vessels and lower blood pressure levels (24Trusted Source).

The same study that associated raw carrot intake with reduced blood pressure found that among commonly consumed cooked vegetables, cooked celery intake was significantly associated with reduced blood pressure (23Trusted Source).

11. Tomatoes and tomato products

Tomatoes and tomato products are rich in many nutrients, including potassium and the carotenoid pigment lycopene.

Lycopene has been significantly associated with beneficial effects on heart health, and eating foods high in this nutrient, such as tomato products, may help reduce heart disease risk factors like high blood pressure (25Trusted Source).

A review of 21 studies concluded that consuming tomato and tomato products improves blood pressure and may help reduce your risk of heart disease and heart-disease-related death (26).

12. Broccoli

Broccoli is known for its many beneficial effects on health, including the health of your circulatory system. For example, adding this cruciferous veggie to your diet may be a smart way to reduce blood pressure.

Broccoli is loaded with flavonoid antioxidants, which may help lower blood pressure by enhancing blood vessel function and increasing nitric oxide levels in your body (27Trusted Source).

A study that included data from 187,453 people found that those who consumed 4 or more servings of broccoli per week had a lower risk of high blood pressure than those who consumed broccoli once a month or less (28Trusted Source).

13. Greek yogurt

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Greek yogurt is a nutrient-dense dairy product that’s packed with minerals that help regulate blood pressure, including potassium and calcium (29Trusted Source).

A review of 28 studies found that consuming 3 servings of dairy per day was associated with a 13% lower risk of high blood pressure, as well as that a 7-ounce (200-gram) increase in dairy intake per day was associated with a 5% reduction in hypertension risk (18Trusted Source).

14. Herbs and spices

Certain herbs and spices contain powerful compounds that may help reduce blood pressure by helping blood vessels relax (30Trusted Source).

Celery seed, cilantro, saffron, lemongrass, black cumin, ginseng, cinnamon, cardamom, sweet basil, and ginger are just some of the herbs and spices that have been shown to have blood-pressure-lowering potential, according to results from animal and human research (31Trusted Source, 32Trusted Source).

15. Chia and flax seeds

Chia and flax seeds are tiny seeds that are teeming with nutrients that are essential for healthy blood pressure regulation, including potassium, magnesium, and fiber (33Trusted Source).

A small, 12-week study that included 26 people with high blood pressure found that supplementing with 35 grams of chiaseed flour per day led to blood pressure reductions in both medicated and unmedicated people, compared with a placebo group (34Trusted Source).

Additionally, results from a review of 11 studies suggested that eating flax seeds may help lower blood pressure levels, especially when consumed in their whole seed form for 12 weeks or longer (35Trusted Source).

16. Beets, beet greens, and beet juice

Beets and beet greens are exceptionally nutritious, and eating them may help promote healthy blood pressure levels. They’re high in nitrates, which help relax blood vessels and may lower blood pressure (36Trusted Source, 37Trusted Source).

Some research has shown that adding beets and beet products to your diet may help promote healthy blood pressure levels.

For example, a 2-week study in 24 people with high blood pressure found that consuming both 8.4 ounces (250 mL) of beet juice and 8.8 ounces (250 grams) of cooked beets significantly reduced blood pressure, although it found that the beet juice was more effective (38Trusted Source).

Although other studies have also linked beet and beet juice intake to positive effects on blood pressure, not all studies have shown positive results.

Some studies have suggested that the effects of beets on blood pressure are short lived and may not make a substantial difference on long-term blood pressure control (39Trusted Source, 40Trusted Source).

Nevertheless, beets, beet juice, and beet greens are all highly nutritious and may help improve overall health when added to your diet (41Trusted Source).

17. Spinach

Like beets, spinach is high in nitrates. It’s also loaded with antioxidants, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, making it an excellent choice for people with high blood pressure (42Trusted Source).

In a study in 27 people, those who consumed 16.9 ounces (500 mL) of a high nitrate spinach soup daily for 7 days experienced reductions in both SBP and DBP, compared with those who consumed low nitrate asparagus soup (42Trusted Source).

The spinach soup also decreased artery stiffness, which may help reduce blood pressure and improve heart health (42Trusted Source).

The bottom line

Along with other lifestyle modifications, adopting a healthy diet can significantly lower blood pressure levels and help reduce your heart disease risk.

According to research, adding certain foods like leafy greens, berries, beans, lentils, seeds, fatty fish, citrus fruits, and carrots to your meals and snacks may help you reach and maintain optimal blood pressure levels.

If you have high blood pressure levels or are looking to maintain healthy blood pressure, adding a few of the foods listed in this article to your diet may help.

8 impressive benefits of Apple

2022-02-08T12:55:00.004+02:00

With over 7,000 different cultivars available worldwide, it’s no surprise that apples are the most widely consumed fruit globally (1Trusted Source). From sweet red varieties, like Red Delicious, Fuji or Gala, to tangy green ones, like Granny Smith — my personal favorite that I enjoy with lime juice and a little salt when I want a savory snack — there sure is an apple for everyone. They’re commonly used in recipes, like pies, cookies, muffins, jam, salads, oatmeal, or smoothies. They also make a gr

eat snack on their own or wedged and smeared with nut butter. In addition to their culinary versatility and numerous colors and flavors to choose from, apples are an exceptionally healthy fruit with many research-backed benefits. Here are eight impressive health benefits of apples. Share on Pinterest 1. Nutritious Apples are considered nutrient-dense fruits, meaning they provide a lot of nutrients per serving. The current Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend 2 cups of fruit daily for a 2,000-calorie diet, emphasizing whole fruits, like apples (2Trusted Source). One medium 7-ounce (200-grams) apple offers the following nutrients (3Trusted Source): Calories: 104 Carbs: 28 grams Fiber: 5 grams Vitamin C: 10% of the Daily Value (DV) Copper: 6% of the DV Potassium: 5% of the DV Vitamin K: 4% of the DV The same serving also provides 2–5% of the DV for vitamins E, B1, and B6. Vitamin E serves as a fat-soluble antioxidant, vitamin B1 — also known as thiamine — is needed for growth and development, and vitamin B6 is essential for protein metabolism (4Trusted Source, 5Trusted Source, 6Trusted Source). Apples are also a rich source of polyphenols, an important group of antioxidants. Antioxidants are compounds that protect your cells from free radicals — harmful molecules that contribute to the development of chronic conditions, like heart disease and cancer (4Trusted Source). While nutrition labels don’t list these plant compounds, they’re likely responsible for many of apples’ health benefits (1Trusted Source) To get the most out of apples, leave the skin on, as it contains half of the fiber and most of the polyphenols (7Trusted Source, 8Trusted Source). SUMMARY Apples are a good source of fiber and vitamin C. They also contain antioxidants, like vitamin E, and polyphenols that contribute to the fruit’s numerous health benefits. 2. May support weight loss Apples are high in fiber and water, two qualities that make them filling. An increasing feeling of fullness works as a weight-loss strategy, as it helps manage your appetite. This, in turn, might lead you to reduce your energy intake (9Trusted Source). In one study, eating whole apples increased feelings of fullness for up to 4 hours longer than consuming equal amounts of apple purée or juice. This happened, because whole apples reduce gastric emptying — the rate at which your stomach empties its contents (10Trusted Source). Research also suggests apple intake may significantly reduce Body Mass Index (BMI), a weight-related risk factor for heart disease (11Trusted Source). Interestingly, apple polyphenols may also have anti-obesity effects (12Trusted Source). SUMMARY Apples are particularly filling due to their high fiber and water content. Their polyphenols may also have anti-obesity effects. 3. Could be good for your heart Apples have been linked to a lower risk of heart disease (13Trusted Source). One reason may be that they contain soluble fiber. This kind of fiber can help lower your blood cholesterol levels. Another reason may be that they offer polyphenols. Some of these, namely the flavonoid epicatechin, may lower blood pressure (13Trusted Source). Studies have also linked high intakes of flavonoids with a lower risk of stroke (14Trusted Source, 15Trusted Source). Plus, flavonoids can help prevent heart disease by lowering blood pressure, reducing LDL cholesterol oxidation, and reducing atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of plaque in your arteries (14Trusted Source). Another study has also linked eating white-fleshed fruits and vegetables, like apples and pears, to a reduced risk of stroke. For every 1/5 cup (25 grams) of apple slices consumed per day, the risk of stroke decreased by 9% (16Trusted Source). SUMMARY Apples promote heart health in several ways. They’re high in soluble fiber, which helps lower cholesterol. They also have polyphenols, which are linked to lower blood pressure and stroke risk. 4. Linked to a lower risk of diabetes Eating apples may also reduce your risk of type 2 diabetes. A compilation of studies found that eating apples and pears was associated with an 18% reduction in type 2 diabetes risk. In fact, just one serving per week may reduce the risk by 3% (17Trusted Source). Their high content of the antioxidant polyphenols quercetin and phloridzin could explain this beneficial effect (18Trusted Source, 19Trusted Source, 20Trusted Source). Quercetin’s anti-inflammatory effects may reduce insulin resistance, a big risk factor for the onset of diabetes. Meanwhile, phloridzin is believed to reduce sugar uptake in the intestines, contributing to a reduced blood sugar load and thereby reduced diabetes risk (19Trusted Source, 20Trusted Source). SUMMARY Eating apples is linked to a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, potentially due to their polyphenol content. HEALTHLINE CHALLENGE Want to feel full without going on a diet? Change your relationship with your food by focusing on a new aspect of mindful eating each day. Join our nutrition newsletter for 21 days of mindful eating! Enter your email Enter your email JOIN IN Sponsored by Your privacy is important to us. Any information you provide to us via this website may be placed by us on servers located in countries outside of the EU. If you do not agree to such placement, do not provide the information. 5. May promote gut health Apples contain pectin, a type of fiber that acts as a prebiotic. This means it feeds your gut microbiota, which is the good bacteria in your gut. Being involved in many functions related to both health and disease, your gut microbiota plays an essential role in your overall well-being. A healthy gut is often key for better health (21Trusted Source, 22Trusted Source, 23Trusted Source). Since dietary fiber cannot be digested, pectin reaches your colon intact, promoting the growth of good bacteria. It especially improves the ratio of Bacteriodetes to Firmicutes, the two main types of bacteria in your gut (13Trusted Source, 24Trusted Source, 25Trusted Source). New research suggests that, by beneficially altering your gut microbiota, apples may help protect against chronic diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and cancer (13Trusted Source). SUMMARY The type of fiber found in apples improves your gut-friendly bacteria, which may be why the fruit is thought to help protect against chronic diseases. 6. Might help prevent cancer Antioxidants in apples may offer beneficial effects against certain types of cancers, including lung, breast, and digestive tract cancers (26Trusted Source). Test-tube studies suggest that these effects may be attributed to apple polyphenols keeping cancerous cells from multiplying (27Trusted Source). What’s more, one study in women reported that higher apple intakes were linked to a lower risk of cancer death (28Trusted Source). Apples’ fiber content may also contribute to their cancer-fighting properties. For example, another test-tube study found that apple pectin fiber could inhibit the growth of cancerous cells and even trigger their death (29Trusted Source). However, further research in humans is needed to better understand the possible link between apples and cancer prevention — for example, to identify adequate amounts and eating timing (27Trusted Source). SUMMARY Apple’s fiber and antioxidant content have been linked to a reduced risk of certain types of cancer. However, more research in humans is needed. 7. Could help fight asthma Antioxidant-rich apples may help protect your lungs from oxidative damage. An excess of harmful molecules called free radicals can cause oxidative damage. This may lead to inflammatory and allergenic responses in your body (30Trusted Source). Apple skin is rich in the antioxidant quercetin, which can help regulate your immune system and reduce inflammation. Theoretically, this could make apples effective against late phases of bronchial asthma responses (30Trusted Source). Supporting this, test-tube and animal studies suggest quercetin may be a suitable treatment for allergic inflammatory diseases like asthma and sinusitis (30Trusted Source). Similarly, other compounds found in apples, including ones called proanthocyanidins, may reduce or prevent allergic asthma airway inflammation (31Trusted Source). Still, more human research is needed on the topic. SUMMARY Apples contain antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds that may help regulate immune responses and protect against asthma. However, more research, especially in humans, is needed. 8. May help protect your brain Quercetin in apples may protect your brain from damage caused by oxidative stress (32Trusted Source). Research in rats shows that quercetin’s antioxidant effects may protect the brain and nerves from oxidative damage and prevent injuries that can result in degenerative brain diseases, like Alzheimer’s disease or dementia (33Trusted Source, 34Trusted Source, 35Trusted Source, 36Trusted Source). In addition, quercetin may prevent stress-associated nerve damage by regulating oxidative and inflammatory stress markers (31Trusted Source). Nevertheless, keep in mind that most research focuses on a specific compound instead of whole apples. Therefore, further research is still needed before any conclusions can be drawn. SUMMARY Quercetin in apples may protect your brain against oxidative stress. However, further research is needed to validate the effect of eating the whole fruit. The bottom line Apples are an incredibly nutritious fruit that offers multiple health benefits. They’re rich in fiber and antioxidants. Eating them is linked to a lower risk of many chronic conditions, including diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Apples may also promote weight loss and improve gut and brain health. Even though more research is still needed to better understand how apples affect human health, you can’t go wrong with this tasty, versatile, and easily accessible fruit

Penis cancer facts

2014-11-08T23:55:00.000+02:00

Penis cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.
Risk factors for developing penis cancer include human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, not being circumcised, being age 60 or older, phimosis, poor hygiene, many sexual partners, and tobacco use.
Signs and symptoms of penile cancer include sores, redness, irritation, discharge, bleeding, or a lump on the penis.
A biopsy may be taken to determine if you have penile cancer.
Treatments for penile cancer include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
Prognosis and treatment options depend on the stage of the cancer, the location and size of the tumor, and whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred.

Penile cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.

The penis is a rod-shaped male reproductive organ that passes sperm and urine from the body. It contains two types of erectile tissue (spongy tissue with blood vessels that fill with blood to make an erection):

Corpora cavernosa: The two columns of erectile tissue that form most of the penis.
Corpus spongiosum: The single column of erectile tissue that forms a small portion of the penis. The corpus spongiosum surrounds the urethra (the tube through which urine and sperm pass from the body).

The erectile tissue is wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin. The glans (head of the penis) is covered with loose skin called the foreskin.

Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer.Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor. Risk factors for penile cancer include the following:

Today research has shown that about half of all penis cancer is caused by HPV infection. Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor removes part or all of the foreskin from the penis. Many boys are circumcised shortly after birth. Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer.

Other risk factors for penile cancer include the following:

Being age 60 or older.
Having phimosis (a condition in which the foreskin of the penis cannot be pulled back over the glans).
Having poor personal hygiene.
Having many sexual partners.
Using tobacco products.

What are the risk factors for breast cancer?

2014-11-08T23:46:00.002+02:00

The strongest risk factors for breast cancer are female sex and age. As mentioned above, breast cancer is far more common in women. However, men can also get breast cancer, but it is 100 times more common in women than in men. The risk of breast cancer increases with age, and breast cancer incidence rates are highest in women over 70 years of age. Only about 5% of women in the U.S. who are diagnosed with breast cancer are under 40 years old.

Family history and genetics are also risk factors. A woman is more likely to develop breast cancer if she has immediate family members who are affected. It is also possible to inherit gene mutations that increase the risk of breast and other cancers. Inherited mutations, however, account for only 5% to 10% of all breast cancers. BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic mutations are associated with a markedly increased risk of breast cancer. Other genetic mutations have also been linked to an increased incidence of breast cancer.

A personal history of breast cancer increases a woman's risk of developing another breast cancer. A woman is also at increased risk if she has had Hodgkin's disease or other cancers. Having dense breasts (a greater proportion of glandular and connective tissue in the breasts relative to fat) means that a woman has a four- to five-fold increase in risk for breast cancer. Certain benign breast conditions may also increase a woman's risk (for example, atypical hyperplasia, a condition in which abnormal cells proliferate within the breast ducts).

Radiation treatment during youth, for example, chest radiation for treatment of another cancer, increases a woman's risk of breast cancer later in life.

Not having given birth or having given birth to a first child after the age of 35 are associated with moderate increases in breast cancer risk. Overweight and obesityafter menopause also increase risk. Having begun menstruating before age 12 or having reached menopause after age 55 are associated with slight increases in breast cancer risk, likely because of the longer duration of estrogen exposure. Current or recent use of postmenopausal hormone therapy or birth control pills seems to slightly raise a woman's risk of breast cancer.

Псориазис

2014-06-22T03:09:00.002+03:00

1. КАКВО ПРЕДСТАВЛЯВА ПСОРИАЗИСА?

Псориазисът е заболяване, което засяга около 1,5-2% от хората. Среща се във всички страни като има различна честота варираща от 0,1 до 12 процента.

Псориазисът е хронично заболяване, което се характеризира с полигенетично предразположение. Много често провокиращ фактор са въздействия от околната среда, бактериална инфекция, травма, лекарства.

Псориасисът има различно клинично протичане и различна тежест. Обичайно се проявява като хронични, рецидивиращи, залющващи се папули и плаки и има характерни области на засягане. Това са окосмената част на главата, лактите и коленете. Възможна е и клинична изява с гнойни мехурчета или генерализирано зачервяване на кожата. Това са тежко протичащите форми на заболяването.

Нерядко в около 10-25% псориасис се съпътства с артрит. При някои от псориатиците са налице и други съпътстващи заболявания.

В този здравен проблем може да прочетете подробна информация защо се появява псориазис, кои са формите на заболяването и какви са съвременните методи на лечение!

Псориазисът засяга в еднаква степен, както жените, така и мъжете. Средната честота в световен мащаб е 1,5-2% като в различните страни честотата може да варира от 0,1 до 12 процента.

Към момента е регистрирана по-малка честота в Южна Африка, Япония и Азия, Инуитите и липсваща или съвсем малка честота сред индианците в Северна и Южна Америка.

Най-високата регистрирана честота на псориазис е в Дания и Северна Европа.

Приблизително точни данни за разпространението на псориазис има известни за САЩ. Там са засегнати средно 4 милиона човека, като повечето от тях са с леко протичащо заболяване, но 1/10 са с генерализиран и тежко протичащ псориазис.

Пикът на заболяемост от псориазис може да се раздели на ранен, късен и при деца. При децата средната възраст за начало на псориазис е 8 годишна възраст. Ранният пик при възрастни е около 22 годишна възраст, а късния около 55. По-ранното начало на заболяването обикновено е съпроводено с по-тежко и продължително протичане и с положителна фамилна анамнеза.

3. ПРИЧИНИ И ПРОВОКИРАЩИ ФАКТОРИ ЗА ПОЯВА НА ПСОРИАЗИС

Псориазисът най-често се изразява със зачервени, залющващи се плаки. Появата им се дължи на нарушеното образуване на рогов слой, което е силно скъсено на фона на здравата кожа. Нарушени са процесите на пролиферация и диференциация и едновременно с това включват различни имунологични, биохимични, съдови и нервни процеси.

За водеща причина за отключване на псориазис се счита наследствеността с участието на различни провокиращи фактори като травми, инфекции, прием на лекарства, алкохол, наднорменото тегло.

3.1. НАСЛЕДСТВЕНОСТ

Заболяването псориазис се унаследява полигенетично. При засегнат един родител рискът за детето се оценява на 8%. При двама засегнати родители рискът се увеличава на 41%.

При еднояйчни близнаци засягането варира от 35-73%. Този факт доказва и ролята на фактори от средата. Освен това данните сочат, че риска намалява, ако единия близнак мигрира в посока към екватора. Ето защо, освен наследствеността другия водещ фактор участващ в появата на псориазис е и експозицията на ултравиолетови лъчи.

Доказано е, че хората с псориазис са носители на HLA-B13, -B17, -B37, -Bw57, -Cw6, -DR7! При псориатичен артрит се среща носителство на HLA-Cw6, както и –B27, -B38, -B39.

Хората със светла кожа, както са кавказката раса са по-предразположени към отключване на псориазис.

3.2. ТРАВМА И ФИЗИКАЛНИ ФАКТОРИ

Травмата е един от водещите фактори за поява на псориатични кожни лезии. Търкането и драскането са отговорни за стимулиране на пролиферативния процес при образуването на псориатичните плаки.

Смяната на сезоните също може да е влошаващ фактор. Други такива са сухата кожа, топлата вода. Ниските температури и сухите зими са причина за дехидратиране на кожата и засилване на възпалителните изменения при псориатиците.

3.3. ИНФЕКЦИИ

При поява на една от формите на псориазис – гутатен или още капковиден псориазис често причината е остро настъпила стрептококова инфекция.

Влошаването на псориазис може да се съчетае с болка в ушите, бронхит, тонзилит, респираторна инфекция, които да се дължат на рецидивираща стрептококова инфекция.

Псориазисът протича по-тежко при хора с нарушен имунен статус, както е при СПИН, при химиотерапия, при автоимунни заболявания.

Не се наблюдава по-висока честота на псориазис сред болите от СПИН, но се наблюдава по-тежко протичане. По-висока е честотата на псориатичен артрит сред псориатиците със СПИН.

3.4. СТРЕС

Направените проучвания за ролята на стреса при псориазис сочат категорична връзка. Сам по себе си стреса не се счита като провокиращ фактор за първа поява, но определено има влошаване при стрес.

При възрастни след стрес се отчита влошаване при 40%, а при деца процента на влошаване е още по-висок.

3.5. ЛЕКАРСТВА

Доказана връзка при лекарствата като влошаващи псориазис са:

системните кортикостероиди;

бета-блокери;

лекарства за понижаване на липидите;

нестероидни противовъзпалителни средства (НСПВС);

тербинафин;

литий;

антималарични лекарства;

интерферон.

3.6. НАЧИН НА ЖИВОТ

Приемът на алкохол, тютюнопушенето, затлъстяването най-често са следствие от начина ни на живот.

С доказано влошаващ фактор се счита тютюнопушенето. Тютюнопушенето увеличава риска, както за поява на псориазис, така и за по-тежко протичане. Проучване сочи, че тютюнопушенето удвоява риска за поява на псориазис и този риск е по-голям за жените.

Ролята на алкохола е по-противоречива, но най-често алкохола и цигарите вървят ръка за ръка. Причината за влошаване на псориазис от алкохола може да бъде и увреждане на черния дроб.

Повишеното телесно тегло увеличава рискът от псориазис. При хора с наднормено телесно тегло се оформят плаки в кожните гънки. При инвертния псориазис най-често засегнатите пациенти са с наднормено тегло. Причината е от фрикциите и повишеното потене в дълбоките кожни гънки.

Genetic discovery may explain cancer risk mystery

2014-03-03T00:22:00.000+02:00

Researchers have identified some common genetic cancer mutations could indicate the presence of much more influential rare “hidden” mutations that could lead to earlier detection of prostate cancer.

The finding published in the PLOS Genetics journal today could help explain why research into the genetic causes of common diseases has failed to explain more than a fraction of the heritable risk of developing them.

The study shows for the first time in prostate cancer that some common genetic variants could actually be indicators of the presence of much more influential rare mutations that have yet to be found.

Led by scientists at The Institute of Cancer Research in London, the study also involved researchers from Cancer Council Victoria’s Cancer Epidemiology Centre (CEC).

CEC Director Professor Graham Giles and Honorary Professor at the University of Melbourne School of Population and Global Health said the discovery could explain why the genetic mutations that have been discovered so far each seem to have a small effect when studies of families have shown that genetic make-up has a large influence on our risk of cancer.

“Some have long suggested that DNA variations across the genome, which were found to have a weak association with diseases, are actually an artefact of another, hidden variant,” he said.

“By collaborating on this very large study we were able to do ‘fine mapping’ work to measure a huge number of variants in the DNA for the gene HOXB13, and we did in fact discover that a rare variant was more strongly associated with risk of prostate cancer. We believe this to be the first such example.”

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer diagnosed in Victorian men with almost 4800 new cases recorded by the Victorian Cancer Registry in 2012 – accounting for 30% of all cancers.

Whilst the majority of men will develop some form of prostate neoplasm during their lifetime, these are usually slow progressing and remain asymptomatic until their death with only a proportion of prostate tumours requiring clinical intervention.

Professor Giles said while the study did not indicate how widespread the phenomenon of rare variants may be, it does demonstrate the importance of digging deeper to identify the causal genetic changes behind common variants that have already been shown to influence risk of disease.

“If there is a small group of people who carry a rare genetic mutation, which is strongly associated with risk of certain cancers, then we may be able to use targeted screening to identify those at risk earlier.”

Blood Transfusion

2014-03-03T00:20:00.003+02:00

When do people need blood?

Blood is a bodily fluid which carries oxygen, nutrients and wastes around the body via small vessels. Since blood serves such an important function, large losses of blood volume can be fatal. Some people may have conditions which affect certain components of their blood, such as the white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets. A person may require extra blood if they have any of the following conditions:

Serious bleeding due to trauma or accident
Bleeding during surgery
Haemophilia (a blood clotting disorder)
Cancer
Pregnant women whose baby is at risk of Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)
Serious anaemia
Premature babies
Heart disease

What is a blood transfusion?

Blood transfusion is the process through which patients receive extra blood. Blood from a donor or from the patient him/herself is transfused into the body to increase blood volume. Blood components may be separated prior to the procedure and transfused into the patient.

Safety of blood products

Blood borne viruses can be transmitted from a donor to a recipient through transfusion. For this reason, it is important to ensure that donor blood is free from viruses such as HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, andSyphilis. Apart from testing for specific diseases, donors are also required to complete a thorough medical history questionnaire before donating. This helps to stop individuals at high risk of disease from donating.

Donor transfusion

Donor transfusion is where the patient receives blood from another individual (the donor). Since the blood is not the patient’s own, there is a chance that it may be rejected. The hospital will order the blood type that is required, and the number of units of blood. A doctor will then double check the blood type and ensure that it is correctly matched to the patient’s. The blood is then transfused into the patient’s vein, which takes about 2 hours. Throughout the procedure the patient is carefully monitored, in case there are any adverse reactions to the donor blood.

For more information, see Blood Donation.

Risks of donor transfusion

Viral infection

As noted above, all donated blood products undergo rigorous testing to ensure their safety and quality. However, occasionally administrative errors may result in the transmission of a viral infection.

The Australian Red Cross Blood Service Transfusion Medicine Manual states the approximate risk for the following viruses:

HIV: less than 1 in 10 million
Hepatitis C: less than 1 in 10 million
Hepatitis B: 1 in 660,000
Variant Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease: 1 in 127,000
Malaria: between 1 in 4.9 million and 10.2 million

Organ and Tissue Donation

2014-03-03T00:19:00.003+02:00

What is organ donation?

Organ donation is a procedure in which one person receives organs or tissues from another person. These organs are transplanted into the person in hospital to save or improve the quality of his or her life.

Organs that can be donated in Australia include the heart,lungs, liver, kidneys and pancreas. Other tissues that can be donated are bone, heart valves, skin and the cornea.

Some donations may be made while the donor is still living. This includes the donation of kidneys,blood and bone marrow.

Why is organ donation important?

For many people, organ donation is their last hope of survival. Some serious conditions can cause organ failure, which may not respond to medications or other therapies. A new kidney can enable a person with kidney failure to come off dialysis. Corneal transplants may restore sight to people suffering from eye diseases. Skin can be grafted onto people who have suffered serious burns. Lungs can allow people with chronic respiratory conditions to breather easier. In fact, each donor has the potential to save 10 lives.

Unfortunately, there is a high demand for organs and a very limited supply, and many people on the waiting lists will die before an organ becomes available.

Why are organ donation rates low in Australia?

Australia’s rate of organ donation is very low compared to other countries. Spain leads the way with 35 donors for every million people. Australia, however, has only 10 donors per million people. In 2006, 202 deceased Australians donated their organs. This enabled 738 organs to be transplanted. However, 1780 people were on transplant waiting lists. This means that most people wait at least 3 years before an organ becomes available for transplant.

When surveyed, a large percentage of the Australian population expresses a desire or an intention to donate. However, few people make their wishes known to their family. Relatives of the deceased person are unlikely to consent to donation if they are uncertain of his or her beliefs. This is presumably because they do not want to deal with the consequences of making the ‘wrong decision’. Australia has a system that allows people to register their consent or objection to organ donation. However, many remain unaware of the Australian Organ Donor Register (AODR).

Public perceptions may also contribute to the low donation rate in Australia. It is hoped that basic education about the process and procedures involved can allay some unfounded fears. In particular, the concept of ‘brain death’ appears to be widely misunderstood. Some people mistakenly believe that retrieving organs from a brain dead person will cause them to die prematurely. Also, there is the fear that allowing organ donation is agreeing to mutilation. Again, information about the surgical procedure itself may reassure family members and make them more comfortable with the decision to donate.

When a person dies, it is an extremely difficult time for friends and family. Relatives may be dealing with strong emotions such as profound sadness, shock and grief. Family members may feel overwhelmed and unable to discuss the sensitive issue of organ donation. However, previous exposure to the issue through education or by discussing donation with loved ones can make it easier for them to make the decision in the face of death. By registering to be a donor, you can take this burden away from your family.

Australia needs more people to register their consent to donate because very few people in hospital die in circumstances that allow their organs to be donated. Human organs are damaged and become unusable if their blood supply is cut off for a prolonged period of time. Only about 1% of people die in circumstances where their organs remain healthy and with a continued blood supply. However, human tissue such as skin and corneas can be stored for much longer, making them more available to people who require a transplant.

Not everyone will be a suitable donor. People who have had cancer or HIV/AIDS usually cannot donate because of the risk of passing the disease on to the recipient. Other factors that will be considered include the age of the donor and their medical history. However, you should not simply assume that you are too old or unhealthy to donate. This is an assessment that medical practitioners will make at the time of donating.

What does organ donation involve?

Organ donation is more likely when a person has died on a ventilator machine in a hospital’s intensive care unit (ICU). Often this is due to stroke or a catastrophic injury caused by a motor vehicle accident. Even after brain death, blood will be artificially pumped around the body to keep the organs healthy. In brain death, the brain can no longer function at all, and there is no possibility of recovery. Thebrainstem is also be dead, and there is no blood flow to the brain.

A person may also be able to donate if he or she has suffered irreversible injuries and will not recover. After treatment is ceased, the heart will stop beating and the blood will stop circulating around the body. After death, the body will be prepared for organ retrieval.

Two medical practitioners will perform tests to confirm brain death in a patient. The family of the deceased will be consulted about the possibility of donation. If the family gives consent, then the members of the Standing Committee of the Transplantation Society of Australia and New Zealand (TSANZ) will find a suitable recipient. They use specific criteria to decide how to allocate organs. The organs are then harvested from the deceased in exactly the same way as any other surgical procedure. This does not significantly alter the body’s physical shape or appearance. Under Australian law, the donor’s family will not be able to meet the recipient. This is to respect the privacy of both parties involved.

For more information about the process of donation and transplantation, see Heart Transplant, Lung Transplant, Liver Transplant, and Renal Transplantation.

Why should I register as an organ donor?

At a time of personal loss and tragedy, families who consent to organ donation may be comforted by knowing that their relative has given the greatest gift of all – the gift of life. In 2006, Majella Lazenby wrote an article called “A family’s perspective on organ donation” in theAustralian Nursing Journal. In the article, she gives a moving account of her own experiences after the sudden death of her teenage daughter. She writes that, “In the midst of our horrific pain, I just knew this was the only thing to do.” She was confident in her decision because her daughter had told her mother of her intention to donate. For many, the loss and pain associated with losing a loved one will continue forever. However, some may find comfort in the fact that some good has come from their relative’s death. Recipients who have been given a new lease of life are forever grateful. They recognise the fact that their opportunity for a better life has come at a great personal cost to another family.

What do I need to think about?

The decision to donate is very personal and will be influenced by a person’s own experiences, values, religious beliefs and scientific convictions.

One of the most common reasons for choosing to donate after death is a desire to help people who are suffering from debilitating conditions. Some believe that since they don’t need their organs after death, they may as well be put to better use. Others would want their family to find comfort in the fact that they have not died in vain.

However, there are many other reasons why people may object to organ donation. A person should not consent to organ donation unless they feel comfortable with the idea and have considered many aspects of the issue. Some people may feel that organ and tissue donation is too invasive a procedure, or they may find the idea too upsetting to even think about. Others may feel that transplanting organs from a dead person into another person is wholly unnatural. Religious beliefs may also influence a person’s decision about organ donation.

How can I register as an organ donor?

Organ donations in Australia can only be performed with the informed consent of the deceased person, or the family of a person who has not registered either way.

If, after considering the above issues, you decide that you would like to be a donor, then you need to register your consent. If you are 16 or 17, you can register your intent to donate. Persons who are 18 or over can register their consent or objection on the Organ Donor Register.

The easiest way to register your consent or objection is online on Medicare’s Organ Donor Register website (http://www.medicareaustralia.gov.au/public/services/aodr). You will be required to enter your personal contact details and your Medicare Card Number. You will also need to specify which organs and tissues you wish to donate. The nominations are:

All
Bone tissue
Corneas (eye tissue)
Heart
Heart valves
Kidneys
Liver
Lungs
Pancreas
Skin tissue

After submitting these details online, you will be sent a written form in the mail. This must be signed and sent back. Once Medicare Australia has received the signed confirmation letter, your legal consent to organ and tissue donation will be registered. You will be issued with a small card that can be placed in your wallet.

It is important to note that, even if a person has registered their consent or objection to organ and tissue donation, the family will still be consulted about the issue. The registered wishes of the deceased will be respected. However, the family will be asked if there are any circumstances that the person would wish to be taken into account. Secondly, they will be asked whether the person may have had a change of opinion since registering.

If the deceased person has not registered their consent, the donation will not go ahead without the consent of the family.

Can I be a donor when I’m still alive?

A person can only donate an organ or tissue when they are alive if they can continue to live a healthy life without it. Tissue such as blood and bone marrow regenerate, so the donor is not left in short supply. If a person donates a part of their liver, then the remaining part will take over and compensate for that lost through the donation. A person can donate one kidney because the body can function well without both. A living lung donation has not yet been performed in Australia, and requires two donors who each donate a part of their lungs.

Most living donors are relatives of the person who requires the organ or tissue. This is because the recipient’s body may reject the tissue if it is not compatible. Relatives may have more similar tissues, which reduces the risk of rejection. Some donations may also be made anonymously, and are simply directed to any suitable recipient on the waiting list. Living donors must be healthy and free of diseases that can be passed on to the recipient.

The risks involved with donating depend on the organ being donated and the donor themselves. Generally, a living donation will not go ahead unless there is only a very small risk of harm to the donor, and a high probability that the transplant operation will be successful. The decision to donate must be a free choice, and the donor must not be expecting any kind of reward in the future. Potential donors must undergo rigorous medical, psychological and social assessments.

Donating blood

People require blood transfusions for many different reasons. For example, women may need blood during pregnancy. People with leukaemia or blood disorders such as haemophilia may require frequent transfusions. Blood is also needed by people who have an acute injury. The Australian Red Cross Blood Service organises blood donations across the country.

For more information, see Blood Transfusion.

Donating bone marrow

Bone marrow is required for people who have been diagnosed with leukaemia or other blood disorders. If possible, patients look for a tissue match within their own family. However, others must rely on the Australian Bone Marrow Donor Registry (ABMDR) to find a suitable donor.

The ABMDR website (http://www.abmdr.org.au/) provides information on how to join the registry. To register, you must:

Be between 18 and 40 years of age at registration
Be prepared to give a blood donation
Be prepared to be a match for anyone in the world
Be in good health
Meet the blood donor eligibility criteria set by the Australian Red Cross Blood Service

If you decide to volunteer to join the registry, complete the consent form available at any Australian Red Cross Blood Service donor centre. You will be asked to complete a Blood Donor Declaration Form and some questions about your medical history.

You will be asked to undergo screening tests to ensure that you cannot pass on any viral or other infections to the patient via the bone marrow. In most instances, you will be asked to make a blood donation of 470 mL. An additional 10–20 mL will be collected to determine your tissue type.

Blood Donation

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What is blood?

Blood is a bodily fluid which is circulated around the body via small vessels. Blood contains nutrients and oxygen which are needed to maintain healthy tissues. Blood has a number of components, including red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, and platelets.

For more information, please see our anatomy article on Blood – Function and Composition.

When do people need blood?

There are many reasons why people may need extra blood that has been donated from others. If a person needs blood, then it will be received via a process called blood transfusion. The donor blood will be matched to the patient’s and then transfused using an injection in a vein of the arm.

For more information on transfusion, please see our treatment page on ‘Blood Transfusion.’

A blood transfusion may be needed for the following conditions:

Serious Bleeding due to an accident or injury
Bleeding during surgery
Haemophilia (a blood clotting disorder)
Cancer
Pregnant women whose baby is at risk of Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)
Premature Babies
People with burns
Heart disease

ABO blood typing system

In 1901, Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered the human blood groups. Today these are used to ensure that blood transfusions are safe for patients. If two blood groups are mismatched, then this can cause clumping of the blood (agglutination), which can be fatal. Blood groups are determined by the presence of certain types of protein (called antigens) on the red blood cells.

There are four different blood types: A, B, AB or O.

Individuals with O blood do not have antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. For this reason, they are called the universal donor. A person who receives an O type transfusion is unlikely to reject the blood. A person with AB blood is called the universal recipient, because they can safely receive blood from any of the other types.

In Australia, type O blood is the most common, followed by A, then B, with AB the least common of all. Blood donations of all types are always needed.

For more information, please see our anatomy article on Blood Types.

Rhesus system

The rhesus system is a way to further classify blood. For example, two people may have type O blood, but differ according to the Rhesus system. For the type O+, the O indicates the ABO system, whereas the + indicates a positive Rhesus factor (Rh). The Rh factor is another protein found on the surface of red blood cells. A person either has this protein or they do not. This means a person must either be Rh negative or positive.

For more information, please see our anatomy article on Blood types.

Who can donate blood?

In Australia, blood donation is organised and regulated by the Australian Red Cross Blood Service, who can be contacted on 13 14 95. Their website includes comprehensive information about blood donation and is available at http://www.donateblood.com.au/.

The health and safety of blood donors is a prime concern. For this reason, some people are not eligible to give blood because it could jeopardize their own health. This includes people who are:

Under 16 or over 70 years of age
Are pregnant
Have recently given birth
Weight less than 45 kg (or 50kg for 16 and 17 year olds)
Have low blood pressure
Are anaemic
Have a heart condition
Have been to the dentist recently
Have a cold or flu
Have had a tummy upset in the last week
Have recently been to the dentist

Some people may also be excluded from giving blood because it would pose a risk to recipients. For example, people who have had tattoos recently are unable to donate because unsterile needles used during the procedure carry a risk of infection with blood borne diseases. People who lived in the United Kingdom (UK) for more than six months between 1980 and 1996 are also excluded because they may have been exposed to Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) through contaminated meat.

There are many other reasons why a person may be unable to donate blood, especially if an illness is very recent. Blood is more likely to be accepted by the Red Cross if the donor is feeling healthy and well. A detailed medical history will be taken during the blood donation appointment. However, you should not assume that you are unable to donate blood. In many cases, it will depend on the circumstances. Some medical conditions will not preclude you from donating blood if they pose no risk to the recipient.

Why should I donate?

For many people with serious illnesses, a blood transfusion is the only effective treatment available. In Australia, donors are not paid for their blood. This means that the Red Cross Blood Service relies on the altruism and generosity of a small group of Australians. For several years now, the donation rate has been alarmingly low at only 3% of the population. It is important to encourage people to donate for the first time. However, it is equally important to increase the number of people who go on to become regular donors.

Most people who donate appear to be motivated by the opportunity to save lives. Blood donation is a simple way to make an enormous difference. Donors will never know who received their blood, but the recipients will be forever grateful. Other people may want to donate because they realize that they may be in the position of needing blood one day. By putting yourself in the shoes of a person awaiting a transfusion, it is easier to empathise with people who rely on blood products for survival.

Another reason why it is important for people to donate regularly is because blood has a short shelf life, and therefore cannot be kept forever. This means that the Blood Service in Australia needs 20,000 donations per week just to maintain supplies. Platelets last only 5 days and red blood cells last for 42 days at the most. Secondly, a range of donors is needed to ensure that there are blood matches for recipients. Sometimes the Blood Service may have particularly low stocks of a certain blood type. Blood donations are tested for diseases that could be passed to the recipient, such as HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and Syphilis.

Finally, blood donation is an easy procedure which carries very few risks to the donor. The staff at blood donation centres are very grateful to those who take the time to give blood. As such, the staff always ensure that donors are comfortable, and usually offer refreshments to make the experience enjoyable. Some people even find that donation is a relaxing escape from the pressures of work.

Blood donation types

Some people only require certain components of blood to be transfused. This means a single donation of whole blood can potentially save 3 lives. Whole blood donations are needed for people who experience severe blood loss during surgery, or due to a serious accident. People who choose to donate whole blood can donate every 12 weeks. An apheresis donation is one where only plasma or platelets are donated. This means the red blood cells are returned to the donor. People who choose to donate in this way can return sooner, after about 2 or 3 weeks.

Common side effects

Blood donation is known to be a safe procedure. However, donors may experience some minor side effects, including:

Dizziness or feeling light headed
Bruising where the needle was inserted
Fatigue

Please note that donors are advised to take it easy after giving their donation. Refreshments are provided at Red Cross Blood Services. Donors should also avoid doing any strenuous activity with the arm that they used to give the donation.

How can I donate blood?

The first step is to visit the Red Cross Blood Service website to find your nearest blood donation centre. You can then make an appointment by calling 13 14 95. Donors are advised to eat a substantial meal before their appointment, and to have 3 – 4 glasses of water, fruit juice or milk. Donors are also required to bring identification that includes 3 details such as name, date of birth, address, signature or photo.

Female Orgasm

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What is the female orgasm?

The female orgasm is a series of pleasurable physical sensationsand feelings which occurs following, and represents the peak in,sexual stimulation. Orgasm in females is a complex multidimensional phenomenon involving both physical and emotional components. However, not a lot of research has been conducted about the female orgasm and the physical and emotional changes which accompany it are not properly understood.

Many authors have attempted to define the female orgasm but as yet there is no universally accepted definition, and those which do exist tend to disagree on the about the relative importance of physical and emotional components of the female orgasm. For the most part, existing definitions fail to integrate the physical and emotional dimensions of orgasm into a single definition.

Some defintions (e.g.”spastic vaginal contractions occurring at highest tension level”) primarily emphasise the physical aspects of orgasm, while others (e.g. “subjective perception of the most intense point in a series of increasingly pleasurable sensations elicited by sexual stimulation”) primarily emphasise psychological aspects. It has been argued that definitions which integrate both physical and emotional dimensions of orgasm (e.g. “sudden, intense sensation just prior to genitopelvic contractions“) better represent the true nature of the female orgasm.

Measuring the female orgasm

A range of techniques for measuring the female orgasm have been developed. The techniques can be classified as:

Objective: techniques which measure physiological or hormonal changes or physical symptoms and identify the timing of orgasm based on these events; or
Subjective: techniques which ask individuals to rate the nature, timing or other aspects of their orgasm experience.

A number of researchers have noted that the results of objective and subjective enquiries about orgasm do not always agree. For example, an individual’s subjective rating of the timing of the orgasm, may not correspond to the timing of physical changes such as muscle contractions. Most likely, this is because some of the physical experiences of orgasm are not perceived to be part of the orgasmic experience (e.g. a woman may indicate her orgasm finishes when muscle contractions become less intense, rather than when they cease to occur altogether).

Objective techniques for measuring the female orgasm

Objective techniques for measuring the female orgasm use physical and hormonal changes as indicators of when an orgasm begins and ends. In many cases these are measured simply, using standard techniques (e.g. heart rate measurement). However, specialist devices have also been developed. The most commonly used indicators of the female orgasm, and the techniques by which they are measured, are:

Increased prolactin and oxytocin levels – measured by taking continuous blood samples and examining the amounts of these hormones in the blood;
Tachycardia – an increased heart rate, measured with a heart rate monitor;
Increased blood pressure – measured with a blood pressure monitor;
Vasocongestion of the genital organs – swelling of the genital tissues due to increased blood flow, measured with device known as a photoplethysmograph, which is inserted into the vagina or anus during sexual stimulation. It is a tampon-shaped device which measures vaginal pulse amplitude (VPA) or how much blood is circulating each time the heart beats. The device also shines a tiny light and measures the amount of light reflected in the vagina as an indicator of vasocongestion (because vasocongestion alters the vaginal walls and the amount of light they reflect).

Subjective techniques for measuring the female orgasm

Subjective techniques for measuring the female orgasm involve asking individuals to rate various physical and emotional aspects of their orgasmic experiences, typically using a questionnaire with a series of questions about each aspect of the orgasm.

The physical aspects of orgasm which may be measured include:

Building sensations;
Flushing sensations;
Flooding sensations;
Shooting sensations;
Throbbing sensations; and
General spasms.

The emotional aspects include:

Pleasurable satisfaction;
Relaxation;
Emotional intimacy; and
Ecstasy.

Types of female orgasms

Various types of female orgasm are often distinguished in medical and other texts and women’s orgasms are often classified according to these types. Evidence suggests that the physiological and hormonal changes as well as the physical sensations experienced during orgasm are similar amongst the different “types” of orgasm. However, there is evidence that the emotional aspects of orgasm differ between some types of orgasm, most prominently between self or masturbation induced or partner induced orgasms.

Anatomical location of physical sensations

Female orgasms can be classified according to the locations around the body at which the orgasmic sensations are felt. According to this classification system, female orgasms are usually grouped as those involving the whole body (typically orgasms induced by vaginal penetration) and those involving only localised sensations in the genitopelvic region (typically induced through clitoral stimulation).

Clitoral vs. vaginal induced orgasms

The clitoral/vaginal classification system and the general belief that there is a difference between clitoral and vaginal orgasms, stems from the psycho-analytical work of a philosopher named Sigmund Freud. He believed that vaginal orgasm was qualitatively different from clitoral orgasm and that a woman could only achieve vaginal orgasms once she had sexually matured. No evidence has been produced to support this theory. On the contrary, objective evidence suggests that the physical changes which occur during orgasm are similar whether it is induced through clitoral or vaginal stimulation. However, women typically find it easier to achieve orgasm with clitoral stimulation than without.

Subjective differences in orgasmic sensations experienced from clitoral or vaginally induced orgasm have been reported. Women report clitoral orgasms are more physically intense and satisfying but sensations are localised to the pelvic region. Vaginal orgasms on the other hand are said to be more psychologically intense and satisfying, and to produce widespread, whole body sensations.

Penetrative vaginal sex vs. no penetrative vaginal sex

Orgasms induced through penetrative vaginal sex (also referred to as coital orgasms) are often compared to those which involve other means of sexual stimulation (also known as non-coital orgasms). The basis of this separation is similar to that which separates vaginal and clitoral orgasms, except it also involves aspects of a partner’s involvement. A partner is always involved in an orgasm which occurs as a result of penetrative vaginal sex and may also be involved in a non-coital orgasm. Research has shown that sex with a partner involves emotional intimacy which is absent in self induced orgasm.

Self induced vs. partner induced

This classification system is most concerned with the presence or absence of a partner during orgasm, rather than the stimulation techniques used to induce orgasm.

Who experiences the female orgasm?

Orgasm occurs in response to sexual stimulation, and thus women who are sexually stimulated, either through partnered intercourse or masturbation, can experience orgasm.

Evidence suggests that virtually all women can experience an orgasm although some never do, either due to physical or psychosocial factors. The degree of sexual stimulation required to cause an orgasm varies from woman to woman. Female orgasm in response to visual, without physical sexual stimulation has been recorded, but typically fairly intense sexual stimulation, and particularly clitoral stimulation is necessary to induce orgasm.

In Australia, a national survey of sexual practices and experiences found that 28.6% of women reported that they had had difficulty achieving orgasm at least once in the month prior to the survey. The survey did not ask women if they had ever experienced an orgasm. Women who were 50-59 years of age were more likely to report difficulty achieving orgasm than women in younger age groups (41.9% of 50-59 year olds reported this difficulty, compared to 25-29% for 19-49 year olds).

How often does a female experience orgasm?

The frequency with which a woman experiences orgasm is directly related to the frequency with which she engages in sexual activity, either with a partner or through self or visual stimulation.

Some women experience an orgasm every time they have sex, while others never experience an orgasm. The majority of women experience orgasm sometimes but not others.

The capacity for women to have multiple orgasms has also been noted, however this phenomenon is poorly understood. Numerous factors have been identified as influencing a woman’s ability to orgasm.

Factors influencing a female’s ability to orgasm

Female sexuality and sexual function, including a woman’s ability to orgasm, is influenced by both physical and psychosocial factors.

Psychosocial

Some researchers studying the nature of female orgasms have suggested that psychosocial factors may be more influential than physical factors in determining when and if women orgasm. There is some evidence from research studies to support these opinions. For example, there is evidence that women who feel highly relaxed and emotionally intimate at the time of orgasm give their orgasms higher satisfaction and pleasure ratings than women who find their orgasms highly sensory in the physical sense (e.g. women who report strong physical sensations such as throbbing, flushing and spasms). There is also evidence that aspects of a woman’s society (e.g. social perceptions regarding whether or not females should enjoy sex) influence a woman’s capacity to orgasm.

Relationship quality

Research has shown that a woman’s ability to orgasm is associated with satisfaction with her sexual relationship and partner. For example, one large study found that the frequency with which a woman achieves orgasm and her satisfaction with the orgasms she experiences, are both associated with the perceived quality of her relationship and her satisfaction with her partner. Another study reported that the more satisfied a woman was with her relationship, the higher they rated the pleasure and satisfaction of their orgasms.

Emotional health

A woman’s emotional responses influence her sexual arousal, and are therefore also likely to influence her ability to orgasm. Psychological disorders such as depression, but also issues like self esteem and body image, decrease sexual response in women and in doing so make it less likely that women with these conditions will experience an orgasm.

Social perception of female sexuality

Studies of the ability of women living in different cultural settings around the world have noted that women living in cultures which expect women to enjoy sex are more likely to orgasm than those living in cultures which do not expect women to enjoy sex (e.g. cultures which view sex as primarily for male sexual pleasure). Studies have also noted that women living in societies which support their sexual expression, achieve orgasm more easily than women living in societies which do not support their sexual expression, for example societies which expect women to be sexually passive and not express their feelings of sexual desire.

Women who report feeling guilty about having sex also report more difficulty achieving orgasm, and this guilt is probably largely a result of social perceptions. For example, women who are told by society that sex before marriage is sinful are more likely to feel guilty about engaging in premarital sex than women in societies where premarital sex is considered normal.

Demographic, physical and hormone factors

Age

Several studies have reported higher rates of anorgasmia (inability to orgasm) amongst older women. The reasons for this are poorly understood. There are a number of hormonal changes which occur with age, particularly decreases in oestrogen and progesterone levels associated with menopause, which may affect a woman’s ability to orgasm as she ages.

There are also many psychosocial factors, including social taboos regarding sexual activity amongst the aged, reduced self esteem and loss of partner, which may affect a woman’s ability to achieve orgasm as she ages.

Oestrogen

Declining levels of oestrogen which occur with menopause have been identified as the main cause of changes in genital sensations and genital blood flow which lead more women to complain of sexual dysfunction (including anorgasmia) following menopause. Decreased oestrogen levels are also associated with reduced vaginal lubrication and mood changes, both of which may affect sexual pleasure and a woman’s ability to achieve orgasm.

Testosterone

Some studies have also found that low levels of testosterone are associated with decreased sexual arousal and orgasm. However as testosterone levels in a woman’s body change naturally throughout the menstrual cycle and other hormonal changes also occur naturally at this time, it is unclear whether testosterone changes themselves, or the other hormonal changes which accompany them, are responsible for this effect.

Medical conditions and medications

Many medical conditions can lead to changes in a woman’s orgasmic experience, including reduced frequency of orgasm, increased difficulty achieving orgasm and changed sensations during orgasm. Diseases which have been identified as negatively affecting orgasmic capacity in women include spinal cord injury, cancer, rectal disease, anxiety, depression and other psychological disorders. However, it is not clear to what extent the diseases themselves or the medications used to treat them, influence women’s orgasmic function. Surgery involving the genital system (e.g. hysterectomy) may also negatively affect a woman’s ability to orgasm.

Some medications inhibit female sexual arousal, including mood altering medicines used in the treatment of depression and other mood disorders. Women taking these medications often complain that they have difficulty achieving orgasm. Some scientists have suggested that oral contraceptives use may adversely affect a woman’s sexual function (which would in turn reduce her likelihood of experiencing orgasm), by affecting her mood, her body image or her sexual desire. However, other scientists have suggested that oral contraceptives might improve a woman’s sexual function, by reducing anxiety about pregnancy and reducing the pain of some gynaecological problems (e.g. endometriosis). There is currently insufficient evidence to determine which one of these opinions is correct.

Sexual behaviour

A number of sexual behaviours have been reported to facilitate orgasm. One study reported that women achieved orgasm more easily during sexual encounters which involved a lot of foreplay, compared to those which involved minimal foreplay. Playing an active role in the sexual encounter, initiating sex and masturbating were also associated with women having more frequent orgasms during intercourse. Studies have also found that women who orgasm more frequently are more likely to initiate and be active during sex, so it is not clear whether playing an active role in sex facilitates orgasm, or vice versa.

Clitoral stimulation is also an important factor in determining orgasmic ability in women. In one study, the majority of women had reported that clitoral stimulation was more important than vaginal stimulation for achieving orgasm. In another 95% of women reported achieving orgasm during masturbation (usually involving clitoral stimulation) but only 26% reported orgasm during intercourse without clitoral stimulation. Available evidence also suggests that uninterrupted, rhythmic pressure is more conducive to orgasm than varied sexual activity and most effective when it involves stimulation of the external genitalia and particularly the clitoris.

It has also been demonstrated that performance anxiety is associated with high levels of anorgasmia. This would suggest that the more a woman focuses on and becomes anxious about her arousal levels and whether she is likely to experience an orgasm, the less likely she is to experience an orgasm.

Genetic factors

A study of female twins and their orgasmic ability reported that genetic differences are responsible for a considerable degree of variability in sexual function between women. However, this is the only study which has examined the role of genetic differences in determining orgasmic ability, and as such further studies are needed to ascertain whether or not genetic factors actually influence orgasmic ability.

Purpose of the female orgasm- purely pleasure or assisting reproduction?

Unlike the male orgasm which typically coincides with ejaculation into the vagina of sperm-containing semen, the female orgasm has no obvious reproductive function. However, some theorists have suggested that the female orgasm must play a role in assisting reproduction, because evolutionary selection processes change bodies slowly over time, so that bodies eventually include only those parts and functions essential to reproduction of the species (e.g. the penis serves a direct reproduction function, the fingers allow people to fulfil numerous tasks, without which they would be unable to fulfil their daily requirements such as eating and drinking). These beliefs have lead to much debate about the purpose of the female orgasm and whether or not it serves a reproductive purpose.

A number of theories about the mechanisms by which the female orgasm might enhance reproductive success have been put forward. The most prominent, and one of the few evolutionary theories which there is biological evidence to support, is the somewhat crudely named “up-suck” theory. According to this theory, contractions of the uterus and other genito-pelvic organs involved during the female orgasm create gradient pressure or sucking which assists in transporting sperm into the uterus and retaining it there. As conception (the fertilisation of an egg by a sperm) occurs in the uterus, the chances of conception might realistically be increased if more sperm was sucked into the uterus. However this theory is not widely accepted.

Other theories which argue that the female orgasm serves a reproductive function argue that it plays a more indirect role. For example, some have suggested that the pleasure women experience when they orgasm leads them to have sex more frequently, and therefore increase their chances of conception.

However, there is no scientific evidence to support claims evolutionary selection processes necessitate the female orgasm fulfilling a reproductive role. On the contrary, these arguments have been neatly refuted. Those who argue against the evolutionary selection theories argue that the organs of orgasm (the clitoris in women and the penis in men) originate from the same embryological tissues (tissues in the growing foetus) is male and female foetuses. There is no difference in the appearance of embryological tissues which go on to form the clitoris or the penis, in the initial stages of pregnancy. Changes in the appearance of these tissues only occur after about eight weeks of pregnancy, when male foetuses begin producing their own hormones.

As the capacity to ejaculate is essential for reproductive success in males, the embryological tissues which go on to form the penis are necessary for reproductive success in males. However the embryological tissue necessary to enable the foetus to grow a penis must be present in all foetuses, as in the first eight weeks of foetal development, the foetus has not yet sexually differentiated, that is, it has not yet become either a boy or a girl foetus. When a foetus begins to produce male hormones, it will begin to display male features, including the growth of a penis. However, the embryological tissue which forms the penis in a male foetus does not simply disappear in the absence of male hormones. Instead another organ, the clitoris, develops. Just as males have nipples which do not serve a reproductive function as the female nipples do by allowing a woman to feed her offspring breast milk, neither the clitoris nor the orgasm which it produces serve reproductive functions.

Further evidence to refute claims that the clitoris must have a reproductive function comes from women’s varying responses to sexual stimulation. If the female orgasm was an evolutionary trait which assisted reproduction, one would expect orgasmic response to be highest during sexual acts which enabled reproduction (i.e. penetrative, vaginal sexual intercourse). On the contrary, most women emphasise the importance of clitoral stimulation for achieving orgasm, and the vast majority (>98%) employ at least some form of clitoral stimulation during masturbation. This evidence, combined with evidence from studies of female orgasm in primates, suggests that orgasm does not in fact occur in “normal” reproductive sex in which male orgasm and ejaculation are often considered the end point and of primary importance. Rather they can only occur when the sexual act is focused on providing the female partner sexual pleasure.

Orgasmic release is not essential for sexual satisfaction

It is important to note that orgasmic release is extremely variable and is not essential for sexual satisfaction for women. The traditional model for the human sex response cycle can be represented as Desire®Arousal®Orgasm®Resolution. Women often relate to this model at the beginning of a new relationship. However, in the setting of a long-term relationship, the situation is often rather different.

Sexual desire can occur either as a spontaneous event prior to arousal or can be responsive and occur after arousal or physical stimulation. For many women, sexual arousal and a responsive-type of desire occur simultaneously at some point after the women have chosen to experience sexual stimulation. Further arousal follows, generating a focus upon which to build to potential orgasm.

However, physical wellbeing may follow without orgasmic release. The rewards of emotional closeness, such as the increased commitment, bonding and tolerance of imperfections in the relationship, together with an appreciation of the subsequent wellbeing of the partner all serve as the motivational factors that will activate the cycle next time.

Physiology of the female orgasm

The female orgasm induces a range of physiological changes, in the genital and other body systems. Women also experience changing emotions during and following orgasm, and the hormones secreted by their bodies change considerably in response to sexual arousal and orgasm.

Changes to the female genito-pelvic organs induced by orgasm

Vasocongestion of the genito-pelvic organs

There is considerable evidence that genital organs, including the clitoris, vagina and uterus become vasocongested during sexual arousal and remain that way during and following orgasm. This reduces blood flow in some veins and prevents blood flowing out of the genital organs. Pressure and swelling in the tissues surrounding the genitals as well as contractions of genital muscles also reduce blood flow in the genital region, increasing vasocongestion.

Muscle activation

The uterus and a number of pelvic muscle groups become active during sexual arousal and orgasm. These muscle groups include:

The muscles which surround the opening of the vagina and exert pressure on the clitoris,
The muscles which support the perineum (the tissues between the anus and the genitals) during orgasm;
The muscles which support what is known as the pelvic diaphragm, or the area of vaginal muscle inside the vagina which typically undergoes spontaneous contractions during orgasm.

Smooth muscle contractions

The primary physical indicator of orgasm is contractions of the genito-pelvic and/or anal muscles. When these contractions were first observed in women experiencing orgasm, it was found they occurred at 0.8 second intervals and lasted on average for 16.7 seconds (compared to 25 seconds for men). It is however unclear whether or not all women experience vaginal muscle contractions during orgasm. It is also unclear if the commencement and cessation of such contractions signal the beginning and end points of a female’s orgasm, or if such contractions simply occur close to the time of orgasm.

Changes to other body systems induced by the female orgasm

There is now considerable evidence that orgasm induces whole body, and not just genito-pelvic, changes. There is particularly good evidence regarding cardiovascular changes which occur during orgasm, including tachycardia (increased heart rate) and increased blood pressure. For example one study, in which the heart rate and blood pressure of ten women who watched pornography and masturbated to induce orgasm were compared to those of women who watched a documentary film, reported that heart rate and blood pressure of the masturbating women were higher than the documentary film watchers by the time they reached orgasm. Other studies have also noted bodily reactions to orgasm including shuddering, muscle spasms, rigidity, sweating, rocking pelvic motions, facial grimacing and abdominal muscle contractions.

Organs also cause changes in the central nervous system responses.

Hormonal changes in females caused by orgasm

A woman’s hormone profile (the relative concentrations of different types of hormones in her body) changes distinctly during orgasm. Similar to the hormonal changes which accompany male orgasm, the key hormone change associated with the female orgasm is a substantial increase in levels of a hormone called prolactin. There are however many other subtle hormone changes which women experience during orgasm including changes to the hormones testosterone, cortisol, oestrogen, progesterone and plasma adrenalin.

Changes in the brain induced by orgasm

The brain is also an important source of sexual arousal and orgasm in women. There is evidence that individuals can experience orgasm with no direct stimulation to the genitals. This evidence comes from the orgasms experienced by paraplegics, from orgasms induced hypnotically, from orgasms stimulated by fantasy alone, and from orgasms experienced as a result of stimulation in certain areas of the brain. In addition, there have been reports of orgasm from women who have had a clitoral and labial excision and vaginal reconstruction. This research suggests that the brain be considered as part of the anatomical requirements for orgasmic experience.

It has also been proposed that several different nerve pathways are involved in sexual response:

the pudendal nerve for clitoral stimulation;
the hypogastric plexis and pelvic nerve for vaginal stimulation; and
possibly the vagus nerve directly from the cervix to the brain.

Psychological changes in orgasm

The psychological changes associated with orgasm are measured subjectively, using rating scales. Women typically report feelings of ecstasy during orgasm and feelings of relaxation following orgasm

Penis Enlargement

2014-03-03T00:15:00.001+02:00

Normal anatomy of the penis

The penis forms part of the male external genitalia and is the common outlet for urine and semen. It consists of an internal root, and the externally visible body and glans.

The root of the penis is composed of three erectile tissues: the bulb, and the right and left crura. These are partially surrounded by muscular tissue. As the erectile tissues continue into the body of the penis, the crura become the corpora cavernosa and the bulb becomes the corpus spongiosum. The corpus spongiosum then expands, forming the glans. The body of the penis is surrounded by loose skin, which is reflected upon itself to form the foreskin covering the glans. The urethra enters the penis via the erectile tissue of the bulb and continues in the corpus spongiosum until it ends at the external urethral orifice.

Each of the erectile tissues contain tiny spaces that can fill with blood. When the penis is flaccid, these spaces are collapsed. When a man is sexually stimulated, a reflex triggers the relaxation of the blood vessels supplying these tissues. This allows greater blood flow and as a result the erectile tissues fill with blood, causing penis enlargement and erection.

The external portion of the penis (the body and glans) typically measures 7.6–13 cm in length and approximately 8.5–10.5 cm in circumference when flaccid. When erect, this increases to 12.7–17.7 cm in length and 11.3–13.0 cm in circumference.

For more information, see the Male Urogenital System.

Sexual self-consciousness and dysfunction

Sexual self-consciousness has the potential to negatively impact our sexual experiences. It is believed that sexual self-consciousness:

Increases appearance-related anxieties;
Interferes with attention, focus and concentration;
Impairs physical performance; and
Reduces awareness of our own arousals, leading to sexual dysfunction.

While studies are limited, it has been shown that male sexual dysfunction can negatively impact thesexual function of female partners. One study showed that women who had partners with erectile dysfunction had significantly lower sexual arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, pain and total sexual function scores than those who had partners without erectile dysfunction. Later in that study, a large proportion of the men with erectile dysfunction underwent treatment. Following treatment, sexual arousal, lubrication, orgasm and satisfaction were all significantly increased. It was concluded that female sexual function is impacted by male erection status, which may improve following treatment of male sexual dysfunction.

For more information on erectile dysfunction, its types, causes and treatments, and tips for dealing with it, see Erectile Dysfunction.

Penis enhancement

It seems that penis size has been a source of male anxietythroughout history and across cultures. Weights have been used by the Sadhus holy men of India and by the males of the Cholomec tribe in Peru in order to increase penile length. Members of the Dayak tribe in Borneo pierced their penises and used decorative items to increase their partners’ pleasure. Topinama tribesmen in Brazil used poisonous snake bites to enlarge their penises.

Today in our society, the only consensus regarding such procedures is for the surgical correction of a micropenis – a smaller than average penis than is structurally normal. However, most men requestingpenile enhancement surgery have a penis of normal size and function. Typically, these patients interpret normal appearances as abnormal; this is known as psychological dysmorphism.

The indications for enhancement surgery are ill defined and the measures for success are still unclear, but the procedures are frequently performed, often in private settings.

Penile lengthening

Abdomino/pubopelvic liposuction

Abdomino/pubopelvic liposuction is one of the safest ways of providing visual extension of the penis. It is for men who have a lot of pubic fat or a protruding abdomen, giving the illusion of a smaller penis. The procedure involves a plastic surgeon removing the excess fat surrounding this area. Details of the success and rates of complications of this as a single procedure are sparse, as it is commonly performed in combination with other penile enhancement procedures.

Suspensory ligament dissection

This procedure involves the surgical detachment of the suspensory ligament. The suspensory ligament attaches the penis to the pubic bone, and has important functions in supporting and stabilising the penis at the appropriate angles for vaginal penetration and sexual intercourse. The space created by detachment is filled with fat tissue or another substance to avoid reattachment of the ligament. Following detachment, stretching is recommended with either vacuum devices, traction appliances or specialised weights.

In the medical literature, several different surgical techniques have been used with different methods of measurement, so it is difficult to compare the resultant changes in penile length. A recent studyreported an average increase in penile length of 1.3±0.9 cm. However, satisfaction rates among men were very low. So, while most can expect a gain in length from this procedure, alternative methods should be explored given the low satisfaction rates.

Complications from this procedure are relatively rare but include decreased angle of elevation of the erect penis, a paradoxical shortening of penile length if there is significant fibrosis, and penile instability.

Skin flaps

If extension of the penis is limited by the skin overlying the penis and pubic area (penopubic skin), skin flaps may be used to advance the penopubic skin onto the shaft of the penis. This procedure is most commonly performed in conjunction with an elongation procedure to achieve full skin covering of the extended penis, but also in conditions such as penoscrotal webbing or in cases of overly aggressivecircumcision.

There are a variety of techniques that may be used. Most cause unattractive hair-bearing tissue to extend over the penis, or other complications related to the anatomical design of the procedure. As a result, this is often not an attractive option.

Penile girth enhancements

Some consider penile girth enhancement to be even more controversial than penile lengthening. Indications for the use of these procedures are lacking in the medical literature. Increased symmetry and uniform girth would provide an optimal result, though this is often a significant challenge given current techniques.

Injectable materials

Fat injection

This procedure involves collecting fat cells from the abdomen and then injecting them into several areas of the penis. An increase in circumference of 2.6 cm has been reported with the injection of 40–68 mL of fat. During the injection process, a large number of fat cells rupture or are resorbed, so that only ~10% of the fat cells remain intact.

There is often a trade off between increased size and side effects. If smaller amounts of fat are injected into multiple locations the side effects are minimal; however, only a small increase in girth is gained. As larger amounts are injected, the risk of side effects increases. Complications include the formation of nodules, increased curvature of the penis, unsymmetrical results and other rare conditions. If large volumes of fat cells survive, patients can complain of decreased erectile stiffness as the increased fat overwhelms the firmness of the erectile tissues.

Silicone injection

The use of liquid injectable silicone has not been recommended for penile girth enhancement due to reports of severe complications. Some of these are related to the large volumes required, and others to drifting or distant migration, swelling and distortion, and other reactions. There is also an increased likelihood of damaging the blood supply and nerves, resulting in loss of sensation and erectile dysfunction.

In a recent study involving 324 patients, large volumes of silicone were injected to achieve an increase in penile circumference of 2.6 cm without any reported short-term complications. All patients were reported as fully satisfied; some reported increased erectile function and prolonged time to ejaculation. However, this is only one small study and the results should be evaluated further.

Hyaluronic acid gel injection

The use of this injectable material was reported to increase the size of the glans penis; the injection of 2 cm3 results in a 1.5 cm increase in glanular circumference after one year. Post-operative satisfaction was high with no serious adverse events. However, some believe that glanular enhancement as a separate procedure may be problematic.

Graft procedures

Dermal fat grafts

This procedure involves grafting skin and subcutaneous tissue from the abdomen or folds near the buttock onto the penis. The results are largely dependent on the amount of fat tissue that remains intact. Published studies show inconsistent results one year after the operation, though a 2.5–5.1 cm increase in girth is generally achieved.

Grafting is quite a long procedure; it takes roughly seven hours and has high rates of post-operative complications. Some of the complications include persistent penile swelling, skin injury, increased penile curvature, shortening of the penis and asymmetry, as well as cosmetically unpleasant scarring. There is also a significant risk that the grafted skin may be rejected by the new site, leading to impaired healing.

Allografts

The use of alloderm, a substance created from donated human skin, has several benefits compared to dermal fat grafting. There is greater success in achieving penile symmetry and a lower incidence of adverse effects. However, this procedure is still associated with some adverse events, including fibrosis, infection, and skin and graft loss.

Venous grafts

Venous grafting involves enlargening the corpora cavernosa using segments of a vein normally found in the leg. The penile girth is increased in the erect state only; hence it is more suitable for those men with dysmorphophobia related to the erect state.

In the first report of this procedure, there were no signs of post-operative complications in any of the 39 men who underwent the procedure. However the results have not yet been reproduced, and the technique is still considered experimental.

How to spot a scam

Consult a medical professional if you are looking into penis enhancement. Most often, this will be your general practitioner, who can then refer you to a urologist or plastic surgeon. Your general practitioner may also help you work though some of the issues that are causing you to be concerned, and may suggest other alternatives to penile enhancement.

It is important that you check their credentials and in many cases seek an independent second opinion. Beware of practitioners who are not backed by any of the medical peak bodies.

There are some products available for penile enhancement, including pills, ointments, pumps, stretching and hanging weights. However, there is no scientific research to support the use of any non-surgical methods to enlarge the penis.

Only use products approved by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). This is a government agency that acts to ensure the quality, safety and efficacy of medicines and ensure the quality, safety and performance of medical devices. If advertisements have large disclaimers or use marketing strategies that pry on your insecurities, you should be cautious.

How should policy makers react to the e-cigarette boom?

2014-03-02T17:52:00.000+02:00

California was the state that, in 1998, pioneered a public smoking ban that caught on not only in other states across the US, but also around the world. Today, Californian policy makers have weighed in on what is rapidly becoming the next great controversy in the tobacco industry: electronic cigarettes.

A committee on the Los Angeles City Council today announced that they are preparing groundwork for legislation banning the use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) in public places, such as farmers markets, parks, recreational areas, beaches, bars, nightclubs and outdoor dining areas.

Though, in true Hollywood style, film production sets are exempt from the ban, as are dedicated "vaping lounges" - "vaping" being the colloquial term for smoking the vaporized nicotine and other chemicals provided by e-cigarettes.

Los Angeles is not the first major city to consider this course of action.

In January, the Chicago City Council approved a ban on e-cigarettes in indoor public areas, such as offices. A month before that, New York approved an amendment to the city's public smoking ban to include e-cigarettes.

But the fact that LA lawmakers are now taking this measure seriously will no doubt add further fuel to an already-heated debate on the health risks posed by e-cigarettes.

Nicotine but no tar

The main advantage offered by e-cigarettes is that they do not contain tar. However, they do contain nicotine.

E-cigarettes are battery-powered, portable devices that work by heating a liquid containing nicotine and a substance called propylene glycol into a vapor that is inhaled by the smoker.

The main advantage offered by e-cigarettes is that they do not contain tar - the fatal ingredient in conventional cigarettes that is at the root of most health problems associated with smoking. As such, e-cigarettes offer a healthier alternative to the kind of cigarettes that public health campaigns have spent decades targeting.

However, e-cigarettes do contain nicotine - the stimulant in tobacco that creates powerful cravings in smokers.

A 2012 study, published in the journal Nicotine & Tobacco Research, found that e-cigarettes deliver nicotine faster than other cigarette substitutes, such as gum or lozenges. But could e-cigarettes prove to be equally as addictive as conventional cigarettes?

There is not enough data to be sure right now, but that e-cigarettes profess to be a healthier alternative to conventional cigarettes, while still promoting the addictive qualities of tobacco, is one of the main dilemmas that has split a previously united front from tobacco researchers and public health groups.

Runaway popularity of e-cigarettes causes issues for regulation

The reason why pro- and anti-vaping factions have become so adversarial is because much of the medical research into the adverse effects and benefits presented by the new phenomenon of e-cigarettes is - at this early stage - contradictory or inconclusive.

This has presented a unique problem for scientists, lawmakers, tobacco companies, pressure groups and the public at large. The popularity of these new smoking devices is moving much faster than the medical knowledge required to make informed judgements about their safety or efficacy.

E-cigarettes are no fad. Unlike the relatively slow take-up of nicotine lozenges and gum, sales of e-cigarettes have skyrocketed, with no signs of slowing.

Sales of e-cigarettes in the US have doubled each year since 2008. In the last year, sales brought in an estimated total of $1.7 billion for e-cigarette manufacturers, and the number of vendors selling e-cigarettes quadrupled. Predictions suggest that sales of e-cigarettes will outstrip sales of traditional cigarettes by the next decade.

This puts pressure on policy makers and regulatory bodies to present solutions for public health issues that they may not necessarily have all the evidence for yet.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for example, have yet to take a position on the devices, which are unregulated with the exception of e-cigarettes that are marketed as a tool to help people quit smoking.

How should the FDA respond to e-cigarettes?

The FDA do not currently regulate e-cigarettes, with the exception of e-cigarettes that are marketed as a tool to help people quit smoking.

The effects of this lack of regulation, as explained on the FDA website, are that consumers do not know:

The potential risks of e-cigarettes when used as intended
How much nicotine or other potentially harmful chemicals are being inhaled during use
If there are any benefits associated with using these products
If e-cigarettes "may lead young people to try other tobacco products, including conventional cigarettes, which are known to cause disease and lead to premature death."

Some studies have raised concern over the way e-cigarettes are marketed and labeled.

Medical News Today recently reported on research conducted by the Roswell Cancer Park Institute (RCPI) in Buffalo, NY, which analyzed the chemical content of e-cigarette refill solutions and compared their findings with the product labeling.

The RCPI scientists found that the nicotine concentration of 1 in 4 products differed by more than 20% from the amounts advertised on their labels. Nicotine was also found in some refill solutions that were advertised as being nicotine-free.

The FDA are expected to announce new regulations for e-cigarettes soon. The RCPI recommend that four main criteria need to be given serious consideration by the FDA:

Do low levels of contaminants in e-cigarette vapor pose a health risk?
What are the thresholds for toxicity of contaminants in vapor?
What should be the basis for product standards of e-cigarettes?
Could the risks be ameliorated by changes in engineering?

'Passive vaping'

Given the recent proposed bans on public vaping across US cities, the FDA are urgently required to address concerns over second- or thirdhand smoke risk.

A 2012 study, reported on by Medical News Today, analyzed potentially harmful emissions from e-cigarettes. The researchers behind the study acknowledged that although "passive vaping" is possible, they found no formaldehyde emissions and low emissions of volatile organic compounds.

RCPI's study, however, found that "significant" nicotine residues were left on the surfaces of a special chamber they used to measure thirdhand smoke risk from vaporized refill solutions.

"We need to better understand clinical implications of thirdhand exposure," RCPI's Dr. Maciej L. Goniewicz toldMedical News Today.

"This is a new area of research and we simply do not have a comprehensive picture right now. We clearly showed that nicotine from e-cigarettes can be deposited on various surfaces. We also showed that e-cigarette users exhale some nicotine."

Dr. Goniewicz also points to a study in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences that showed "carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines" form in the residue produced during thirdhand exposure to vaping.

Will e-cigarettes increase or decrease the overall number of smokers?

Is it possible that e-cigarettes might act as a gateway drug to conventional tobacco use for new and younger smokers?

Some commentators have reported a trend in use of e-cigarettes where, rather than swapping traditional cigarettes for the tar-free electronic equivalents, smokers use the device to supplement their nicotine habit in locations where smoking is not permitted - such as in the workplace or in bars and restaurants.

Such behavior challenges the claim from groups resisting regulation of e-cigarettes that the devices are primarily a smoking cessation aid.

Is it possible that e-cigarettes instead might not only prolong smoking as a habit in existing smokers, but also act as a gateway drug to conventional tobacco use for new and younger smokers?

Dr. Goniewicz commented:

"Statistics provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed slight decrease in smoking prevalence among US adults between 2008 and 2011. We do not know whether it can be attributed to increasing popularity of e-cigarettes. We need to closely monitor this trend over the next few years to understand effects of e-cigarettes on population level."

A recent, high-profile cover story from The New York Times quoted scientists who claim that e-cigarettes will only be effective at reducing the death toll from smoking with robust federal regulation.

For example, if ordinary cigarettes are made more expensive than e-cigarettes, or if the FDA gradually reduce the allowable levels of nicotine in traditional cigarettes - pushing smokers to e-cigarettes.

Cigarettes first went into broad use across the US in the 1920s. The ensuing popularity boom resulted in alung cancer epidemic by the 1940s. Although smoking rates have declined since the 1960s - when about a half of all men and a third of all women smoked - the US is still home to 42 million smokers.

Though we may not have all the data yet, just how e-cigarettes - and the imminent regulation surrounding them - contribute to these figures will likely be a contentious area of debate for some time.

Exercise, removal of belly fat 'reverses cognitive decline in obese mice'

2014-03-02T17:50:00.002+02:00

Previous research has associated both obesity and diabetes with cognitive decline. But a new study from the Medical College of Georgia at Georgia Regents University found that regular exercise or the surgical removal of belly fat reverses this effect in mice.

The findings were recently published in The Journal of Neuroscience.

According to the research team, including study author Dr. Alexis M. Stranahan, past studies in animals and humans have shown that obesity and diabetes can triple the risk of mild cognitive impairment and increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease.

To find out more, the investigators conducted a mice study to determine how fat, and inflammation in the brain's hippocampus as a result of diabetes, affected cognitive impairment.

Obesity increases levels of inflammatory cytokines

On analyzing mice that were single-gene altered to become obese and diabetic, the investigators found that the mice had significantly high levels of inflammatory cytokines - small proteins that target pathogens and trigger the body's immune response.

The researchers hypothesize that the cytokines see excess fat tissue as an external pathogen and this prompts an immune response.

Dr. Stranahan explains:

"These obese diabetic mice have very high levels of inflammatory cytokines and I think it's because their bodies are reacting to the invasion of fat into tissues where it does not belong."

Once the body has been cleared of pathogens, cytokine levels should naturally decrease. But the researchers found that in the obese diabetic mice, the fat appeared as the "chronic invader," therefore levels of the cytokine interleukin-1 beta and inflammation remained high.

The investigators explain that in the brain, interleukin-1 beta causes microglia - microphages that act as the first form of defense in the central nervous system - to "eat up" neuronal synapses. These synapses are crucial to the communication of brain cells.

Synaptic functions repaired with exercise and surgery

The researchers found that when mice ran 5-10 kilometers a week for 3 months, or around 15-20% of their body weight was surgically removed, their weight and levels of interleukin-1 beta reduced, meaning their synaptic function was repaired.

Researchers found that exercise and removal of belly fat reversed cognitive decline in obese diabetic mice.

Furthermore, the researchers discovered that a drug already used to treat rheumatoid arthritishelped the obese and diabetic mice to restore their cognitive abilities.

Although Dr. Stranahan says that exercise is the best option for overweight and obese patients, he notes that a similar pharmacological intervention could be an alternative for people who are unable to exercise, such as elderly and frail individuals.

He points out that liposuction is not likely to be a viable option for patients, as the mice in this study had significantly more belly fat removed than what humans would have with the procedure.

The investigators say they plan to initiate similar studies in mice with diet-induced obesity, as the mice in this study were desensitized to leptin - a hormone that triggers satiety. This meant they were always hungry.

Humans' memory of sound is weaker than for other stimuli

2014-03-02T17:49:00.002+02:00

"As it turns out, there is merit to the Chinese proverb 'I hear, and I forget; I see, and I remember,'" says graduate student James Bigelow.

Bigelow and his University of Iowa (UI) colleagues have published their results of an investigation into how humans remember sound in the journal PLOS One.

Their findings? That we have a harder time remembering things we have heard, compared with things we have seen or felt.

"We tend to think that the parts of our brain wired for memory are integrated," says Amy Poremba, associate professor in the UI Department of Psychology and corresponding author on the paper.

Prof. Poremba says the team's findings may indicate that the brain uses separate pathways to process information:

"Even more, our study suggests the brain may process auditory information differently than visual and tactile information, and alternative strategies - such as increased mental repetition - may be needed when trying to improve memory."

Testing short-term and recognition memory

The UI team designed an experiment to test the short-term memory of more than 100 participating UI undergraduates.

The students were asked to wear headphones and listen to pure tones, to look at various shades of red squares, and to feel low-intensity vibrations by gripping an aluminum bar. Time delays between 1 and 32 seconds separated each set of tones, squares and vibrations.

Though participants were worse at recalling the sounds they had heard, their memory of the things they had seen or felt was about the same.

The researchers found that the students' memory of sounds declined much faster than their memory of the squares and the vibrations.

A second experiment tested the recognition memory of the participants. They listened to sound recordings of dogs barking, watched silent videos of a basketball game and felt common objects - such as a coffee mug - that they were unable to see.

The researchers found that between an hour and a week after the experiment, students were worse at recalling the sounds they had heard, but that their memory of the things they had seen or felt was about the same.

The implication from both studies is that the brain processes and stores sound differently to how it processes other memories.

"As teachers, we want to assume students will remember everything we say. But if you really want something to be memorable you may need to include a visual or hands-on experience, in addition to auditory information," says Poremba.

Primate brains have a shared weakness for recalling audio

Although some previous studies have suggested that humans are better at remembering visual information than audio information, Bigelow and Poremba's study is the first to show that our memory of touch is roughly equal to our memory of what we see.

They think this is significant, as similar experiments with monkeys and chimpanzees have demonstrated that they perform equally well in visual and tactile memory tasks, but - like humans, their less-hairy primate relatives - they struggle more with auditory memory tasks.

Consequently, the researchers believe that this shared relative weakness for auditory memory has its origins in the neurological evolution of primates.

Breast cancer treatments could increase risk of developing osteoporosis or hypertension

2014-03-02T04:31:00.002+02:00

Older women who have overcome breast cancer are likely to struggle with heart disease, osteoporosis and hypertensionfurther on in their lives. Whether these conditions occur or not is influenced by the treatment that patients received to fightcancer, their overall weight and their age. Breast cancer survivors therefore should watch their weight and get regular exercise so that they can enjoy a high quality of life. These findings, by lead author Nadia Obi of the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, who collaborated with the group of Prof. Chang-Claude from the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg, were published in Springer's Journal of Cancer Survivorship.

Obi's research group set out to identify risk factors that could trigger the development of heart disease, osteoporosis and hypertension in breast cancer survivors. They therefore assessed the health status of 2,542 breast cancer patients between 50 and 74 years old who were part of the Mamma carcinoma Risk factor Investigation (MARIEplus) study in the city and state of Hamburg and the Rhine-Neckar Karlsruhe region in Germany. Patients were asked about their health conditions before and after being diagnosed with breast cancer. Demographic information, lifestyle factors, the type of treatment they received and their levels of education were also noted.

It was found that known risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, such as being overweight, also play a role in the health of breast cancer survivors. Older women with a higher body mass index (BMI) and patients who received trastuzumab to reduce the risk of cancer relapse had an increased risk for hypertension. (A BMI of more than 30 kg/m2 almost doubled the risk ratio.) In addition, women with higher education levels had less hypertension.

Women with a lower body weight were more likely to develop osteoporosis, having a two-fold higher risk when they had a BMI of less than 22.5 kg/m2. The findings support those of previous research that showed that treatment with aromatase inhibitors could trigger the development of osteoporosis and cardiovascular diseases in breast cancer survivors. These inhibitors are generally used to prevent the reoccurrence of breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

Obi's research team advised that the follow-up health care that breast cancer survivors receive should include screening for any treatment-related health problems. Cancer survivors should especially be monitored for signs of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis.

"New health problems can be prevented by advising the older, less educated breast cancer survivor and those with higher body weight indexes to lose weight and perform regular physical activity," said Obi. "The higher risk for osteoporosis in low weight patients may be balanced by the use of medications that prevent the loss of bone mass."

Dark chocolate 'good for the heart,' study suggests

2014-03-02T04:30:00.002+02:00

Nutritionists have long said that eating dark chocolate in moderation can be good for our health. Now, researchers have discovered why. It may reduce the risk of atherosclerosis - thickening and hardening of the arteries - by restoring flexibility of the arteries and preventing white blood cells from sticking to the blood vessel walls.

The research team, including Prof. Diederik Esser of the Top Institute Food and Nutrition and the Division of Human Nutrition at Wageningen University, both in the Netherlands, published the study in The FASEB Journal.

To reach their findings, the investigators analyzed 44 overweight men aged between 45 and 70 years.

Over two periods of 4 weeks, the men were required to eat either 70 g of regular dark chocolate each day or 70 g of specially produced dark chocolate with high levels of flavanol - a naturally occurring antioxidant found in some plants, including the cocoa plant. Both chocolates were similar in their cocoa content.

Subjects were asked not to eat other foods high in calories during the study period, in order to prevent them from gaining weight.

The researchers assessed how both the chocolate high in flavanols and the regular chocolate stimulated the participants' senses over the study duration. In other words, they looked at whether flavanol content motivated the subjects to eat the chocolate.

The vascular health of the participants was assessed both at the baseline and end of the study period.

Improved heart health 'not down to flavanols'

Researchers say eating dark chocolate may reduce the risk ofatherosclerosis - the hardening and thickening of the arteries.

Results of the study revealed that both groups showed a 1% decrease in flow-mediated dilation (FMD), a 1% decrease in augmentation index (AIX), reduced leukocyte (white blood cell) count, decreased plasma sICAM1 and sICAM3, and a reduced leukocyte adhesion marker expression.

This means the consumption of dark chocolate lowered participants' risk of atherosclerosis - a condition that can be caused by arterial stiffness and white blood cell adhesion.

However, the researchers found that although the chocolate higher in flavanols increased sensory stimulation in participants, both types of chocolate produced the same heart benefits.

These findings challenge previous research suggesting that flavanols have health benefits. Medical News Today recently reported on a study stating that consuming foods high in flavanols, such as chocolate, wine and berries, may protect against type 2 diabetes.

Commenting on the findings, Prof. Esser says:

"We provide a more complete picture of the impact of chocolate consumption in vascular health and show that increasing flavanol content has no added beneficial effect on vascular health.

However, this increased flavanol content clearly affected taste and thereby the motivation to eat these chocolates. So the dark side of chocolate is a healthy one."

Dr. Gerald Weissman, editor-in-chief of the The FASEB Journal, says these findings could lead to new therapeutic treatments that provide the same benefits as dark chocolate consumption, but with "better and more consistent results."

"Until the 'dark chocolate drug' is developed, however, we'll just have to make do with what nature has given us," he adds.

Other research has linked chocolate consumption to many other health benefits. Last year, we reported on a study suggesting that drinking two cups of hot chocolate a day may prevent memory decline, while a 2012 study found that eating moderate amounts of chocolate could reduce the risk of stroke.

Risky sexual behaviors linked with gambling in adolescents

2014-03-02T04:28:00.002+02:00

A new study, published in the journal Addictive Behaviors, investigates the extent to which the high-risk behaviors of sex and gambling affect black adolescents in primary schools.

Previous studies have found an association between gambling and adolescent problem behaviors.

For instance, a 2009 study by the University of Buffalo's Research Institute on Addictions in New York found that 1 in 10 young adolescent boys exhibit symptoms of conduct disorder as well as symptoms of problem gambling.

Interestingly, that study reported only 4% of female adolescents exhibit symptoms of conduct disorder and 2% display symptoms of problem gambling.

"Conduct disorder" was defined as a set of problem behaviors that include lying, stealing, vandalism, impulsivity, substance abuse, verbal and physical aggression, cruelty to pets or people, and repetitive behavior that violates the rights of others or social norms.

Problem sexual behaviors have also been linked to gambling in some studies - however, these studies had examined mostly white populations. The new study collected data from black adolescents in nine primary schools in Baltimore, MD.

"Despite evidence that problem gambling is more prevalent among African-American adolescents and adults, few adolescent studies included a large subgroup of African-Americans in their samples," says first author Dr. Silvia Martins.

Nearly 90% of adolescent gamblers initiated sex before age 18

Dr. Martins and her team wanted to see whether sexual behavior linked with unintended consequences - such as pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) - are associated with gambling in adolescents.

Adolescent gamblers were more likely to initiate sex before they reached 18 than non-gamblers.

The new study found that 49% of the adolescents in the study had gambled at least once before the age of 18. Of those who had gambled by age 18, 46% were frequent gamblers.

The study also showed that adolescent gamblers were more likely to initiate sex before they reached 18 than non-gamblers - 89% had sex by age 18 and 35% had sex by age 13. Of the sexually active youths, 9% had at some point had an STI.

Dr. Martin and colleagues graded impulsivity using "the impulsivity sub scale of the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation-Revisted" to compare outcomes of gambling 13 year olds with non-gambling 13 year olds who had a high impulsivity score.

They found that the gambling 13 year olds were more likely to have become pregnant or impregnated someone than the non-gamblers.

By the age of 18, male gamblers were more likely to have impregnated someone than female gamblers were to have become pregnant.

"Our findings are complementary to earlier studies that showed an association between gambling with an earlier age of onset of sexual activities, however, participants in these samples were predominantly white," said Dr. Martins.

Dr. Martins recommends that existing programs addressing problem behaviors in adolescents should be expanded to include gambling prevention and intervention elements. She also asserts that interventions should work to improve the decision-making skills of adolescents and include the promotion of safe sex.

She adds that this study:

"...goes above and beyond prior research as it shows that gambling youth are not only at risk of gambling problems, which are associated with numerous adverse interpersonal, financial, criminal, and psychiatric consequences, but also at risk for sex-related behaviors such as adolescent pregnancy/impregnation."

Can you really die of a broken heart?

2014-03-02T04:27:00.001+02:00

Losing a loved one can be heartbreaking. But a new study shows that this can be more than just symbolic, as the chances of experiencing a stroke or heart attack after a partner's death doubles within the first 30 days.

The researchers, from St. George's University of London in the UK, have published the results of their study in JAMA.

They note that, sometimes, grief can lead to extra physicalstress and can also make people lose interest or forget to take their medication.

To investigate bereavement as a risk factor for cardiovascular problems, the team assessed the rate of stroke or heart attackin patients over the age of 60 whose partner died. They then compared that with individuals whose partners were still alive.

In total, there were 3,0447 individuals in the study whose partner died and 83,588 controls whose partners did not.

The researchers found that 16 per 10,000 people whose partners died experienced heart attacks or strokes within 30 days of their partner dying, compared with only 8 per 10,000 from the control population.

After 30 days, however, this increased risk began to fall in individuals who lost a loved one.

Individuals whose partner dies have increased risks of heart attack or stroke during the first 30 days, researchers found.

Dr. Sunil Shah, co-author and senior lecturer at St. George's University of London, says:

"We often use the term a 'broken heart' to signify the pain of losing a loved one and our study shows that bereavement can have a direct effect on the health of the heart."

Grief increases cardiovascular risks

There has been evidence from other previous studies that partner loss and grief can lead to changes in blood clotting, blood pressure and heart rate control, Dr. Shah says.

"In addition, we have found, in another study, that in the first few months after bereavement, individuals may not consistently take their regular preventive medication, such as cholesterol-lowering drugs or aspirin," he adds.

All of these factors can contribute to increased risks of cardiovascular events, and Dr. Shah says it is important for doctors, friends and family to be aware of these increased risks.

Dr. Iain Carey, senior research fellow at the university, says:

"We have seen a marked increase in heart attack or stroke risk in the month after a person's partner dies, which seems likely to be the result of adverse physiological responses associated with acute grief.

A better understanding of psychological and social factors associated with acute cardiovascular events may provide opportunities for prevention and improved clinical care."

Mailing free test kits improves colon cancer screening rates

2014-02-27T15:36:00.002+02:00

Colon cancer screening rates went up by nearly 40% in a Kaiser Permanente study that mailed test kits to patients' homes. The pilot study, funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), was part of a program to address disparities among uninsured, low-income and Latino patients.

The findings are to be published in the journal BMC Cancer.

Lead author Dr. Gloria Coronado, epidemiologist and senior investigator with the Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research, says:

"We are very happy that so many of the patients who received the screening kits in the mail actually completed the tests and mailed them back."

The study involved 869 patients registered with three community health clinics in metropolitan areas in Portland, Oregon. Most of the patients in the health clinics were Latinos living below the poverty line and around half of them had nohealth insurance.

According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among Americans, yet one third of adults do not undergo proper screening.

In the US, colon cancer screening is low in general, and more so among minorities

Dr. Coronado explains that "colon cancer screening rates are low among the general population, but even lower among minorities and those without health insurance." She adds that this pilot is part of a "larger STOP Colon Cancer study, which aims to increase screening among thousands more patients who receive their care from community health clinics."

For the study, Dr. Coronado and her colleagues arranged for an introductory letter - in English and Spanish - explaining the home test kit and colorectal cancer screening, to be mailed to 112 patients with one of the clinics. This letter was followed 2 weeks later with a mailed stool test kit.

If the tests weren't returned within 3 weeks, the patients received reminder postcards.

For the second clinic, 101 patients received the same mailings over the same timescale: the letter, then the test kit and then the reminder postcard. Except, in this case, if test kits weren't returned within a month, the patients also got a reminder phone call.

With the third clinic, the researchers enlisted 656 patients as controls. These did not receive a stool test kit by mail, but they had the option of having a screening test as part of routine visits to the clinic.

Mailed test kits were more successful than routine clinical screening

When they reviewed the results, the researchers found that only 1% of the controls had completed a stool test, compared with 39% of the patients who received tests in the mail, and 37% who were also reminded by phone.

Co-author Dr. Tanya Kapka, a family physician at the Virginia Garcia Memorial Health Center, that operated the three clinics in the study, says:

"Many patients don't understand that a simple stool test called FIT, or fecal immunochemical test, can save their lives."

"The FIT test can be done at home," she adds, "it only takes a few minutes, and, if conducted annually, is effective for determining which patients are most likely to have colon cancer."

The NIH is funding an extension of the pilot to cover 26 federally qualified health centers in Oregon and California.

Did a risk of skin cancer drive the evolution of black skin in humans?

2014-02-27T00:34:00.002+02:00

A new analysis suggests that black skin may have evolved in humans as a protective measure against skin cancer.

Previously, skin cancer has been disregarded as an influence in the evolution of black skin in humans. This is based on the belief that skin cancer only rarely causes death at ages young enough to affect reproduction.

"Charles Darwin thought variation in skin color was of no adaptive value and other investigators have dismissed canceras a selective force in evolution," acknowledges study author Prof. Mel Greaves of the Institute of Cancer Research in London, UK.

"But the clinical data on people with albinism, particularly in Africa, provide a strong argument that lethal cancers may well have played a major role in early human evolution as an important factor in the development of skin rich in dark pigmentation - in eumelanin."

Eumelanin is the brown-black version of melanin - the naturally occurring substance that gives color to hair, skin and the iris of the eye, and that protects the skin from the sun. Eumelanin is much more effective than other variants of melanin at preventing the damage to DNA that results in skin cancers.

How did human skin evolve in response to UV exposure?

Human skin evolved to be rich in melanin between 1.2 million and 1.8 million years ago in the East African Savanna.

It is thought that early humans evolved away from a complete covering of body hair to facilitate heat loss, and that they had pale skin containing pheomelanin - the red-yellow melanin variant found in chimpanzees, our nearest genetic relatives.

Humans migrated north from Africa into Europe 50-80,000 years ago, at a time in the Earth's history when there was substantially less ultraviolet (UV) exposure. There may have been a selective advantage in having paler skin for the early Europeans - possibly to obtain more vitamin D.

Although scientists generally agree that the black skin characteristic of eumelanin thrived in humans due to the ability of eumelanin to absorb UV radiation, the extent to how this could have protected early humans against lethal diseases is debatable.

People with albinism at risk of fatal skin cancer in equatorial regions

In his analysis, Prof. Greaves cites studies that show 80% or more of people with albinism from equatorial African countries - such as Tanzania and Nigeria - develop fatal skin cancers before the age of 30.

Other tropical countries with year-round high UV-exposure, such as Panama, also report high levels of skin cancer in people with albinism.

Albinism is caused by a mutation in the genes that prevents melanin from being produced.

Prof. Greaves thinks that because people with albinism develop cancer at reproductive ages, this means that early, pale-skinned humans faced evolutionary pressure to develop skin rich in melanin that would protect against cancer.

White- or pale-skinned people are approximately 1,000 times more at risk of skin cancer than people with dark skin.

Excessive sun exposure is generally agreed to be the the major cause for the skin cancers basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma - collectively the most common cancers experienced by humans.

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2014-02-27T00:30:00.001+02:00

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2014-02-27T00:24:00.001+02:00

Benefits of breast-feeding 'overstated,' says sibling study

2014-02-27T00:11:00.001+02:00

When it comes to nutrition for infants, the medical community largely agrees that "breast is best." But a new study in siblings seeking to uncover potential biases suggests breast-feeding may be no more beneficial than bottle-feeding for many long-term health outcomes.

The research, led by Cynthia Colen, assistant professor of sociology at Ohio State University, was recently published in the journal Social Science & Medicine.

Colen says that previous studies on the topic fall prey to selection bias, in that they "either do not or cannot statistically control for factors such as race, age, family income, mother's employment - things we know that can affect both breast-feeding and health outcomes."

In the latest study, the team included an analysis of outcomes from families of different races and socioeconomic backgrounds for comparison and found that their results matched those of other studies advocating that the benefits of breast-feeding outweigh those of bottle-feeding.

The researchers also assessed health and education benefits of the different feeding approaches for children between the ages of 4 and 14 years old, which extends beyond the typical immediate benefits studied in past studies.

Colen says the declaration from federal officials that breast-feeding for the first 6 months of an infant's life is a national priority could stigmatize women who are not able to breast-feed their babies. She adds:

"I'm not saying breast-feeding is not beneficial, especially for boosting nutrition and immunity in newborns. But if we really want to improve maternal and child health in this country, let's also focus on things that can really do that in the long term - like subsidized day care, better maternity leave policies and more employment opportunities for low-income mothers that pay a living wage, for example."

Colen notes that typically, more advantaged moms are able to select into breast-feeding, which makes it difficult to understand what affects certain outcomes, such as obesity. "Is it breast-feeding itself," she questions, "or those other background characteristics?"

Breast-feeding's effects 'not statistically significant'

The researchers analyzed data from the 1979 cohort of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) - a national sample of young men and women between the ages of 14 and 22 in 1979 - as well as results from NLSY surveys between 1986 and 2010 of children born to women in the 1979 cohort.

The new study questions potential biases in previous studies that assert breast-feeding's positive outcomes are better than those of bottle-feeding.

All children were between the ages of 4 and 14 years old during the time period studied, and about 25% of the siblings in the data were differently fed within the same family. In other words, one sibling was breast-fed while another was bottle-fed.

The team wanted to answer two simple questions:

Was at least one child breast-fed?
If so, what was the duration of breast-feeding?

In total, the study measured 11 outcomes common to other breast-feeding studies, including body mass index (BMI), obesity, asthma and hyperactivity. It also measured scores predicting academic achievement and scholastic competence.

Overall results showed the same results of other studies; namely, that breast-feeding results in better outcomes than bottle-feeding in a number of measures.

However, when the team restricted the sample to siblings who were fed differently within the same families, the scores showing breast-feeding's positive effects on 10 of the 11 measures for child health and well-being were not statistically significant, the researchers say.

"Instead of comparing across families we are comparing within families, completely taking into account all of those characteristics - both measured and unmeasured - that differ by family, such as parental education, household income and race/ethnicity," Colen says.

She notes that if long-term outcomes are not necessarily as affected by breast-feeding as we currently believe they are, it may be time to address other impacting issues, such as school quality, housing and parental employment.

Colen adds:

"We need to take a much more careful look at what happens past that first year of life and understand that breast-feeding might be very difficult, even untenable for certain groups of women. Rather than placing the blame at their feet, let's be more realistic about what breast-feeding does and doesn't do."