International Pharma Guide

2022-09-29T08:34:00.002-07:00

How To Shape Your Child Future

1. Stimulate baby talk and treat it as real conversation

The sounds and gestures that babies make might not always seem like much, but it’s their only form of communication. Early childhood development scientists say we should stimulate baby talk and treat it as real conversation. Parents should respond to baby’s sounds, cues and actions and engage with them throughout the day. The number of words a baby is exposed to will determine the amount of words in a child’s vocabulary at age 2 and a child’s reading levels later. Take baby babble seriously and encourage it.

2. Read to your baby to exercise language

Babies might not be talking or reading yet but they’re born ready to learn. Even at 3 months of age, they can distinguish each sound used in every language in the entire world. Every time you read out loud to your baby, you are building language skills. Make sure to point to the pictures in the book and ask questions about the story and the characters. Simple questions like “what are they wearing?” and “how many are there?” will engage your child’s language skills. Reading to babies not only exposes them to new words but also creates a love for books and reading. Remember, leaders are readers, so why not start early?

3. Use everyday experiences as learning opportunities

For babies, each life experience is all about learning. Whether it’s bath time, sorting laundry, cooking or running errands, these activities are great learning moments. Narrate what you are doing to stimulate language. Count and sort laundry to teach maths and play with food ingredients and textures to promote scientific thinking. Making faces that show different emotions is a great way to teach emotional intelligence.

4. Take play seriously

Young children are learning all the time. When they play, they’re building important life skills. Make-believe play allows them to experience what it’s like to be someone else and understand others’ feelings. When they play with others, they’re learning to compromise and take turns. Engaging in imaginative free play, like pretending a toy train can travel through space, sparks creativity and language as they learn to verbally express their ideas. When they imagine new worlds, young children are learning to problem solve and create new possibilities. What seems like just fun is actually very important work. Take play seriously because play is serious learning. Avoid being on your device in front of your child too often. Research shows that makes children feel less important.

5. Lead by example

Babies are genius impersonators. They pick up on everything they see you do. Until they talk, they become experts at reading faces and non-verbal attitudes and learn to mimic them. By watching your body language, how you treat others or how you react to a challenge, babies will adopt these attitudes and actions themselves. The way you act around your baby shapes the person they will become.

Include these five critical behaviors in your day and you’ll dramatically improve your baby’s chances to thrive in the future. Giving your child the best tools for future success has nothing to do with money or extravagant learning resources. It has everything to do with you, your time and level of engagement.

2022-09-25T08:54:00.003-07:00

Top 5 Long-Term Strategies on How to Make Money Online

1. Make Money Blogging:

Blogging is an excellent way for avid writers to earn income. Many people start a blog to share insights, express views, and establish brands. Some popular blogs are Say Yes and Anywhere We Roam.

You can start a blog about any topic. Researching popular blog ideas can help you find a profitable niche. Some blog niche examples include travel blogs, food blogs, and book blogs.

The most common ways to make money blogging are through advertising, affiliate marketing, brand sponsorships, and selling products.

To have a profitable blog, find a niche and build your audience by consistently posting content. Implementing effective marketing and search engine optimization (SEO) strategies is also important.

2. Create an Online Course:

The global eLearning market is projected to reach almost $400 billion by 2026. If you excel in a particular subject and enjoy curating learning material, it’s an excellent time to start selling online courses.

Digital courses come in different formats, from simple PDF downloads to videos. Popular online course topics include computer skills, health and wellness, business and entrepreneurship, finance and investing, and personal development.

There are two main ways to make money online by selling digital courses – by joining an eLearning platform or creating an eLearning website. The former is easier to do, but the latter provides more opportunities to experiment with different formats and monetization methods.

You can create an eLearning website with a WordPress LMS plugin. Then, sell courses as digital products or create a membership system to lock them behind a paywall.

If you want to try out a few eLearning platforms before creating an eLearning site, consider the following:

Udemy. Provides courses, quizzes, coding exercises, and discussion forums on various topics.
Skillshare. Excellent for selling courses on digital art and creative skills.
Teachable. Create unlimited courses using any of its paid plans. Creators can also apply to have their courses and live events featured on Spotlight, an eLearning marketplace powered by Teachable and Hotmart.
Podia. A platform for selling online courses, digital downloads, and membership subscriptions. Users can create standalone or drip courses. They can also group similar courses and market them as a bundle.
Pathwright. A design, teaching, and learning platform for creating courses emphasizing active learning through actionable steps.

3. Create a Subscription Job Board:

With more employers turning to online hiring, job boards have fantastic market potential.

There are two main ways to make money online with a virtual job board. The first is to rent out space for employers to advertise their job listings. The second is to sell access to exclusive job listings to job seekers via a paid membership system.

Popular job board websites like Indeed, Glassdoor, and ZipRecruiter charge employers for premium job post placements. Most of these sites base their pricing plans on factors such as posting period, in-depth company information, or reviews.

The easiest way to create this type of website is with a WordPress job board plugin. For example, WP Job Manager offers tools to submit and manage job listings seamlessly. Additionally, consider installing a membership plugin if you want to restrict access to job postings.

4. Start a YouTube Channel:

Running a YouTube channel is a popular way to make money online. As the largest video-sharing platform worldwide, it has an audience of 2 billion+ monthly active users.

There are multiple ways to earn money from a YouTube channel. The first step is signing up for the YouTube Partner Program to ensure you’re eligible for monetization.

The most popular way to make money is through advertising. Alternative monetization methods include channel memberships, Super Chat, Super Stickers, merch, and YouTube BrandConnect.

YouTube allows many types of niche video content, from gaming reactions to daily vlogs.

To grow a YouTube channel, you must publish content consistently to generate views and build an audience base. Investing in a good camera and editing software can improve video quality and attract more viewers.

Don’t forget to practice YouTube SEO. This includes adding relevant keywords and tags to the video titles and optimizing video descriptions for search engines.

Aside from being a great way to make money online, starting a YouTube channel can benefit a brand. YouTube videos can generate leads and help redirect traffic to your website. Videos also offer a higher return on investment than static images, making them a great marketing tool.

5.Create an App:

Creating an app is one of the best ways to profit from rapid mobile digitalization. Make money online by creating paid apps or selling them to other companies. Alternatively, launch a free app and make money via in-app advertisements.

Creating an app as a side hustle is also an excellent way to hone your coding and web development skills.

For those with little to no coding experience, there are many beginner-friendly mobile app builders:

Appy Pie. This app builder employs a simple three-step process to help you create an app with a great user experience. The pricing ranges from $16–$60/app/month.
AppInstitute. This app builder for busy small business owners makes it easy to create mobile apps without coding knowledge. Pricing ranges from $59-$340/month.
Mobincube. An intuitive app builder for launching an app in four easy steps. It offers a free plan in addition to the paid ones. The premium pricing plans range from €35.88-€1,199.88/year.
Here are the steps to create an app:
1. Get inspired. Create surveys, conduct interviews, or run focus group discussions to find out what is missing on the market.
2. Conduct competitor research. Search existing competitor apps and read their reviews. Take note of what users like and dislike about them.
3. Start building. Start coding or use an app builder.
4. Launch. Submit your app to the App Store or Google Play Store and await approval.
5. Market and monetize. Practice marketing strategies and start making money online.

How To Inculcate Life Learning Skills In Children

2022-09-25T00:08:00.003-07:00

Life Skill Activities to Incorporate into Your Child’s Daily Routine

Decision-Making Skills:

Making good decisions is a life skill every child should begin learning at a young age. Begin with basic choices like chocolate versus vanilla ice cream, blue socks or white socks, playing trains or playing cars. When kids reach elementary school age, they can begin learning about the rewards of good decisions and the consequences of bad decisions.

Using the Web Wisely:

With kids spending more time on screens than ever before, it's essential to reinforce a few rules to help them safely navigate the digital world, says Joscelyn Ramos Campbell, a mom of four in Clermont, Florida, who blogs at Mami of Multiples. So as soon as your child can use technology unsupervised, go over these best practices:

Help your child choose a password that's hard to guess and tell them to never share it with anyone except you.
Ensure your child only chats with people they know in real life and doesn't give out personal information such as their birthday, home address, or phone number.
Remind your child to be kind; anything they send or say virtually is there forever.
Have your child get permission or ask for help from you before downloading something or clicking a pop-up.
Most importantly, let your kid know they can come to you with any issue. "This is a conversation you will have again and again as your children get older," says Ramos Campbell.
How to manage time:
You’re probably wondering how. Well, you can do this by getting your kid to claim responsibility for their own time.
Do this by getting them an alarm clock that they can use to wake up on time for school, instead of you waking them up.
Get them a planner to use to track their school work and other extra-curricular work and to keep track of what needs to be done by when.
When they do this, they will automatically begin to allow specific amounts of time for play and for work.
Involve them in simple cooking:
Children can cook, too! Don’t you agree?
And you can start with simple things! Teach your child how to make their own peanut butter and jam sandwiches, teach them how to butter a slice of bread, and how to make a salad.
Have them tear up greens, squeeze lemons, and put chopped vegetables together to make a salad.
You can also get them to help you with baking, with handing you ingredients while you cook or with keeping the kitchen table clean while you’re preparing a meal.
How to interact with people:
We’ve all taught children about stranger danger but this doesn’t make much logical sense considering every person we’re close to as adults was a stranger to us at some point.
Instead, teach your children to do exactly what adults do. Teach them to differentiate between good strangers and bad strangers. Teach them how to interact with good strangers.
Teach them how to make friends, how to be friendly to good adults, and just how they should go about interacting with these people.
If you think about it, a task that we do every single day is to be engaged in
interaction with people. If we don’t teach children this at a young age, they may not develop positive social skills.
Cleaning and other household chores:
Now I know what you’re thinking. Getting kids to get involved in cleaning activities is really hard! We agree. But we assure you that your effort will be well worth it!
Start small by just asking them to keep their room clean, make their bed, and make sure everything they own is in its right place. You can then ask them to clean the dishes that they use to eat after eating as well.
You can ask them to dust the tables one day and ask them to take the trash out on another; you can also ask them to set the table in whichever way they think looks the best and ask the exchange for their allowance.
It’s important to practise these activities both in the context of an allowance and out of it, so your child learns to just help out without being given anything in return, too.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7nygP9yRCs

2022-09-24T09:08:00.004-07:00

What are the Benefits of Public Speaking?

Public speaking is a great way of building personal development on many levels, since improving communication skills is helpful in almost every area of life. Whether your goal is to engage in political debate, make a career as a motivational speaker or gain confidence in front of an audience, public speaking can help you meet your goal.

We’ve listed the top benefits of public speaking, which will encourage you to get out of your comfort zone and sign up to speak at a few events in the future.

1. Career advancement

Effective public speaking skills can help with career advancement, as they indicate creativity, critical thinking skills, leadership abilities, poise, and professionalism, qualities which are very valuable for the job market.

Speaking at events and conferences is a good way of building credibility. The more well known the event the better, as you can add these speaking achievements to your resume.

Public speaking can also help you stand out at work. You'll learn to speak up in meetings, to promote your ideas, and to present yourself as a professional. Speaking skills can also help you excel in job interviews.

After speaking at a few events, people will remember you and begin to see you as an authoritative figure on your area of expertise. You’ll find yourself getting new client and business from people who watched you speak. All sorts of new business and speaking opportunities will open up for you.

2. Boost confidence

Public speaking can significantly boost your confidence. Overcoming the fears and insecurities that accompany public speaking is empowering. Furthermore, connecting with audiences can be a strong reminder that you have valuable insights and opinions to share with the world.

Your confidence levels will grow as you go from speaking to small groups of people up to large audiences. This will benefit you not just on stage, but in everyday life as well, whether it be in a meeting or on a date.

A study by North Carolina Cooperative Extension of people aged 9 to 18 who participated in a public speaking program found that public speaking increased confidence. The study found that meeting a goal was an important factor when it came to increasing the students confidence.

While the nervousness that comes with speaking in front of a crowd won’t entirely disappear, it will teach you how to deal with your fears and turn your weakness into strength.

3. Critical thinking

Public speaking is an excellent way to build critical thinking skills. Writing a speech requires a great deal of careful thought, from the audience analysis to the closing sentence. It's not enough to have a message, you also need to figure out how to tailor the message to fit the needs of your audience.

How can you make your points relevant to your listeners? How can you help the audience understand your views? If you start thinking critically about your speaking style, you may find ways to improve your general communication style at home and at work.

4. Personal development

Communication skills are crucial for personal and professional success and improving this area is one of the greatest benefits of public speaking. Preparing a speech forces speakers to take a step back and think critically about effective ways to communicate. In everyday life, it’s easy to fall back on communication habits we formed many years ago.

5. Improve communication skills

When you write a speech, you have to think carefully about the best framework, persuasive strategy, and diction to communicate your message to the audience. This type of thinking can help you improve your communication skills in other areas of your life.

Personal relationships, social interactions and work situations require you to communicate ideas to other people. Public speaking focuses on communicating ideas. You can learn to calmly take up an opposing view, to present your ideas in an organized and coherent manner, and to defend your views to others.

6. Make new social connections🆗🆗🆗

Public speaking engagements are good places to meet other people who share your interests. You’ll find that people approach you after your presentation to engage in conversation. It makes it much easier to make new social connections. Try to mingle with the audience for as long as you can after your speech, answering questions and seeking fresh perspectives on your topic.

Give audience members the option of getting in touch with you at a later date by listing contact information on handouts or slides. If you have a website, direct audience members to find more information there.

If you are part of a speaking line-up, reach out to your fellow presenters. Congratulate them or, if you miss a talk, ask how it went. There are lots of opportunities for networking in the realm of public speaking, so plan ahead and make connection.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wwOkvkWb-mw&t=11s

2022-09-24T02:48:00.005-07:00

What Is a Blog? Definition, Blog Types, and Benefits Explained

Many people look for ways to expand their online presence and while one of the most popular strategies is launching a blog, not everyone knows what is a blog and how to start one.

When blogs first emerged around 1994, people used them mainly to share their personal lives, including their experiences and interests. Now, blogs have become an essential online marketing strategy for businesses and one of the most profitable career choices for individuals.

The interface of blogs has changed significantly over time. Bloggers can now integrate various widgets and plugins into their platforms, such as a social media feed, a contact form, or an author profile.

In this article, you’ll learn what makes a blog different from a regular website. We’ll also discuss common blog types and the necessary components such as a hosting plan to start your own blog.

What Is a Blog?
What Is a Blog Used For?
- To Educate Others and Build Online Presence
- To Help a Business With Brand Awareness
- To Promote Programs And Attract Visitors
What Makes a Great Blog?
7 Types of Blogs
What Is the Difference Between a Blog and a Website?
What Is the Difference Between a Blog and a Wiki?
Why Do You Need Your Own Blog?
How Do Bloggers Get Paid?
What Do You Need to Start a Blog?
Conclusion
What Is a Blog FAQ
- What Is Blogging?
- What Is a Blogger?
- What Is a Blog Post?
- How Do You Write a Blog Post?
- Where Do I Find Blog Content Ideas?
- How Much Does It Cost to Start a Blog?
- Was this tutorial helpful?

What Is a Blog?

A blog (short for “weblog”) is an online journal or informational website run by an individual, group, or corporation that offers regularly updated content (blog post) about a topic. It presents information in reverse chronological order and it’s written in an informal or conversational style

What Is a Blog Used For?

When blogs first appeared on the world wide web, their goal was mainly personal use, such as sharing stories, interests, and thoughts. We will take a look at the most common uses for a blog:

To Educate Others and Build Online Presence

While a blog’s function remains the same, the type of content is more diverse. While many blogs still work like online diaries, some have started blogging to educate others on a specific subject or to build a professional online presence.

For example, David Winer – author of one of the longest-running blogs, Scripting News – publishes essays on software development, technology trends, and daily life on his personal web pages.

On the other hand, Natasha Kravchuk shares recipes and tutorials on using specific kitchen tools on her food blog, Natasha’s Kitchen. Her blog is a go-to resource for recipes, including holiday and vegetarian options.

As previously mentioned, blogging has also become a profitable career choice, especially during the pandemic. In fact, over 50% of blogs gained traffic, and about 35% of bloggers increased their revenue in this period.

To Help a Business With Brand Awareness

Many organizations and businesses use blogs as part of their content marketing strategies to boost brand awareness and increase conversions.

A business’s blog content usually focuses on industry-related information that may interest its target market. Often, a team of writers runs the blog instead of a single admin.

Take a look at Evernote’s corporate blog. It shares tips on productivity and organization, as well as how its products help optimize these processes. The brand also uses its blog to share feature and company.

To Promote Programs And Attract Visitors

For instance, many businesses create blogs to promote their programs in the hope of attracting more visitors and leads. We see this often with educational institutions where they try to attract more students to enroll in their programs.

UCLA’s Bruin Blog is an excellent example of this practice. It tells the stories of students from different backgrounds and majors and shows how life is on campus, including events and student organizations. So people who visit their blog are compelled to enroll and join their program.

What Makes a Great Blog?

If you plan to create your own blog, it is helpful to know what makes an excellent one in the first place. Typically, you can expect to find the following elements in successful blogs:

High-quality blog content. The content should demonstrate expertise, authoritativeness, and trustworthiness (EAT). It is also important to use easy-to-understand language and formatting to make the blog post digestible.
Inviting headlines. These reveal what the content is about and help attract visitors to the content, as around 80% of people will click search engine results if the headlines are compelling.
Regularly-updated content. A regular publishing schedule helps people know when to visit the blog for new content. Search engines also prioritize fresh and up-to-date content, helping increase rankings and website traffic.

Expert's Tip

You should try to write content at least three times a week and eventually move up to once a day. Also, consider posting in the mornings – according to your target audience’s time zone – as it helps encourage email traffic and social shares.

Neil P.

Digital Marketing Expert and Entrepreneur

Active reader engagement. It refers to any type of action readers take when visiting a blog, such as reading the article from start to finish, leaving comments, and sharing the blog post on their social media profiles.
Good user interface (UI). A blog needs an aesthetically pleasing web design to make a memorable first impression, including layout, typography, and icons. Blogger owners also have to ensure that the design is simple, intuitive, and consistent throughout the entire blog.
Smooth user experience (UX). Other than attractive design, great blogs generally have a seamless page experience as it is an important element in blog search engine optimization (SEO). It includes mobile friendliness, HTTPS, and loading speed.

Take a look at the Six-Two travel blog. It features complete travel guides, from tips on different places to inspirational stories from travelers.

It also has a good balance of UI and UX design principles. Six-Two organizes the content on a grid layout while keeping the color scheme simple, giving it a captivating look yet uncluttered interface. The blog also loads fast and is mobile-friendly.

For business blogs, a call to action (CTA) is an additional key element. It guides visitors to a preferred action after reading the posts and helps convert traffic to high-quality leads.

Take a look at the 99designs blog. It directs visitors to use its services by adding a CTA button to the header and at the end of each blog post.

Another excellent place to put a CTA is in the sidebar directing readers to download its free app.

With more than 600 million blogs, it is also important to identify and work on what makes you unique to increase visibility and build a successful blog.

Expert's Tip

One primary strategy to make your blog stand out is creating a personal touch. Share stories and personal experiences, respond to comments, and let people know that you are there to help. Creating personal touches also helps people notice that your blog is not like the others.

Neil P.

Digital Marketing Expert and Entrepreneur

Besides sharing personal stories, make the blog unique by experimenting with designing the website. For example, Social Media Examiner created a jungle theme and mascots for its blog, while the Dropbox blog uses charming illustrations for its featured images.

7 Types of Blogs

Now that you have learned the definition of blogging and what makes a blog successful, let’s discuss the seven common types of blogs.

Personal blog. This type of blog usually works like an online diary where the blogger shares opinions, often not aiming to reach a target audience or sell an item. Personal blogs can discuss various subjects, from family events and self-reflection to work projects.
Niche blog. Provides information on a particular topic, usually related to the blogger’s passions, skills, and knowledge. Examples of this blog type include book blogs, food blogs, and lifestyle blogs.
Multimedia blog. It uses a blog format but publishes multimedia content, like videos and podcasts, instead of written posts. It also usually includes the video or podcast’s summary, table of contents, and essential quotes.
News blog. Content on this blog focuses on the latest happenings and new releases in a specific industry. Unlike other blogs, news blogs typically do not usually include opinions or personal content.
Company or business blog. Its primary purpose is publishing content relevant to a company’s industry or updating the target market regarding any changes within its business. It may be a section on a company website or an independent site.
Affiliate blog. A blog based on affiliate marketing News blog – the practice of promoting a third party’s products and services. Affiliate blog owners will receive a commission when someone purchases from their custom links. Typical articles on this blog include product reviews and “best-of” listicles.
Reverse blog. Also known as group blogs, multiple authors create blog posts on related topics and the blog owner is the one who proofreads and posts content.

Some blogs focus on a specific category, but it is also possible for a blog to combine several types. For instance, Caitlin da Silva’s personal blog contains posts with affiliate links and multimedia content.

For inspiration, check our comprehensive list of blog examples covering the best blogs from various niches, including finance and travel blogs.

What Is the Difference Between a Blog and a Website?

Blogs work to present fresh content – content that is updated frequently. Meanwhile, traditional websites provide static information about a person, group, or subject.

Reedsy is an example of an otherwise static website that contains a blog section.

The main content consists of web pages that inform visitors about the company’s writing and editing services, which remain unchanged for a long time.

Meanwhile, the blog section has new blog posts added every few days to educate readers about book writing and publishing. The blog automatically offers more frequent updates than the other sections, like the About and Apps pages.

Blog posts usually have a comment section where the readers and author engage – a great way to gain feedback and foster a personal relationship with visitors.

However, a comment section is uncommon for a typical web page as it does not generally encourage audience engagement.

Blogs also often have a built-in Really Simple Syndication (RSS feed), a link that sends content to a web browser or feed reader app like Google Reader.

Visitors can subscribe to your blog’s RSS feed and get updates whenever you publish a blog post. Digital marketers often connect their blog’s RSS feed to web push notifications or email newsletters to inform subscribers about recent posts and product announcements.

Many blogs are also independent – making up an entire website and displaying the posts directly on the homepage, like Ann Althouse’s blog, Althouse.

What Is the Difference Between a Blog and a Wiki?

A blog is usually created and owned by an individual or organization to share information. It can have a single writer or many blog authors.

In comparison, a wiki is a collaborative website where many people can add, modify, and publish content.

Blog post timelines and comments are generally important to indicate the most recent updates.

Meanwhile, an article’s publication date in a wiki matters less as these are constantly updated once new information is available.

Compared to blog posts, which often value credits, creating and editing content in a wiki is mostly anonymous. Here, the information is the focus, not necessarily the contributors.

Wikipedia is one of the most famous examples of a wiki. The site is written and maintained by volunteers worldwide. Content editing is open for everyone, but creating an account is necessary to start new pages and upload images.

Why Do You Need Your Own Blog?

For personal use, blogging is a great way to express thoughts and opinions, while businesses can create a blog to educate their target audience.

Moreover, now everyone can start a blog. Unlike the early days of blogging that required coding skills to even update a blog post, people can now use blogging software such as WordPress, Blogger, and Zyro. It lets people create a blog within minutes without worrying about technical complexities.

However, to become successful bloggers, owners need to identify the reasons and purposes for maintaining their blogs.

Here are six reasons to start blogging:

Share your knowledge. Many people blog to share their experiences without having to depend on journalists or media companies. When people have their own blogs, they get to control the style, language, and information.
Establish a personal brand. A blog is a great platform to demonstrate your skills and knowledge, helping you make a good impression on employers and stand out from the crowd. In fact, many professionals today have succeeded in landing jobs thanks to blogging.
Make money. Making money blogging is possible for most blogs, especially those with a huge reader base. Blog owners can create sponsored blog posts, display ads, or sell their own products and services.
Improve a website’s online visibility. Websites with a blog have 434% more indexed pages in search engines, increasing the chances of ranking higher in search results. Also, it will help people find your content easily when searching for your name or brand online.
Acquire new customers. After reaching top rankings, a blog with relevant content can eventually bring more traffic and leads, as 81% of shoppers conduct research online before making a purchase.
Build an online community. Blogs provide a forum where visitors can comment and interact with the authors.

How Do Bloggers Get Paid?

Bloggers’ earnings depend on their traffic and monetization methods. Generally, blogs with hundreds of thousands of web page views have an easier time generating revenue by selling products or displaying pay-per-click (PPC) ads.

Bloggers can also encourage readers to buy products using their affiliate links and work with brands for sponsored posts.

For instance, Jeremy’s travel blog, Living the Dream, made $4,825 in January 2022. On the other hand, Adam Enfroy generated around $67,000/month in 2020, an outstanding amount for a blogging business.

Those who want to start a blog and make money have to focus on building their audience first to generate a stable income.

Picking a profitable niche is also important if you aim to make blogging your career choice. Profitable niches offer better opportunities, such as high-paying affiliate offers and ads from paid advertising networks.

Choosing a niche based on a passion sometimes does not equal consistent profit. For example, travel bloggers might experience traffic and revenue drops due to travel restrictions.

Some of the top profitable niches are:

Insurance. It is the highest paying niche with an average CPC of $17.55 in several countries like the United States, Australia, and Canada. Popular keywords within this niche include life, car, and health insurance.
Online education. Flexibility and convenience are the primary reasons people choose online education. In fact, the eLearning market size is estimated to surpass $243 billion in 2022.
Digital marketing and advertising. The digital marketing industry has grown outstandingly during the pandemic. Take advantage of this high-demand topic to post content on social media marketing and brand management.
Personal finance. Money is an evergreen blogging niche. In addition to writing blog posts on money management and investment, bloggers can sell online courses, eBooks, and finance consulting services.
Lifestyle and wellness. Some of the top categories within lifestyle blogs include personal care, wellbeing, and fitness.

Expert's Tip

I would first stick with a subtopic then grow into a bigger, broader topic over time. This is because when you cover a niche topic, you’re building a brand – an authority within that space. Once you build enough authority, you can expand into a broader topic.

Neil P.

Digital Marketing Expert and Entrepreneur

Once you’re ready to monetize your blog, include contact information like an email address and social media profiles on the blog’s Contact page to help potential clients reach you.

What Do You Need to Start a Blog?

Now that we covered the basic concept of blogging – from what is a blog to benefits and types, it is time to discuss the essential elements for creating your first blog.

Six elements to prepare before starting a blog include:

Domain name. It is your blog’s address, like yourblog.com. Ideally, a domain name should represent your business name or the blog’s general topic. Check whether the name is available using our domain name search tool. If you are still unsure about naming your blog, use blog name generators to brainstorm options.
Web hosting service. You’ll need hosting to store all blog files, including images and code files, and make them available for internet users. Generally, WordPress hosting is a great solution for a small personal or lifestyle blog, while Cloud web hosting is ideal for heavy-traffic blogs.
Blogging platform. You can set up your blog using a content management system (CMS) like WordPress or a website builder like Zyro. Users who create a WordPress website are usually looking for complete control and extensive customization, while website builder users prefer its quick setup and beginner-friendly interface.

Content writing skills. Writing a blog post is different from writing academic essays or books. Consider joining a free online course like SurferSEO’s SEO Writing Masterclass to develop your content writing and SEO skills.
Theme or template. This is a pre-made web design for your blog. Most CMS platforms and website builders provide free templates, but it is possible to purchase a custom blog theme from a third-party marketplace like ThemeForest or even design it yourself.
Blogging tools. Many tools can help produce better blog posts and manage your blog. For example, use Trello to create an editorial calendar and Yoast SEO to optimize the content for search engines.

Another vital element to start a blog is confidence. Many beginners think they are not experts in the field, which holds them back from sharing content. To overcome this, start by sharing personal experiences and using storytelling.

Expert's Tip

Let’s say you are starting off in a space where you are not an expert. Here, you can talk about your journey, including what you feel, what you like and do not like.
People can follow you on your journey and, as they’re following you, there’s an emotional connection. On top of that, you are learning and improving yourself, which eventually leads you to an expert position.

Neil P.

Digital Marketing Expert and Entrepreneur

Conclusion

Creating a blog has many advantages. It can help individuals build a personal brand and generate an extra or full-time income.

If you plan to blog as a way to make money online, consider picking a profitable niche to maximize the opportunities for better-paying sponsored posts or affiliate offers.

Business owners also create blogs to improve their website rankings on search engines, attract customers, and develop a loyal online community.

Whatever your purpose is, great blogs don’t focus on simply publishing content. It is essential to consider its quality, consistency, and overall web design.

If you want to create your first blog, ensure that you purchase a suitable domain name and the best hosting plan for you. Then, select a blogging platform and develop your content writing skills by joining online courses.

What Is a Blog FAQ

This section answers the three most common questions that beginner bloggers have about the basics of blogging.

What Is Blogging?

Blogging refers to the process of managing a blog, from idea generation to the publishing process. It includes the necessary tasks people need to run a blog, such as writing a blog post, promoting it, and practicing link-building strategies.

What Is a Blogger?

A blogger is the blog owner or person who maintains and runs the blog. Bloggers also foster relationships with their readers and other bloggers by encouraging online conversations in the comment section.

What Is a Blog Post?

Blog posts are, most commonly, pieces of writing published on a blog. Blog posts can also include other forms of content, like images, forms, and videos.

How Do You Write a Blog Post?

The initial step when writing a blog post is to choose a topic. Conduct keyword research using a tool like Keyword Tool or AnswerThePublic. Decide on a blog post format and create an outline. Once you have a clear idea of the structure of the post, it’s writing time.

Where Do I Find Blog Content Ideas?

Check what your target audience is searching for, as well as what other websites are writing about using analysis tools like Buzzsumo Trending or Alexa’s Competitor Keyword Matrix. You can also go to Quora, social media platforms, search engines, and mainstream media to look for blog ideas.

How Much Does It Cost to Start a Blog?

The cost of a website or a blog in general ranges from $100 to several thousand dollars a year. The cost varies for each blog depending on multiple factors, like design, hosting, plugins, and tools used. Consider using a hosting service that offers a free domain name to save money.

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Patient information: Anaphylaxis symptoms and diagnosis

2010-08-12T09:54:00.000-07:00

ANAPHYLAXIS OVERVIEW — Anaphylaxis is a potentially deadly allergic reaction that is rapid in onset. It is most often triggered by foods, medications, and insect stings. There are many other possible triggers.

Anaphylaxis is an unpredictable condition. Many people who experience it have a known allergy and some have had one or more milder allergic reactions previously. Others, who are not even aware that they have an allergy, can suddenly experience severe anaphylaxis. Even the first episode of anaphylaxis can be fatal.

The severity of anaphylactic reactions can be minimized by recognizing the symptoms early, having proper medication available for self-treatment, and seeking emergency medical care promptly. This topic reviews the symptoms and diagnosis of anaphylaxis. Treatment and prevention of anaphylaxis are discussed separately. A separate topic discusses how to use an epinephrine autoinjector. (See "Patient information: Anaphylaxis treatment and prevention" and see "Patient information: Use of an epinephrine autoinjector").

ANAPHYLAXIS SYMPTOMS — Symptoms of anaphylaxis generally begin within minutes to an hour of exposure to a trigger. Less commonly, symptoms do not develop for several hours.

The most common symptoms of anaphylaxis are hives (urticaria) and swelling of the skin (angioedema), which occur in 80 to 90 percent of reactions. Respiratory symptoms occur in about 50 percent of reactions, and are especially common in people who also have asthma or another chronic respiratory disease. Extremely low blood pressure, causing lightheadedness, dizziness, blurred vision, or loss of consciousness (passing out) occurs in about 30 percent of reactions.

Anaphylaxis can cause symptoms throughout the body: Skin: Itching, flushing, hives (urticaria), or swelling (angioedema) Eyes: Itching, tearing, redness, or swelling of the skin around the eyes Nose and mouth: Sneezing, runny nose, nasal congestion, swelling of the tongue, or a metallic taste Lungs and throat: Difficulty getting air in or out, repeated coughing, chest tightness, wheezing or other sounds of labored breathing, increased mucus production, throat swelling or itching, hoarseness, change in voice, or a sensation of choking Heart and circulation: Dizziness, weakness, fainting, rapid, slow, or irregular heart rate, or low blood pressure Digestive system: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, or diarrhea Nervous system: Anxiety, confusion, or a sense of impending doom

A severe form of anaphylaxis causes sudden collapse without other obvious symptoms, such as hives or flushing. This form of anaphylaxis occurs most commonly after a person is given a medication into a vein or is stung by an insect.

Up to 20 percent of people with anaphylaxis have biphasic (two-phase) or protracted (prolonged) anaphylaxis. A person with biphasic anaphylaxis has a reaction that resolves and then recurs hours later without further exposure to the trigger. The late phase reaction usually occurs within eight hours, but may occur up to 72 hours after the initial symptoms. A person with protracted anaphylaxis has signs and symptoms that persist for hours or even days despite treatment, although this is rare.

ANAPHYLAXIS TRIGGERS — The trigger for a person's anaphylaxis may be obvious or it may be difficult to identify.

Common anaphylaxis triggers can include: Foods: In children, hen's eggs, cow's milk, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, wheat, and soy are the most common food triggers.

In teens and adults, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and crustaceans (shellfish such as shrimp) are the most common triggers.

Any food, including fruits and vegetables, and some spices and food additives, can cause anaphylaxis. Medications, especially certain antibiotics (such as penicillin or amoxicillin), medications for pain and fever (such as aspirin or ibuprofen), some x-ray dyes (also called radiocontrast media), and others Venom from insects, including bees, hornets, wasps, and fire ants Latex from natural rubber, found in some latex gloves, balloons, condoms, sports equipment, and medical products Allergen immunotherapy ("allergy shots"), such as those given for the treatment of allergic rhinitis (hay fever) Exercise, either by itself, or after eating certain foods (eg, wheat, celery, seafood), medications (eg, aspirin), or exposure to cold air/water Less common triggers include exposure to airborne allergens (such as horse dander), human seminal fluid, and cold temperatures.

Sometimes a specific trigger cannot be identified, even after a thorough evaluation. This condition is called idiopathic anaphylaxis. (See "Patient information: Anaphylaxis treatment and prevention").

IgE mediated anaphylaxis — In most people, anaphylaxis is caused by the presence of proteins called immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies. IgE antibodies are normally produced in the body for the purpose of fighting certain infections. In people with allergies, however, IgE is made in response to non-infectious substances, such as foods, medications, or insect venoms. This IgE then sticks to the outside of mast cells and basophils, a type of white blood cell.

If a person with IgE antibodies to a specific allergen is exposed to that allergen again, the cells may suddenly become activated. The activated cells release large amounts of inflammation-causing chemicals (including histamine) into the blood stream, causing anaphylaxis.

The chemicals released from the cells cause the signs and symptoms typical of anaphylaxis. (See "Anaphylaxis symptoms" above). The allergic reaction can be so strong that it becomes life-threatening; for example, sudden severe swelling in the throat can lead to suffocation.

In some people with anaphylaxis, the reaction is caused by a process that does not involve allergens and IgE. However, the symptoms and treatment are the same.

ANAPHYLAXIS RISK FACTORS — Some people are more likely than others to experience anaphylaxis or to develop severe symptoms during anaphylaxis, for example, those who have one or more of the following: Previous sudden severe allergic reaction involving the whole body — People who have had allergic reactions to a particular substance in the past are at increased risk of anaphylaxis. However, the severity of past allergic reactions does not reliably predict the severity of future reactions; people with mild reactions in the past may experience severe anaphylactic reactions in the future. Asthma — People with asthma are more likely to have more severe respiratory problems during anaphylaxis. The combination of food allergy (especially to peanuts and tree nuts) and asthma seems to put people at risk for life-threatening episodes of anaphylaxis. Other diseases — People with chronic lung disease, especially older adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or emphysema, are at increased risk of complications during an anaphylactic reaction. People with coronary artery disease and other heart diseases are also at greater risk of developing complications during an anaphylactic reaction.

ANAPHYLAXIS DIAGNOSIS — The diagnosis of anaphylaxis is based upon symptoms that occur suddenly after being exposed to a potential trigger, such as a food, medication, or insect sting.

Is it anaphylaxis or another problem? — A number of other heath problems can cause symptoms that are similar to those of anaphylaxis. These include a severe asthma attack, a heart attack, a panic attack, or even food poisoning. Evaluation by a specialist can help to clarify the diagnosis.

Tryptase is a protein that is released into the blood during an anaphylactic reaction. An increased amount of tryptase can sometimes be measured in a blood sample collected during the first three hours after anaphylaxis symptoms have begun. Unfortunately, tryptase levels are normal in many people with anaphylactic reactions. For example, it is seldom elevated in food-induced anaphylaxis

Patient information: Allergy to penicillin and related antibiotics

2010-08-12T09:46:00.000-07:00

PENICILLIN ALLERGY OVERVIEW — Serious allergies to penicillin are common, with about 10 percent of people reporting an allergy. However, about 90 percent of people who believe they are allergic can take penicillin without a problem, either because they were never truly allergic or because their allergy to penicillin diminished and resolved over time.

People who have a remote history of allergic reaction to a medication may become less allergic as time passes. Only about 20 percent of people will be allergic to penicillin 10 years after their initial allergic reaction if they are not exposed to it again during this time period.

WHAT IS PENICILLIN? — Penicillin is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics. It is part of a family of antibiotics known as beta lactams. Penicillins can be classified into the following categories: Penicillin G (also known as benzylpenicillin) Anti-staphylococcal penicillins (nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin and dicloxacillin) Broad spectrum penicillins

- Second generation (ampicillin, amoxicillin and related agents)
- Third generation (carbenicillin and ticarcillin)
- Fourth generation (piperacillin)

Anyone who is allergic to one of the penicillins is allergic to all penicillins. One of the major differences among the penicillins is the range of bacteria against which they are active. Penicillin G and the anti-staphylococcal penicillins treat a small number of specific bacteria. On the other hand, the second, third, and fourth generation penicillins are capable of treating a wide range of bacteria, and are therefore called "broad spectrum".

REACTIONS TO PENICILLIN — A variety of unexpected reactions can occur after taking penicillin.

Adverse reactions — "Adverse reaction" is the medical term for any undesirable reaction caused by a medication. Allergic adverse reactions are less common than non-allergic adverse reactions. Stomach upset and diarrhea are examples of non-allergic adverse reactions.

It is important to distinguish non-allergic adverse reactions from true allergic reactions. Some people report that they are allergic to penicillin when actually they have had a non-allergic side effect. As a result, the person may be treated for a particular infection with a less-effective or more toxic antibiotic. This can lead to antibiotic failure or resistance, which can be costly and prolong illness.

When reporting past problems with antibiotics, it is important to provide as much detail as possible about the reaction. Anyone who is uncertain if a past allergic reaction was truly caused by allergy should avoid the antibiotic until they have discussed the situation with their healthcare provider.

Rashes — Several different types of rashes can appear while people are taking penicillin. Rashes that involve hives (raised, intensely itchy spots that come and go over hours, show picture 1) suggest a true allergy.

However, some people, especially young children, can develop flat, blotchy rashes that spread over days but do not change by the hour (show picture 2). These rashes typically start after several days of treatment. This type of rash is less likely to indicate a dangerous allergy, although it can be difficult to distinguish between different types of rashes that occurred in the past. Taking a photograph of a rash is always helpful.

Allergic reactions — An allergic reaction occurs when the immune system begins to recognize a drug as something "foreign". Several different symptoms can indicate that a person is allergic to penicillin. These include hives (raised, intensely itchy spots that come and go over hours) (show picture 1), angioedema (swelling of the tissue under the skin, commonly around the face), wheezing and coughing from asthma-like reactions (narrowing of the airways into the lungs).

A past history of these types of reactions is important because the person might develop a more severe reaction, such as anaphylaxis, if they were to take the antibiotic again. Mild to moderate allergic reactions to penicillins are common, occurring in 1 to 5 percent of people.

Anaphylaxis — Anaphylaxis is a sudden, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction. Symptoms include those of an allergic reaction, as well as very low blood pressure, difficulty breathing, abdominal pain, swelling of the throat or tongue, and/or diarrhea or vomiting. Fortunately, anaphylaxis is uncommon. (See "Patient information: Anaphylaxis symptoms and diagnosis").

PENICILLIN ALLERGY TESTING — In some situations, it is necessary to determine with certainty if a person is allergic to penicillin. Testing for allergy is recommended in the following situations: People who have a suspected penicillin (or closely related antibiotic) allergy and require penicillin to treat a life-threatening condition for which no alternate antibiotic is appropriate. People who have frequent infections but have suspected allergies to many antibiotics, leaving few options for treatment. Penicillin skin testing is suggested for anyone with a history of penicillin allergy (when penicillin skin test solutions become commercially available again). Because 90 percent of people will test negative, this type of evaluation can decrease medical costs and reduce the use of unnecessarily strong (ie, broad-spectrum) antibiotics.

Penicillin skin testing does not provide any information about certain types of reactions. This includes anyone who has experienced a severe reaction with extensive blistering and peeling of the skin (Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis), a widespread sunburn-like reaction that later peeled (erythroderma), or a rash composed of small bulls-eyes or target-like spots (erythema multiforme),
People with these types of reactions should never again be given the medication that caused the reaction. This applies to all situations since a second exposure could cause a severe progressive reaction and even death.

Skin testing — Skin testing is the most reliable method to determine the risk of a serious, sudden onset allergic reaction in a person with a history of allergy to penicillin.

Several different types of penicillin preparations are required for skin testing. These preparations can be manufactured commercially but are not currently available in the United States. Thus, the most reliable type of skin testing for penicillin allergy cannot be performed in the United States at this time. It is expected that the preparations will be available again within the next 12 to 24 months.

Until skin tests are available, options for people who may be allergic to penicillin include: Take an different antibiotic Undergo a challenge test (See "Challenge testing" below) Undergo desensitization (See "Penicillin desensitization" below)

Skin testing procedure — Skin testing should be done by an allergist in an office or hospital setting. Testing usually takes less than one hour to complete. The skin is pricked with weak solutions of the various preparations of penicillin and observed for a reaction. This may cause discomfort due to itching, but it is not painful. If there is no skin reaction, slightly stronger solutions are then used.

A positive skin reaction is an itchy, red bump that lasts about half an hour and then resolves. The testing is stopped if a skin reaction occurs since this indicates that the person is truly allergic.

If the patient completes the skin testing without a positive reaction, a single oral dose of full strength penicillin is commonly given. This confirms that the patient does not have an allergy to the medication. The oral dose is given since there is a very small risk of false negative results (when the skin test is negative although the person is actually allergic).

Interpreting results — Medical tests, including skin testing, are rarely 100 percent accurate. Most people with a positive penicillin skin test will experience an allergic reaction if given penicillin or a related antibiotic (as would be expected). However, 3 percent or less of people with a history of penicillin allergy and a negative skin test will experience an allergic reaction. These reactions are always mild, and anaphylaxis in this situation is rare.

If a person has a negative skin test and has no reaction to an oral dose of the antibiotic, no future precautions are necessary.

Challenge testing — Because skin testing is not currently available in many places, a healthcare provider may recommend a challenge test. However, this is only recommended if the person requires penicillin, no other antibiotic is available, and the chances of a true allergy are small (eg, last reaction was at least 10 years ago or allergic reaction symptoms not likely caused by true allergy). If the chances of a true allergy are high, desensitization is generally recommended.

Challenge testing is usually done in an office setting, starting with a very small dose of the antibiotic given by mouth. If the person tolerates the smallest dose, a larger dose is given every 30 to 60 minutes until he/she has signs of an allergic reaction or the full dose is given. If the person tolerates the full dose, he or she is not allergic to the antibiotic.

PENICILLIN DESENSITIZATION — Desensitization can be done for people who are truly allergic to penicillin but require treatment with it or a closely related antibiotic. Desensitization refers to a process of giving a medication in a controlled and gradual manner, which allows the person to tolerate it temporarily without an allergic reaction.

Technique — Desensitization can be performed with oral or intravenous medications, but should always be performed by an allergy specialist. There are different techniques for desensitization. Some patients undergo desensitization in an outpatient clinic under supervision while others are treated in an intensive care unit.

Limitations — While usually successful, desensitization has two important limitations. Desensitization does not work and must never be attempted for certain types of reactions (Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, erythroderma, and erythema multiforme). Desensitization also does not work for other types of immunologic reactions to antibiotics, such as serum sickness, drug fever, or hemolytic anemia. Desensitization is temporary. A person is unlikely to have an allergic reaction to the medication during treatment, after undergoing desensitization, as long as the antibiotic is taken regularly. However, once the antibiotic is stopped for more than 24 hours (times differ slightly for different medications), the person is again at risk for a sudden allergic reaction. Repeat desensitization is required if the same medication is needed again.

OTHER ANTIBIOTIC ALLERGIES — Reliable skin tests are not commercially available for some antibiotics. Thus, determining if a person has an allergy to these antibiotics is more difficult, and is mostly based on the history of the reaction. Skin testing with other antibiotics is sometimes performed, but the results are much less certain than those of penicillin testing.

Cephalosporins — Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics closely related to penicillin. There are a number of cephalosporin medications available, a few of which include cephalexin (Keflex®), cefaclor (Ceclor®), cefuroxime (Ceftin®), cefadroxil (Duricef®) , cephradine (Velocef®). cefprozil (Cefzil®), loracarbef (Lorabid®), ceftibuten (Cedax®), cefdinir (Omnicef®), cefditoren (Spectracef®), cefpodoxime (Vantin®) and cefixime (Suprax®).

People with a history of penicillin allergy have a small risk of having an allergic reaction to cephalosporins. If possible, penicillin skin testing should be performed in these individuals. Since testing will be negative in about 90 percent of these people, a negative test will allow them to take cephalosporins safely. People with a positive skin test to penicillin have a small risk of an allergic reaction to cephalosporins and may require more caution in terms of how the cephalosporin is administered.

Allergic reactions to cephalosporins are less common than reactions to penicillin. In addition, skin testing to evaluate cephalosporin allergy is not as accurate as penicillin skin testing. If a cephalosporin is required, then there are several options: Take an different antibiotic Undergo a challenge test (See "Challenge testing" above) Undergo desensitization (See "Penicillin desensitization" above)

WHERE TO GET MORE INFORMATION — Your healthcare provider is the best source of information for questions and concerns related to your medical problem. Because no two people are exactly alike and recommendations can vary from one person to another, it is important to seek guidance from a provider who is familiar with your individual situation.

This discussion will be updated as needed every four months on our web site (www.uptodate.com/patients). Additional topics as well as selected discussions written for healthcare professionals are also available for those who would like more detailed information.

Some of the most pertinent include:

Barbados Cherry

2010-08-02T23:22:00.001-07:00

The Barbados cherry, a member of the Malpighiaceae, is an interesting example of a fruit that rose, like Cinderella, from relative obscurity about 40 years ago. It was at that time the subject of much taxonomic confusion, having been described and discussed previously under the binomial Malpighia glabra L., which properly belongs to a wild relative inhabiting the West Indies, tropical America and the lowlands of Mexico to southern Texas, and having smaller, pointed leaves, smaller flowers in peduncled umbels, styles nearly equal, and smaller fruits. M. Punicifolia L. (M. glabra Millsp. NOT Linn.) has been generally approved as the correct botanical name for the Barbados cherry, which is also called West Indian cherry, native cherry, garden cherry, French cherry; in Spanish, acerola, cereza, cereza colorada, cereza de la sabana, or grosella; in French, cerisier, cerise de St. Domingue; in Portuguese, cerejeira. The name in Venezuela is semeruco, or cemeruco; in the Netherlands Antilles, shimarucu; in the Philippines, malpi (an abbreviation of the generic name).

Plate XXV: BARBADOS CHERRY, Malpighia punicifolia

Description

The Barbados cherry is a large, bushy shrub or small tree attaining up to 20 ft (6 m) in height and an equal breadth; with more or less erect or spreading and drooping, minutely hairy branches, and a short trunk to 4 in (10 cm) in diameter. Its evergreen leaves are elliptic, oblong, obovate, or narrowly oblanceolate, somewhat wavy, 3/4 to 2 3/4 in (2-7 cm) long, 3/8 to 1 5/8 in (9.5-40 mm) wide, obtuse or rounded at the apex, acute or cuneate at the base; bearing white, silky, irritating hairs when very young; hairless, dark green, and glossy when mature. The flowers, in sessile or short-peduncled cymes, have 5 pink or lavender, spoon-shaped, fringed petals. The fruits, borne singly or in 2's or 3's in the leaf axils, are oblate to round, cherry-like but more or less obviously 3-lobed; 1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) wide; bright-red, with thin, glossy skin and orange-colored, very juicy, acid to subacid, pulp. The 3 small, rounded seeds each have 2 large and 1 small fluted wings, thus forming what are generally conceived to be 3 triangular, yellowish, leathery-coated, corrugated inedible "stones".

Origin and Distribution

The Barbados cherry is native to the Lesser Antilles from St. Croix to Trinidad, also Curacao and Margarita and neighboring northern South America as far south as Brazil. It has become naturalized in Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico after cultivation, and is commonly grown in dooryards in the Bahamas and Bermuda, and to some extent in Central and South America.

The plant is thought to have been first brought to Florida from Cuba by Pliny Reasoner because it appeared in the catalog of the Royal Palm Nursery for 1887-1888. It was carried abroad rather early for it is known to have borne fruit for the first time in the Philippines in 1916. In 1917, H.M. Curran brought seeds from Curacao to the United States Department of Agriculture. (S.P.I. #44458). The plant was casually grown in southern and central Florida until after World War II when it became more commonly planted. In Puerto Rico, just prior to that war, the Federal Soil Conservation Department planted Barbados cherry trees to control erosion on terraces at the Rio Piedras Experiment Station. During the war, 312 seedlings from the trees with the largest and most agreeably-flavored fruits were distributed to families to raise in their Victory Gardens. Later, several thousand trees were provided for planting in school yards to increase the vitamin intake of children, who are naturally partial to the fruits.

An explosion of interest occurred as a result of some food analyses being conducted at the School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras in 1945. The emblic (Emblica officinalis L.) was found to be extremely high in ascorbic acid. This inspired one of the laboratory assistants to bring in some Barbados cherries which the local people were accustomed to eating when they had colds. These fruits were found to contain far more ascorbic acid than the emblic, and, because of their attractiveness and superior eating quality, interest quickly switched from the emblic to the Barbados cherry. Much publicity ensued, featuring the fruit under the Puerto Rican name of acerola. A plantation of 400 trees was established at Rio Piedras in 1947 and, from 1951 to 1953, 238 trees were set out at the Isabela Substation. By 1954, there were 30,000 trees in commercial groves on the island. Several plantings had been made in Florida and a 2,000-acre (833-ha) plantation in Hawaii. There was a great flurry of activity. Horticulturists were busy making selections of high-ascorbic-acid clones and improving methods of vegetative propagation, and agronomists were studying the effects of cultural practices. Smaller plantings were being developed in Jamaica, Venezuela, Guatemala, Ghana, India, the Philippines and Queensland, Australia, and even in Israel. Many so-called "natural food" outlets promoted various "vitamin C" products from the fruits–powder, tablets, capsules, juice, sirup.

At length, enthusiasm subsided when it was realized that a fruit could not become a superstar because of its ascorbic acid content alone; that ascorbic acid from a natural source could not economically compete with the much cheaper synthetic product, inasmuch as research proved that the ascorbic acid of the Barbados cherry is metabolized in a manner identical to the assimilation of crystalline ascorbic acid.

The large plantation of the Hawaiian Acerola Company (a subsidiary of Nutrilite Products Company) was abandoned for this reason, and low fruit yields; and, so it is said, the low ascorbic acid content because of the high copper levels in the soil. Puerto Rican production was directed thereafter mainly to the use of the fruit in specialty baby foods.

Frozen fruits are shipped to the United States for processing.

Varieties

In 1956, workers at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead, after making preliminary evaluations and selections, chose as superior and named the 'Florida Sweet', a clone that was observed to have an upright habit of growth, large fruits, thick skin, apple-like, semi-sweet flavor, and high yield.

The first promising selections in Puerto Rico, on the bases of fruit size, yield and vitamin content, were identified as 'A-l' and 'B-17', but these were later found to be inferior to 'B-15' in ascorbic acid level and productivity. Yields of 10 clones ('A-l', 'A-2', 'A-4', 'A-10', 'A-21', 'B-2', 'B-9', 'B-15', 'B-17', and 'K-7') were compared over a 2-year period (1955-56) in Puerto Rico and 'B-15' far exceeded the others in both years.

A horticultural variety in St. Croix, formerly known as M. thompsonii Britton & Small, has displayed unusually large leaves and fruits and more abundant flowers than the common strain of Barbados cherry.

Climate

The Barbados cherry can be classed as tropical and subtropical, for mature trees can survive brief exposure to 28º F (-2.22º C). Young plants are killed by any drop below 30º F (-1.11º C). It is naturally adapted to both medium- and low-rainfall regions; can tolerate long periods of drought, though it may not fruit until the coming of rain.

Soil

The tree does well on limestone, marl and clay, as long as they are well drained. The pH should be at least 5.5. Elevation to 6.5 significantly improves root development. Acid soils require the addition of lime to avoid calcium deficiency and increase yield. The lime should be worked into the soil to a depth of 8 in (20 cm) or more.

Propagation

If seeds are used for planting, they should be selected from desirable clones not exposed to cross-pollination by inferior types. They should be cleaned, dried, and dusted with a fungicide. It should also be realized that the seeds in an individual fruit develop unevenly and only those that are fully developed when the fruit is ripe will germinate satisfactorily. Germination rates may be only 50% or as low as 5%. Seedlings should be transferred from flats to containers when 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) high.

Air-layering (in summer) and side-veneer, cleft, or modified crown grafting are feasible but not popular because it is so much easier to raise the tree from cuttings. Cuttings of branches 1/4 to 1/2 in (6-12.5 mm) thick and 8 to 10 in (20-25 cm) long, with 2 or 3 leaves attached, hormone-treated and set in sand or other suitable media under constant or intermittent mist, will root in 60 days. They are then transplanted to nursery rows or containers and held in shade for 6 months or a year before being set out in the field. Some fruits will be borne a year after planting but a good crop cannot be expected until the 3rd or 4th year. The tree will continue bearing well for about 15 years. There is a lapse of only 22 days between flowering and complete fruit maturity.

Grafting is generally practiced only when cuttings of a desired clone are scarce or if a nematode-resistant rootstock is available on which to graft a preferred cultivar; or when top-working a tree that bears fruits of low quality.

Culture

The Barbados cherry tree will grow and fruit fairly well with little care. For best performance, Puerto Rican agronomists have recommended a fertilizer formula of 8-8-13 twice annually for the first 4 years at the rate of 1/2 to 1 lb (0.22-0.45 kg). Older trees should have 3 to 5 lbs (1.35-2.25 kg) per tree. In addition, organic material should be worked into the planting hole and also supplied in amounts of 10 to 20 lbs (4.5-9 kg) per tree. Under Florida conditions, a 10-10-10 formula is given in February, 1 lb (0.22 kg) for each year of growth. In May, July and September, a 4-7-5-3 formula is recommended, 1 lb (0.22 kg) for each year of age up to the 10th year. Thereafter, a 6-4-6-3 mixture is given–5 lbs (2.25 kg) per tree in late winter and 10 lbs (4.5 kg) per tree for each of the summer feedings. On limestone soils, sprays of minor elements–copper, zinc, and sometimes manganese–will enhance growth and productivity. Young trees need regular irrigation until well established; older trees require watering only during droughts. Mature plants will bear better if thinned out by judicious pruning after the late crop and then fertilized once more.

Pollination and Fruit Set

In Florida, bees visit Barbados cherry flowers in great numbers and are the principal pollinators. Maintenance of hives near Barbados cherry trees substantially improves fruit set. In Hawaii, there was found to be very little transport of pollen by wind, and insect pollination is inadequate. Consequently, fruits are often seedless. Investigations have shown that growth regulators (IBA at 100 ppm; PCA at 50 ppm) induce much higher fruit set but these chemicals may be too costly to buy and apply.

Season

In Florida, the Bahamas, Puerto Rico and Hawaii the fruiting season varies with the weather. There may be a spring crop ripening in May and then successive small crops off and on until December, but sometimes, if spring rains are lacking, there may be no fruits at all until December and then a heavy crop. In Zanzibar, the bearing season is said to be just the months of December and January.

Harvesting

For home use, as dessert, the fruits are picked when fully ripe. For processing or preserving, they can be harvested when slightly immature, when they are turning from yellow to red. As there is continuous fruiting over long periods, picking is done every day, every other day, or every 3 days to avoid loss by falling.

The fruits are usually picked manually in the cool of the early morning, and must be handled with care. For immediate processing, some growers shake the tree and allow the ripe fruits to fall onto sheets spread on the ground. Harvested fruits should be kept in the shade until transferred from the field, which ought to be done within 3 hours, and collecting lugs are best covered with heavy canvas to retard loss of ascorbic acid.

Yield

There is great variation in productivity. Individual trees may yield 30 to 62 lbs (13.5-28 kg) in Puerto Rico. In Jamaica, maximum yield in the 6th year is about 80 lbs (36 kg) per tree; 24,000 lbs/acre (24,000 kg/ha). Venezuelan growers have reported 10 to 15 tons/ha; the average in Puerto Rico is 25 tons/ha/yr. 'Florida Sweet' in Florida has yielded 65 tons/ha. A plot of 300 trees of 'Florida Sweet' has borne crops of 6,300 to 51,300 lbs (2,858-23,270 kg) of fruit from March to November, in Homestead, Florida.

In Puerto Rico, a planting of 200 trees may be expected to produce 3,600 to 5,400 lbs (1,636-2,455 kg) of juice. From the juice there can be extracted at least 120 lbs (54.5 kg) of vitamin C expressed as dehydroascorbic and ascorbic acid, providing the content is determined to be 2%. In Puerto Rico, it is calculated that 10 tons of fruit should yield 435 lbs (197 kg) ascorbic acid. In a commercial operation using ion-exchange resins, the yield of ascorbic acid from Barbados cherry juice is expected to be about 88%.

Keeping Quality

Ripe Barbados cherries bruise easily and are highly perishable. Processors store them for no more than 3 days at 45º F (7.22º C). Half-ripe fruits can be maintained for a few more days. If longer storage is necessary, the fruits must be frozen and kept at 10º F (-12.22º C) and later thawed for use. At one time it was believed that the fruits could be transported to processing plants in water tanks (as is done with true cherries) but it was discovered that they lose their color and ascorbic acid content in water.

At room temperature–85º F (29.44º C) in Puerto Rico–canned Barbados cherries and also the juice lose color and fresh flavor and 53% to 80% of their ascorbic acid content in one month, and metal cans swell because of the development of CO₂. Refrigeration at 44.6º F (7º C) considerably reduces such deterioration. Juice in the home refrigerator will lose 20% of its ascorbic acid in 18 days. Therefore, the juice and the puree should be kept no longer than one week.

Pests and Diseases

One of the major obstacles to successful cultivation of the Barbados cherry is the tree's susceptibility to the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita var. acrita, especially in sandy acid soils. Soil fumigation, mulching and regular irrigation will help to keep this problem under control. The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, is also a cause of decline in otherwise healthy trees.

In Florida, the foliage is attacked by wax scale, Florida mango scale, and other scale insects, whiteflies, a leaf roller, and aphids. In Guatemala, the aphid, Aphis spiraecola, attacks the leaves and young, tender branches. This pest and the Hesperid caterpillar, Ephyriades arcas, require chemical control. In Puerto Rico, the tree is often damaged by the blue chrysomelid of acerola, Leucocera laevicollis. Some fruits may be malformed but not otherwise affected by the sting of stinkbugs. None of these predators is of any great importance.

The major pest in Florida is the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa, which seems to attack all but very sour fruits and the larvae are commonly found inside. In Guatemala, a fruit worm, Anthonomus florus, deposits its eggs in the floral ovary and also in the fruits; the larvae feed in the fruits causing deformity and total ruin. Drastic control measures have been employed against this predator, including the incineration of all fallen, infested fruits and the elimination of all related species that serve as hosts.

Few diseases have been reported. However, in Florida, there are cases of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and leafspotting by the fungus, Cercospora bunchosiae, is a serious malady in Florida, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Green scurf, identified with the alga, Cephaleuros virescens, occurs in Puerto Rico.

Food Uses

Barbados cherries are eaten out-of-hand, mainly by children. For dessert use, they are delicious merely stewed with whatever amount of sugar is desired to modify the acidity of the particular type available. The seeds must be separated from the pulp in the mouth and returned by spoon to the dish. Many may feel that the nuisance is compensated for by the pleasure of enjoying the flavorful pulp and juice. Other-wise, the cooked fruits must be strained to remove the seeds and the resulting sauce or puree can be utilized as a topping on cake, pudding, ice cream or sliced bananas, or used in other culinary products. Commercially prepared puree may be dried or frozen for future use. The fresh juice will prevent darkening of bananas sliced for fruit cups or salads. It can be used for gelatin desserts, punch or sherbet, and has been added as an ascorbic acid supplement to other fruit juices. The juice was dried and powdered commercially in Puerto Rico for a decade until the cost of production caused the factory to be closed down.

The fruits may be made into sirup or, with added pectin, excellent jelly, jam, and other preserves. Cooking causes the bright-red color to change to brownish-red. The pasteurization process in the canning of the juice changes the color to orange-red or yellow, and packing in tin cans brings on further color deterioration. Enamel-lined cans preserve the color better.

Wine made from Barbados cherries in Hawaii was found to retain 60% of the ascorbic acid.

Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*
Calories	59
Moisture	81.9-91.10 g
Protein	0.68-1.8 g
Ether Extract	0.19-0.09 g
Fiber	0.60-1.2 g
Fat	0.18-0.1 g
Carbohydrates	6.98-14.0 g
Ash	0.77-0.82 g
Calcium	8.2-34.6 mg
Phosphorus	16.2-37.5 mg
Iron	0.17-1.11 mg
Carotene	0.003-0.408 mg
(Vitamin A)	408-1000 I.U.
Thiamine	0.024-0.040 mg
Riboflavin	0.038-0.079 mg
Niacin	0.34-0.526 mg
Ascorbic Acid**

*According to analyses made in Hawaii, Guatemala, and elsewhere.

**According to analyses at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology of fruits grown in Barbados: 4,500 mg (green), 3,300 mg (medium-ripe), 2,000 mg (very ripe). The ascorbic acid level of unripe fruits can range up to 4,676 mg and such ratings are exceeded only by the fruits (rose hips) of Rosa rugosa Thunb., which may have as much as 6,977 mg/100 g. This constituent varies as much as 25% with the clone, the locale, cultural methods and degree of exposure to sunlight during developmental stages and after harvesting. At INCAP (Instituto de Nutricion de Central America and Panama), in Guatemala assays in 1950-1955 showed distressingly low levels–an average of 17 mg/100 g, whereas fruits sent to INCAP by air and in dry ice from Florida were analyzed and contained 1,420 mg/100 g. In field experiments, treatment of young fruits on the tree with 200 ppm gibberellic acid has brought about a marked increase in the ascorbic acid content of the mature fruits.

The ascorbic acid is not totally destroyed by heat, for the jelly may contain 499-1,900 mg/100 g. Of the total ascorbic acid in Barbados cherry juice, 0.18% is in the bound form. Other constituents include dextrose, levulose, and a little sucrose.

Harmful Effects

Physicians in Curacao report that children often require treatment for intestinal inflammation and obstruction caused by eating quantities of the entire fruits, including seeds, from the wild Barbados cherries which abound on the island.

People who pick Barbados cherries without gloves and long sleeves may suffer skin irritation from contact with the minute stinging hairs on the leaves and petioles.

Other Uses

Bark: The bark of the tree contains 20-25% tannin and has been utilized in the leather industry.

Wood: The wood is surprisingly hard and heavy. Trials have demonstrated that it refuses to ignite even when treated with flammable fluid unless perfectly dry.

Medicinal Uses: The fruits are considered beneficial to patients with liver ailments, diarrhea and dysentery, as well as those with coughs or colds. The juice may be gargled to relieve sore throat.

Black sugar maple

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Hard maple

A. nigrum Michx. f.

Source: Magness et al. 1971

Maple sugar and syrup are obtained from the sap of these two species and are solely products of the United States and Canada. The Indians were making crude syrups and sugar from maple sap before the coming of white men. The preparation of maple sugar and syrup is strictly a farm industry, occurring from Kentucky northwest to Iowa, northeast to Maine and north into Canada. Native stands of these maple species are tapped to obtain the dilute juice or sap. The trees are not a cultivated crop, although competing useless trees may be removed and maple stands may be thinned to promote better growth and sugar yield. Only a small proportion of the available trees of these species are actually tapped. It is estimated that more than 200 million such trees are growing in the United States, and less than 6 million are tapped.

The tapping is done by boring a small hole (under 0.5-inch diameter) horizontally into the tree so as to penetrate through the outer or sap wood. On large trees up to four such taps may be made at one time. Tapered spouts (hollow tubes) are driven into the holes to fit tightly, and the sap flows through this tube and is collected in sap buckets. it is important to protect the buckets and contents from rain water. Tapping is done in late winter, before bud break. During periods when temperatures are above freezing at this season sap flow is quite abundant, A tap hole usuallv produces 5 to 15 gallons of sap, though much more than that is sometimes obtained. Sugar content of the sap also varies widelv, from l0 to 30°Brix or higher.

Portable tanks of various types are used to collect the sap, which is poured into the tank through strainers. An alternative method is to use pipc lines to carry the sap to the evaporation equipment.

Originally a single open kettle over a fire was used to evaporate the excess water in the sap to produce syrup. Now multiple evaporators are mainly used, the syrup being transferred as it becomes more dense. Usually 2 or 3 transfers are made. Modem evaporating pans have flues in them through which the heat from the fuel passes to speed the process and codserve fuel. For standard-density syrup, concentration is to 65.5°Brix, which is about 86 percent solids by weight. If the sap tests 2.4°Brix, 34 gallons would be required to produce one gallon of syrup.

Slow evaporation--or longer heating time--in the final stages of concentration result in a darker colored syrup. More rapid evaporation at this stage gives a lighter colored, higher grade syrup. Sensitive thermometers are used to determine when the syrup is concentrated to the standard of 65.5 Brix. The completed syrup contains solid granules, mainly calcium malate, termed sugar sand. For toable syrup these must be removed. On the farm they may be allowed to settle out or are removed by filtering. Centrifuging is efficient if available.

To produce various types of maple sugar, the syrup is further heated and additional water driven off. If heated to a boiling point of 230°F. and cooled rapidly without stirring a solid cake is formed. Stirring during cooling results in crystal formation. For fine crystals the highly supersaturated solution is seeded with fine crystals and stirred rapidly, which results in rapid formation of great numbers of fine crystals.

Numerous products, as maple cream, or butters, soft-sugar candies, maple spread, and candies utilize maple syrup or sugar. Total maple syrup production in the United States averaged approximately 1,400,000 gallons, 1961-66, inclusive. This includes that made into sugar. In addition about 800,000 gallons of syrup and 5,145,000 pounds of sugar were imported annually from Canada during those years.

Cucurbit Resources in Namibia

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Namibia has several cucurbits with potential for development into commercial crops either through selection or through the introduction of genes into known crops. Acanthosicyos horrida Welw. ex J.D. Hook., wild Citrullus ecirrhosus Cogn., and C. lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai in the Cucurbitaceae are examples of gene sources. The areas from which these plants come are arid and the plants derive their water needs from dew precipitation in the mornings, very occasional rains every few years, and deep ground water (Seely l987; Lovegrove 1993).

ACANTHOSICYOS HORRIDA

Acanthosicyos horrida forms clumps of vegetation in the dunes of the Sossuvlei region near Walvis Bay (Fig. 1) (Craven and Marais 1986; Lovegrove 1993; Klopatek and Stock 1994). Acanthosicyos horrida is a dioecious perennial cucurbit attaining a height of about 1.5 m (Fig. 2). It forms plants of one sex in single clumps which may touch plants of the same or other sex nearby (Fig. l). It bears deep water table seeking roots (G. Wardell–Johnson, pers. commun. 1998). The plants are totally leafless (Fig. 2) and have a fruiting habit of oblong spherical fruits reaching up to 25 cm average diameter. The plants are able to build up sand deposits around themselves and continuously grow to be above these sand deposits. New plants establish only when rain falls and quickly form deeply growing roots that seek the water table (G. Wardell–Johnson, pers. commun. 1998).


Fig. 1. View of Acanthosicyos horrida in sand dunes at the Sossuvlei region near Walvis Bay Namibia.	Fig. 2. A close up of Acanthosicyos horrida plants. Note the leaflessness.

The fruit may not be spaced apart and may occur in clusters of several touching each other. The fruits are spiny (Fig. 3). Maturation of the fruits occurs between February and April. The fruits do not change color and remain green on the outside but the flesh surrounding the seeds dissociates from the skin, turns orange in color (Fig. 4), extremely sweet in taste and strongly aromatic. Maturational changes are easily detected by the bushmen living in the area without breaking the fruit in any way. The fruits are used by the bushmen for two main purposes. The first is for the extraction of the seed which are consumed as pips by splitting in the mouth and the second is for pulp processing where the flesh is boiled and poured to form a fruit leather. This fruit leather is eaten throughout the year and is considerably less flavorful than the pulp. The plant thus forms an important food resource because of the easy storage of both the seeds and the dried pulp (leather). The fruits are eaten also when immature by animals including jackals and rodents who do not seem to be bothered by the bitter taste of the fruits caused by cucurbitacins (Hylands and Magd 1986).


Fig. 3. Back of a mature fruit of Acanthosicyos horrida showing the large spines on the surface of the fruit. The distances separating the spines are small in young fruits.	Fig. 4. Cross section through three fruits of Acanthosicyos horrida. The one on the extreme right is a bitter immature fruit of full size. The one on the top an almost mature fruit with only a little bitterness. The bottom left hand fruit a fully mature fruit with a flesh having an orange color, no bitterness and very aromatic in flavor.

The mature pulp has a flavor which is aromatic and maybe due in part to sulphur components as in some types of Cucumis melo L. No trace can be tasted of cucurbitacins in the mature pulp. The pulp could be commercialized and used to make ice-cream, and could be freeze dried and chocolate coated. The seeds which are already sold to an European population in Walvis Bay can have their market expanded by selling the seeds either whole or dehusked in packaging developed for nuts. Their rarity should provide a premium price and help the economic existence of the bushmen in this area. Ice-cream manufacture and freeze drying facilities are only within 30 km of the bushmen. Partnerships with firms interested in commericalizing the unique, aromatic pulp of Acanthosicyos horrida could be fostered to further improve the economic existence of the native people in the area.

CITRULLUS ECIRRHOSUS

Citrullus ecirrhosus is a desert perennial (Fig. 5, 6) which is monoecious. Fruits mature (Fig. 7, 8) February to March. The leaves form an annual stems which die back each year. The leaves have a special feature where the lamina is curved over the mid-rib and the lateral veins so that when viewed from above the top surface is only visible in the vein regions and the leaves have a greenish white appearance due to the lower epidermis being reflected up as the upper surface of the leaf. This lower epidermis is covered with warts and hairs which account for the whitening effect. Both lower and upper epidermis contain similar amounts of stomata. The water relations of this plant are reliant on a deep water layer in the ground which the roots reach and possibly some water availability from morning fogs and the very occasional rainfall. The fruit and seeds contain cucurbitacins but the seeds are harvested in times of need and processed by crushing and decantation to remove the bitter substances. Citrulls ecirrhosus plants may be a source of drought tolerance genes for Citrulls lanatus. Successful crossability of Citrulls ecirrhosus and C. lanatus is discussed in Navot and Zamir (1986) and Navot et al. (1990). They have shown the way for breeding Citrullus lanatus containing genes from C. ecirrhosus.


Fig. 5. Citrullus ecirrhosus perennial plant growing approximately 20 km inland from Walvis Bay, showing a mature fruit on current years growth and brown dead stems from last years growth.	Fig. 6. Citrullus ecirrhosus perennial plant showing young developing fruit in the foreground and the bending of the leaves over the mid-rib and lateral veins.


Fig. 7. Mature Citrullus ecirrhosus showing folded nature of the leaves of the mid-rib and lateral veins.	Fig. 8. Fruit of Citrullus ecirrhosus cut showing white creamy flesh which is non juicy and brown seeds.

Fig. 9. Citrullus lanatus mature fruit from a plant growing on a dry river bed approximately 20 km inland from Walvis Bay, cut to show chlorophyll in the flesh and browny-black seeds. The more deeply colored regions of the flesh are green. The flesh is more juicy than in Citrullus ecirrhosus.

CITRULLUS LANATUS

Citrullus lanatus wild plants seen near Walvis Bay have green fleshed fruit unknown from domesticated watermelons (Fig. 9). The genetics of fruit color in the watermelon, Citrullus colocynthis and ecirrhosus are discussed by Navot et al. (1990). White, yellow, orange, pink, red, and crimson flesh types are known. The green flesh color of this wild Citrullus lanatus (Fig. 9) is a unique feature which can be transferred to domestic watermelon due to the crossability of wild and domestic watermelons. This would offer a new fruit type for consumers to enjoy. A red flesh cultivated watermelon from the north of Namibia has some green zone within the fruit suggesting that the green flesh character can be easily introduced. However, the wild watermelon has cucurbitacins which would render them unfit for human consumption. Drought tolerance and green flesh color from C. ecirrhosus and wild Citrullus lanatus, could be valiable traits for watermelon improvement.

REFERENCES

Craven, P. and C. Marais. 1986. Namib Flora Swakopmund to the Giant Welwitschia via Goanikontes. Gamsberg MacMillan Publishers: Windhoek. p. 80–83.
Hylands, P.J and M.S. Magd. 1986. Cucurbitacins from Acanthosicyos horridus. Phytochemistry 25:1681–1684.
Klopatek J.M. and W.D. Stock. 1994. Partitioning of nutrients in Acanthosicyos horrida, a keystone endemic species in the Namib Desert. J. Arid Environments 26:233–240.
Lovegrove, B. 1993. The living deserts of Southern Africa. Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg, South Africa. p. 30, 47, 71, 158, 190.
Navot, N. and D. Zamir. 1987. Isozyme and seed protein phylogeny of the genus Citrullus (Cucurbitaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 156:61–68.
Navot, N., M. Sarfatti, and D. Zamir. 1990. Linkage relationships of genes affecting bitterness and flesh colour in watermelon. J. Hered. 81:162–165.
Seely, M. 1986. The Namib. Shell Namibia: Namibia. 2nd ed. 19, 43–45, 50, 84, 90.

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne

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Syn.: Acacia raddiana Savi,
Acacia spirocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich
Acacia heteracantha Burch.
Mimosaceae
Umbrella Thorn, Israeli Babool

Source: James A। Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.

Uses

Since this is one of the few timber species of the Arabian deserts, it is suspected as being the wood from which the Biblical Ark of the Tabernacle was made. Kaplan (1979) says rather emphatically it is the Shittim of the Bible, which provided the Israelites with the large-size timbers for the Ark. The timber is also used for fenceposts, firewood, furniture, and wagonwheels. The prolific pods made good fodder for desert grazers and the foliage is also palatable, being one of the major dry season fodder trees for the Sahara-Sahelian belt. Bark, used for string in Tanganyika. Gum used as a poor man's gum arabic, said to be edible. It is the tree most recommended for reclaiming dunes in India and Africa (Roy et al, 1973). The thorny branches are used to erect temporary cages and pens. Bark said to be a good source of tannin (Roy et al, 1973). Africans once strung the pods into necklaces. Senegalese use the roots for spear shafts, Lake Chad natives use the stems for fish spears. African nomads often use the flexible roots for frameworks of their temporary shelters.

Folk Medicine

While I find few data specific to this species, I suspect that the gum is used like that of gum arabics in folk remedies. In French Guinea, the bark is used as a vermifuge and dusted onto skin ailments (Dalziel, 1937).

Chemistry

Pods contain close to 19% protein (Palmer and Pitman, 1972). NAS (1979) reports unconfirmed allegations that the foliage can be toxic to livestock. Certainly HCN has been reported in several Acacias. The following tables are reproduced, with permission, from FAO's Tropical Feeds (1981):

Nutritive tables (Gohl, 1981)

		As % of dry matter
	DM	CP	CF	Ash	EE	NFE	Ca	P	Ref.
Fresh leaves, South Africa		19.2	11.6	8.7	6.1	54.4	2.27	0.17	213
Pods, South Africa		17.3	24.8	5.7	3.1	49.1	0.79	0.34	213
Seeds, South Africa		37.8	10.9	5.9	6.0	39.7	0.56	0.73	213
Pod husks, South Africa		8.7	34.3	6.2	1.6	49.2	1.10	0.14	213

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. heteracantha (Burch.) Brenan

		As % of dry matter
	DM	CP	CF	Ash	EE	NFE	Ca	P	Ref.
Fresh leaves, Sudan	90.9	13.3	9.4	9.6	8.3	59.4	4.00	0.15	64
Pods, Tanzania		12.3	22.4	5.6	1.8	57.9	0.98	0.24	166
Pods, Kenya		17.8	17.5	8.4	1.7	54.6	1.34	0.36	129

		Digestibility (%)
	Animal	CP	CF	EE	NFE	ME	Ref
Pods	Cattle	46.2	42.0	74.0	76.6	2.30	166

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich) Brenan

Description

Medium umbrella-shaped tree 4–15 m tall, often with several trunks, reduced to a small wiry shrub less than 1 m tall under extremely arid conditions. Two types of thorns abound (1) long, straight, and white, and (2) small, hooked, and brownish. Leaves up to 2.5 cm long with 4–10 pairs of pinnae, each with ca 15 pairs of minute leaflets. Flowers white, aromatic, in small clusters. Pods flat, glabrose, coiled into a spring-like array.

Germplasm

Reported from North African and Middle Eastern Centers of Diversity, Umbrella Thorn, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkalinity, drought, heat, sand, slope, and stony soils. It seems to be more frost tolerant than Prosopis juliflora, still plants less than 2 years old are easily damaged by frost. Four subspecies are known in different ecological zones: subspecies tortilis—Sahel, Middle East; subspecies raddiana—Sudan, Middle East, Sahel(2n=104); subspecies spirocarpa—Eastern Africa, Sudan; and subspecies heteracantha—Southern Africa (2n= 52). The different subspecies seem to have different ecological tolerances, which is important to consider when choosing a subspecies for plantations. (2n= 52, 104)

Distribution

Native to much of Africa and the Middle East, this species has been introduced in many arid parts of the world. Ironically, it grows faster in the Rajastan Desert of India, where used for charcoal, firewood, and fodder, than in its native Israel (Kaplan, 1979). In Malawi, this species is already scorned by the rural public because it is thorny and difficult to work with. It is being tried for fencings (Nkaonja, 1980).

Ecology

Deemed the most promising of 56 Acacia species tried at Jodhpur, India. Probably ranging from Subtropical Desert to Dry through Tropical Desert Scrub to Very Dry Forest Life Zones, umbrella tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 10 dm, estimated annual temperature of 18 to 28°C, and pH of 6.5 to 8.5. This species tolerates hot, arid climates with temperatures as high as 50°C subspecies raddiana grows where minimum temperatures are close to 0°C. It is best adapted to the lowlands. It thrives where rainfall is up to 1,000 mm. However, it is also extremely drought resistant and can survive in climates with less than 100 mm annual rainfall with long, erratic dry seasons. The tree favors alkaline soils. It grows fairly well in shallow soil, less than 0.25 m deep, though it develops long lateral roots that can become a nuisance in nearby fields, paths, and roadways. In shallow soil, the plants remain shrubby and must be widely spaced to allow for their lateral root growth.

Cultivation

For good seed germination, seeds should be treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for 30 minutes (Roy et al, 1973). Artificial regeneration aiming at large-scale nursery production requires full use of the germination capacity of the available seeds. This may be achieved by sulfuric acid pretreatment, which brings about the germination of all viable seeds. Treatment with boiling water is selective and mainly breaks the dormancy of bruchid-infested seeds, some of which are no longer able to germinate. Sowing of unripe seeds without pretreatment may be called for as an emergency measure in case of very severe infestation, to achieve at least partial success. Prior to storage, seeds should be fumigated to arrest progressing deterioration of seed viability by bruchids (Karschon, 1975). NAS (1980a) recommends dipping the seed in hot water to soak overnight. Seedlings require initial weeding to facilitate faster growth. Plantations can be spaced at 3 x 3 m.

Harvesting

Firewood harvested as needed, but 10-year rotations are suggested. In Jodhupr, flower initiation is ca May-June in 3-year old trees, fruits forming in July but ripening from November through February. Since the tree coppices well, there is no need to replant after every harvest.

Yields and Economics

Eleven-year old trees in deep sandy soils at Jodhpur averaged 6.4 m tall and 14 cm DBH. In shallow sandy loams over hardpan at Pali, India, 7-year old trees (98% survival) averaged 4.8 m tall, and 10 cm DBH. In sanddunes at Barmer, India, 5-year old trees averaged 3 m tall, 7 cm DBH. An average tree yields 6 kg pods of which 2.6 kg is clean seed. One tree is said to yield 14–18 kg pods and leaves per year in India (Muthana and Arora, 1980). Acacia tortilis has been reported to yield giraffe forage at 5 MT/ha/yr.

Energy

A 12-year-old plantation in India yielded 54 MT fuel , suggest, annual returns of 4.5 MT, not a bad return for the desert (NAS, 1980a). The heartwood has calorific value of 4,400 kcals/kg, making superior firewood and charcoal. It is one of the main firewood and charcoal sources in parts of Africa, e.g. around Khartoum. Nitrogen-fixing nodules are reported in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Biotic Factors

Bruchids often damage or destroy the seeds, on the tree or after collecting. Herbivores, tame and wild alike, are liable to graze seedlings and innovations. Trees attacked by beetles, mimosoid blights, and caterpillars. The wood is susceptible to termites. In Tanzania, elephants which eat the bark are wiping out some park populations. In Israel, the native Acacias host several species (>40) of mostly monophagous insects, whereas on one exotic, Australian Acacia saligna, only a few polyphagous species occur (Halperin, 1980). Only Microcerotermes diversus and Kalotermes flavicollis, which feed on woody parts of both Acacias and Apate monachus (a beetle which tunnels the stems and branches, causing them to collapse in windblow), may seriously damage the tree. In nature, regeneration and spread of Acacias are probably limited by bruchids destroying much of the seed crop. Seedlings from natural regeneration may come from damaged seeds with a still intact embryo axis, since seedcoat dormancy is removed by the effect of exit holes permitting rapid water absorption and germination. Intact seeds with hard impermeable seedcoats may require a long time to germinate, and probably function as a reserve to ensure the survival of the species (Karschon, 1975).

References

Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. The Whitefriars Press, Ltd., London and Tonbridge.
Gohl, B. 1981. Tropical feeds. Feed information summaries and nutritive values. FAO Animal Production and Health Series 12. FAO, Rome.
Halperin, J. 1980. Forest insects and protection in the arid zones of Israel. J. Israel For. Assoc. 30(3/4):68–72.
Kaplan, J. 1979. Some examples of successful use of Acacia for afforestation. J. Israel For. Assoc. 29(3/4):63–64.
Karschon, R. 1975. Seed germination of Acacia raddiana Savi and A. tortilis Rayne as related to infestation by bruchids. Ag. Res. Org. Leaflet 52. Bet Dagan.
Muthana, K.D. and Arora, G.D. 1980. Performance of Acacia tortilis (Forsk) under different habitats of the Indian arid zone. Ann. Arid Zone 19(1/2):110–118.
N.A.S. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Nkaonja, R.S.W. 1980. Dryland afforestation problems in Malawi. J. Israel For. Assoc. 30(3/4):100–105.
Palmer, E. and Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of Southern Africa. 3 vols. A.A. Balkemia, Cape Town.
Roy, A.D., Kaul, R.N., and Gyanchand. 1973. Israeli babool a promising tree for arid and semiarid lands.

Acacia seyal Del.

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Uses

According to some Biblical scholars, the Shittah tree is mentioned in the Bible only once (I will plant in the wilderness... the Shittah tree. Isaiah 41), but its wood is referred to many times as shittium, which is the plural of shittah in Hebrew. Some even speculate that it was only natural that Moses should turn to shittium when he came to build the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle and needed beams and timber. No one can really be sure which species of Acacia was meant. Wood is white to yellow-brown, finely-striated with dark lines, coarse-grained, soft, easy to work, polishes well, but discolors eastly with mold and is susceptible to insect attack. Ancient Egyptians made coffins, some still intact, from the wood. Nigerians used sapling stems, or also the roots for spear shafts. Tree also yields a gum of good quality, inferior to that of A. senegal. Systematic tapping has produced a product of better color and taste. Bark contains tannin and yields a red liquid extract. The gum is said to be edible. The leaves are important for forage and the wood for fuel where the trees are abundant. In parts of Africa the tree is important for livestock, natives driving their animals to where it is common and lopping off branches for them, both leaves and young pods being eaten. The pods are sold, especially for fattening sheep. The tree is believed to provide the best firewood in Chad, and the best fodder in Sahelian savannas (NAS, 1980a; Duke, 1983a).

Folk Medicine

The gum is believed to be aphrodisiac. The bark decoction Is used for dysentery and leprosy. Tanganyikans use the bark as a stimulant in tropical Africa. The gum is used as emollient and astringent for colds, diarrhea, hemorrhage and ophhthalmia. Mixed with Acacia sieberana DC, it is used for intestinal ailments on the Ivory Coast. Wood used as a fumigant for rheumatic pains, and to protect puerperal mothers from colds and fevers. Eating the gum is supposed to afford some protection against bronchitis and rheumatism (Duke, 1983a).

Chemistry

This species has been reported to contain 18–20% tannin.

Description

Tree 3–12 m tall, crown flat-topped; bark powdery, white to greenish-yellow or orange-red; sparsely branched, the branches horizontal or ascending; young branchlets with sparse hairs or almost glabrous, with numerous reddish sessile glands; epidermis of twigs becoming reddish and shed annually; leaves often with a large gland on petiole and between the top 1–2 pairs of pinnae; stipules spinescent, up to 8 cm long, ant-galls present or absent; pinnae usually 3–7 pairs, the leaflets in 11–20 pairs, 3–8 cm long, 0.75–1 mm wide, sparingly ciliolate or glabrous; lateral veins invisible beneath; flowers bright yellow, in axillary, pedunculate heads 10–13 mm across, borne on terminal or short lateral shoots of current season; involucel in lower half of peduncle 2–4 mm long; apex of bracteoles rounded to elliptic, sometimes pointed; calyx 2–2.5 mm long, puberulous in upper part; corolla 3.5–4 mm long, glabrous outside; pods 7–20 cm long, 0.5–0.9 cm in diameter, dehiscent, falcate, constricted between seeds, glabrous except for sessile glands, 6–9-seeded; seeds elliptic, 7–9 mm long, 4.5–5 mm wide, compressed, minutely wrinkled, olive-brown to olive; areole 5–6 mm long, 2.5–3.5 mm wide.

Germplasm

Species has several botanical varieties. The two main ones are: A. seyal var. fistula (Schweinf.) Oliv. (A. fistula Schweinf.), is white-barked with some pairs of spines fused at base into 'ant-galls', 0.8–3 cm in diameter, grayish or whitish, often marked with sienna-red and with longitudinal furrows down center, more or less 2-lobed. Found in Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique. A. seyal var. multijuga Schweinf. ex Baker f. (A. stenocarpa Oliv., pro partem), a shrub or tree, usually less than 5 m tall, sometimes up to 13 m, flattened crown; bark on main stem greenish-brown, peeling in papery rolls; bark on branchlets red-brown, thorns straight, weak, usually less than 2.5 cm long, sometimes absent; pinnae 4–12 pairs, leaflets 10–20 pairs; flowers golden-yellow; pod narrow-linear, strongly curved, up to 10 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, dehiscing on tree. Common in overgrazed pastures and widely distributed in East Africa. Hybrids, A. seyal var. fistula X A. xanthophloea Benth., are known from woodlands on black clay loams on flood plains in Malawi. Pods are conspicuously irregular, 4–11 cm long, 6–10 mm wide, ill-formed and curved. Assigned to the Africa Center of Diversity, shittim wood or cultivars thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to high pH, heavy soil, insects, mycobacteria, poor soil, salt, savanna, slope, and waterlogging. (2n= 26.)

Distribution

Native to the Sahelian Zone from Senegal to Sudan, it also occurs in Egypt and eastern and southern Africa, from Somalia to Mozambique and Namibia (NAS, 1980a).

Ecology

Trees thrive in Sclerocarya caffra woodlands, wooded grasslands and especially on seasonally flooded black-cotton soils along water courses. Requires a heavy clay-alluvium, but will grow on stony ground at base of hills. Grows at 20–2,100 m altitude. A gregarious savanna tree, ranging from Subtropical Desert to Dry through Tropical Desert to Very Dry Forest Life Zones, shittim wood is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7–22.8 dm (mean of 7 cases = 15.0 dm), annual mean temperature of 18.7–27.8°C (mean of 7 cases = 24.0°C) and pH of 5.0–8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.9).

Cultivation

Propagated from scarified seed. large cuttings are said to strike root readity in moist soils.

Harvesting

Pods, bark or wood are harvested in season from trees or shrubs in native habitats. Gum also obtained from native plantings, in manner similar to that for other gum arabic plants.

Yields and Economics

Gum and other products of some local importance in East Africa, but do not enter international trade.

Energy

The dense wood is highly prized for firewood, in areas where few other plants survive. Considered one of the best firewoods in Chad, it is used in the Sudan to make fragrant fires over which women perfume themselves.

Biotic Factors

Following fungi reported on this plant: Fomes rimosus, Ganoderma lucidum, Leveillula taurica, Ravenelia volkensii, Trametes meyenii, and Uromyces schweinfurthii. Although the plant is reportedly resistant to insect attacks, felled logs may be severely damaged by wood borers.

References

Duke, J.A. 1983a. Medicinal plants of the Bible. Trado-Medic Books, Owerri, NY.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.

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Syn.: Acacia verek Guill. et Perr.
Mimosaceae
Gum Arabic, Senegal Gum, Sudan Gum Arabic, Kher, Kumta

Source: James A। Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.

Uses

Tree yields commercial gum arabic, used extensively in pharmaceutical preparations, inks, pottery pigments, water-colors, wax polishes, and liquid gum; for dressing fabrics, giving lustre to silk and crepe; for thickening colors and mordants in calico-printing; in confections and sweetmeats. Causing partial destruction of many alkaloids including atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, homatropine, morphine, apomorphine, cocaine, and physostigmine, gum arabic might be viewed as a possible antidote. Pharmaceutically used mainly in the manufacture of emulsions and in making pills and troches (as an excipient); as demulcent for inflammations of the throat or stomach and as masking agent for acrid tasting substances such as capsicum; also as a film-forming agent in peel-off masks. Its major use is in foods, for example, as suspending or emulsifying agent, stabilizer, adhesive, flavor fixative, and to prevent crystallization of sugar, etc. Used in practically all categories of processed foods (candy, snack foods, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, baked goods, frozen dairy desserts, gelatins, and puddings, imitation dairy products, breakfast cereals, and fats and oils). Use levels range from less than 0.004% (40 ppm) in soups and milk products, 0.7 to 2.9% in nonalcoholic beverages, imitation dairy, and snack foods, to as high as 45% in candy products (Leung, 1980). Strong rope made from bark fibers. White wood used for tool handles, black heartwood for weaver's shuttles. The long flexible strands of surface roots provide one of the strongest of local fibers, used for cordage, well-ropes, fishing nets, horsegirdles, footropes, etc. Seeds are dried and preserved for human consumption (NAS, 1980). Young foliage makes good forage. Plants useful for afforestation of arid tracts, soil reclamation, and windbreaks (Duke, 1981a). In modern pharmacy, it is commonly employed as a demulcent in preparations designed to treat diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, throat irritation, and fevers. It serves as an emulsifying agent and gives viscosity to powdered drug materials; is used as a binding agent in making pills and tablets and particularly cough drops and lozenges. Because of its enzyme, the gum is not suitable for use in products having readily oxidizable ingredients. For example, it reduces the vitamin A content of cod liver oil by 54% within three weeks. It is incompatible with aminopyrine, morphine, vanillin, phenol, thymol, a- and b-naphthol, guiacol, cresols, creosol, eugenol, apomorphine, eserine, epinephrine, isobarbaloin, gallic acid, and tannin; also with strongly alcoholic liquids, solutions of ferric chloride and lead subacetate and strong solutions of sodium borate. It was formerly given intravenously to counteract low blood pressure after hemorrhages and surgery and to treat edema associated with nephrosis, but such practices caused kidney and liver damage and allergic reactions and have been abandoned (Morton, 1977).

Folk Medicine

The demulcent, emollient gum is used internally in inflammation of intestinal mucosa, and externally to cover inflamed surfaces, as burns, sore nipples and nodular leprosy. Also said to be used for antitussive, astringent, catarrh, colds, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, expectorant, gonorrhea, hemorrhage, sore throat, typhoid, urinary tract (Duke and Wain, 1981).

Chemistry

Gum acacia contains neutral sugars (rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose), acids (glucuronic acid and 4-methoxyglucuronic acid), calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Its complex structure is still not completely known. Its backbone chain consists of D-galactose units, and its side chains are composed of D-glucuronic acid units with l-rhamnose or l-arabinose as end units. The molecular weight has been reported to be between 200,000 to 300,000 and as high as 600,000 (Leung, 1980).

Toxicity

Ingested orally, acacia is nontoxic. However, some people are allergic to its dust and develop skin lesions and severe asthmatic attacks when in contact with it. Acacia can be digested by rats to an extent of 71%; guinea pigs and rabbits also seem to utilize it for energy, as does man to a certain extent. Gum arabic may actually elevate serum or tissue cholesterol levels in rats (Leung, 1980).

Description

Savanna shrub or tree, up to 20 m tall, over 1.3 m in girth, spiny; bark gray to brown or blackish, scaly, rough; young branchlets densely to sparsely pubescent, soon glabrescent, crown dense; stipules not spinescent; prickles just below the nodes, either in threes up to 7 mm long, with the middle one hooked downwards and the lateral ones curved upwards, or solitary with the laterals absent; leaves bioinnate, up to 2.5 cm long; leaf-axis finely downy with 2 glands; pinnae 6–20 pairs; leaflets small, 7–25 pairs, rigid, leathery, glabrous, linear to elliptic-oblong, ciliate on margins, pale glaucous-green, apex obtuse to subacute; flowers in spikes 5–10 cm long, not very dense, on peduncles 0.7–2 cm long, normally produced with the leaves; calyx bell-shaped, glabrous, deeply toothed; corolla white to yellowish, fragrant, sessile; pod straight or slightly curved, retrap-shaped, 7.5–18 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, thin, light brown or gray, papery or woody, firm, indehiscent, glabrous, 5–6-(-15) seeded; seeds greenish-brown. Fl. Jan.–Mar.; fr. Jan.–Apr., July, Aug. or Oct. (Duke, 1981a).

Germplasm

Tree with a single central stem and a dense flat-topped crown, bark without any papery peel, rough, gray or brown, with pubescent, rarely glabrous inflorescence, and pods variable in size, rounded to somewhat pointed but not rostrate or acuminate at apex. Variety rostrata Brenan is a shrub, branching at or close to base, or a small tree, with a single stem, 1–6 m tall, with dense flattened crown, bark normally with a flaking papery peel, creamy-yellow to yellow-green or gray-brown, inflorescence axis always pubescent and pods 2–3.5 times as long as wide, rostrate or acuminate at apex. Variety leiorhachis Brenan, is always a tree with central stem, and rounded or irregular with straggling branches; bark with conspicuous yellow papery peel, and inflorescence axis always glabrous. Variety pseudoglaucophylla occurs on fixed sand duned in Africa. Assigned to the African Center of Diversity, gum arabic is reported to exhibit tolerance to alkali, drought, fire, high pH, poor soil, sand, slope, and wind. (2n=26) (Duke, 1981a)

Distribution

Widespread in tropical Africa from Mozambique, Zambia to Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Cultivated in India, Nigeria, and Pakistan.

Ecology

Thrives on dry rocky hills, in low-lying dry savannas, and areas where annual rainfall is 25–36 cm. This hardy species survives many adverse conditions, and seems to be favored by low rainfall and absence of frost. Ranging from Warm Temperate Thorn through Tropical Thorn to Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, gum arabic is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.8–22.8 dm (mean of 9 cases = 12.4 dm), annual mean temperature of 16.2–27.8°C (mean of 9 cases 23.8°C), and pH of 5.0–7.7 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4), but Cheema and Qadir (1973) report 7.4–8.2.

Cultivation

In Sudan, trees are cultivated over a very large area. Best propagated from seeds which are produced once every few years, grown in Sudan, in special "gum gardens." Elsewhere, it is collected from wild trees. In Pakistan, the best period for afforestation is the early monsoon season (Apr.–Jun.). Surface sowing is recommended in mildly alkaline sandy soils. Plants can also be reproduced by shoot cuttings. Trees coppice well (NAS, 1980).

Harvesting

Gum exudes froin cracks in bark of wild trees, mostly in the dry season, with little or none in the rainy season when flowers are out. In some areas, a long strip of bark is torn off and the gum allowed to exude. In Africa, it is regularly tapped from trees which are about 6 years old by making narrow transverse incisions in bark in February and March. In about a month, tears of gum form on surface and are gathered. Trees begin to bear between 4–18 years of age and are said to yield only when they are in unhealthy state due to poor soil, lack of moisture or damaged. Attempts to improve conditions tend to reduce yield. Gum from wild trees is variable and somewhat darker colored than that from cultivated plants. Collected gum is carefully freed of extraneous matter, sorted and sometimes ripened in sun before export. Gum arabic is oderless with a bland taste, yellowish and some tears are vermiform in shape. Ripened or bleached gum occurs in rounded or ovoid tears over 2.5 cm in diameter, and in broken fragments. Tears are nearly white or pale yellow and break readily with a glassy fracture. Gum is almost completely soluble in an equal volume of water and gives a translucent, viscous, slightly acid solution, but is insoluble in 90% alcohol. Kordofan (Sudan) Gum is yellow or pinkish, has fewer cracks and is more transparent (Duke, 1981a).

Yields and Economics

Annual yields from young trees may range from 188 to 2856 g (avg. 900 g), from older trees, 379 to 6754 g (avg. 2,000 g). Gum arabic is important export product for some areas in tropical Africa and Mauritania. From Africa some genuine gum is shipped to India then to Europe and America. Between 1940 and 1950, United States imports range from 3,179–8,989 MT (Duke, 1981a) Morton (1977) reports >11,000 MT more recently.

Energy

Considered the best firewood in Mauritius and Senegal, this is not a big yielder, annual running 0.5–5 m³/ha wood, with an energy value of ca 3,500 kcal/kg. A nitrogen,fixing species, it can be used to reestablish vegetation cover in degraded areas, as well as for sand-dune fixation and wind erosion control (NAS, 1980a).

Biotic Factors

Fungi reported on this crop are Cladosporium herbarum, Fusarum sp., Ravenelia acaciae-senegalae and R. acaciocola. Many insect visitors mimic the plant, the buffalo treehopper, Stictocephala bisonia, being a good example. Spiders (Cyclops sp.) may completely cover the young growing apex. Seedlings are often grazed by gazelles, goats, and pigs (Morton, 1977).

References

Cheema, M.S.Z.A. and Qadir, S.A. 1973. Autecology of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Vegetatio Vol. 27(1–3):131–162.
Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the world. Computer index with more than 85,000 entries. 3 vols.
Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.

Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.Wendl

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Uses

Orange wattle is an extremely rugged tree, adaptable to barren slopes, derelict land, and exceptionally arid conditions in Australia and North Africa. It grows rapidly and is used for reclaiming eroded hillsides and wastelands and for stabilizing drift sands as well as for fuel. This is one of the best woody species for binding moving sand. It is useful for windbreaks, amenity plantings, beautification projects, and roadside stabilization in semiarid regions. The leaves, or phyllodes, are palatable to livestock when fresh or dried into hay, especially used as supplementary feed for sheep and goats. Crushed seeds have been fed to sheep without ill effects. Regrowth of established bushes is so good that Acacia saligna can be completely grazed off without harming the plants. The damaged bark exudes copious amounts of a very acidic gum that seems to show promise for use in pickles and other acidic foodstuffs (NAS, 1980).

Folk Medicine

No data observed.

Chemistry

Natal-grown bark contains up to 30.3% tannin compared to 19.1–23.0 at the Cape. The plant has given negative test for HCN.

Description

Dense, bushy shrub, usually 2–5 m tall; may grow treelike to 8 m tall with a single main stem (diameter to 30 cm). In spring its usually drooping branches are clad in beautiful and abundant yellow flowers (NAS, 1980a).

Germplasm

Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, orange wattle, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkalinity, drought, heavy soil, poor soil, salinity, salt spray, sand, shade, slope, waterlogging, and weeds. (2n = 26)

Distribution

Acacia saligna is native to the southwestern corner of western Australia. It was introduced to South Africa in the 1840s in an attempt to stabilize the shifting sand dunes. It has also been planted in Uruguay, Mexico Israel, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Greece, Cyprus, and North African countries (NAS, 1980a).

Ecology

Acacia saligna can grow throughout the tropical and the warm temperate regions of the world (NAS, 1980a). In its native habitat, the summer temperature ranges from about 23°–36°C, winter temperatures from 4°–9°C. The plant does not withstand frost and grows best where the winter and summer means are between 13° and 30°C respectively. Grows from near sea level to about 300 m, with isolated occurrences at higher elevations. Particularly drought hardy, it grows where annual rainfall is as low as 250 mm, though it probably does better with 350–600 mm. It grows well where annual rainfall is as high as 1,000 mm. Grows mainly on sandy, coastal plains, but is found from swampy sites and riverbanks to small, rocky hills (often granitic) and coastal slopes. It occurs on poor acid or calcareous sands, under the most dry and adverse soil conditions, in moderately heavy clays and a range of podzols (NAS, 1980a).

Cultivation

Seeds germinate readily; young plants can often be found under mature trees in the hundreds. Seedlings are easily raised in a nursery and established in the field. This species develops root suckers and coppices freely. Seeds are normally treated with boiling water, but nicking the seed coat, soaking in sulfuric acid, and exposing the seeds to dry heat are also effective (NAS, 1980a).

Harvesting

In Mediterranean countries, the fuelwood from this species is harvested on a coppice rotation system of 5–10 years (NAS, 1980).

Yields and Economics

Acacia saligna grows quickly, often reaching up to 8 m tall with a spread as great as its height in just 4 or 5 years. In very dry situations, growth rate is slower. Annual yields vary from 1.5 to 10 m³ per ha, depending on site. Because of its hardiness and profuse reproductive abilities, Acacia saligna has become a serious menace in parts of South Africa by invading and displacing indigenous vegetation. It infests water courses (sometimes decreasing the water available for irrigation), and has proved difficult to eradicate (NAS, 1980a).

Energy

Plantations for fuel have been established in some Mediterranean countries. But, according to one report from South Africa, the wood is "sappy, light, and not a popular fuelwood." The plant can withstand some shade and can be grown as an understory beneath pines or eucalypts in energy plantations or village fuel and fodder areas (NAS, 1980a). The annual litterfall of four Acacia species naturalized in the South African Cape, comprising 60% foliage and 30% reproductive structures, averages 7 MT/ha, double the value expected in evergreen scrub communities in winter rainfall regions.

Biotic Factors

Acacia saligna supports a diverse and abundant range of herbivores that cause damage to the plant. Among pests cited are Icerya purchasi (Hemiptera) and Euproctis fasciata (Lepidoptera) (NAS, 1980a) and Meloidgogyne sp. (Nematoda)

References

N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.

New Arid Land Ornamentals

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Over the past decade, water conservation has become an increasingly important issue across the southwestern United States. This concern has led local horticulturists and landscape architects to explore the use of water-thrifty ornamentals from dry climates throughout the world. The Chihuahuan and Sonoran deserts in particular have yielded a vast array of successful landscape plants. Universities, growers, and plant enthusiasts have all participated in the collection, propagation, evaluation, and promotion of new plant introductions. A group of recent proven introductions, including trees, shrubs, ground covers, and perennials are included below with information on their origins, growth habits, cultural requirements, and potential uses in the landscape.

Acacia redolens Maslin, Desert Carpet^TM

Native to inland areas of Western Australia, Acacia redolens Maslin has been used extensively in southern California and Arizona to cover large areas inexpensively. Seedlings of Acacia redolens vary widely in their growth habits, often reaching heights in excess of 1.8 m (6 feet). The Desert Carpet™ clone was selected from the first Phoenix freeway plantings for its prostrate growth habit, and was released by Mountain States Wholesale Nursery in 1984. Since that time, this groundcover has performed consistently on many projects, and years after installation has maintained a height of only 0.6 m (24 inches). One plant can spread to a width of 3.6 m (12 feet), although we have observed that the cutting-grown Desert Carpet™ plants are slower to establish and reach their mature size than seedlings. The slower growth rate and prostrate nature of this clone should reduce maintenance costs, since pruning is not necessary to control vertical growth. Instead of true leaves, Acacia redolens has thick, leathery, gray-green phyllodes. This plant blooms in the spring with small yellow flowers. Freeway acacia will tolerate low temperatures of –11.1° to –9.4°C (12°–15°F), alkaline and slightly saline soils, and does not seem to be choosy about soil types. In coastal areas it requires little or no supplemental irrigation, but does require regular irrigation in hot desert regions. Desert Carpet^TM seems to be disease and pest free.

Baccharis hybrid 'Starn' (P.P.A.F.) Thompson^TM

When Dr. Tommy Thompson and Dr. Chi Won Lee of the University of Arizona released Baccharis hybrid 'Centennial', it filled a great void in our plant palette. Their research has been carried on, and now the improved Thompson™ clone is available. Since Baccharis 'Centennial' is a female plant, it has two undesirable characteristics. First, it produces pappus, or white "fluff," which litters the landscape and reduces the esthetic appearance of the plants for a short period of time. Also, since 'Centennial' is a female plant, it can be pollinated by nearby male Baccharis sarothroides Gray (Desert broom), and seedlings often result. This is why you sometimes see stands of 'Centennial' with taller Baccharis plants growing up through them. The Thompson^TM clone is a male plant, eliminating these two negative characteristics. Also, Thompson^TM was selected from the next generation after 'Centennial', and has 25% more Baccharis sarothroides for heat and disease resistance. The growth habits and uses of these two clones are essentially the same: both grow to about 0.9 m (3 feet) tall by 1.2–1.5 m (4-5) feet wide, are evergreen with bright green foliage and inconspicuous flowers, and provide a low-maintenance, long-lived alternative for difficult locations.

Cercidium species 'Desert Museum'

This hybrid palo verde is a three-way cross between Parkinsonia aculeata L., Cercidium microphyllum (Torr.) Rose & I.M. Johnst., and Cercidium floridum Benth. ex Gray, and seems to combine the best qualities of all three plants. 'Desert Museum' grows very rapidly to 6.1 m (20 feet) tall and wide in 3 to 5 years, after which it needs little or no irrigation. It is completely thornless, and produces very little litter, with few seed pods. It has a sturdy, upright growth habit which requires very little pruning or staking. It blooms over a long period of time, with the heaviest bloom from about mid-March to May 1. It also tends to bloom again in June and August. The yellow flowers are larger than any of its three "parents." It does not reseed like the messy Parkinsonia aculeata!

Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet, Lucretia Hamilton^TM

Desert willow trees occur along washes throughout the southwestern US and northern Mexico. This small deciduous tree has narrow, light green leaves that give it a weeping appearance. In the summer, the tree is covered with fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers. In the wild, the flower colors range from white to purple, although a pale pink to lavender flower color is the most common. The Lucretia Hamilton^TM clone was selected for its intense, deep pink to purple flower color, as well as its small stature. While many desert willow trees can grow to 7.6 m (25 feet) tall and wide, this clone seems to stay below 5.4–6.1 m (18-20 feet) tall and wide. After flowering, long narrow seed pods are produced. Plant Chilopsis linearis in full sun and well-drained soil, and in regions where temperatures do not drop below –17.8°C (0°F).

Chrysactinia mexicana Gray (Damianita)

This small, compact shrub grows to 0.6 m (2 feet) tall and wide, and bears a very strong resemblance to turpentine bush, with needle-like green leaves and yellow daisy-like flowers. However, damianita blooms from March to September, while turpentine bush blooms from September to November. Combining the two plants would be a great way to prolong the color display! Damianita has wonderful-smelling foliage, and would be a great selection for sensory gardens. Damianita is a very tough, durable plant, tolerating extreme heat and cold, down to –17.8°C (0°F). Plant in full sun, and almost any soil. If this plant starts to look woody, prune it back severely in the early spring. Damianita ranges from New Mexico to west Texas and northeastern Mexico, at elevations of 609–2134 m (2000–7000 feet).

Dalea capitata Sierra Gold^TM

This well-behaved ground cover grows to about 20 cm (8 inches) tall by 0.9 m (3 feet) wide. Because of its compact size, Sierra Gold^TM is a good selection for tight planting areas, such as small planters or medians. Its fine-textured, light green foliage has a fresh, lemony scent. Rabbits seem to avoid it! Yellow flowers carpet Sierra Gold^TM in the spring and the fall. This plant is hardy to at least –15°C (5°F), but it will be deciduous at –3.9°C (25°F). The one drawback to this plant is that the whiteflies seem to like it, so some insecticide applications will be necessary in heavily infested areas around Phoenix. Plant in full sun for best results. No soil amendments should be necessary. In hot desert regions this plant requires some supplemental irrigation from spring to fall. Although most dales native to Arizona and Mexico tend to rot out if overwatered, we have observed this plant thriving right next to turfgrass, where it receives heavy irrigation. More testing is needed to determine if it will tolerate coastal areas, or regions with high rainfall.

Dasylirion longissimum

This user-friendly accent plant is a great selection for high-traffic areas such as walkways and near entries. This grasslike plant does well in containers, and its symmetrical form provides a striking focal point. Its thin, stiff green leaves are completely unarmed, and have smooth edges. Eventually, its single trunk can grow to 1.8 m (6 feet), topped by a 1.5 m- (5-foot-) wide rounded head of leaves. The older, bottom leaves can be trimmed off to expose the trunk. Dasylirion longissimum is native to Mexico, and is hardy to about –8.3°C (17°F).

Euphorbia biglandulosa Desf. (Gopher Plant)

This evergreen perennial or subshrub has a very unusual form and appearance. Its arching stems angle out and up, and can reach a length of 0.6 m (2 feet). The plant grows to 0.9 m (3 feet) tall by 1.2 m (4 feet) across; with narrow, fleshy grey-green leaves. Broad clusters of chartreuse flowers occur at the tips of the arching stems, usually in the late winter and early spring. Flowers are followed by small brown seed pods that explode upon ripening. The stems usually die back after fruiting, leaving a small clump of grey-green foliage near the ground. Plant Euphorbia biglandulosa in full sun or light shade, in a well-draining soil. It is cold hardy to –15°C (5°F).

Hesperaloe parviflora (Torr.) J. Coult., 'Yellow' (Yellow yucca)

A clumping perennial with long, gray-green leaves, Hesperaloe parviflora grows slowly to form a grasslike clump 1.0–1.2 m (3–4 feet) tall and wide. From spring through fall, it produces 1.5 m- (5-foot-) tall flower spikes. Red-flowering plants have been a staple in southwestern landscapes for many years. This is simply a yellow-flowering selection. Use this tough accent plant in full sun. Since it also tolerates reflected heat, yellow yucca is a reliable plant to use along sidewalks, in parking lots, etc. Tolerant of temperature extremes, yellow yucca is cold-hardy to at least –17.8°C (0°F). Once established, it requires little or no irrigation. All in all, yellow yucca is one of the toughest and most maintenance-free plants.

Hymenoxys acaulis (Pursh) K. Parker (Angelita Daisy)

This perennial is native to the southwestern US, where it occurs most often at elevations from 1219–2134 m (4000–7000 feet), on dry rocky slopes and mesas. Angelita daisy bears a strong resemblance to Baileya multiradiata Harv. & A. Gray ex Torr. (desert marigold). However, the foliage is green rather than gray, and the flower is a deeper gold color. Forming rounded clumps to fifteen inches tall and wide, Hymenoxys acaulis is a wonderful plant to use as a border in front of larger shrubs. I f water is available, it will naturalize in the landscape. In Phoenix, this plant blooms all year, with especially heavy bloom in the spring and fall months. This prolonged bloom period results in many dried flower stalks, which can make the plants look scruffy. We recommend cutting off the old flower spikes occasionally to rejuvenate the plant and initiate new flower production. Angelita daisy seems to prefer well-drained soils and full sun. It is very cold hardy, heat tolerant, and drought tolerant.

Leucophyllum candidum I.M. Johnst. Thunder Cloud^TM

As with all of the other Leucophyllum species, this clone blooms when the humidity is high. The silver, pubescent foliage is a perfect foil for the masses of indigo flowers that appear in the summer and fall months. Thunder Cloud^TM was selected and trademarked by Benny Simpson of Texas A&M University. His clone is highly valued because of its small, dense growth habit. Unlike most of the larger Leucophyllum species, Thunder Cloud^TM remains reliably small, to three feet tall and wide. This plant is cold hardy to at least –12.2°C (10°F). Plant all of the Leucophyllum species in full sun and well-drained soil. Avoid overwatering.

Leucophyllum langmaniae Rio Bravo^TM

Trademarked by Mountain States Nursery, this clone has a nice, compact growth habit very similar to L. frutescens 'Compacta'. Rio Bravo^TM has become very popular because of its bright green foliage and rounded, dense form. It has lavender flowers and will eventually grow to 1.5 m (5 feet) tall and wide. Like the L. candidum species, it requires well-drained soils and full sun. It is hardy to –12.2°C (10°F).

Muhlenbergia capillaris (Lam.) Trin. Regal Mist^TM

We feel that this ornamental grass shows great promise for many different regions of the country. Native to humid southeastern Texas, this grass has adapted extremely well to the hot, dry conditions of deserts in Arizona and Nevada. In fact, it has performed incredibly well in Las Vegas, which is cursed with poor soils, high winds, high summer temperatures, and cold winters. Regal Mist^TM is also happy in heavy soils, with ample irrigation. In short, it has worked everywhere it has been tried, so far! It is hardy to at least –17.8°C (0°F). Regal Mist^TM has narrow, dark green, glossy leaves. It grows quickly to form a rounded clump to 0.9 m (3 feet) tall and wide. The flower spikes on this grass have attracted a lot of attention... they form misty masses of pink to purple flowers in October and November. We recommend cutting this plant back in early spring to cut off the dead flower spikes and any dormant foliage.

Penstemon species

There are so many wonderful Penstemon species to try in the garden, that is difficult to select just a few. Most of the penstemons are perennials with a basal rosette of foliage, which send up spikes of tubular flowers in the spring and early summer. They add incredible color to the landscape, and attract hummingbirds as well! Penstemons come in a wide range of colors, including blue, purple, pink, and red. After they finish blooming, allow the flower spikes to dry on the plant. Then cut off the spikes and sprinkle the seed in the garden to increase next year's mass of color. There are two new species to try: Penstemon triflorus Heller, which has short, 46 cm (18 inch) spikes of dark pink-purple flowers which occur along the stem in clusters of three; and Penstemon clevelandii Gray, native to southern and Baja California, with spikes of clear, bright pink flowers to 0.6–0.8 m (2–2.5 feet) tall.

Acacia nilotica (L.) Del

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Uses

Some feel that the thorn bush of Exodus 3 was Acacia nilotica, the fire, the parasite Loranthus acaciae. Inner bark contains 18–23% tannin, used for tanning and dyeing leather black. Young pods produce a very pale tint in leather, notably goat hides (Kano leather). Pods were used by the ancient Egyptians. Young bark used as fiber, twigs esteemed for tooth brushes (chewsticks). Trees tapped for gum arabic. The gum arabic is still used in making candles, inks, matches, and paints (NAS, 1980). Tender pods and shoots used as vegetable, and used as forage for camels, sheep and goats, especially in Sudan, where it is said to improve milk from these animals. Seeds are a valuable cattle food. Roasted seed kernels, sometimes used for flavoring and when crushed provide the dye for black strings worn by Nankani women. Trees used in Sudan for afforestation of inundated areas. Sapwood is yellowish-white, heartwood reddish-brown, hard, heavy, durable, difficult to work, though taking a high polish. Because of its resins, it resists insects and water, and trees are harvested for the timber for boat-making, posts, buildings, water-pipes, well-planking, plows, cabinet-work, wheels, mallets and other implements. Wood yields excellent firewood and charcoal (Duke, 1981a). The aqueous extract of the fruit, rich in tannin (18–23%) has shown algicidal activity against Chroccoccus, Closteruim, Coelastrum, Cosmarium, Cyclotella, Euglena, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Pediastrum, Rivularia, Spirogyra, and Spirulina (Ayoub, 1983).

Folk Medicine

Zulu take bark for cough, Chipi use root for tuberculosis. Masai are intoxicated by the bark and root decoction, said to impart courage, even aphrodisia, and the root is said to cure impotence. Astringent bark used for diarrhea, dysentery, and leprosy. Bruised leaves poulticed onto ulcers. According to Hartwell, the gum or bark is used for cancers and/or tumors (of ear, eye, or testicles) and indurations of liver and spleen, condylomas, and excess flesh. Said also to be used for cancer, colds, congestion, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, gallbladder, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, leucorrhea, ophthalmia, sclerosis, smallpox, and tuberculosis. Bark, gum, leaves, and pods used medicinally in West Africa. Sap or bark, leaves, and young pods are strongly astringent due to tannin, and are chewed In Senegal as antiscorbutic; in Ethiopia as lactogogue. Bark decoction drunk for intestinal pains and diarrhea. Other preparations used for coughs, gargle, toothache, ophthalmia, and syphilitic ulcers. In Tonga, the root is used to treat tuberculosis. In Lebanon, the resin is mixed with orange-flower infusion for typhoid convalescence. Masai use the bark decoction as a nerve stimulant. In Italian Africa, the wood is used to treat smallpox. Egyptian Nubians believe that diabetics may eat unlimited carbohydrates as long as they also consume powdered pods (Duke, 1983a). Extracts are inhibitory to at least four species of pathogenic fungi (Umalkar et al, 1976).

Chemistry

Babul has been reported to contain l-arabinose, catechol, galactan, galactoaraban, galactose, N-acetyldjenkolic acid, N-acetyldjenkolic acid, sulphoxides pentosan, saponin, tannin. Seeds contain crude protein 18.6%, ether extract 4.4%, fiber 10.1%, nitrogen-free extract 61.2%, ash 5.7%, and silica 0.44%. Phosphorus 0.29% and calcium 0.90% of DM. When bullocks were given the seeds and bran (2:1) with dry pasture grass daily DM intakes were 1.82, 0.91, and 5.35 kg respectively. Total DM intake/100 kg bodyweight was 1.40 kg. The animals retained 20.8 g N and 7.4 g Ca daily but the P balance was slightly negative (Pande et al, 1981). Walker (1980) puts the CP content of the browse at 12.9%, the crude fiber at 15.2%

Description

Small tree, 2.5–14 m tall, quite variable in many aspects; bark of twigs not flaking off, gray to brown; branches spreading, with flat or rounded crown; bark thin, rough, fissured, deep red-brown; branchlets purple-brown, shortly or densely gray-pubescent, with lenticels; spines gray-pubescent, slightly recurved, up to 3 cm long; leaves often with 1–2 petiolar glands and other glands between all or only the uppermost pinnae; plnnae 2–11 (-17) pairs; leaflets 7–25 (-30) pairs, 1.5–7 mm long, 0.5–1.5 mm wide, glabrous or pubescent, apex obtuse; peduncles clustered at nodes of leafy and leafless branchlets; flowers bright yellow, in axillary heads 6–15 mm in diam.; involucel from near the base to about half-way up the peduncle, rarely somewhat higher; calyx 1–2 mm long, subglabrous to pubescent; corolla 2.5–3.5 mm long, glabrous or pubescent outside; pods especially variable, linear, indehiscent, 8–17 (-24) cm long, 1.3–2.2 cm broad, straight or curved, glabrous or gray-velvety, turgid, blackish, about 12-seeded; seeds deep blackish-brown, smooth, subcircular, compressed, areole 6–7 mm long, 4.5–5 mm wide. Fl. Oct.–Dec.; fr. Mar.–June (Duke, 1981a).

Germplasm

Acacia nilotica var. kraussiana (Benth.) Brenan is the most common form in east tropical Africa. Young branches more or less densely pubescent; pods not necklace-like, 1–1.8 cm wide, oblong, more or less pubescent all over at first with raised parts over seeds becoming glabrescent, shining and black when dry, margins shallowly crenate. Exhibits wide range of altitudinal and habitat requirements. Found in Botswana, Zambia, Rhodesia, Malawi, Tanzania, Angola, Mozambique, Transvaal, and Natal. A. nilotica var. tomentosa A. F. Hill (A. arabica var. tomentosa Benth.), has pods straight, constricted between seeds and densely tomentose; found in Senegal and northern Nigeria, to Sudan, Arabia and India. A. nilotica var. adansonii (Guill. et Perr.) Kuntze is a tree up to 17 m with dark reddish-brown bark deeply fissured, tomentose, reddish-brown twigs and gray fruits; commonest variety in West Africa, from Senegal to Nigeria and widespread in northern parts of Tropical Africa. Assigned to the African Center of Diversity, babul or cvs thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to clay, drought, heat, heavy soil, high pH, poor soils, salt, savanna, and waterlogging. (2n=52.)

Distribution

Native from Egypt south to Mozambique and Natal; apparently introduced to Zanzibar, Pemba, and India; Arabia. Considered a serious weed in South Africa.

Ecology

Woodlands of various sorts, wooded grasslands, scrub and thickets. Thrives in dry areas, but endures floods. Grows 10–1,340 m altitude, in a wide range of conditions. Grows on a wide variety of soils, seemingly thriving on alluvial soils, black cotton soils, heavy clay soils, as well as even poorer soils (NAS, 1980). Ranging from Subtropical Desert to Subtropical Dry through Tropical Desert to Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, babul is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.8–22.8 dm (mean of 12 cases = 12.0 dm), annual mean temperature of 18.7–27.8°C (mean of 12 cases = 24.1°C), and pH of 5.0–8.0 (mean of 10 cases = 6.9) (Duke, 1981a).

Cultivation

Trees propagated in forest by seeds. Direct seeding is the common practice. Stored seed may require scarification. Young seedlings are said to "require full sun and frequent weeding" (NAS, 1980a).

Harvesting

Although there are other sources of gum arabic, trees are still tapped for the gum by removing a bit of bark 5–7.5 cm wide and bruising the surrounding bark with mallet or hammer. The resulting reddish gum, almost completely soluble and tasteless, is formed into balls. Though used in commerce to some extent, it is inferior to other forms of gum arabic, with which it is sometimes mixed.

Yields and Economics

Various products of the tree are used locally in tropical Africa, but none enter international markets. Trees usually add 2–3 cm in diameter each year (NAS, 1980a).

Energy

Extensively used, e.g. in India, for firewood and charcoal, this species has been used in locomotives and steamships as well as industry balers. It is cultivated for industrial fuel in the Sudan. The calorific value of the sapwood is 4,800 kcal/kg of the heartwood 4,950. The species does nodulate and fix nitrogen.

Biotic Factors

Wood borers may afflict the stems and bruchids may afflict the seeds. Following fungi have been reported on this plant: Ctyospora acaciae, Diatryphe acaciae, Diplodia acaciae, Fomes badius, F. endotheius, F. fastuosus, F. rimosus, Fusicoccum indicum, Phyllactinia acaciae, Ravenelia acaciae-arabicae, Septogloeum acaciae, Septoria mortolensis, Sphaerostilbe acaciae. Trees are also parasitized by Dendrophthoe falcata and Loranthus globiferus var. verrucosus (Duke, 1981). In a survey for phytophagous insects on Acacia nilotica, 43 species were recorded in Pakistan, of these, 16 appeared stenophagous. The more promising for biological control of the tree were: Anarsia sp. cf. acaciae, Pseudosterrha paulula, Azanus ubaldus, and Ceutholopha isidis feeding on flowers; Bruchidius sahlbergi and Sulcobruchus sp. damaging seeds; Ascalenia callynella, Gisilia stereodoxa and an unidentified gracillariid boring shoots; and Cydia sp. making stem galls (Mohyuddin, 1981).

Yields and Economics

Various products of the tree are used locally in tropical Africa, blit none enter international markets. Trees usually add 2–3 cm in diameter each year (NAS, 1980).

References

Ayoub, S.M.H. 1983. Algicidal properties of Acacia nilotica. Fitoterapia 53(5–6):175–8.
Duke, 1981.
Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Duke, J.A. 1983a. Medicinal plants of the Bible. Trado-Medic Books, Owerri, NY.
Mohyuddin, A.I. 1981. Phytophages associated with Acacia nilotica in Pakistan and possibilities of their introduction into Australia. p. 161–166. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Pande, M.B., Talpada, P.M., Patel, J.S., and Shukla, P.C. 1981. Note on the nutritive value of babul (Acacia nilotica L.) seeds (extracted). In: Indian J. Anim. Sci. 51(1):107–108.
Umalkar, C.V., Begum, S., Nehemiah, K.M.A. 1976. Inhibitory effect of Acacia nilotica extracts on pectolytic enzyme production by some pathogenic fungi. Indian Phytopath.: publ. 1977, 29(4):469–470.
Walker, B.H. 1980. A review of browse and its role in livestock production in southern Africa. p. 7–24. In: LeHouerou, H.N. (ed.), Browse in Africa. International Livestock Centre for Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Acacia mearnsii de Wild

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Uses

Tree of economic importance in South and East Africa, Rhodesia, India, and Rio Grande do Sul area of South America etc. for tanning of soft-leather. Ranging from 30–54 percent tannin in dried bark. Wood furnishes badly needed fuel and building material in some areas. Trees not only provide tannin and fuel, but also add nitrogen and organic material to improve the soil. Bark is used for wood adhesives and flotation agents (Duke, 1981a). The pulp is suitable for wrapping paper and hardboard. Some regard it as an attractive ornamental. Sometimes used for erosion control on poor sloping soils unsuitable for agriculture. Densely packed plantations are effective in preventing further erosion on 50° slopes. Some farmers claim that tobacco and vegetable yields are doubled in rotating with the black wattle. In places it is regarded as a "green cancer", spreading vigorously as a weed (NAS, 1980; Little, 1983).

Folk Medicine

Products are often used in folk medicine as styptics or astringents (Duke, 1981).

Chemistry

Black wattle bark contains (-)-robinetinidol and (+)-catechin; the biflavonoids (-)-fisetinidol-(+)-catechin (2 diastereoisomers), (-)-robinetinidol-(+)-catechin and (-)-robinetinidol-(+)-gallocatechin; triflavonoids and condensed tannins. The heartwood is rich in (+)-leucofisetinidin (mollisacacidin) together with (-)-fisetinidol, (+)-fustin, butin, fisetin, butein, and biflavonoid condensates (tannins) (Duke, 1981).

Description

Tree 6 to 20 m tall, 10 to 60 cm in diameter; crown conical or rounded; all parts except flowers usually pubescent or puberulous; stems without spines or prickles; leaves bipinnate, on petioles 1.5–2.5 cm long, with a gland above; rachis 4–12 cm long with numerous raised glands all along its upper side; pinnae in 8–30 pairs, pinnules in 16–70 pairs, linear-oblong, 1.5–4 mm long, 0.5–0.75 min wide; flowers in globose heads 5–8 mm in diameter, borne in panicles or racemes, on peduncles 2–6 mm long; pale yellow and fragrant; pods gray-puberulous, or sometimes glabrous, almost moniliform, dehiscing, usually 3–10 cm long, 0.5–0.8 cm wide, with 3–14 joints; seeds black, smooth, elliptic or compressed ovoid, 3–5 mm long, 2–3.5 mm wide; caruncle conspicuous; areole 3.5 mm long, 2 mm wide. Seeds 66,000 to 110,000/kg (Duke, 1981a).

Germplasm

Can be crossed with Acacia decurrens, hybrids show more sterility than parents. Meiosis is regular, with no gross cytological abnormalities, and sterility may be due to gene differentiation between species. There is little geographic overlap in the native Australian ranges of the species, and there are differences in phenology (flowering; seedset). Most of the characters that vary among the species are quantitative. The development of black wattle strains or of hybrids with enhanced vigor, better quality bark, outstanding stem form, or resistance to insect pests and disease would benefit the wattle industry. Assigned to the Australian Center of Diversity, black wattle or cvs thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to drought, laterite, and poor soil (Duke, 1981). For an Acacia, it is relatively tolerant to frost, and its growth is slowed by high temperatures. (2n = 26.)

Distribution

Native to Southeast Australia (Victoria to New South Wales and southern Queensland) and Tasmania. Introduced and cultivated widely for afforestations. See Sherry (1971) for details.

Ecology

In Kenya grows on or near Equator at altitudes of 2,000–2,800 m, is well adjusted to the climate of East Africa. Grows well at 30°S Lat. in South America on rolling terrain at altitudes of 50–70 m. Thrives on poor, dry soils but favors deeper, moister, more fertile soils. In Australia, black wattle may occur on soils derived from shales, mudstones, sandstones, conglomerates, and alluvial deposits. In Kenya on podsols, krasnozems, sandy hills, lava flows or on mixtures of lava and contemporaneous volcanic tuffs and breccias. In South America, grown on red clay or sandy soils that have suffered from severe erosion and soil depletion (ferruginous clay loams with little or no free silica). In East Africa grows where annual rainfall is 1,041–1,321 mm, (about 75% between April and September). On the equator where black wattle is grown in South America, the rain pattern is nearly opposite, mean annual temperature range is 17–23°C; there is little seasonal variation, but considerable diurnal variation. At higher altitudes in South America, frost is a risk and heavy snows may break tree limbs. Tannin content varies inversely with precipitaton. Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Thorn to Tropical Moist Forest Life Zones, black wattle is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6–22.8 dm (mean of 6 cases=12.6), annual mean temperature of 14.7–27.8°C (mean of 6 cases=2.6°C), and pH of 5.0–7.2 (mean of 5 cases = 0.5).

Cultivation

Propagation by seed is easy. Seeds retain their viability for several years. For germination seed are covered with boiling water and allowed to stand until cool. This cracks the hard outer coat and facilitates germination. Seeds may be broadcast or sown in rows on any barren site. Usually they are sown about 5 cm apart in seedbeds, and are transplanted after 3–6 months. In South America, fields are usually plowed and harrowed in April or May. Seedlings are set out May–November, but usually in winter, June–August, after a rain. Plants are spaced 2 m each way, at rate of 2,500/ha. Propagation by cuttings is almost impossible without mist. Air layering is more promising. Two types of farmers grow acacia: the tanner or business man plants 200 ha or so entirely to black wattle, usually one section at a time so that he can plant and harvest within the same year and continue year after year; the farmer plants half or less of his land to black wattle and the rest to crops such as corn, beans, maniac, sugarcane, other vegetables, or pasture. He plants 2–6 hectares of acacian each year and thus evenly distributes work and production. Oxen may be useful for plowing, but most work is by hand. Usually only plows and hoes are used in Cultivation. Intercrops may be grown the first year during which trees grow about 4–5 m in height, and about 2.5 cm in diameter (Duke, 1981).

Harvesting

Trees provide bark 5–10 years after seeding (avg 7). Bark is stripped from lower part of tree, then tree is felled, the remaining bark removed, and tree and bark are cut into 1 m lengths. Thoroughly dried bark is arranged in bales of 75 to 80 kg when ready for transportation. Tanning power improves by 10–15% in bark carefully stored for a season. Percent tannin does not differ between barks harvested in dry and wet seasons. However, the amount of bark on trees may be less on poor than on rich soils. Tannin runs about 25–35% per kilo of dried bark, on either poor or rich soil. Acacia bark may be sold as baled bark, or bark powder. Dried bark may go first to commercial bark processors where it is ground or shredded in a hammermill, then sold in 40-kg sacks. Bark powder is sold in 60-kg sacks. Liquid extract is sold in 300-kg wooden barrels. In Rio Grande do Sul an estimated 5,000 MT of liquid extract is produced annually (Duke, 1981a).

Yields and Economics

Except for some mangrove species, black wattle in pure stand produces more tannin per hectare than most tanniniferous plants. In South Africa well-managed have produced the equivalent of 3 MT/ha tannin, about twice the average, when grown in rotations in excess of 12 years. One 7-yr-old tree produces 3–5 kg of dried bark. Twelve trees produce 1 cu m of firewood. The wood of debarked trees is dried and used for mine timbers, pulpwood, and fuel. Moisture loss is rapid in first 4 weeks after felling, then much slower. Wood weighs 708.7 kg/cu m. One tree can produce up to 10 cwt of bark or about 5 cwt stripped. One ton of black wattle bark is sufficient to tan 2,530 hides, best adapted for sole leather and other heavy goods; the leather is fully as durable as that tanned with oak bark. One ton of bark yields 4 cwt of extract tar. Destructive distillation of the wood yields 33.2% charcoal, 9.5% lime acetate, and 0.81 methyl alcohol. As a source of vegetable tannin, black wattle shares with quebracho and chestnut a large portion of the world market for vegetable tannins. According to Sherry (1971), plantation grown wattle in South Africa, Rhodesia, Tanzania, Kenya, and Brazil supplied about 38% of world demand for tannin. South Africa was the largest producer, with annual output of 72,000 MT of ca 120,000 MT on the world market. Eucalyptus grandis produces more wood than wattle, but it is inferior for fuel and charcoal. At one time in South Africa, 56% of the proceeds from wattle was from bark, the balance from timber (Duke, 1981a).

Energy

An efficient N-fixer, it is reported to annually yield 21–28 MT/ha wet leaves containing 245–285 kg N. If we put the information in our cultivation paragraph and our yields paragraph, we find the improbable 2,500 plants per hectare, with 12 producing 1 m³ firewood, suggesting a potential of more than 200 m³/ha for 7 year old trees, suggesting annual yields of ca 30 m³/ha. NAS (1980a) reports annual thickwood production of 10–25 m°3/ha and bark production of 0.8–4.0 MT. The dense wood (sp. grav. = 0.7–0.85) 3,500–4,000 kcal/kg (oven-dry Indonesian specimens 4,650 kcal/kg), its ash content ca 1.5%. The charcoal (sp. grav. = 0.3–0.5) has a calorific value of 6,600 kcal/kg, with an ash content of 0.4%.

Biotic Factors

The most serious disease is disback, caused by Phoma herbarum. Other fungi attacking black wattle include: Chaetomium cochliodes, Daldinia sp., and Trichoderma viride. In Rio Grande do Sul, disease and insects cause about 20% loss of trees. Principal insects attacking Brazilian wattle are Molippa sabina, Achryson surinamum, Placosternus cyclene, Eburodacrys dubitata, Neoclytus pusillus, Oncideres impluviata, Oncideres saga, and Trachyderes thoracica. Ants, termites, and borers are the most damaging. The sauva ant which attacks the leaves is fought constantly with arsenicals and carbon disulfide. Nematodes reported on this species include Meloidogyne arenaria, M. incognita acrita, and M. javanica (Golden, pers. commun. 1984).

References

Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
NAS, 1980.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Sherry, S.P. 1971. The black wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Wild.). University of Natal Press. Pietermatitzburg.

Acacia mearnsii de Wild

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Uses

Folk Medicine

Products are often used in folk medicine as styptics or astringents (Duke, 1981).

Chemistry

Description

Germplasm

Distribution

Native to Southeast Australia (Victoria to New South Wales and southern Queensland) and Tasmania. Introduced and cultivated widely for afforestations. See Sherry (1971) for details.

Ecology

Cultivation

Harvesting

Yields and Economics

Energy

Biotic Factors

References

Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
NAS, 1980.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Sherry, S.P. 1971. The black wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Wild.). University of Natal Press. Pietermatitzburg.

Acacia mearnsii de Wild

2010-08-02T23:08:00.001-07:00

Uses

Folk Medicine

Products are often used in folk medicine as styptics or astringents (Duke, 1981).

Chemistry

Description

Germplasm

Distribution

Native to Southeast Australia (Victoria to New South Wales and southern Queensland) and Tasmania. Introduced and cultivated widely for afforestations. See Sherry (1971) for details.

Ecology

Cultivation

Harvesting

Yields and Economics

Energy

Biotic Factors

References

Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
NAS, 1980.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Sherry, S.P. 1971. The black wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Wild.). University of Natal Press. Pietermatitzburg.

Acacia mangium Willd

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Uses

Regarded first as a rather productive timber tree, secondly for firewood (specific gravity = 0.65). The hard, light-brown wood is dense, with narrow sapwood and a straight, close grain. It makes excellent particle board and could possibly be useful for furniture, cabinetmaking, and perhaps even pulp and paper. Capable of being directly sown, the tree appears quite promising for erosion control where adapted (NAS, 1979). Some success is indicated in the use of the species to correct the problem of the Imperata grasslands (Tham, 1979). Sabah foresters have converted 1,200 ha of degraded Imperata grassland into productive forest lands.

Folk Medicine

No data available.

Chemistry

According to Anderson (1978) the gum contains 5.4% ash, 0.98% N, 1.49% methoxyl, and by calculation, 32.2% uronic acid. The sugar composition after hydrolysis: 9.0% 4-0-methylglucuronic acid, 23.2% glucuronic acid, 56% galactose, 10% arabinose, and 2% rhamnose.

Toxicity

Dust from pods pounded during seed extraction causes a respiratory reaction in some people. No hint of pollen allergies has been reported (NAS, 1983d).

Description

Tree to 30 m tall, bole often straight, to over half the total tree height. Branchlets, phyllodes and petioles glabrous or slightly scurfy. Phyllodes 5–10 cm broad, 2–4 times as long as broad, dark green, chartaceous when dry. The phyllodes have (3–)4 longitudinal main nerves which join on the dorsal margin at the base of the phyllode, secondary nerves fine and inconspicuous. Flowers in loose spikes to 10 cm long, solitary or paired in the upper axils. Flowers pentamerous, the calyx 0.6–0.8 mm long, with short obtuse lobes, the corolla twice as long as the calyx. Pods linear, glabrous, 3–5 mm broad, ca 7.5 cm long when green, woody, coiled and brackish-brown when mature, depressed between the seeds. Seeds lustrous, black, ellipsoid, ovate or oblong, 3.5 x 2.5 mm, the orangish funicle forming a fleshy aril beneath the seed.

Germplasm

Native to the Australian Center of Diversity, the mange tree has been reported to tolerate heavy soil, laterites, low pH, poor soil, slopes, and weeds (NAS, 1979, 1983d). Hybridizes naturally with Acacia auriculiformis, producing hybrids which grow faster than either parent, but tending to retain the poor form of A. auriculiformis.

Distribution

Largely Australian with disjunct distribution of small stands in New Guinea and the Moluccas, as well as in Cape York Peninsula. In Indonesia A. mangium occurs on Taliabu, the most western island, and Sanana, a southern island of the Sula Island Group and near Waesalan in the southwest of the main Ceran group. Introduced to Banglasesh, Cameroon, Costa Rica, Hawaii, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Papua, and the Philippines (NAS, 1983d).

Ecology

Often in grasslands and on margins of lowland primary forests at altitudes of 10–50 m. Probably capable of ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, this species has outperformed Albizia falcataria, Gmelina arborea (considered among the fastest-growing useful trees on earth, NAS, 1979), and Pinus caribaea on poor sites such as disturbed or burned sites, on degraded lateritic clay underlain with volcanic rock, on soils so worn out that even shifting cultivation had been abandoned, and on slopes infested with Eupatorium and/or Imperata species. Mangium apparently tolerates annual precipitation of 10 to 45 dm or more, mean maximum temperature of 31–34°C in summer, mean minimum temperature of 12–25°C in winter, and pH of 4.2–7.5 (NAS, 1983d). It is reported on entisols and ultisols.

Cultivation

Sometimes sown direstly. During the first two years growth in Sabah Imperata wastelands, trees required some weeding and occasionally insecticidal treatment. Beyond that, little tending is required. Trees coppice readily and flower and fruit profusely and "continuously" (NAS, 1979). Many more details are reported by NAS (1983d).

Harvesting

Large-diameter logs can be sawn or peeled. Viable seed can be harvested only 24 hours after planting (NAS, 1983d). Fourteen-year old trees yield a kilogram of seed.

Yields and Economics

Said to be a very fast growing species attaining 15 m height and 40 cm DBH in 3 years. They have attained 23 m tall in 9 years.

Energy

Yields as high as 30 m³/ha/yr have been reported, but 20 m³ has been reported on poor sites. The timber, recommended for testing as firewood, has potential for firewood and charcoal (NAS, 1983d). The wood has 4,800–4,900 kcal/kg. Untended 9-year old stands have yielded 415 m³ timber per ha, representing annual productivity of 46 m³ (NAS, 1979). The MAI in Sabah varies from 13.8–44.5 m³/ha.

Biotic Factors

There are problems with leaf insects. Mangium has symbioses with the bacterium Rhizobium and the fungus Thelephora. Specimens (ca 12%) in Sabah suffer from a heart rot and a "pink disease" (Corticium salmonicolor). Seedlings in Hawaiian nurseries are attacked by a powdery mildew (Oidium sp.). Three pinhole borers attack the tree in Sabah, especially on poorer sites. Carpenter ants (Camponotus sp.) form galleries in the heartwood of young trees. Wood borers of the genus Xystrocera may be a problem. Seedlings may be defoliated by Hypomeces squamosus. Scale insects and mealy bugs may also be problematic with young plants (NAS, 1983d).

References

Anderson, D.M.W. 1978. Chemotaxonomic aspects of the chemistry of acacia gum exudates. Kew Bull. 32(3):529–536.
N.A.S. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1983d. Mangium and other acacias of the humid tropics. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Tham, C.K. 1979. Trials of Acacia mangium Willd. as a plantation species in Sabah. Forest Genetic Resources Information 9. FAO Forestry Occasional Paper 1979 (No. 1).

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne

2010-08-02T23:06:00.000-07:00

Uses

Folk Medicine

Chemistry

Nutritive tables (Gohl, 1981)

		As % of dry matter
	DM	CP	CF	Ash	EE	NFE	Ca	P	Ref.
Fresh leaves, South Africa		19.2	11.6	8.7	6.1	54.4	2.27	0.17	213
Pods, South Africa		17.3	24.8	5.7	3.1	49.1	0.79	0.34	213
Seeds, South Africa		37.8	10.9	5.9	6.0	39.7	0.56	0.73	213
Pod husks, South Africa		8.7	34.3	6.2	1.6	49.2	1.10	0.14	213

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. heteracantha (Burch.) Brenan

		As % of dry matter
	DM	CP	CF	Ash	EE	NFE	Ca	P	Ref.
Fresh leaves, Sudan	90.9	13.3	9.4	9.6	8.3	59.4	4.00	0.15	64
Pods, Tanzania		12.3	22.4	5.6	1.8	57.9	0.98	0.24	166
Pods, Kenya		17.8	17.5	8.4	1.7	54.6	1.34	0.36	129

		Digestibility (%)
	Animal	CP	CF	EE	NFE	ME	Ref
Pods	Cattle	46.2	42.0	74.0	76.6	2.30	166

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich) Brenan

Description

Germplasm

Distribution

Ecology

Cultivation

Harvesting

Yields and Economics

Energy

Biotic Factors

References

Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. The Whitefriars Press, Ltd., London and Tonbridge.
Gohl, B. 1981. Tropical feeds. Feed information summaries and nutritive values. FAO Animal Production and Health Series 12. FAO, Rome.
Halperin, J. 1980. Forest insects and protection in the arid zones of Israel. J. Israel For. Assoc. 30(3/4):68–72.
Kaplan, J. 1979. Some examples of successful use of Acacia for afforestation. J. Israel For. Assoc. 29(3/4):63–64.
Karschon, R. 1975. Seed germination of Acacia raddiana Savi and A. tortilis Rayne as related to infestation by bruchids. Ag. Res. Org. Leaflet 52. Bet Dagan.
Muthana, K.D. and Arora, G.D. 1980. Performance of Acacia tortilis (Forsk) under different habitats of the Indian arid zone. Ann. Arid Zone 19(1/2):110–118.
N.A.S. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Nkaonja, R.S.W. 1980. Dryland afforestation problems in Malawi. J. Israel For. Assoc. 30(3/4):100–105.
Palmer, E. and Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of Southern Africa. 3 vols. A.A. Balkemia, Cape Town.
Roy, A.D., Kaul, R.N., and Gyanchand. 1973. Israeli babool a promising tree for arid and semiarid lands.

Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd

2010-08-02T23:04:00.000-07:00

Uses

Cassie perfume is distilled from the flowers. Cassie absolute is employed in preparation of violet bouquets, extensively used in European perfumery. Cassie pomades are manufactured In Uttar Pradesh and the Punjab. Pods contain 23 percent tannin, a glucoside of ellagic acid, and are used for tanning leather. Bark also used for tanning and dying leather in combination with iron ores and salts. In Bengal and West Indies, pods are used for a black leather dye. Gummy substance obtained from pods used in Java as cement for broken crockery. Gum exuding from trunk considered superior to gum arabic in arts. Trees used as ingredient in Ivory Coast for arrow poison; elsewhere they are used as fences and to check erosion. Wood is hard and durable underground, used for wooden plows and for pegs. Trees often planted as an ornamental (Duke, 1981). Morton (1981) says that the seeds, containing an unnamed alkaloid, are used to kill rabid dogs in Brazil.

Folk Medicine

Bark is astringent and demulcent, and along with leaves and roots is used for medicinal purposes. Woody branches used in India as tooth brushes. The gummy roots also chewed for sore throat. Said to be used for alterative, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent, diarrhea, febrifuge, rheumatism, and stimulant (Duke, 1981a). Morton (1981) notes that Guatemalans value the flower infusion as a stomachic. It is also used for dyspepsia and neuroses. Mexicans sprinkle powdered dried leaves onto wounds. The flowers are added to ointment, rubbed on the forehead for headache. Green pods are decocted for dysentery and inflammations of the skin and raucous membranes. Colombians bathe in the bark decoction for typhoid. Costa Ricans decoct rhe gum from the trunk for diarrhea, using the pod infusion for diarrhea, leucorrhea, and uterorrhagia. Panamanians and Cubans used the pod to treat conjunctivitis. Cubans use the pod decoction for sore throat. For rheumatic pains, West Indians bind bark strips to the afflicted joint. The root decoction has been suggested as a folk remedy for tubersulosis. According to Hartwell (1967–1971), the decoction of the root, used in hot baths, is said to help stomach cancer. A plaster, made from the pulp, is said to alleviate tumors.

Chemistry

Dried seeds of one Acacia sp. are reported to contain per 100 g: 377 calories, 7.0% moisture, 12.6 g protein, 4.6 g fat, 72.4 g carbohydrate, 9.5 g flber, and 3.4 g ash. Raw leaves of Acacia contain per 100 g: 57 calories, 81.4% moisture, 8.0 g protein, 0.6 g fat, 9.0 g carbohydrate, 5.7 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 93 mg Ca, 84 mg P, 3.7 mg Fe, 12,255 mg b-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.17 mg riboflavin, 8.5 mg niacin, and 49 mg ascorbic acid. Reporting 55% protein on a dryweight basis, Van Etten et al (1963) break down the amino acids as follows: lysine, 4.7 (g/16 g N); methionine, 0.9; arginine, 9.2; glycine, 3.4;. histidine, 2.3; isoleucine, 3.5; leucine, 7.5; phenylalanine, 3.5; tyrosine, 2.8; threonine, 2.5; valine, 3.9; alanine, 4.3; aspartic acid, 8.8; glutamic acid, 12.6; hydroxyproline, 0.0; proline, 5.1; serine, 4.1; with 76% of the total nitrogen as amino acids. Cassie has been reported to contain anisaldehyde, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, butyric acid, coumarin, cresol, cuminaidehyde, decyl aldehyde, eicosane, eugenol, farnesol, geraniol, hydroxyacetophenone, methyleugenol, methyl salicylate, nerolidol, palmitic acid, salicylic acid, and terpineol (Duke, 1981). The leaves contain lipids, carotenoids, alkaloids, and reducing and non-reducing sugars (Morton, 1981). El Sissi et al (1973) isolated and identified from pods, seven polyphenols (gallic acid, ellagic acid, m-digallic acid, methyl gallate, kaempferol, atomadendrin, and narigenin). Also they found narigenin-7-glucoside and naringenin-7-rhamnoglucoside (naringin), as well as naringenin, glucose, and gallic acid.

Description

Thorny bush or small tree, 8 m tall; bark light brown, rough; branches glabrous or nearly, purplish to gray, with very small glands; stipules spinescent, usually short, up to 1.8 cm long, rarely longer, never inflated; leaves twice pinnate, with a small gland on petiole and sometimes one on the rachis near top of pinnae; pinnae 2–8 pairs, leaflets 10–12 pairs, minute, 2–7 mm long, 0.75–1.75 mm wide, glabrous, leathery; flowers in axillary pedunculate heads, calyx and corolla glabrous, scented; pod indehiscent, straight or curved, 4–7.5 cm long, about 1.5 cm wide, subterete and turgid, dark brown to blackish, glabrous, finely longitudinally striate, pointed at both ends; seeds chestnut-brown, in 2 rows, embedded in a dry spongy tissue, 7–8 mm long, ca 5.5 mm broad, smooth, elliptic, thick, only slightly compressed; areole 6.5–7 mm long, 4 mm wide (Duke, 1981a).

Germplasm

Both A. farnesiana and its var cavenia are extensively cultivated in and around Cannes, southern France, which is the center for production of the perfume. The variety seems to be more resistant to drought and frost. Assigned to the South American Center of Diversity, cassie or cvs thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to drought, high pH, heat, low pH, salt, sand, slope, and Savanna. (2n = 52, 104). (Duke, 1981a).

Distribution

Probably native to tropical America, but naturalized and cultivated all over the world, e.g. Africa (Rhodesia, Mozambique) and Australia. Planted in coastal areas of Ghana and elsewhere in tropical Africa. Grown throughout India, and often planted in gardens (Duke, 1981a).

Ecology

Thrives in dry localities and on loamy or sandy soils where it may serve as a sand binder. Will grow on loose sandy soil of river beds, on pure sand in plains of Punjab. Requires a dry tropical climate. Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Desert to Moist Forest Life Zones, cassie is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4–40.3 dm (mean of 20 cases 14.0 dm), annual mean temperature of 14.7–27.8°C (mean of 20 cases = 24.1°C), and pH of 5.0–8.0 (mean of 15 cases = 6.8) (Duke, 1981).

Cultivation

Propagated mainly from seed and cuttings. Seeds germinate readily and plants grow rapidly. Plants do not require much cultivation, watering or care (Duke, 1981a).

Harvesting

Trees begin to flower from the third year, mainly from November to March. Perfume is extracted from the flowers in form of concrete or pomade. Macerated flowers are placed in melted purified natural fat and allowed to stand for several hours. They are then replaced by fresh flowers and the process repeated until the fat is saturated with perfume. Fat is then melted, strained and cooled. This constitutes the pomade. Odor is that of violets but more intense. Absolute is prepared by mixing pomade with alcohol (2–3 kg to about 4 laters) and allowed to stand for 3–4 weeks at about -5°C. The alcohol is then separated and distilled over. The extract obtained is an olive-green liquid with strong odor of cassie flowers (Duke, 1981a).

Yields and Economics

Mature trees yield up to 1 kg of flowers per season. Southern France (Cannes and Grasse) is main production center for cassie flower perfume. India and other Eastern countries produce much for local use (Duke, 1981a).

Energy

Though omitted by the recent fuelwood books (NAS, 1980; Little, 1983), this species should be considered along with other Acacias for its energy potential. Other species yield fuelwood at rates of 5–20 m³/ha/yr, but lower yields may prevail in very humid environments. Of course the straggly bushy forms would not make very good fuel sources. Morton (1981) notes that the wood is used for fuel. Allen and Allen (1981) note that it fixes nitrogen.

Biotic Factors

Fungi reported on this plant include: Camptomeris albizziae, Clitocybe tabescens, Hypocrea borneensis, Lenzites palisoti, L. repanda, Phyllachora acaciae, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Polystictus flavus, Ravenelia austris, R. hieronymi, R. siliquae, R. spegazziniana, Schizophyllum commune, Systingophora hieronymi, Tryblidiella rufula, and Uromycladium notabile. It may also be parasitized by the flowering plants Dendrophthoe falcata and Santalum album (Duke, 1981a).

References

Allen, O.N. and Allen, E.K. 1981. The Leguminosae. The University of Wisconsin Press. 812 p.
Duke, J.A. 1981.
Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
El Sissi, H.I., El Ansari, M.A., and El Negoumy, S.I. 1973. Phenolics of Acacia farnesiana. Phytochemical reports. Phytochemistry 12:2303.
Hartwell, J.L. 1967–1971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 30–34.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
Morton, J.F. 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of middle America. Bahamas to Yucatan. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Van Etten, C.H., Wolff, I.A., and Jones, Q. 1963. Amino acid composition of seeds from 200 angiospermous plant species. J. Agr. Food Chem. 11(5):399–410.

Acacia mearnsii de Wild

2010-08-02T23:03:00.000-07:00

Uses

Folk Medicine

Products are often used in folk medicine as styptics or astringents (Duke, 1981).

Chemistry

Description

Germplasm

Distribution

Native to Southeast Australia (Victoria to New South Wales and southern Queensland) and Tasmania. Introduced and cultivated widely for afforestations. See Sherry (1971) for details.

Ecology

Cultivation

Harvesting

Yields and Economics

Energy

Biotic Factors

References

Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press. NewYork.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
NAS, 1980.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Sherry, S.P. 1971. The black wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Wild.). University of Natal Press. Pietermatitzburg.

Acacia cyclops A. Cunn. ex G. Don

2010-08-02T23:00:00.000-07:00

Uses

Producing a dense high quality firewood, this species has been recommended for stabilization of coastal dunes. Goats and antelope browse the phyllodes. The seeds and their oily funicles are eaten by birds, primates, and rodents, and if crushed, might be suitable for cattle.

Folk Medicine

With its high tannin content, the species could serve as an astringent.

Chemistry

Bark has yielded 6.5% tannin, or in Natal, up to 12.1%. Seed contains 10% of fixed oil, the aril or funicle 40%.

Description

Dense, evergreen bushy shrub, often multistemmed, or small tree 3 to 8 m tall, with a rounded crown . In windy coastal sites it forms a hedge less than 0.5 m high. The foliage comprises light green phyllodes, varnished when young, and growing in a downward vertical position. Pods, maturing in summer, are not shed, but remain on the tree, exposing the seeds to predators and dispersers.

Germplasm

Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Acacia cyclops is reported to tolerate drought, salt, sand, weed, and wind.

Distribution

Native to southwestern Australia, where it grows mostly on coastal sand dunes. Used for stabilization in South Africa, it is spreading on sand and sandstone into coastal bush and heathland. This is an extremely weedy species spread by birds into indigenous vegetation. Once established, it is difficult to remove or replace. There is little vegetation cover beneath an Acacia cyclops thicket. The seeds remain viable in the soil for many years. It is relatively slow growing.

Ecology

Acacia cyclops can grow in dry areas with annual precipitation less than 300 mm. Tolerating salt spray, wind, sand-blast, or salinity, it is useful for dune stabilization. This species has a high light demand; it will not survive in deep shade. Monthly temperature means within the distribution range of this species vary from 5°C in winter to 31°C in summer. It is slightly resistant to frost. The species is generally found below 300 m altitude where annual rainfall is 200 to 800 mm. It grows on quartzitic or calcareous sand or limestone. It also is found in drier sites such as dune crests (NAS, 1980a).

Cultivation

Direct sowing of pretreated seed is recommended (NAS, 1980a). Seed are treated with abrasion, acid, and hot water treatment.

Harvesting

Trees may be harvested as needed. This species rarely coppices, and mature trees do not survive felling. The pods are nondeciduous and are therefore not easily gathered. Unlike many Acacia species, it is not considered a valuable tannin or gum producer (NAS, 1980a).

Yields and Economics

Standing biomass of Acacia cyclops in the southwestern cape of Africa, where it is replacing indigenous Fynbos vegetation and coastal shrub communities, was 131 MT/ha. Of this, the litterfall was said to represent 7.4% of the total biomass, 21.2% of the canopy mass.

Energy

Recommended by the NAS (1980a) as a firewood source. The wood is dense, the logs rarely exceeding 20 cm in diameter. It is a very popular firewood in South Africa, sold regularly in Cape Town. The annual litterfall of four Acacia species naturalized in the South African Cape, comprising 60% foliage and 30% reproductive structures, averages 7 MT/ha, double the value expected in evergreen scrub communities in winter rainfall regions. Standing biomass in the Acacia thickets is ca 10 times greater than that of mature Fynbos (11–26 MT/ha) and shrublands in other Mediterranean climates (15–30 MT/ha). Acacias lose ca 10% of their standing crop annually as litter, at a rate 3–4 times that of the Mediterranean heath and shrub communities. The litter accumulates on the ground. In a mature thicket, the dry mass of the ground litter per unit area exceeds that of the living canopy. The ground litter layer runs 14–28 MT/ha, which is fairly average by world standards. "The annual nitrogen and phosphorus input by Acacia litter should be about nine times as great per unit area as that of Fynbos." Assuming an N content of 1.5% and a P content of 1.13%, Acacia litter would contribute 105 kg N/ha and 92 kg P. In an area where the annual precipitation averages between 500 and 750 mm/yr and the annual temperature average ranges between 16 and 18°C, with radiation averaging 450–500 Langleys/day (Capetown has an average annual precipitation of ca 600 mm, average temperature approaching 18°C), the total annual litterfall is 9,680 kg/ha, with 1.4% as flowers, 35.5% as pods, 5.3% as seed, 11.3% as twigs, 39.0% as phyllodes, and 7.7% unidentified fragments. The total standing biomass was 131 MT/ha DM, ˜±4% (Milton, 1981).

Biotic Factors

Most African Acacias are thought to be cross pollinated. Pests and diseases are not an important factor in South Africa; in fact, the lack of seed destroyers is partly responsible for the weediness of the species. Grazers may damage seedlings.

References

N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Milton, S.J. 1981. Litterfall. of the exotic acacias in the southeastern cape. J. S. Afr. Bot. 47(2):147-155.

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.

2010-08-02T22:57:00.000-07:00

Uses

Used for fuelwood plantations as an ornamental and shade tree, quite tolerant of heat, the Australian species is widely planted in Oceana and southeast Asia. The wood is also employed for making farm tools and furniture (NAS, 1983a). Recent Australian tests suggest that 10-year old trees can be pulped readily by the sulfate process, giving high pulp yields, with good strength properties. Also produces high quality pulp by the neutral sulfite semichemical process. The tannin produces a good quality leather, inclined to redden upon exposure to sunlight (NAS, 1980a). The plant is amazing in its ability to recolonize wastes, papermill sludge, pH ca 9.5; even uranium spoils, pH ca 3.0; the only tree found on 20-year old uranium spoil. Used for the cultivation of the lac insect in India.

Folk Medicine

No data available.

Chemistry

The gum contains 5.3% ash, 0.92% N, and 1.68% methoxyl, and ca 27.7% uronic acid. The sugar from the gum after hydrolysis, contained 10.1% 4-0-methylglucuronic acid, 17.6% glucuronic acid, 59% galactose, 8% arabinose, and 5% rhamnose (Anderson, 1978). Bark contains ca 13% water.

Description

Resilient, vigorously growing, crooked or gnarled deciduous or evergreen tree, possibly attaining 30 m height, 60 cm DBH. Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes, lanceolate or oblong, arcuate, long-attenuate at both ends, 10–16 cm long, ca 1.5–2.5 cm broad, thick coriaceous, glabrous with several long parallel veins from the base. Spikes 5–8 cm long, paired at the leaf bases. Flowers sessile, ca 3 mm long, the calyx glabrous, 5-toothed, the 5 petals ca 2 mm long. Stamens numerous, filiform, ca 3 mm long. Ovary pubescent, the style filiform. Pods 6–8 cm long, 1–1.5 cm broad, flattened but coiled. Seeds several, flattened-ellipsoid, ca 5 mm long, with a reddish or orangish aril (Little, 1983). Seeds 53,000–62,000/kg.

Germplasm

Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Acacia auriculiformis, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkalinity, desiccation, drought, fire, high pH, laterite, poor soil, sand dunes, and savanna. It is intolerant of hurricane, shade, and weeds, at least in early stages. Once established, the tree is quite competitive with weeds. Though somewhat tolerant of fire, it is not so resistant as Eucalyptus. (2n = 26)

Distribution

Native to the savannas of New Guinea, islands of the Torres Strait, and northern Australia, it has been widely introduced, e.g. in Fiji, India, Indonesia, Java, Malaysia, Niger, Nigeria, Philippines, Tanzania, Thailand, the Soloman Islands, Uganda, and Zanzibar.

Ecology

Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, Acacia auriculiformis is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.5 to 27 dm, annual temperature of 26 to 30°C, and pH of 3.0 to 9.5. With practically no maintenance it will grow on a wide range of deep and shallow soils, compacted clays, coral soils, laterites, limestone, mica schist, mine spoil, podzols, even sand dunes and unstable slopes.

Cultivation

It has been suggested as an interplant with long-term timber Dalbergias, itself serving as a short-term but renewable firewood source. Seeds, storable for 18 months in airtight containers, should be soaked in hot water for 24 hours. Sow in full light, allowing 6 days for germination (ca 80% germination after 2–4 weeks). To reforest grassland, burn and plant in holes ca 36 x 30 x 30 cm, spaced at 1–2.5 or 1–3 m if intercropped with Cassia siamea. Recent spacings have been 2.5 x 2.5 m.

Harvesting

In Indomalaysia, stands are operated on 10–12 year rotations. Trees coppice poorly. Indonesians have gotten some coppice when trees are cut at least 50 cm above the ground. When trees are felled, there is usually a swarm of seedlings, so cutover stands regenerate readily.

Yields and Economics

With rainfall at 2700 mm, at 3 years, average height of a stand with 1010 trees/ha was 12.4 m, average diameter 12.2 cm, standing wood volume 73.2 m³/ha; at age 4, 13.1 m, 13.6 cm, and 96.1 m³/ha. Stemwood volume is ca 60% of total above ground biomass. Leaf biomass is important, the LAI being 7–8, good for shading out weeds. Average amount of dead litter is 4800 kg/ha. In Java, there may be 3 MT/ha leaves and 2 MT/ha twigs and branches beneath the trees (NAS, 1982a). On infertile abandoned sites in Papua, trees grew 6 m in 2 years, 17 m in 8 years. On shallow arid soils in West Bengal, yields were only 5m³/ha/yr at the 15th year. Under moister conditions 10 m³ is reported, 17–20 in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Energy

Wiersum and Ramlan report that yields can run higher than 20 m³/ha/yr on a 10–20 year rotation. On poor soils yields drop to 8–12 m³. On the Island of Madura, with annual rainfall 1700–1900 mm, 7–12 year old rotations run 7.6–9 m³/ha/yr, but on West Bengalese laterites with annual precipitation 1,000–14,000 mm, yields are only 2–6 m³/ha/yr in 10–20 year rotations. With its capacity to produce good fuelwood on poor soils, even where there are extended dry seasons, the species "merits large scale testing as a fuelwood species" (NAS, 1980). Wood has specific gravity of 0.6–0.75 and calorific value of 4,800–4,900 kcal/kg. Wood yields excellent charcoal that glows well and burns without smoke or sparks. Litter beneath the trees, both branches and dried leaves, annually adds up to 4.5–6 MT/ha, all used for fuel in China. Hawaiian grown material possesses N-fixing nodules.

Biotic Factors

While no pest or disease problems are reported in Indonesia, insects and nematodes have been reported to attack seedlings in Zanzibar. The rust Uromyces digitatus has been a problem in Java, where it is also occasionally infested with a rather inocuous black mildew, Meliola adenanphererae. In India, the root rots are Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma applanatum. Hypothenemus dimorphus has caused shoot fatality in Malaysia. The weevil Hypomeces squamosus can be a pest in India and Malaysia. Used to cultivate Kerria lacca in India. On Java, the ant Iridomyrmex rufoniger may protect the plant from some phytophagous insects.

References

Anderson, D.M.W. 1978. Chemotaxonomic aspects of the chemistry of acacia gum exudates. Kew Bull. 32(3):529–536.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1982. Priorities in biotechnology research for international development. Proceedings of a Workshop. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1983a. Producer gas: another fuel for motor transport. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

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REFERENCES

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne

Acacia seyal Del.

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.

Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.Wendl

New Arid Land Ornamentals

Acacia redolens Maslin, Desert CarpetTM

Baccharis hybrid 'Starn' (P.P.A.F.) ThompsonTM

Cercidium species 'Desert Museum'

Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet, Lucretia HamiltonTM

Chrysactinia mexicana Gray (Damianita)

Dalea capitata Sierra GoldTM

Dasylirion longissimum

Euphorbia biglandulosa Desf. (Gopher Plant)

Hesperaloe parviflora (Torr.) J. Coult., 'Yellow' (Yellow yucca)

Hymenoxys acaulis (Pursh) K. Parker (Angelita Daisy)

Leucophyllum candidum I.M. Johnst. Thunder CloudTM

Leucophyllum langmaniae Rio BravoTM

Muhlenbergia capillaris (Lam.) Trin. Regal MistTM

Acacia redolens Maslin, Desert Carpet^TM

Baccharis hybrid 'Starn' (P.P.A.F.) Thompson^TM

Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet, Lucretia Hamilton^TM

Dalea capitata Sierra Gold^TM

Leucophyllum candidum I.M. Johnst. Thunder Cloud^TM

Leucophyllum langmaniae Rio Bravo^TM

Muhlenbergia capillaris (Lam.) Trin. Regal Mist^TM