irahharan

miet mt lab-2

2013-07-29T07:45:00.011-07:00

MADURAI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Pottapalayam Sivagangai District-630611.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

10122 ME407 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY - II

As per the Anna University Syllabus from 2011-2012

Prepared by

Mr.R.BALAJI

Mr.S.PUNGAIYA

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.NO	EXPERIMENTS	PAGE NO	SIGNATURE
I	INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE
II	INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE
III	INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE
IV	INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE
V	INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE
VI	INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE

The main functions of shaping machines are to produce flat surfaces in different planes. The basic principle of generation of flat surface by shaping machine. The cutting motion provided by the linear forward motion of the reciprocating tool and the intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the job along with the bed result in producing a flat surface by gradual removal of excess material layer by layer in the form of chips. The vertical infeed is given either by descending the tool holder or raising the bed or both. Straight grooves of various curved sections are also made in shaping machines by using specific form tools. The single point straight or form tool is clamped in the vertical slide which is mounted at the front face of the reciprocating ram whereas the work piece is directly or indirectly through a vice is mounted on the bed.

• Shaping machines

It is already mentioned that shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile. However, its limited applications include :

Δ Machining flat surfaces in different planes. Fig. 4.4.7 shows how flat surfaces are produced in shaping machines by single point cutting

tools in (a) horizontal, (b) vertical and (c) inclined planes.

Δ Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat

surfaces. Fig. 4.4.8 visualises the methods of machining (a) slot, (b) pocket (c) T-slot

and (d) Vee-block in shaping machine by single point tools.

Δ Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces by using

single point but form tools. Fig. 4.4.9 typically shows how (a) oil grooves and

(b) straight tooth of spur gears can be made in shaping machine.

Δ Some other machining applications of shaping machines are cutting

external keyway and splines, smooth slitting or parting, cutting teethof rack for

repair etc. using simple or form type single point cutting tools.

Some unusual work can also be done, if needed, by developing and

using special attachments.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF SQUARE IN SHAPING MACHINE

Aim

To machine a square in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shapping machine.

Tools and equipments required

Shaping machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Chalk piece

Bevel protractor

Procedure

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimension.

2) With the help of scriber, mark the hexagon dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece and the shaping tool allow the ram to reciprocate.

4) Start the shaping process by giving the required depth by lowering the tool.

5) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the square shape.

6) The work piece is now checked for final dimensions.

Result

Thus a square was machined in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shaping machine.

INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are generally or mainly used to originate through or blind straight cylindrical holes in solid rigid bodies and/or enlarge (coaxially) existing (premachined) holes.

• of different diameter ranging from about 1 mm to 40 mm

• of varying length depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill

• in different materials excepting very hard or very soft materials like rubber, polythene etc.

Application of drilling machines

Drilling machines of different capacity and configuration are basically used for originating cylindrical holes and occasionally for enlarging the existing holes to full or partial depth. But different types of drills are suitably used for various applications depending upon work material, tool material, depth and diameter of the holes.

Radial drilling machine

This usually large drilling machine possesses a radial arm which along with the drilling head can swing and move vertically up and down as can be seen in Fig. 4.2.4. The radial, vertical and swing movement of the drilling head enables locating the drill spindle at any point within a very large space required by large and odd shaped jobs. There are some more versatile radial drilling machines where the drill spindle can be additionally swivelled and / or tilted.

EX: NO: Date:

DRILLING HOLES ON PCD ON THE WORK PIECE

Aim

Aim of this practice is to machine holes on pitch circle drawn on a given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Radial Drilling machine

Drill bit

Dot punch

Tap

Chalk piece and Hammer

Compass.

Procedure

1) Draw A pitch circle on the given work piece using a compass.

2) Separate its circumference by the number of holes to be cut.

3) Each interval has to be drilled on this pitch circle.

4) A punch is made to identify the place to be drilled.

5) Work piece is fixed on the radial drilling machine and holes are made.

Result

Thus drilling operation is performed on the PCD Drawn on the work piece.

INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE

Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of grinding machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece. However, advent of new generation of grinding wheels and grinding machines, characterised by their rigidity, power and speed enables one to go for high efficiency deep grinding (often called as abrasive milling) of not only hardened material but also ductile materials.

Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:

(a) Surface grinding machine

(b) Cylindrical grinding machine

(c) Internal grinding machine

(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

Surface grinding machine:

This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface. However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with formed grinding wheel.

Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterised by the movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:

• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

• Horizontal spindle and rotary table

• Vertical spindle and rotary table

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table grinder

This machine with various motions required for grinding action. A disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine.

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D: down feed

EX: NO: Date:

SURFACE GRINDING OPERATION

Aim

To grind the work piece to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

Tools And Equipments Required

Surface Grinding machine

Micrometer

Procedure

1) The given work piece is checked for its initial dimensions.

2) The permanent magnet worktable is cleaned thoroughly.

3) Keep the work piece over the worktable and push the lever to “ON” position to hold the work piece.

4) The required depth of cut is given by raising the table.

5) The reciprocating and cross feed is given to grind the required length and width of the work piece respectively.

6) Finally, the finished work piece is checked for the given dimensions.

Result

Thus the given work piece is ground to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE

Slotting machines can simply be considered as vertical shaping machine where the single point (straight or formed) reciprocates vertically (but without quick return effect) and the workpiece, being mounted on the table, is given slow longitudinal and / or rotary feed as can be seen. In this machine also the length and position of stroke can be adjusted. Only light cuts are taken due to lack of rigidity of the tool holding ram for cantilever mode of action. Unlike shaping and planing machines, slotting machines are generally used to machine internal surfaces (flat, formed grooves and cylindrical). Shaping machines and slotting machines, for their low productivity, are generally used, instead of general production, for piece production required for repair and maintenance. Like shaping and slotting machines, planing machines, as such are also becoming obsolete and getting replaced by plano-millers where instead of single point tools a large number of large size and high speed milling cutters are used.

The schematic view of slotting machine is typically.The vertical slide holding the cutting tool is reciprocated by a crank and connecting rod mechanism, so here quick return effect is absent. The job, to be machined, is mounted directly or in a vice on the work table. Like shaping machine, in slotting machine also the fast cutting motion is imparted to the tool and the feed motions to the job. In slotting machine, in addition to the longitudinal and cross feeds, a rotary feed motion is also provided in the work table.

The intermittent rotation of the feed rod is derived from the driving shaft with the help of a four bar linkage as shown in the kinematic diagram.It is also indicated how the intermittent rotation of the feed rod is transmitted to the leadsrews for the two linear feeds and to the worm – worm wheel for rotating the work table. The working speed, i.e., number of strokes per minute, N_smay be changed, if necessary by changing the belt-pulley ratio or using an additional “speed gear box”, whereas, the feed values are changed mainly by changing the amount of angular rotation of the feed rod per stroke of the tool. This is done by adjusting the amount of angle of oscillation of the paul The directions of the feeds are reversed simply by rotating the tapered paul by 180^oas done in shaping machines.

• Slotting machine

Slotting machines are very similar to shaping machines in respect of

Machining principle, tool-work motions and general applications. However, relative to shaping machine, slotting machines are characterized by :

Δ Vertical tool reciprocation with down stroke acting

Δ Longer stroke length

Δ Less strong and rigid

Δ An additional rotary feed motion of the work table

Δ Used mostly for machining internal surfaces.

The usual and possible machining applications of slotting machines are :

ο Internal flat surfaces

ο Enlargement and / or finishing non-circular holes bounded by a

number of flat surfaces.

ο Blind geometrical holes like hexagonal socket.

ο Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved sections.

ο Internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears,

internal curved surface of circular section, internal oil grooves etc.

which are not possible in shaping machines.

However, it has to be borne in mind that productivity and process capability of slotting machines are very poor and hence used mostly for piece production required by maintenance and repair in small industries. Scope of use of slotting machine for production has been further reduced by more and regular use of broaching machine

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF INTERNAL KEYWAY USING SLOTTING MACHINE

Aim

To machine an internal keyway in the givens work piece to the dimensions as shown in fig using slotting machine.

Tools and equipments required

Slotting machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimensions

2) With the help of scriber mark the keyway dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece in the vice of the slotting machine.

4) After fixing the work piece and the slotting tool allow the ram to vertically reciprocal.

5) Start the slotting process by giving the required depth by horizontally moving the vice

6) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the required shape.

7) The work piece is checked for final dimensions.

Result:

Thus the internal keyway is machined in the given work piece to the dimensions.

INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE

The basic function of milling machines is to produce flat surfaces in any orientation as well as surfaces of revolution, helical surfaces and contoured surfaces of various configurations. Such functions are accomplished by slowly feeding the workpiece into the equispaced multiedge circular cutting tool rotating at moderately high speed as indicated in Fig. 4.3.1. Upmilling needs stronger holding of the job and downmilling needs backlash free screw-nut systems for feeding.

Milling machines of various type are widely used for the following purposes using proper cutting tools called milling cutters :

• Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planes

• Making slots or ribs of various sections

• Slitting or parting

• Often producing surfaces of revolution

• Making helical grooves like flutes of the drills

• Long thread milling on large lead screws, power screws, worms etc and short thread milling for small size fastening screws, bolts etc.

• 2-D contouring like cam profiles, clutches etc and 3-D contouring like die or mould cavities

• Cutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets, clutches etc.

• Producing some salient features like grooves, flutes, gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills, taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

Classification of milling machines

Milling machines can be broadly classified;

(a) According to nature of purposes of use :

• general purpose – most versatile commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production

• single purpose – e.g., thread milling machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine which are generally used for batch or lot production.

• Special purpose – these are used for lot or mass production, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, short thread milling etc.

(b) According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed

• Knee type : typically shown in Fig. 4.3.2. In such small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the bed (guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and job on it moves vertically (Z) up and down.

• Bed type : Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head instead of the knee type bed

Machine parts :

1. column

2. bed

3. cross slide

4. work table

5. ram

6. ram support

7. arbour support

Table feed motions :

a. longitudinal feed

b. cross feed

c. vertical feed

• Planer type:

These heavy duty large machines, called plano-miller, look like planing machine where the single point tools are replaced by one or a number of milling heads; generally used for machining a number of longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously, viz., lathe beds, table and bed of planning machine etc.

• Rotary table type :

Such open or closed ended high production milling machines possess one large rotary work-table and one or two vertical spindles as typically shown in Fig. 4.3.5; the positions of the job(s) and the milling head are adjusted according to the size and shape of the job.

(c) According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

• Plain horizontal knee type (Fig. 4.3.6)

This non-automatic general purpose milling machine of small to medium size possesses a single horizontal axis milling arbour; the work-table can be linearly fed along three axes (X,Y, Z) only; these milling machines are most widely used for piece or batch production of jobs of relatively simpler configuration and geometry

• Horizontal axis (spindle) and swivelling bed type

These are very similar to the plain horizontal arbour knee type machines but possess one additional swivelling motion of the work-table

• Vertical spindle type

In this machine, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.7, the only spindle is vertical and works using end mill type and face milling cutters; the table may or may not have swivelling features

• Universal head milling machine

These versatile milling machines, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.8, not only possess both horizontal milling arbour and the vertical axis spindle, the latter spindle can be further tilted about one (X) or both the horizontal axes (X and Y) enabling machining jobs of complex shape.

(d) According to mechanisation / automation and production rate

Milling machines are mostly general purpose and used for piece or small lot production. But like other machine tools, some milling machines are also incorporated with certain type and degree of automation or mechanisation to enhance production rate and consistency of product quality. In this respect milling machines can be further classified as follows :

• Hand mill (milling machine) - this is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given manually as can be seen in Fig. 4.3.9.

Fig. 4.3.9 Hand mill milling machine

• Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machines are not that automated but provide relatively higher production rate

• Tracer controlled copy milling machine, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.10, are mechanically or hydraulically operated semi-automatic milling machines used for lot production of cams, dies etc by copying the master piece

• Milling machines for short thread milling may be considered single purpose and automatic machine being used for mass production of small bolts and screws.

EX: NO: Date:

SPUR GEAR MILLING

Aim

To machine gear to the given module and number of teeth in the given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Milling machine

Vernier caliper

Mandrel.

Procedure:

1. Calculate the gear tooth proportions.

Blank diameter = (Z + 2) m

Tooth depth = 2.25 m

Tooth width = 1.5708 m

Where,

Z = Number of teeth required

m = module

2. Indexing calculation

Index crank movement = 40 / Z

3. The dividing head and the tail stock are bolted on the machine table. Their axis must be set parallel to the machine table.

4. The gear blank is held between the dividing head and tailstock using a mandrel. The mandrel is connected with the spindle of dividing head by a carrier and catch plate.

5. The cutter is mounted on the arbor. The cutter is centered accurately with the gear blank.

6. Set the speed and feed for machining.

7. For giving depth of cut, the table is raised till the periphery of the gear blank just touches the cutter.

8. The micrometer dial of vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.

9. Then the table is raised further to give the required depth of cut.

10. The machine is started and feed is given to the table to cut the first groove of the blank.

11. After the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position.

12. Then the gear blank is indexed for the next tooth space.

13. This is continued till all the gear teeth are cut.

Calculation

Z = No. of teeth = 23

m = module = 2 mm

Blank Diameter = (Z + 2) m

= (23 + 2) 2

= 50 mm

Tooth Depth = 2.25 m

= 2.25 x 2

= 4.5 mm

Indexing Calculation = 40 / Z

= 40 / 23

= 1 17/23

Result:

Thus the required gear is machined using the milling machine to the required number of teeth.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINE A KEYWAY USING END MILLING CUTTER IN VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

Aim:

To machine a cubic mild steel bar and make a keyway slot on the surface.

Tool required:

Vertical milling machine,

Vernier caliper,

Machine Vice

Procedure:

1) The cubic cast iron or ms bar is placed in material shaping machine.

2) The blank is placed in the machine vice after shaping the work.

3) The knee of the vertical milling machine is move towards the cutter.

4) The machine vice is move by vertical slotter and then axis is setup on the work piece.

5) The depth of the vertical milling cutter is given by means of spindle adjustment.

6) The running action of cutter by using pulley the vertical milling cutter cuts the cubic bar.

7) By moving the work by horizontal block table.

8) The keyways on the machine vice work that by move the work table.

9) The work is continuous on the work by moving the slotter from one region to another gender region.

Result:

Thus the given work piece is and milled to the given dimension using vertical milling.

INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

Turning is a machining process to produce parts round in shape by a single point tool on lathes. The tool is fed either linearly in the direction parallel or perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, or along a specified path to produce complex rotational shapes. The primary motion of cutting in turning is the rotation of the workpiece, and the secondary motion of cutting is the feed motion.

Cutting conditions in turning

Cutting speed in turning V in m/s is related to the rotational speed of the workpiece by the equation:V = πDN where D is the diameter of the workpiece, m; N is the rotational speed of the workpiece, rev/s.

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each other.

The tool-work motions are :

• Formative motions : - cutting motion

- feed motion

• Auxiliary motions : - indexing motion

- relieving motion etc

In lathes

o Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job

o Feed motion by linear travel of the tool

- either axially for longitudinal feed

- or radially for cross feed

It is noted, in general,

• The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the belt-pulley, clutch and then the speed gear box which splits the input speed into a number (here 12) of speeds by operating the cluster gears.

• The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the spindle via the gear quadrant, feed gear box and then the appron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is transmitted

- either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed

- or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.

• While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating leadscrew to positively cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.

• The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the Norton gear and the Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGR). The range of feeds can be augmented by changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle

• As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt and the tailstock quil is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location.

• The versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using several attachments like

- Taper turning attachment

- Thread milling attachment

- Copying attachment

EX: NO: Date:

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE

Aim:

To machine the work piece to the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Tools required:

Capstan lathe

Counter sink bit

Drill bit

Stopper

Drill chuck

Procedure:

1) Prepare tooling layout for the given work piece.

2) Set the tools in the respect position of the tool rotation.

3) The adjustment to the lathe of head for each tool is adjusted by rotating the adjusted

4) Feed the tools in the required sequences to machine given work piece for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Result:

Thus the tools in the required sequences to machine given work pieces for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR INTERFACING FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for interference fit assembly using a lathe and a drilling machine.

Materials required:

Mild steel polished rod 32 x 16mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Vernier caliper

Outside caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is held originally in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on.

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half the work piece as per the given dimensions.

5) Then the drill bit of required drill size is held in tail stock and drilling is done for the required depth in the work piece.

6) The two parts are assembled for getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given work piece as shown in figure is subjected to machining operations to become a finished work piece.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR CLEARANCE FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for clearance fit assembly using lathe.

Materials required:

Mild steel

Polished round rod 32 x 110mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Outside caliper

Vernier caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is hold rigitly in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half if the workpiece as per the given dimension.

5) The machine is switched off.

6) The parting tool is fixed and by parting off operation the work piece is cut into two parts as per the dimensions

7) Two parts are assembled per getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given workpiece is subjected in machine operations to become a finished workpiece.

2013-07-29T07:44:00.001-07:00

MADURAI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Pottapalayam Sivagangai District-630611.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

10122 ME407 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY - II

As per the Anna University Syllabus from 2011-2012

Prepared by

Mr.R.BALAJI

Mr.S.PUNGAIYA

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.NO	EXPERIMENTS	PAGE NO	SIGNATURE
I	INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE
II	INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE
III	INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE
IV	INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE
V	INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE
VI	INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE

• Shaping machines

It is already mentioned that shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile. However, its limited applications include :

Δ Machining flat surfaces in different planes. Fig. 4.4.7 shows how flat surfaces are produced in shaping machines by single point cutting

tools in (a) horizontal, (b) vertical and (c) inclined planes.

Δ Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat

surfaces. Fig. 4.4.8 visualises the methods of machining (a) slot, (b) pocket (c) T-slot

and (d) Vee-block in shaping machine by single point tools.

Δ Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces by using

single point but form tools. Fig. 4.4.9 typically shows how (a) oil grooves and

(b) straight tooth of spur gears can be made in shaping machine.

Δ Some other machining applications of shaping machines are cutting

external keyway and splines, smooth slitting or parting, cutting teethof rack for

repair etc. using simple or form type single point cutting tools.

Some unusual work can also be done, if needed, by developing and

using special attachments.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF SQUARE IN SHAPING MACHINE

Aim

To machine a square in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shapping machine.

Tools and equipments required

Shaping machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Chalk piece

Bevel protractor

Procedure

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimension.

2) With the help of scriber, mark the hexagon dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece and the shaping tool allow the ram to reciprocate.

4) Start the shaping process by giving the required depth by lowering the tool.

5) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the square shape.

6) The work piece is now checked for final dimensions.

Result

Thus a square was machined in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shaping machine.

INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are generally or mainly used to originate through or blind straight cylindrical holes in solid rigid bodies and/or enlarge (coaxially) existing (premachined) holes.

• of different diameter ranging from about 1 mm to 40 mm

• of varying length depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill

• in different materials excepting very hard or very soft materials like rubber, polythene etc.

Application of drilling machines

Radial drilling machine

EX: NO: Date:

DRILLING HOLES ON PCD ON THE WORK PIECE

Aim

Aim of this practice is to machine holes on pitch circle drawn on a given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Radial Drilling machine

Drill bit

Dot punch

Tap

Chalk piece and Hammer

Compass.

Procedure

1) Draw A pitch circle on the given work piece using a compass.

2) Separate its circumference by the number of holes to be cut.

3) Each interval has to be drilled on this pitch circle.

4) A punch is made to identify the place to be drilled.

5) Work piece is fixed on the radial drilling machine and holes are made.

Result

Thus drilling operation is performed on the PCD Drawn on the work piece.

INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE

Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:

(a) Surface grinding machine

(b) Cylindrical grinding machine

(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

Surface grinding machine:

This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface. However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with formed grinding wheel.

Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterised by the movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:

• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

• Horizontal spindle and rotary table

• Vertical spindle and rotary table

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table grinder

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D: down feed

EX: NO: Date:

SURFACE GRINDING OPERATION

Aim

To grind the work piece to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

Tools And Equipments Required

Surface Grinding machine

Micrometer

Procedure

1) The given work piece is checked for its initial dimensions.

2) The permanent magnet worktable is cleaned thoroughly.

3) Keep the work piece over the worktable and push the lever to “ON” position to hold the work piece.

4) The required depth of cut is given by raising the table.

5) The reciprocating and cross feed is given to grind the required length and width of the work piece respectively.

6) Finally, the finished work piece is checked for the given dimensions.

Result

Thus the given work piece is ground to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE

• Slotting machine

Slotting machines are very similar to shaping machines in respect of

Machining principle, tool-work motions and general applications. However, relative to shaping machine, slotting machines are characterized by :

Δ Vertical tool reciprocation with down stroke acting

Δ Longer stroke length

Δ Less strong and rigid

Δ An additional rotary feed motion of the work table

Δ Used mostly for machining internal surfaces.

The usual and possible machining applications of slotting machines are :

ο Internal flat surfaces

ο Enlargement and / or finishing non-circular holes bounded by a

number of flat surfaces.

ο Blind geometrical holes like hexagonal socket.

ο Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved sections.

ο Internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears,

internal curved surface of circular section, internal oil grooves etc.

which are not possible in shaping machines.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF INTERNAL KEYWAY USING SLOTTING MACHINE

Aim

To machine an internal keyway in the givens work piece to the dimensions as shown in fig using slotting machine.

Tools and equipments required

Slotting machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimensions

2) With the help of scriber mark the keyway dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece in the vice of the slotting machine.

4) After fixing the work piece and the slotting tool allow the ram to vertically reciprocal.

5) Start the slotting process by giving the required depth by horizontally moving the vice

6) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the required shape.

7) The work piece is checked for final dimensions.

Result:

Thus the internal keyway is machined in the given work piece to the dimensions.

INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines of various type are widely used for the following purposes using proper cutting tools called milling cutters :

• Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planes

• Making slots or ribs of various sections

• Slitting or parting

• Often producing surfaces of revolution

• Making helical grooves like flutes of the drills

• Long thread milling on large lead screws, power screws, worms etc and short thread milling for small size fastening screws, bolts etc.

• 2-D contouring like cam profiles, clutches etc and 3-D contouring like die or mould cavities

• Cutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets, clutches etc.

• Producing some salient features like grooves, flutes, gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills, taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

Classification of milling machines

Milling machines can be broadly classified;

(a) According to nature of purposes of use :

• general purpose – most versatile commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production

• single purpose – e.g., thread milling machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine which are generally used for batch or lot production.

• Special purpose – these are used for lot or mass production, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, short thread milling etc.

(b) According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed

• Knee type : typically shown in Fig. 4.3.2. In such small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the bed (guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and job on it moves vertically (Z) up and down.

• Bed type : Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head instead of the knee type bed

Machine parts :

1. column

2. bed

3. cross slide

4. work table

5. ram

6. ram support

7. arbour support

Table feed motions :

a. longitudinal feed

b. cross feed

c. vertical feed

• Planer type:

• Rotary table type :

(c) According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

• Plain horizontal knee type (Fig. 4.3.6)

• Horizontal axis (spindle) and swivelling bed type

These are very similar to the plain horizontal arbour knee type machines but possess one additional swivelling motion of the work-table

• Vertical spindle type

In this machine, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.7, the only spindle is vertical and works using end mill type and face milling cutters; the table may or may not have swivelling features

• Universal head milling machine

(d) According to mechanisation / automation and production rate

• Hand mill (milling machine) - this is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given manually as can be seen in Fig. 4.3.9.

Fig. 4.3.9 Hand mill milling machine

• Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machines are not that automated but provide relatively higher production rate

• Tracer controlled copy milling machine, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.10, are mechanically or hydraulically operated semi-automatic milling machines used for lot production of cams, dies etc by copying the master piece

• Milling machines for short thread milling may be considered single purpose and automatic machine being used for mass production of small bolts and screws.

EX: NO: Date:

SPUR GEAR MILLING

Aim

To machine gear to the given module and number of teeth in the given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Milling machine

Vernier caliper

Mandrel.

Procedure:

1. Calculate the gear tooth proportions.

Blank diameter = (Z + 2) m

Tooth depth = 2.25 m

Tooth width = 1.5708 m

Where,

Z = Number of teeth required

m = module

2. Indexing calculation

Index crank movement = 40 / Z

3. The dividing head and the tail stock are bolted on the machine table. Their axis must be set parallel to the machine table.

4. The gear blank is held between the dividing head and tailstock using a mandrel. The mandrel is connected with the spindle of dividing head by a carrier and catch plate.

5. The cutter is mounted on the arbor. The cutter is centered accurately with the gear blank.

6. Set the speed and feed for machining.

7. For giving depth of cut, the table is raised till the periphery of the gear blank just touches the cutter.

8. The micrometer dial of vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.

9. Then the table is raised further to give the required depth of cut.

10. The machine is started and feed is given to the table to cut the first groove of the blank.

11. After the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position.

12. Then the gear blank is indexed for the next tooth space.

13. This is continued till all the gear teeth are cut.

Calculation

Z = No. of teeth = 23

m = module = 2 mm

Blank Diameter = (Z + 2) m

= (23 + 2) 2

= 50 mm

Tooth Depth = 2.25 m

= 2.25 x 2

= 4.5 mm

Indexing Calculation = 40 / Z

= 40 / 23

= 1 17/23

Result:

Thus the required gear is machined using the milling machine to the required number of teeth.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINE A KEYWAY USING END MILLING CUTTER IN VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

Aim:

To machine a cubic mild steel bar and make a keyway slot on the surface.

Tool required:

Vertical milling machine,

Vernier caliper,

Machine Vice

Procedure:

1) The cubic cast iron or ms bar is placed in material shaping machine.

2) The blank is placed in the machine vice after shaping the work.

3) The knee of the vertical milling machine is move towards the cutter.

4) The machine vice is move by vertical slotter and then axis is setup on the work piece.

5) The depth of the vertical milling cutter is given by means of spindle adjustment.

6) The running action of cutter by using pulley the vertical milling cutter cuts the cubic bar.

7) By moving the work by horizontal block table.

8) The keyways on the machine vice work that by move the work table.

9) The work is continuous on the work by moving the slotter from one region to another gender region.

Result:

Thus the given work piece is and milled to the given dimension using vertical milling.

INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

Cutting conditions in turning

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each other.

The tool-work motions are :

• Formative motions : - cutting motion

- feed motion

• Auxiliary motions : - indexing motion

- relieving motion etc

In lathes

o Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job

o Feed motion by linear travel of the tool

- either axially for longitudinal feed

- or radially for cross feed

It is noted, in general,

- either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed

- or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.

• While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating leadscrew to positively cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.

• As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt and the tailstock quil is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location.

• The versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using several attachments like

- Taper turning attachment

- Thread milling attachment

- Copying attachment

EX: NO: Date:

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE

Aim:

To machine the work piece to the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Tools required:

Capstan lathe

Counter sink bit

Drill bit

Stopper

Drill chuck

Procedure:

1) Prepare tooling layout for the given work piece.

2) Set the tools in the respect position of the tool rotation.

3) The adjustment to the lathe of head for each tool is adjusted by rotating the adjusted

4) Feed the tools in the required sequences to machine given work piece for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Result:

Thus the tools in the required sequences to machine given work pieces for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR INTERFACING FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for interference fit assembly using a lathe and a drilling machine.

Materials required:

Mild steel polished rod 32 x 16mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Vernier caliper

Outside caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is held originally in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on.

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half the work piece as per the given dimensions.

5) Then the drill bit of required drill size is held in tail stock and drilling is done for the required depth in the work piece.

6) The two parts are assembled for getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given work piece as shown in figure is subjected to machining operations to become a finished work piece.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR CLEARANCE FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for clearance fit assembly using lathe.

Materials required:

Mild steel

Polished round rod 32 x 110mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Outside caliper

Vernier caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is hold rigitly in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half if the workpiece as per the given dimension.

5) The machine is switched off.

6) The parting tool is fixed and by parting off operation the work piece is cut into two parts as per the dimensions

7) Two parts are assembled per getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given workpiece is subjected in machine operations to become a finished workpiece.

2013-07-29T07:43:00.005-07:00

MADURAI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Pottapalayam Sivagangai District-630611.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

10122 ME407 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY - II

As per the Anna University Syllabus from 2011-2012

Prepared by

Mr.R.BALAJI

Mr.S.PUNGAIYA

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.NO	EXPERIMENTS	PAGE NO	SIGNATURE
I	INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE
II	INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE
III	INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE
IV	INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE
V	INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE
VI	INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

INTRODUCTION OF SHAPING MACHINE

• Shaping machines

It is already mentioned that shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile. However, its limited applications include :

Δ Machining flat surfaces in different planes. Fig. 4.4.7 shows how flat surfaces are produced in shaping machines by single point cutting

tools in (a) horizontal, (b) vertical and (c) inclined planes.

Δ Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat

surfaces. Fig. 4.4.8 visualises the methods of machining (a) slot, (b) pocket (c) T-slot

and (d) Vee-block in shaping machine by single point tools.

Δ Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces by using

single point but form tools. Fig. 4.4.9 typically shows how (a) oil grooves and

(b) straight tooth of spur gears can be made in shaping machine.

Δ Some other machining applications of shaping machines are cutting

external keyway and splines, smooth slitting or parting, cutting teethof rack for

repair etc. using simple or form type single point cutting tools.

Some unusual work can also be done, if needed, by developing and

using special attachments.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF SQUARE IN SHAPING MACHINE

Aim

To machine a square in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shapping machine.

Tools and equipments required

Shaping machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Chalk piece

Bevel protractor

Procedure

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimension.

2) With the help of scriber, mark the hexagon dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece and the shaping tool allow the ram to reciprocate.

4) Start the shaping process by giving the required depth by lowering the tool.

5) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the square shape.

6) The work piece is now checked for final dimensions.

Result

Thus a square was machined in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure using shaping machine.

INTRODUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are generally or mainly used to originate through or blind straight cylindrical holes in solid rigid bodies and/or enlarge (coaxially) existing (premachined) holes.

• of different diameter ranging from about 1 mm to 40 mm

• of varying length depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill

• in different materials excepting very hard or very soft materials like rubber, polythene etc.

Application of drilling machines

Radial drilling machine

EX: NO: Date:

DRILLING HOLES ON PCD ON THE WORK PIECE

Aim

Aim of this practice is to machine holes on pitch circle drawn on a given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Radial Drilling machine

Drill bit

Dot punch

Tap

Chalk piece and Hammer

Compass.

Procedure

1) Draw A pitch circle on the given work piece using a compass.

2) Separate its circumference by the number of holes to be cut.

3) Each interval has to be drilled on this pitch circle.

4) A punch is made to identify the place to be drilled.

5) Work piece is fixed on the radial drilling machine and holes are made.

Result

Thus drilling operation is performed on the PCD Drawn on the work piece.

INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE

Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:

(a) Surface grinding machine

(b) Cylindrical grinding machine

(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine

Surface grinding machine:

This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface. However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with formed grinding wheel.

Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines characterised by the movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles as follows:

• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

• Horizontal spindle and rotary table

• Vertical spindle and rotary table

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table grinder

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D: down feed

EX: NO: Date:

SURFACE GRINDING OPERATION

Aim

To grind the work piece to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

Tools And Equipments Required

Surface Grinding machine

Micrometer

Procedure

1) The given work piece is checked for its initial dimensions.

2) The permanent magnet worktable is cleaned thoroughly.

3) Keep the work piece over the worktable and push the lever to “ON” position to hold the work piece.

4) The required depth of cut is given by raising the table.

5) The reciprocating and cross feed is given to grind the required length and width of the work piece respectively.

6) Finally, the finished work piece is checked for the given dimensions.

Result

Thus the given work piece is ground to the given tolerance using surface grinding machine.

INTRODUCTION OF SLOTTING MACHINE

• Slotting machine

Slotting machines are very similar to shaping machines in respect of

Machining principle, tool-work motions and general applications. However, relative to shaping machine, slotting machines are characterized by :

Δ Vertical tool reciprocation with down stroke acting

Δ Longer stroke length

Δ Less strong and rigid

Δ An additional rotary feed motion of the work table

Δ Used mostly for machining internal surfaces.

The usual and possible machining applications of slotting machines are :

ο Internal flat surfaces

ο Enlargement and / or finishing non-circular holes bounded by a

number of flat surfaces.

ο Blind geometrical holes like hexagonal socket.

ο Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved sections.

ο Internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears,

internal curved surface of circular section, internal oil grooves etc.

which are not possible in shaping machines.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING OF INTERNAL KEYWAY USING SLOTTING MACHINE

Aim

To machine an internal keyway in the givens work piece to the dimensions as shown in fig using slotting machine.

Tools and equipments required

Slotting machine

Scriber

Divider

Steel rule

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is measured for its initial dimensions

2) With the help of scriber mark the keyway dimensions in the work piece.

3) Fix the work piece in the vice of the slotting machine.

4) After fixing the work piece and the slotting tool allow the ram to vertically reciprocal.

5) Start the slotting process by giving the required depth by horizontally moving the vice

6) Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the required shape.

7) The work piece is checked for final dimensions.

Result:

Thus the internal keyway is machined in the given work piece to the dimensions.

INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines of various type are widely used for the following purposes using proper cutting tools called milling cutters :

• Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planes

• Making slots or ribs of various sections

• Slitting or parting

• Often producing surfaces of revolution

• Making helical grooves like flutes of the drills

• Long thread milling on large lead screws, power screws, worms etc and short thread milling for small size fastening screws, bolts etc.

• 2-D contouring like cam profiles, clutches etc and 3-D contouring like die or mould cavities

• Cutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets, clutches etc.

• Producing some salient features like grooves, flutes, gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills, taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

Classification of milling machines

Milling machines can be broadly classified;

(a) According to nature of purposes of use :

• general purpose – most versatile commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production

• single purpose – e.g., thread milling machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine which are generally used for batch or lot production.

• Special purpose – these are used for lot or mass production, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, short thread milling etc.

(b) According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed

• Bed type : Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head instead of the knee type bed

Machine parts :

1. column

2. bed

3. cross slide

4. work table

5. ram

6. ram support

7. arbour support

Table feed motions :

a. longitudinal feed

b. cross feed

c. vertical feed

• Planer type:

• Rotary table type :

(c) According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

• Plain horizontal knee type (Fig. 4.3.6)

• Horizontal axis (spindle) and swivelling bed type

These are very similar to the plain horizontal arbour knee type machines but possess one additional swivelling motion of the work-table

• Vertical spindle type

In this machine, typically shown in Fig. 4.3.7, the only spindle is vertical and works using end mill type and face milling cutters; the table may or may not have swivelling features

• Universal head milling machine

(d) According to mechanisation / automation and production rate

• Hand mill (milling machine) - this is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given manually as can be seen in Fig. 4.3.9.

Fig. 4.3.9 Hand mill milling machine

• Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machines are not that automated but provide relatively higher production rate

• Milling machines for short thread milling may be considered single purpose and automatic machine being used for mass production of small bolts and screws.

EX: NO: Date:

SPUR GEAR MILLING

Aim

To machine gear to the given module and number of teeth in the given work piece.

Tools and equipments required

Milling machine

Vernier caliper

Mandrel.

Procedure:

1. Calculate the gear tooth proportions.

Blank diameter = (Z + 2) m

Tooth depth = 2.25 m

Tooth width = 1.5708 m

Where,

Z = Number of teeth required

m = module

2. Indexing calculation

Index crank movement = 40 / Z

3. The dividing head and the tail stock are bolted on the machine table. Their axis must be set parallel to the machine table.

4. The gear blank is held between the dividing head and tailstock using a mandrel. The mandrel is connected with the spindle of dividing head by a carrier and catch plate.

5. The cutter is mounted on the arbor. The cutter is centered accurately with the gear blank.

6. Set the speed and feed for machining.

7. For giving depth of cut, the table is raised till the periphery of the gear blank just touches the cutter.

8. The micrometer dial of vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.

9. Then the table is raised further to give the required depth of cut.

10. The machine is started and feed is given to the table to cut the first groove of the blank.

11. After the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position.

12. Then the gear blank is indexed for the next tooth space.

13. This is continued till all the gear teeth are cut.

Calculation

Z = No. of teeth = 23

m = module = 2 mm

Blank Diameter = (Z + 2) m

= (23 + 2) 2

= 50 mm

Tooth Depth = 2.25 m

= 2.25 x 2

= 4.5 mm

Indexing Calculation = 40 / Z

= 40 / 23

= 1 17/23

Result:

Thus the required gear is machined using the milling machine to the required number of teeth.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINE A KEYWAY USING END MILLING CUTTER IN VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

Aim:

To machine a cubic mild steel bar and make a keyway slot on the surface.

Tool required:

Vertical milling machine,

Vernier caliper,

Machine Vice

Procedure:

1) The cubic cast iron or ms bar is placed in material shaping machine.

2) The blank is placed in the machine vice after shaping the work.

3) The knee of the vertical milling machine is move towards the cutter.

4) The machine vice is move by vertical slotter and then axis is setup on the work piece.

5) The depth of the vertical milling cutter is given by means of spindle adjustment.

6) The running action of cutter by using pulley the vertical milling cutter cuts the cubic bar.

7) By moving the work by horizontal block table.

8) The keyways on the machine vice work that by move the work table.

9) The work is continuous on the work by moving the slotter from one region to another gender region.

Result:

Thus the given work piece is and milled to the given dimension using vertical milling.

INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

Cutting conditions in turning

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each other.

The tool-work motions are :

• Formative motions : - cutting motion

- feed motion

• Auxiliary motions : - indexing motion

- relieving motion etc

In lathes

o Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job

o Feed motion by linear travel of the tool

- either axially for longitudinal feed

- or radially for cross feed

It is noted, in general,

- either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed

- or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.

• While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating leadscrew to positively cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.

• As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt and the tailstock quil is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location.

• The versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using several attachments like

- Taper turning attachment

- Thread milling attachment

- Copying attachment

EX: NO: Date:

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE

Aim:

To machine the work piece to the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Tools required:

Capstan lathe

Counter sink bit

Drill bit

Stopper

Drill chuck

Procedure:

1) Prepare tooling layout for the given work piece.

2) Set the tools in the respect position of the tool rotation.

3) The adjustment to the lathe of head for each tool is adjusted by rotating the adjusted

4) Feed the tools in the required sequences to machine given work piece for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

Result:

Thus the tools in the required sequences to machine given work pieces for the given dimension using capstan lathe.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR INTERFACING FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for interference fit assembly using a lathe and a drilling machine.

Materials required:

Mild steel polished rod 32 x 16mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Vernier caliper

Outside caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is held originally in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on.

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half the work piece as per the given dimensions.

5) Then the drill bit of required drill size is held in tail stock and drilling is done for the required depth in the work piece.

6) The two parts are assembled for getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given work piece as shown in figure is subjected to machining operations to become a finished work piece.

EX: NO: Date:

MACHINING THE COMPONENTS FOR CLEARANCE FIT ASSEMBLY

Aim:

To machine the components for clearance fit assembly using lathe.

Materials required:

Mild steel

Polished round rod 32 x 110mm

Tools required:

Turning tool

Parting off tool

Drill bit

Outside caliper

Vernier caliper

Inside caliper

Procedure:

1) The given work piece is hold rigitly in the chuck.

2) The single point cutting tool is set on the tool post.

3) The machine is switched on

4) The straight turning and facing operations are done on the one half if the workpiece as per the given dimension.

5) The machine is switched off.

6) The parting tool is fixed and by parting off operation the work piece is cut into two parts as per the dimensions

7) Two parts are assembled per getting a clearance fit assembly.

Result:

The given workpiece is subjected in machine operations to become a finished workpiece.

baby

2012-10-28T03:22:00.002-07:00

guess

2012-08-18T06:56:00.001-07:00

correct

2012-08-18T06:55:00.002-07:00

i like it

2012-08-18T06:55:00.000-07:00

2012-08-18T06:51:00.001-07:00

nice

2012-08-18T06:47:00.001-07:00

how is this

2012-08-18T06:44:00.001-07:00

Built on Land – Lost During Last Pole Shift?

2012-06-29T02:47:00.001-07:00

Some Triangle researchers have theorized for years that a strange energy source exists at the bottom of the sea within the region of the ocean affecting planes, ships, and boats. A few investigators postulate that if the fabled Atlantis really did exist the remains of its mythical energy-vortex machine might still be intact at the bottom of the ocean. Such a machine, they claim, would likely be pyramidal-shaped and the original historical template that succeeding cultures around the globe copied much later. Thrilling is also that these mysterious pyramids are scattered across the entire world.

Pyramid structures have been discovered across North, Central, and South America; Eastern Europe; the icy tundra of Siberia; Northern and Central China; and possibly Antarctica. The South Pole pyramid cannot be confirmed as it’s deep under more than a mile of ice and images of it are controversial. Years ago, mysterious ruins the vestiges of an unknown culture were discovered on a small island called Malden in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. The ruins were claimed to also have the remains of an ancient pyramid. Believers in the ancient land of Lemuria (also called Mu) proposed that the ruins might be all that were left of that ancient land, while others speculated it might have been an outpost colony of Atlantis.

An anthropologist from the Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Hawaii explored the ruins back in 1924 and found no pyramid. What scientist Kenneth Emory did find, however, was evidence that a small Polynesian tribe once settled there briefly, perhaps no further back in time than the 16th Century. Despite that finding, more revelations were to come from the tiny island during the ensuing years. Researcher Mitch Williamson was one that dug deeper into the mysteries.

Reporting on some of Williamson’s amazing findings, Rich Hoffman, explorer and investigator, writes: “There are 40 stone temples on Malden Island that are described as similar in design to the buildings of Nan Madol on Pohnpei, some 3,400 miles (5,475 km) away. In fact, there is a basalt road that runs along the bottom of the Pacific Ocean which connects these islands under hundreds of feet of water.

“This suggests a culture that is more than 50,000 years old and that this entire land mass was once above water supporting a civilization that had no trouble moving around tremendous stones to build very large, complicated societies which we know absolutely nothing about, other than the fact that someone built them and they are older than biblical history.

“Yet, nobody discusses them because they don’t fit into our understanding of the human race and their origins. Scientists have their diffusion theories of how migrants arrived in North America using the land bridge of the Bering Straight and they are sticking with it.”

The same can be said of the scattered ruins of the Caribbean that suggest a very large civilization extending from the coastal waters off the Florida Keys, toward the Bahamian waters, crossing near Bimini, and east into the Atlantic. Cuba too has underwater ruins off its coast that may have been part of the same city-state complex. Hoffman also mentions, almost in passing, the incredible report of explorer Tony Benik who made the momentous discovery of yet another huge pyramid under 10,000 feet of water in the middle of the Atlantic.

2012-06-29T02:46:00.003-07:00

When relating his discovery, the doctor explained he became separated from his diving friends underwater. While attempting to rejoin them he came upon a massive structure rising from the ocean floor: a black, hulking object silhouetted against the lighter sun-filtered water. The object was shaped like a pyramid. Because he was low on air, he didn’t spend much time investigating the pyramid, but did find a strange crystal sphere. He brought it to the surface with him and later when the ancient crystal was studied researchers were astonished by its properties. Now could it be so that the crystal pyramid causing the Triangle phenomena?

crystal pyramid

2012-06-29T02:45:00.002-07:00

The pyramid could confirm some engineers’ contentions that pyramids were originally created as massive power sources, support the claim that the ancient city-state of Atlantis did exist, or even provide answers to the mysterious goings-on that have been recorded since the 19th Century in the region of the Atlantic dubbed the Bermuda Triangle.

Artist’s conception of the incredible crystal pyramid

The Pyramid Was First discovered in 1968. According to the history, the pyramid was accidentally discovered during 1968 by a doctor of naturopathy, Ray Brown of Mesa, Arizona. Brown was in the Caribbean on vacation and making dives with friends in a region off the Bahamas known as “the Tongue of the Ocean.” The area acquired that name because a tongue-shaped portion of the seabed extends out from the island before sharply dropping off into much greater depths.

GIANT CRYSTAL PYRAMID DISCOVERED IN BERMUDA TRIANGLE

2012-06-29T02:43:00.004-07:00

Once again something that points in the direction of Atlantis and its connection to the Bermuda Triangle. which is still mysterious, unworldly, and sometimes deadly. For decades intrepid researchers delved into the maze of mysteries hidden deep within this most enigmatic place on Earth. Some speculate the bizarre time anomalies, disappearances and weird phenomena can be explained by natural occurrences. Others are insistent that relics of an advanced, unknown culture left behind fantastic technology…great energy machines that literally warp space-time and open portals to other realities. Now American and French explorers have made a monumental discovery: a partially translucent, crystal-like pyramid rising from the Caribbean seabed— its origin, age and purpose completely unknown.

A gigantic structure, perhaps larger than the Great Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt, and initially identified by a doctor in the 1960s, has been independently verified by diving teams from France and the U.S. The discovery has rocked scientists around the world. Will they rush to investigate it? No, they’re more likely to studiously ignore it. If pressed, they’ll officially position themselves as highly skeptical—especially in light of the potential ramifications.

The History of Asiatic Jewellery: India & the Indus Valley

2011-09-10T03:58:00.000-07:00

Jewellery of the Indus Valley

Article Copyright © 2010 AllAboutGemstones.com
Humans first began to migrate from Australia to the Indian sub-continent around 60,000 years ago. These early settlers were descendants of the Australoid aborigines, and became the known as the Dravidian, whose reach extended from India to Iran.

Jewelry making in the Indus Valley dates back to the Neolithic-age Mehrgarh culture (7000—5500 BC), and Late Harappan (aka "Cemetery H") age, which predates the iron-age development of metal-casting and metal working. The Indus Valley region, which encompasses Persia and the Indian sub-continent, was the home to the Indus-Sarasvati civilizations (Aryan, Harappa and Vedic peoples) which were the largest (both population and geography) of the major ancient civilizations from Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and China. The Sarasvati was a river praised in the Rig-Veda (a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns), running the length of the Indus Valley, from Punjab to the Arabian Sea.

Dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro c. 2500 BC

Early Indus Valley jewelry consisted of strands of simple beads that were carved from soft stone, or fashioned from shells. The Harappans were expert craftsmen, making beads from agate, amethyst, carnelian, lapis lazuli and turquoise. Some stones were heated to produce a reddish color which was prized by the early Indus civilization [4].

Jewellery of the Harappan Culture

During the Late Harappan period craftsmen began to work with bronze, copper silver, and gold, fashioning simple necklaces, head-bands, bangles and other ornamentation from cast metalwork, glazed faience (a non-clay ceramic), terracotta, shells, and carved ivory. Copper was mined locally by the Harappans, in Baluchistan and Rajasthan [9]. Examples of this early jewelry can be seen on the cast-bronze statuette of the 'Dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro' (Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan), believed to have been made in 2,500 BCE (above, left).
The Harappans were also accomplished sailors and navigators, helping them to expand the boundaries of trade Bahrain and Sumer For navigation, the Harappans carved compasses from conch shell, which they used to measure the angle between stars.
Jewelry was also made in the form of anthropomorphic symbols such as animals, trees, and sexual organs, due primarily to their pagan, and matriarchal spiritual beliefs. Jewelry was worn predominantly by the female, and was not buried with the deceased, but passed on to their heirs. Another popular Harappan spiritual motif was the Shiva Pashupati, or Yogic "Lord of Beasts."

Jewels of the Indian Subcontinent

As India's abundance of mineral wealth became known throughout the world, the indigenous people became increasingly wealthy and their lifestyle grew in opulence. Beginning in the time of India's Maha Janapadas, or "Great Kingdoms" (700—300 BCE), the region's wealth and power steadily increased, reaching its zenith during the Mughal Empire which spanned from the 16th century to the mid-19th century, and who's empire extended from Indian sub-continent to Afghanistan.
Gemstone use in India was well documented in the 6th century BCE Sanskrit encyclopedia known as the Brihat-Samhita (Utpalaparimalä,), written by Daivajna Varahamihira (505-587). Varahamihira, who was an astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer from Ujjain, categorized twenty-two gems, or "ratnas," which included: Marakata (emerald), Mukta (pearls), Padmaraga or Mänikya (ruby), and Vajra (diamond), as well as Brahmamani (bicolored tourmaline), Gomeda (jacinth or zircon), Indranila (sapphire), Jyotirasa, Karketana (chrysoberyl), Pravals (coral), Pulaka (garnet), Pushparaga (topaz), Rajamani (royal gem), Rudhirakhya (carnelian), Sasikanta (moonstone), Saugandhika (sapphire variety), Sphatika (rock crystal), Sasyaka (copper sulphate), Vaidurya (Lápiz lazuli), and Vimalaka (pyrite).
The classification of gemstones were further divided into distinct categories by the disiplin of Jyotish, which is an ancient Indian system of astronomy and astrology. Gems were divided into mahäratna (major gems) and uparatna (minor gems), with the former group being tied to the nine planets or astrological signs: Diamond (Venus), Ruby (Sun), Emerald (Mercury), Topaz or Yellow Sapphire (Jupiter), Garnet (Rahu), Blue Sapphire (Saturn), Pearl (Moon), Red Coral (Mars), Cat's-Eye Chrysoberyl (Ketu) as nine stones. These nine stones were typically set in a Navaratna (nine gems) setting system, with ruby (the sun) at its center.

Greek Gold and the Indian Spice Routes

The first oceanic trading routes between the ancient Greeks and India began in around 130 BC, established by a Greek navigator named Eudoxos of Cyzicus, under Ptolemy VIII, who was king of the Hellenistic/Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. With the assistance of an Indian navigator, Cyzicus made the first recorded journey in c.118 BC. They sailed from the Arabian port of Aden (Eudaemon in Greek) to the west coast of India using the Indian Ocean's seasonal monsoon winds to carry them along.
Perhaps the first commodity that attracted the ancient Greeks was spice, and one of the first spices that was heavily traded was Piper nigrum, or black pepper (Sanskrit: pippali, Latin: piper) from Tamil Nadu in southeastern India. This was followed by other exotic commodities such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, rice, and gemstones.

Ancient map of Roman trading ports in India

Greek Amaravati Scroll c. 300 AD

The Romans expanded trade with the Tamil Chola, Pandyan and Chera dynasties, establishing trading settlements which would remain long after the fall of the Western Roman empire. Spices were not the only commodity that interested the Greeks and Romans - live peacocks were highly prized as garden decor in ancient Greece. In exchange, the Indians got what they wanted from the Greco-Roman world - gold, and lots of it.
Along with gold there were other Mediterranean commodities such as copper, silver, olive oil, and wine, but it was gold that the Indians were after. Rather than use the bartered gold for currency, as did the Greeks, the Indians were simply in search of new ways to decorate themselves. By the latter half of the first century AD Pliny the Elder said of this trade imbalance: "We must be mad bankrupting ourself for India" [5]. One notable manifestation of India's preoccupation with gold and self-decoration was in the Hindu tradition of the "sixteen adornments."

The Birth of India's Golden Age

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 332 BC, the Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent, and a precursor for the modern nation of India. The golden age of the Guptas began in the Indo-Gangetic Plains in the 3rd century BC, with Chandragupta seizing conquered territories within the Indus basin that had been held by Alexander the Great. At its height in the 2nd century BC the Mauryan Empire extended to Kerala at the tip of India in the south, Afghanistan in the west, and Assam (Bangladesh) in the east.

War and conquest was a fact of life in the ancient world, and India's women were an integral part of the equation. During the time of Gupta, female warriors were common, but they had been celebrated in battle since the time of the Rig Veda in 1,000 BC. With the rise of the Mauryan empire, the city of Patna became the seat of power for the Indian sub-continent, and a symbol of the greatness of India. Patna was situated at the confluence of four rivers — the Ganges, Arennovoas, Sonabhadra and Hiranyawah — and the city became a major trading hub for the ancient world.

Chandragupta (left) & Ashoka (right)

Silver Mauryan coin (photo: public domain)

The Greek historian Megasthenes (350—290 BCE), who was also an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta, gives the first written account of Patna in his book Indika, which he refers to as Palibothra. Under Chandragupta grandson Ashokavardhan Maurya (alternately "Ashoka the Cruel" or "Ashoka the Great") transformed Patna from a city of wooden construction to a magnificent, 22-mile-long city of stone with over 64 gates.
Late in life, Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks, ushering in the age of Jainism in India. Like his grandfather Chandragupta before him, Ashoka also renounced bloodshed to follow the teachings of Buddha, after witnessing first-hand the mayhem he had unleashed during the Kalinga War of Orissa in 264 BC.
Ashoka spread his message of non-violence (the "Edicts of Ashoka") on the "Pillars of Ashoka," which were a series of columns dispersed throughout northern Indian. In H. G. Wells' book "The Outline of History" he wrote of Ashoka: In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves "their highnesses," and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."

Lord Rama and wife Sita

Ramayana - battle between Rama & Ravana

Punctuating this special time in India's history is the story of Rama who is one of the more popular folk heros and deities in the Hindu religion. The legend of Rama is told in one of India's greatest epics, the Ramayana. The tale of Rama's life, and his spiritual journey is one of perfect adherence to the concept of dharma, that of living a life of goodness and righteousness. But Rama is both a lover, and a warrior, one of the constant contradictions within the Hindu culture.

The Kushan Empire and the Silk Road

No empire in word history had more influence on global trade than the Kushans (c.60 AD—375 AD), who were a (Mahayana) Buddhist mercantile culture that was singularly responsible for the creating the overland Silk Road, thereby dramatically expanding trade between China, India and the Western World. The Kushans were also partially responsible for exporting Buddhism to China. During its zenith in the first century AD, the Kushan Empire extended from the Khyber Pass and the Indus Valley (Afghanistan, Pakistan) to the Ganges river valley in northern India, and was the first truly "multi-cultural" empire.

Gold Kushan coins (photo: public domain)

Althoug the Kushans ruled most of northern India, they were not Hindu, and not indigenous to the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Kushans did practice Hinduism, along with Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and the religion of the ancient Greeks. The Kushan Empire began in Bactria and Gandhara, in present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. By the second century AD, Rome under Hadrian ruled the lands to the west, and the Han Dynasty ruled the lands to the east, but the center of trade was under the dominion of the Kushans, and the capital city under the Maharaja Kanishka I, was Peshawar, in northwester Pakistan. Marking the trade route was the great stupa of Kanishka, which was said to be one of the most imposing structures in the ancient world.

Kushan carnelian signet seal (photo: public domain)

Kushan jewelry c.200s BC (photo: Phgcom/GNU).

Within the Ganges river valley of northern India the city of Mathura (near Agra, in Uttar Pradesh) was a major trade city for the Kushan dynasty, and Chinese raw silk that was destined for Greece and Rome was first woven in Mathura. Kushan coinage featured symbols from every culture and religion along the trade route, and the Kushan tolerance for religious diversity led to a long period of peace and prosperity.

The Chola Dynasty of Southern India

The Cholas (c. AD 850—1250) were a Tamil dynasty that ruled southern India during the same period that the Mauryan and Kushan empires ruled in the north. The Chola Dynasty were practicing Hindus who left an enduring legacy in art, architecture and metalworking, as well as literature, science and mathematics. They were both an agricultural, and maritime culture that was an integral part of the oceanic gem and spice trade with the western world.
The southern Tamil region of India is especially known for its accomplished bronze metalworkers, and the multitude of lost-wax-casting statuary they have produced. One of the most enduring bits of iconography that is inextricably linked to India's Hindu culture is the cast-bronze statue of Nataraja, the Lord of Dance.

Jewellery of the Mughal Empire & the Marathas

The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526, by Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1483—1530), after the defeat of Ibrahim Shah Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans, at the First Battle of Panipat. This was the beginning of Islamic imperial dominance on the Indian subcontinent. The Mughal Dynasty reached its zenith under Jalaluddin Mohammed Akbar (1542—1605), who was credited for the greatest expansion of the empire, and fostering harmonic relations between the Muslim and Hindu factions.

Maharajahs Singh (left) & Patiala (right)

217.80 carat Carved Mughal Emerald c. 1107/1695 AD

India's Maharajahs were fabulously wealthy, and their taste in architecture, clothing and jewelry reflected their desire to project that image of wealth. Ultimately, the Maharajahs' ostentatious lifestyles may have been an open invitation for emerging powers to take advantage of their weaknesses, and hasten India's plundering, and eventual decline.
It was during the 15th and 16th centuries that the Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, developed a keen interest in the mineral wealth of India, especially when it came to India's prized emeralds, rubies, and Golconda diamonds, also known as vajra, which is the Sanskrit for "thunderbolt." By the end of the 16th century, Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and France had all established trading posts throughout India.

The Darya-i-Nur 'Sea of Light'

Zahiruddin Babur (left), Bhupinder Singh (right)

The Mughal Empire began to crumble under pressure from the Marathas (Mahrattas, Maranthas), who were an an Indo-Aryan group of Hindu warriors from the central-western state of Maharashtra. At its height during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Maratha Empire's "Maratha Confederacy" (1674—1820) covered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. It was during this period that the Maratha Empire established a protectorate over the mughal emperor, bringing an end to Muslim rule in Punjab. The last Emperor, Bahadur Shah II (1775—1862), was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (aka: "India's First War of Independence," or the "Sepoy Mutiny").

European trade with Calicut, India from the atlas Civitates orbis terrarum c.1572

Most of India was now under the control of the Britain and the British East India Company, and subject to direct rule under the British Crown. Under the leadership of Indai's Mahatma Gandhi, a campaign of non-violent civil disobedience brought a close to colonial rule in 1947. In 1950, India became a republic, and the Muslim-majority areas to the northwest were partitioned to form the separate nation of Pakistan.
Today, India maintains a thriving gem and jewelry industry, centered around Gujarat and Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra. Once agian, the Hindustan diamantaires of Gujarat are reclaiming their legacy, and supremacy in the field of gems and jewelry.

Solah Shringar "The Sixteen Adornments"

The term "Solah Shringar" (aka Haft-O-Nuh) refers to the "sixteen adornments," or "arts of beautification," which is an ancient Hindu wedding custom dating back to medieval India. The so-called "sixteen adornments" belong to a woman's "wedding set" of jewellery and cosmetics to be worn on the day of her marriage.
There Solah Shringar starts with the bride's hair being oiled, parted and pulled back, then decorated with a borla, which is a conical hair ornament at the rear of the head. Added to this is the Tika, Mang-Tikka, or Bhor, which is a single pendant that dangles from where the hair parts at the forehead. There is also a Gaajra which is a single hair decoration of flowers and pearls, and earrings that are hung from the Karn Phool, or "ear flowers" which are piercings in the earlobes.
Other jewlery items that are unique to the Solah Shringar include the Sarpech or feather-pin, the Arsi or archer's ring (mirror ring), and the Hansali which is a collar-type choker. A beaded necklace called the Mangalsutra is another symbolically important piece of Hindu wedding jewelry. If the woman is from Tamil Madu, she would add the Thaali, which is a temple-shaped gold medallion held by yellow thread.

Painting from Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra c. 600s AD

Maharani Jindan (Jind Kaur) c. 1840

The face may also be adorned with a Bindi which is the single dot that Hindu women wear on their foreheads. The nose ring, or Nath can be very elaborate, decorated with pearls or gemstones, and may be attached to the hair on one side of the head, with a chain containing multiple drop-beads. In some regions the nose ring is never removed, becoming an enduring symbol of marriage. An black eye-shadow called Kaajal is then used to accentuate the eyes.
These are accompanied by a standard assortment of anklets, armlets, bangles (as many as twenty or more on each arm), bracelets, earrings, nose rings and toe rings. Bangles consist of the Pola which are typically made of gold, silver or iron, and Shankha made of ivory or ceramic. Some jewelry items in the Solah Shringar must contains the color red is considered to be "auspicious." The Pajeb is a bangle made of red glass, and the bride would also apply a vermilion powder called Sindoor (Puja in Hindu) in her hair, red Chudda on her hands, and a red Anjana or Kohl around the eyes. Rings may be worn on all ten fingers, and include a Hathphulor, which is a single medallion on the back-side of the hand that is attached to each ring by a series of gold chains.

The bride's sari would also be red, held in place by a gold waist-belt. The Mehndi is an elaborate henna tattoo that is applied to the palm side of the hands, the forearms and the feet.

Bibliography on ancient Asiatic jewelry from India and the Indus Valley

1. Oppi Untracht, Jewelry Concepts & Technology - Complete Reference Guide . Doubleday

2. William Meacham, The Neolithic of South China . www.jstor.org

3. Elena Neva, Types and Forms of Ancient Jewelry from Central Asia . www.transoxiana.org

4. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, Industries of the Ancient Near East. 1997 American Oriental Society

5. PBS, The Story of India . www.latimes.com

6. Elena Neva, Types and Forms of Ancient Jewelry from Central Asia . www.transoxiana.org

7. Untracht, Oppi., Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams

8. Neich, R., Pereira, Pacific Jewellery and Adornment.

9. Michel Danino, The Indus-Sarasvati Civilization . www.voiceofdharma.com

10. Radha Krishnamurthy, Gemmology in Ancient India . www.new.dli.ernet.in

11. Solah Shringar for Indian Bride . www.weddings.iloveindia.com

12. Colors of India Indian Bridal Fashion . www.colors-of-india.com

13. Women and Jewelry - The Spiritual Dimensions of Ornamentation . www.exoticindiaart.com

14. Caroline Perry, Jewelry Inspired by Ancient Cultures . Running Press

15. The British Museum, Ancient India . www.ancientindia.co.uk

2011-07-31T07:09:00.000-07:00

Lasik and Reading Glasses: Whats for You

2011-07-31T07:07:00.000-07:00

when someone in the past would have vision problems, there was only one solution: get reading glasses. as time went by, contacts were invented. now however, we have much more options to choose to correct our visual problems. One of those solutions is what is known as lasik surgery. this is a relatively new technology that uses lasers to correct your eye problems. Residents will be pleased to know that Oklahoma Lasik is now quite widespread.

Of course we all know that the word surgery can at times sound frightening. and there is no doubt that surgery will always carry risks. That is why some people, even in this age, would still opt for the old-fashioned reading glasses. before you decide to have lasik surgery, it would be wise to look at the advantages and disadvantages of both lasik and reading glasses.

The traditional method of aiding those with visual impairments. Glasses are great for those with eye problems; they are easy to use, they can be carried around wherever you go, and they can even be used for fashion statements. Glasses however can be lost and can be broken. you may have to repeatedly change glasses during your life. there is hardly any risk to wearing reading glasses.

For those who don’t like wearing glasses, lasik surgery can be the way to go. It has a relatively high price to it but it is usually a one-time cost unless there may need to be follow-up operations. Lasik is quick; it will only last a few minutes and the effect can last your whole life. there will be no need to carry any glasses or contacts. Lasik though, like all surgeries does pose some risks. Some may still need reading glasses even after getting a surgery.

In the end, it is up to you whether to take a lasik treatment or to just go the old-fashioned way. The best lasik surgeons in Tulsa however, seriously recommend Lasik over other alternatives.

Difference between a healthy lung and a smokers lung.

2011-07-31T07:00:00.000-07:00

If you smoke and got asthma..

If you smoke and at the same time got asthma this can in the long run cause that the airways get chronic thight and narrow and the asthma evolves into Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), also known as Chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD), in Norway known as KOLS, and in Sweden KOL. To avoid this the smoker having asthma should stop smoking and just hope that it is not to late. It is the only way.

Besides that this shows the consequence of smoking:

On the left you see a healty lung from a non-smoker, and on the right you see a lung from a smoker that has smoked one pack of cigarettes a day for twenty years. Scary if you ask me.

nano

2011-07-30T01:44:00.001-07:00

நனோ தொழில்நுட்பம் என்பது பென்சில் கரி (கிரபைட்) இன் ஒற்றை காபன் படையை பாய் போல் சுருட்டி உருவாக்கும் மிக நுண்ணிய நனோ (10^-9 m) விட்டம் கொண்ட மின்சாரத்தை மற்றும்
வெப்பத்தை கடத்தக் கூடிய உறுதியான பாரம் குறைந்த இழைகளைக் குறிப்பது.

இலத்திரனியல் உலகில் இதன் பாவனை ஏலவே பெரிய பங்காற்ற ஆரம்பித்துவிட்டது. இரசாயனவியலிலும்.. உயிரியலிலும்.. பெளதீகவியலிலும்.. பொருள் வடிவமைப்பு, உருவாக்கதிலும் இவற்றின் பங்களிப்பு இருக்கின்றன.

இன்று உலோகக் கடத்திகள் கொண்டு உருவாக்கப்படும் ஒப்பீட்டளவில் பெரிய இலத்திரனியல் சுற்றுகளை இந்த நனோ கடத்திகள் கொண்டு ஒரு கைவிரல் அளவில் உருவாக்கி விட முடியும். அப்பிள் நிறுவனம்.. இதனை பாவிக்க ஆரம்பித்துவிட்டது.

இத்துறையில் படிப்பது விஞ்ஞானம் சார்ந்த எல்லா துறைகளிலும் பயனளிக்கும். குறிப்பாக இலத்திரனியல் சம்பந்தப்பட்ட தொழில்நிறுவனங்கள் எதிர்காலத்தில் போட்டிபோட்டு அமுல்படுத்தும் அரிய கண்டுபிடிப்புக்களை.. வடிவமைப்புக்களை இந்த தொழில்நுட்பம் உருவாக்கும் என்பது நிச்சயம். அதேவேளை மருத்துவ உலகிலும் இதன் பாவனை அதிகரிப்பதோடு உடலுக்குள் இயங்க வைக்கப்படும் வைத்தியர் கூட இதன் மூலம் உருவாக்கப்படலாம்

/Medical technology.//

இது ஒரு விரிந்த பாடப்பரப்பு.

இதில் மருத்துவப் பெளதீகவியல் (Medical physics) மருத்துவப் பொறியியல் (Medical Engineering).. மருத்துவ உயிரியல் தொழில்நுட்பம் (bio technology), ஜெனெரிக் பொறியியல் (Genetic engineering) , மருத்துவ உயிரியல் விஞ்ஞானம் (Biomedical science) என்று பிரிவுகள் உண்டு.

மருந்து தயாரிப்பு, வடிவமைப்பு.

மருத்துவ உபகரணங்கள் கண்டுபிடிப்பு வடிவமைப்பு மேம்பாடு இவை தொடர்பான படிப்புகள். (X-ray,, NMR, CT scanner, Ultra sonic, UV therapy, Endoscope, Dental technology and so on)

உயிரியல் பிறப்புரிமை சிகிச்சைகள் மூலம் நோய்களை இல்லாது ஒழித்தல் (ஜீன் தெரபி -Gene therapy)

இப்படி நிறைய 21/22 ம் நூற்றாண்டிற்குரிய பாடப்பரப்புக்கள் இதில் உள்ளன.

இத்துறைகளில் வேலை வாய்ப்பு அதிகம் என்பதை உணர முடிகிறது. ஆனால் இத்துறையில் உள்ளவர்கள் தங்களின் அறிவை எப்போதும் புதுப்பித்துக் கொண்டிருக்க வேண்டும். காரணம்.. விரைவான மாற்றங்களும் வளர்ச்சிகளும் இங்குண்டு. அதற்கு அத்தத்துறையில் இருக்கும் துறை அங்கீகாரம் அளிக்கும் நிறுவனங்களில் (Professional body eg: Institute of Biomedical Science) உறுப்பினராக இருக்க வேண்டும். ஒவ்வொரு நாட்டிலும் இவை இருக்கின்றன. அந்தந்த நாட்டு சட்டங்களுக்கு தேவைகளுக்கு ஏற்ப உங்கள் அறிவை அவை மேம்படுத்த உதவுவதோடு நிபந்தனைகளையும் இடும்.

நான் பார்த்த அளவில் தமிழ் மாணவர்கள் இந்த Professional body களில் அங்கத்துவம் பெறுவது குறைவு. ஆனால் நிறைய உள்நாட்டு வெள்ளைகளும் மற்றவர்களும் அங்கத்துவத்தை பெற்று மேலதிக சலுகைகளையும் பெறுகின்றனர். இந்த வாய்ப்புக்களை பாவிக்க வேண்டும்.

(எவ்வாறு குருதிக் குழாயில் கொலஸ்ரோல் படிவால் ஏற்படும் அடைப்பை சத்திரசிகிச்சை இன்றி தொழில்நுட்ப மேம்பாட்டை பயன்படுத்தி நீக்குதல் என்பதற்கான விளக்கம்.)

மருத்துவ உலகில் (MRCP, FRCP, MRCS, FRCS) இருப்பது போல.. விஞ்ஞானத்தின் இதர பிரிவுகளிலும் இவ்வாறான Professional qualifications மேற்படி நிறுவனங்கள் உங்களின் கல்வித் தகமை.. அனுபவம்.. துறைசார்ந்த அறிவு புதுப்பிப்பு என்பன போன்ற விடயங்களை அளவிட்டு தரும். இவற்றைப் பெறுவது சம்பள உயர்விற்கு மட்டுமன்றி உங்களின் அறிவின் உயர்விற்கும் பயன்பாட்டு விருத்திக்கும் உதவும்.

எனவே நனோ.. மற்றும் மெடிக்கல் தொழில்நுட்பங்களில் உங்கள் நேரத்தை அறிவாற்றலை முதலீடு செய்வது வீணாகாது.

For English version click below

English Version( Full Version)

For details regarding the use of Nanotech in medicine see below

http://curiosity.discovery.com/topic/modern-medicine/modern-medicine-pictures2.htm

For Short version see below

There's an unprecedented multidisciplinary convergence of scientists dedicated to the study of a world so small, we can't see it -- even with a light microscope. That world is the field of nanotechnology, the realm of atoms and nanostructures. Nanotechnology is so new, no one is really sure what will come of it. Even so, predictions range from the ability to reproduce things like diamonds and food to the world being devoured by self-replicating nanorobots.

In order to understand the unusual world of nanotechnology, we need to get an idea of the units of measure involved. A centimeter is one-hundredth of a meter, a millimeter is one-thousandth of a meter, and a micrometer is one-millionth of a meter, but all of these are still huge compared to the nanoscale. A nanometer (nm) is one-billionth of a meter, smaller than the wavelength of visible light and a hundred-thousandth the width of a human hair [source:Berkeley Lab].

As small as a nanometer is, it's still large compared to the atomic scale. An atom has a diameter of about 0.1 nm. An atom's nucleus is much smaller -- about 0.00001 nm. Atoms are the building blocks for all matter in our universe. You and everything around you are made of atoms. Nature has perfected the science of manufacturing matter molecularly. For instance, our bodies are assembled in a specific manner from millions of living cells. Cells are nature's nanomachines. At the atomic scale, elements are at their most basic level. On the nanoscale, we can potentially put these atoms together to make almost anything.

In a lecture called "Small Wonders:The World of Nanoscience," Nobel Prize winner Dr. Horst Störmer said that the nanoscale is more interesting than the atomic scale because the nanoscale is the first point where we can assemble something -- it's not until we start putting atoms together that we can make anything useful.

In this article, we'll learn about what nanotechnology means today and what the future of nanotechnology may hold. We'll also look at the potential risks that come with working at the nanoscale.

The World of Nanotechnology

One of the exciting and challenging aspects of the nanoscale is the role that quantum mechanics plays in it. The rules of quantum mechanics are very different from classical physics, which means that the behavior of substances at the nanoscale can sometimes contradict common sense by behaving erratically. You can't walk up to a wall and immediately teleportto the other side of it, but at the nanoscale an electron can -- it's called electron tunneling. Substances that are insulators, meaning they can't carry an electric charge, in bulk form might becomesemiconductors when reduced to the nanoscale. Melting points can change due to an increase in surface area. Much of nanoscience requires that you forget what you know and start learning all over again.

So what does this all mean? Right now, it means that scientists are experimenting with substances at the nanoscale to learn about their properties and how we might be able to take advantage of them in various applications. Engineers are trying to use nano-size wires to create smaller, more powerful microprocessors. Doctors are searching for ways to use nanoparticles in medical applications. Still, we've got a long way to go before nanotechnology dominates the technology and medical markets.

Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes

Currently, scientists find two nano-size structures of particular interest: nanowires andcarbon nanotubes. Nanowires are wires with a very small diameter, sometimes as small as 1 nanometer. Scientists hope to use them to build tiny transistors for computer chips and other electronic devices. In the last couple of years, carbon nanotubes have overshadowed nanowires. We're still learning about these structures, but what we've learned so far is very exciting.

A carbon nanotube is a nano-size cylinder of carbon atoms. Imagine a sheet of carbon atoms, which would look like a sheet of hexagons. If you roll that sheet into a tube, you'd have a carbon nanotube. Carbon nanotube properties depend on how you roll the sheet. In other words, even though all carbon nanotubes are made of carbon, they can be very different from one another based on how you align the individual atoms.

Graphite vs. Diamonds

What's the difference between graphite anddiamonds? Both materials are made of carbon, but both have vastly different properties. Graphite is soft; diamonds are hard. Graphite conducts electricity, but diamonds are insulators and can't conduct electricity. Graphite is opaque; diamonds are usually transparent. Graphite and diamonds have these properties because of the way the carbon atoms bond together at the nanoscale.

With the right arrangement of atoms, you can create a carbon nanotube that's hundreds of times stronger than steel, but six times lighter [source: The Ecologist]. Engineers plan to make building material out of carbon nanotubes, particularly for things like cars and airplanes. Lighter vehicles would mean better fuel efficiency, and the added strength translates to increased passenger safety.

Carbon nanotubes can also be effective semiconductors with the right arrangement of atoms. Scientists are still working on finding ways to make carbon nanotubes a realistic option for transistors in microprocessors and other electronics.

In the next section, we'll look at products that are taking advantage of nanotechnology.

Products with Nanotechnology

You might be surprised to find out how many products on the market are already benefiting from nanotechnology.

Greg Wood/AFP/Getty Images
Ingredients like zinc oxide can leave a white sheen behind. But sunscreens with zinc oxide nanoparticles rub on clear.

Sunscreen - Many sunscreens contain nanoparticles of zinc oxide or titanium oxide. Older sunscreen formulas use larger particles, which is what gives most sunscreens their whitish color. Smaller particles are less visible, meaning that when you rub the sunscreen into your skin, it doesn't give you a whitish tinge.
Self-cleaning glass - A company called Pilkington offers a product they call Activ Glass, which uses nanoparticles to make the glass photocatalytic and hydrophilic. The photocatalytic effect means that when UV radiation from light hits the glass, nanoparticles become energized and begin to break down and loosen organic molecules on the glass (in other words, dirt). Hydrophilic means that when water makes contact with the glass, it spreads across the glass evenly, which helps wash the glass clean.

Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images
Bridgestone engineers developed this Quick Response Liquid Powder Display, a flexible digital screen, using nanotechnology.

Clothing - Scientists are using nanoparticles to enhance your clothing. By coating fabrics with a thin layer of zinc oxide nanoparticles, manufacturers can create clothes that give better protection from UV radiation. Some clothes have nanoparticles in the form of little hairs or whiskers that help repel water and other materials, making the clothing stain-resistant.
Scratch-resistant coatings - Engineers discovered that adding aluminum silicate nanoparticles to scratch-resistant polymer coatings made the coatings more effective, increasing resistance to chipping and scratching. Scratch-resistant coatings are common on everything from cars to eyeglass lenses.
Antimicrobial bandages - Scientist Robert Burrell created a process to manufacture antibacterial bandages using nanoparticles of silver. Silver ions block microbes' cellular respiration [source: Burnsurgery.org]. In other words, silver smothers harmful cells, killing them.

Tennis, Anyone?

Nanotechnology is making a big impact on the tennis world. In 2002, the tennis racket company Babolat introduced the VS Nanotube Power racket. They made the racket out of carbon nanotube-infused graphite, meaning the racket was very light, yet many times stronger than steel. Meanwhile, tennis ball manufacturer Wilson introduced the Double Core tennis ball. These balls have a coating of clay nanoparticles on the inner core. The clay acts as a sealant, making it very difficult for air to escape the ball.

Swimming pool cleaners anddisinfectants - EnviroSystems, Inc. developed a mixture (called a nanoemulsion) of nano-sized oil drops mixed with a bactericide. The oil particles adhere to bacteria, making the delivery of the bactericide more efficient and effective.

Bracelet of mammoth ivory tusk from 20,000 B.C. found in Ukraine

2011-05-31T03:34:00.000-07:00

. The design is still used in Ukrainian embroidery today.

Although the Romans were ignorant of soap as a cleanser until 2nd century A.D. the Scythians of Ukraine probably as early as the 7th century B.C. were using soap to wash their hair according to the Greek historian Herodotus.

It might be mentioned that wine making probably originated about 5,000 years ago just 200 miles southest of Ukraine in the Caucasus, possibly Georgia, according to James and Thorpe (p. 328-29). So wine has probably been in Ukraine from the very earliest time.

The world's first known horseman rode in Dereivka, central Ukraine, 6,000 years ago. This Scythian on a galloping horse is a 4th century B.C. gold plaque found in Kul Oba (Kerch), Ukraine.

Sarmatian cavalryman from Ukraine on Trajan's Column in Rome.

The Scythians of Ukraine shocked the Greeks and Romans because they drank their wine full strength, straight and not mixed with water in the Greek tradition. The ancient Greeks had a saying "drinking the Scythian way" which was to drink wine straight. James and Thorpe seem to be unaware that ancient Scythia was located only in Ukraine not in Russia so they are in error to call the Scythians "ancient Russian people" (p. 331). Incidentally, we use the term Ukrainian Scythians to dinstinguish them from the culturally related Asian Pazyryk people in Siberia who were also called Scythians.

The Scythians were described by Herodotus 2,500 years ago as having small tents which served as vapor baths or saunas. However, the Scythians also improved their vapor steam baths by burning cannabis (marijuana or hashish) on hot stones so they got high along with their steam bath. Herotodus said innocently, "The Scythians enjoy it so much that they howl with pleasure." He said that the Scythian vapor bath of Ukraine gave off "a vapor unsurpassed by any vapor bath one could find in Greece" (p. 448).

Trajan's Column in Rome, built about 115 A.D., has a figure of an armored cavalryman, whose horse also has chain armor. He is probably a Sarmatian from Ukraine although James and Thorpe mistakenly say he is from southern Russia (p. 211).

Greek Fire was a kind of flamethrower weapon. The fleet of King Ihor (or Igor) of Kiev encountered Greek Fire during his 941 A.D. invasion of Byzantium according to the RUS (not Russian) chronicler in the Primary Chronicle. The Chronicler wrote: "The Greeks possess something like the lightning in the heavens and they released it and burned us. For this reason we did not conquer them." However, according to tradition, King Oleh in 907 A.D. did mount his shield on the Gates of mighty Constantinople.

Gold vase with Scythian stringing his bow, probably Scythes, son of Hercules, who is successful and becomes King of Scythia on the territory of Ukraine.

One military invention not mentioned by James and Thorpe was the short bow invented by the Ukrainian Scythians which was designed especially for use on a horse. A Scythian could gallop on his horse and shoot back a dozen arrows a minute at a pursuing enemy which is a feat impossible with an ordinary bow. The Scythian bow was short with the ends curled forward. It has come down to the present day as the bow of Cupid who uses it to shoot his arrows of love.

Cupid uses the Scythian bow from Ukraine to shoot his arrows of love (New York Times).

The authors Peter James and Nick Thorpe are English scholars and specialists in ancient history and archeology. Overall Ancient Inventions is an excelllent book with fascinating information. Although we have concentrated on the Ukrainian aspects of the book this is only a very small part of the work. The book, which we highly recommend, gives us renewed respect for the genius of the ancient peoples and it provides "a wonderful celebration of the endless inventiveness of the human mind." A.G.

Are you interested in purchasing this book? Please see the InfoUkes Bookstore.

The second map from 3,000 B.C. is from Malikop, Kuban Region

2011-05-31T03:32:00.000-07:00

The second map from 3,000 B.C. is from Malikop, Kuban Region which is Ukrainian ethnographic territory but outside Ukraine. From the book Ancient Inventions.

Cooking is essential to make food palatable. The oldest known primitive, but identifiable, ovens were found in Ukraine and date from 20,000 B.C. (p. 302). James and Thorpe mention in passing on p. 328 that "the first of the famous Viennese coffee houses was opened in 1683, using sacks of coffee left behind by the Ottoman Turks after their unsuccessful siege of Vienna in that year." What they don't mention is that the sacks were given as a reward to the hero of Vienna, the Ukrainian Cossack Georg Kolschitzky (Yuri Kulchytsky), who opened the Blue Bottle Coffee House on Singerstrasse in Vienna.

The oldest known house in the world is a remarkable dwelling found at Mezhirich, near Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. It was found in 1965 by a Ukrainian farmer who was digging a new cellar six feet below his home. It is made of mammoth bones and was built about 15,000 years ago. It formed part of a village and was so strongly built that it would have lasted several generations. This would indicate that the inhabitants were settled agriculturalists rather than nomad hunters. In Kostienki, Ukraine, there was a huge house from the same period which measured 115 feet by 50 feet with elevn hearths for cooking, warmth and light (p. 434-35).

The earliest known musical instruments, according to some scholars also were found in Mezhirich. They were made of decorated mammoth bones. A mammoth skull was used as a kind of drum-like instrument. The Scythians of Ukraine some 2,500 years ago used the bones of eagles and vultures to make excellent flutes.

Jewelry was used by the Stone Age hunters of Europe and Asia by 30,000 B.C. A bracelet carved from a single piece of mammoth ivory found at Mezin, Ukraine (not southern Russia as James and Thorpe say) has a magnificent design which can be found to this day in the embroidery of Ukrainian costumes and cloths. This bracelet dates from about 20,000 B.C. and the design is reminiscent of, but predates, the famous Greek meander (p. 283).

Ancient Inventions of Ukraine

2011-05-31T03:28:00.001-07:00

by
Andrew Gregorovich

The oldest house in the world is this 15,000 year old one made of mammoth bones found at Mezhirich near Kiev in Ukraine. It was probably covered with mammoth hides. It is planned to include this house in the Treasures of Ukraine Exhibit scheduled for the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto in 1996.

The Ancient World created many of the inventions which have contributed to the progress of civilization. Among these are a number which originated in Ukraine. Some of these are noted in a new book Ancient Inventions, by Peter James and Nick Thorpe (New York: Ballantine Books, 1994). In this book review we would like to focus on these inventions which originated in Ukraine according to James and Torpe and include some additional items they missed.

The first horseman rode a horse in Ukraine about 6,000 years ago. James and Thorpe explain it this way: "...the earliest hard evidence for the domestication of the horse dates back only to 4000 B.C. -- teeth of horses from the Copper age site of Dereivka, in southern Ukraine, examined under the microscope show traces of wear caused by having bits in their mouths. These were probably made of rope, as the earliest known metal horse bits date from about 1500 B.C." (p.51).

Pants or trousers, were probably invented about 6,000 years ago by the horsemen on the Steppes of Ukraine. Pants were the typical dress of the Scythian warriors of ancient Scythia-Ukraine 2,600 years ago. Pants are particularly suited to a northern climate and to horsemen which places the logical origin on the steppes or prairies of Eastern Europe, or Ukraine. They are depicted on ancient gold jewelry and vases found in Ukrainian burial mounds (kurgans). Some ancient Greeks, such as Hippocrates, thought poorly of the pants worn by the Ukrainian Scythians. James and Thorpe mention pants were popular among many nations but do not suggest the possible location of the origin of them.

The oldest map in the world, discovered in Ukraine in 1966, is from about 10,000 B.C. Inscribed on a mammoth tusk it was found in Mezhirich, Ukraine. It has been interpreted to show a river with dwellings along a river (p. 57). However, the best claim to the title of "the earliest map in the world" appears on a beautifully engraved silver vase from Maikop in Ukraine, according to James and Thorpe. It was found in a Ukrainian tomb dated at 5,000 years old. It shows two rivers, a mountain range, a lake or sea and wild animals (p. 56-57).

The oldest known map in the world, discovered by archeologists, is from 12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich, Ukraine.

The Oldest Bible

2011-05-31T03:27:00.003-07:00

The world’s oldest Bible, the Codex Sinaiticus, has been digitized online after being housed in four separate locations for over 150 years.

The surviving sections of the world’s oldest Bible have been pieced together and unified online Monday, creating a unique opportunity for scholars to learn more about the centuries-old manuscript.

As part of a four-year joint project, the Codex Sinaiticus, has been digitized for the first time, reuniting sections held by the British Library in London, the Monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai, Egypt, the National Library of Russia and Leipzig University Library in Germany, according to Reuters.

The Codex Sinaiticus was hand-written in Greek by four scribes in the mid-fourth century, around the time of Constantine the Great, the Roman emperor who embraced Christianity.

The Codex, which was originally around 1,400 pages long, is now a collection of 800 pages and fragments.

The text was written on vellum, a type of animal hide, and the pages that have survived include the entire New Testament and the earliest surviving copy of the Gospels, written after Christ’s death by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Half of a copy of the Old Testament is also among the pages that remain. The rest has been lost over time.

“The Codex Sinaiticus is one of the world’s greatest written treasures,” Scot McKendrick, head of Western manuscripts at the British Library, told Reuters.

“This 1,600-year-old manuscript offers a window into the development of early Christianity and first-hand evidence of how the text of the Bible was transmitted from generation to generation,” said McKendrick.

The pages include numerous revisions, corrections and additions, thought to have been added as the manuscript was passed down over time.

With each page measuring 16 inches tall by 14 inches wide, the Codex “is arguably the oldest large bound book to have survived,” McKendrick told Reuters.

“Critically, it marks the definite triumph of bound codices over (papyrus) scrolls – a key watershed in how the Christian Bible was regarded as a sacred text,” he stated.

Reuniting the remaining pages of the Codex has helped to reveal other mysteries surrounding the oldest Bible, including more information about who made it and how it was produced.

Experts at the British Library told Reuters that the project has already produced evidence that suggests that a fourth scribe worked on the texts. Three other scribes have previously been recognized as authors.

Each institution owns various amounts of the Codex, but the British Library, which was the first to digitize pages of the book in London, possesses the most.

The joint project to compile all the pages online began in 2005, with the objective of preserving the ancient manuscript and creating an online archive.

The collection will also include previously unpublished pages of the Codex, which were found in a blocked-off room in 1975 at St. Catherine’s Monastery. Several of these pages are in poor condition, which has made them difficult to study.

McKendrick said the project should finally allow scholars to be able to view the documents as part of a whole, making their studies more complete and comprehensive.

While there are still many unknown answers about the origins of the Codex – such as how the manuscript came to be, which religious order commissioned it, and how long it took to produce – unifying the book on the Internet will hopefully initiate new research into the manuscript.

“It is our hope this will provide the catalyst for new research and it is already creating great interest,” Juan Garces, project manager of Greek manuscripts at the British Library, told Reuters.

The Bible can be viewed online for free at http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/ . The collection includes modern Greek translations, in addition to certain sections which have been translated into English.

Coconut Water Nutritional Information

2011-05-20T23:39:00.000-07:00

Coconut Water Nutritional Information

Coconut Water contains more essential nutrients than whole milk but unlike milk, it contains NO cholesterol and has fewer calories (less fat)
Coconut Water is healthier and contains more nutrients than Orange Juice AND has fewer calories
Coconut Water contains Lauric Acid which is present in milk from the breasts of breastfeeding mothers making it superior to processed baby milk
Coconut Water is naturally sterile (free from any harmful bacteria)
Coconut Water is identical to human blood plasma making it a universal donor (referred to as Coconut IV in the Third World Countries)
Coconut Water contains isotonic levels identical to human blood. It is hence the best and Natural Isotonic Beverage

Coconut Water as Natural Energy Drink

One glass of Coconut Water (100 ml) contains more potassium than a banana and more electrolytes than most commercially available sports drinks (energy beverages). Below is a comparison to demonstrate mineral qualities and health benefits of coconut water versus that of average sports drinks.

Average content of minerals found in 100 ml of coconut water compared to the content of the same minerals in 100 ml of an average sports drink:

Potassium:
Coconut Water: 294 mg
Sports Drinks: 117 mg

Chloride:
Coconut Water: 118 mg
Sports Drinks: 39mg

Sodium:
Coconut Water: 25 mg
Sports Drinks: 41 mg

Sugars:
Coconut Water: 5 mg (natural sugars)
Sports Drinks: 10 – 25 mg (processed sugars)

Coconut Water Health Benefits

2011-05-20T23:38:00.000-07:00

Indigenous people from tropical regions have been aware of coconut water health benefits for centuries and drank it to gain vitality and boost immunity. Laboratory studies of organic compounds found in coconut water conclude that the beverage contains properties that can significantly benefit and dramatically improve one’s health. Moreover, coconut water is 100% natural, completely free of chemicals and kept perfectly sterile (free from harmful bacteria) by an impenetrable shell making the water safe for people of all ages, including babies. The lauric acid found in coconut water is identical to that found in human breast milk.

Regular consumption of coconut water has demonstrated several significant health benefits:

Naturally Improves Immunity – body’s natural ability to fight diseases
Increases Metabolism – can assist with weight loss by increasing body’s ability to burn excessive fat
Increases HDL Cholesterol – alters levels of good cholesterol (High Density Lipoprotein) to battle off the negative effects of bad LDL cholesterol
Detoxifies the Body – assists in the process of removal of harmful toxins from the body
Regulates Intestinal Function – healthy intestines are an essential part of well being. clean intestines significantly improve complexion
Antiviral – our bodies convert Lauric Acid into monolaurin which has been shown to fight off lipid coated viruses, such as Herpes, Flu, Cytomegalovirus, as well as the deadly HIV virus known to cause AIDS
Antibacterial – virus killing monolaurin is also known for its bacteria fighting properties. It is also a potent antiprozoal monoglyceride
Re-Hydrates and Revives – badly wounded soldiers were revived with coconut water
Boosts Energy – coconut water is an isotonic beverage full of natural electrolytes. High calcium, cholesterol free content boosts vigor after workout
Low Calorie and Low Sodium Content – most juices and commercially available soft drinks contain more calories and more sodium
Reduces High Blood Pressure – Journal of Clinical Hypertension noted that people suffering from hypertension show low levels of potassium. Coconut Water can fix that
Balances Body’s PH – combination of cytokinins and lauric acid helps maintain healthy PH. Proper PH significantly reduces the risk of cancer.
Controls Diabetes – helps by balancing blood sugar levels
Treats Kidney Stones – normalizes the acidity in kidneys which helps prevent kidney stones from forming in the first place. If kidney stones already exist, coconut water can reduce their size upon regular drinking
Relieves Urinary Problems – people suffering from polyutra, strangury or other urinary problems could see their symptoms relieved upon regular consumption of coconut water
Eases Stomach Pains and Vomiting – often taken by women with painful menstruation, but also works great with people suffering from Malaria or Typhoid
Reduces Risk of Cancer – through supply of essential minerals and vitamins, coconut water could prevent mutation of genes that leads to cancer. Furthermore, Cytokinins help regulate the divisions of cell and their growth
Kills Intestinal Worms – when consumed with olive oil for at least three consecutive days, coconut water has been found to kill intestinal worms

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miet mt lab-2

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Built on Land – Lost During Last Pole Shift?

crystal pyramid

GIANT CRYSTAL PYRAMID DISCOVERED IN BERMUDA TRIANGLE

The History of Asiatic Jewellery: India & the Indus Valley

Jewellery of the Indus Valley

Jewellery of the Harappan Culture

Jewels of the Indian Subcontinent

Greek Gold and the Indian Spice Routes

The Birth of India's Golden Age

The Kushan Empire and the Silk Road

The Chola Dynasty of Southern India

Jewellery of the Mughal Empire & the Marathas

Solah Shringar "The Sixteen Adornments"

Lasik and Reading Glasses: Whats for You

Difference between a healthy lung and a smokers lung.

nano

Bracelet of mammoth ivory tusk from 20,000 B.C. found in Ukraine

The second map from 3,000 B.C. is from Malikop, Kuban Region

Ancient Inventions of Ukraine

by Andrew Gregorovich

The Oldest Bible

Coconut Water Nutritional Information

Coconut Water Nutritional Information

Coconut Water as Natural Energy Drink

Coconut Water Health Benefits

by
Andrew Gregorovich