J&K Education Hub

Class 10th Results 2022 (Marks Card)

2022-02-16T16:59:00.006+05:30

Check 10th Result Marks Sheet

http://results.indiaresults.com/jk/jkbose/annual-regular-2021-kashmir-division-class-10th/query.htm

10th Class Results Check Here

2022-02-16T15:45:00.002+05:30

JKBOSE 10th Class Results Available Now (Regular 2021), Kashmir Division

JKBOSE

Jammu & Kashmir Board & University Exam Results 2021 (indiaresults.com)

IndiaResults.com- Boards Results 2021, University Results 2021

JKBOSE Jammu and Kashmir Board of School Education

Result Gazette Available Here.

YouTube Video Downloader Free

2022-02-14T21:56:00.013+05:30

All Format HD YouTube Video Downloader

All HD Format YouTube Free Video Downloader

Enter YouTube Video Link:

Download free all format YouTube HD videos with our free online YouTube HD video downloader, you can download MP3, AVI, MP4, WEBM videos by using our free HD YouTube video downloader tool, to view the videos on YouTube, you can download them to your computer. In the past, you needed to go to the website of the video maker and download the video that you want, but this has changed. Now, you can download the videos from your computer without having to go to a website. You can also save the videos to your hard drive or to a thumb drive, so you can watch them when you want to.

The internet has become a dominant force in society, and its use is constantly growing. Almost every modern person has access to the internet through a computer, tablet, or smartphone; and this widespread usage has led to the rise of online video sharing platforms such as YouTube. Simply by searching the term ìHow toî on YouTube, one can find hundreds of thousands of results demonstrating any number of processes and procedures.

Many people use YouTube to watch videos in order to learn about anything from cooking to knitting, and they do this with videos of extremely high quality. However, not all videos are created equal, and while each video may have its own qualities, some videos are better than others; they are produced by experts, they feature great quality, and they are well structured. Here are some of the most important things to look for when watching videos online.

These videos are usually made for the purpose of either entertainment or educational purposes. This is because the videos are made with the intention of being viewed by a large audience. The audience is also able to use it for their own personal uses. For example, one may use a video to teach a friend how to do something, or they may use a video to get a certain type of job.

Some of these videos are useful for their intended purpose, but many are simply ineffective, or even dangerous. For instance, in the past, YouTube has allowed advertisers to place advertisements on videos, which can be very beneficial to businesses if they are shown when the viewer is searching for something specific. Unfortunately, some of the videos that are shown on YouTube are the kinds of videos that are very inappropriate. For example, some videos have been shown which are related to self-harm and suicide.

Voice To Text

2022-02-13T18:04:00.002+05:30

Voice To Text Generating Free Online Tool

Click on the microphone icon and start speaking.

Generate Voice To Text Online

Voice to text typing online tool is a very convenient app for students who have trouble typing on the keyboard or find it difficult to type. With its voice dictation feature, Voice to text typing online tool allows students to speak out their essays and papers, which are converted into text right before their eyes, voice to text typing software is a great tool for people who have difficulty typing on a keyboard or who prefer speaking to typing. Voice to text typing online tool allows users to speak and the computer types the words in real-time.

Voice-to-text typing is a tool that can be used to facilitate communication for people who have difficulty speaking or are unable to speak. It allows people to communicate with others through the medium of text, which can then be spoken aloud by a voice synthesizer or read silently by the user.

Voice-to-text typing is a very handy tool for those who have difficulty typing or those who prefer to type their papers by speaking out their thoughts. This software allows you to speak your own words and the computer converts the words into text. It uses the same method of speech recognition as the telephone network to turn your words into text. This makes it incredibly easy to use and is a very simple application for anyone.

Voice to text typing is a great way to get your thoughts on paper without having to type. Voice to text typing can allow you to speak your thoughts and have them converted to text in a matter of seconds. This is a very convenient way of writing and it allows you to access it at any time and place. This tool also allows you to type any sentence you’d like and speak your thoughts.

How To Generate QR Codes.

2022-02-13T01:33:00.004+05:30

Warning! Please Enter Something...

HOW TO DOWNLOAD A QR CODE?

Step-1:

Generate QR Code

Step-2:

Right Click on QR Code Image

Step-3:

Save Image To Your Computer

Online QR Code Generator Tool

What is QR Code?

QR codes are a type of barcode that can be scanned by a QR code reader in order to obtain information. They are encoded with data related to a certain subject, and they can be used in many different ways. QR codes are useful for storing URLs, contact information, and more.

QR codes are a form of 2-dimensional barcode that can store large amounts of data. QR codes are most often used to encode URLs for quick access, but they can also be used to encode any type of data. QR codes are read using a phone's camera and an app, which decodes the information encoded in the code and takes the user to the desired website or other data.

QR codes are a type of matrix barcode, or two-dimensional code, that is used to convey information. They are most commonly used in marketing. QR codes can be scanned by smartphones and can be used to direct users to websites, social media pages, or videos.

QR (Quick Response) codes are a type of two-dimensional barcode. They are used to encode information and can be read by smartphones, tablet computers, and dedicated QR readers. The QR code was invented in Japan by Denso-Wave in 1994 to track vehicles during the manufacturing process. QR codes are now commonly used for storing URLs and other information which can be accessed via a smartphone's web browser.

A QR code, or Quick Response code, is a machine-readable code consisting of black modules arranged in a square pattern on a white background. These black modules are actually tiny square cells that can each contain one of 256 possible colors. QR codes have been used in advertising and packaging to perform functions such as product tracking and marketing.

Where was QR Code Found?

QR codes were first popularized in Japan, but have since become extremely common in other parts of the world. Today, QR codes are used in marketing and advertising. In Japan, QR codes are often used for product tracking. They can also be used for various functions including product authentication, product tracking, customer service, product information, and more.

QR codes are also used in other ways. You could, for example put a QR code on an ad that links to a video or a website. Or you could write a QR code on a business card with a link to an online form to help your customers contact a company. You can also use QR codes to find information online.

QR Code Maker

QR code maker online tool is a web-based QR code generator that allows the user to create QR codes quickly and easily from any URL, text, or image. The QR code generator is extremely simple to use and does not require any coding knowledge to use, which makes it an easy and efficient method of QR code generation. This website is free and can be used to create QR codes for both personal and commercial use. The QR code generator is available to use in any country.

12th Class Results

2022-02-12T19:09:00.007+05:30

JKBOSE 12th Class Results Available Now (Regular 2021), Kashmir Division

Jammu & Kashmir Board & University Exam Results 2021

IndiaResults.com- Boards Results 2021, University Results 2021

JKBOSE Jammu and Kashmir Board of School Education

JKBOSE

Result Gazette Available Here.

Greenhouse Effect And Global Warming

2022-02-02T17:47:00.001+05:30

Greenhouse Effect And Global Warming

Alloys And Their Combinations

2022-02-02T17:40:00.001+05:30

Alloys And Their Combinations

Rivers Of India And Their Nicknames

2022-02-01T22:32:00.001+05:30

Rivers Of India And Their Nicknames

Major Dams In India And Major Sea Ports In India.

2022-02-01T22:27:00.001+05:30

Major Dams In India And Major Sea Ports In India.

Important Days

2018-02-27T10:39:00.002+05:30

Important Days

JANUARY
January 04	World Braille Day
January 09	Pravasi Bhartiya Divas/NRI Day (India)
January 12	National Youth Day (India)
January 15	Army Day (India)
January 24	National Girl Child Day/Balika Divas (India)
January 25	National Voters’ Day (India)
January 25	National Tourism Day (India)
January 26	Republic Day (India)
January 26	International Customs Day
January 27	International Day of Commemoration in the Memory of Victims of Holocaust
January 28	Data Privacy Day
January 30	Martyr’s Day (India)

FEBRUARY
February 02	World Wetlands Day
February 04	World Cancer Day
February 06	International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation
February 11	World Day of Sick
February 12	Darwin Day
February 13	World Radio Day
February 14	St. Valentine’s Day
February 20	World Day of Social Justice
February 21	International Mother Language Day
February 24	Central Excise Tax Day (India)
February 28	National Science Day (India)
Last Day of February (28th or 29th)	Rare Disease Day

MARCH
March 03	World Wildlife Day
March 03	National Defence Day (India)
March 04	National Safety Day (Security of Industrial Institutions – India)
March 04	World Day of Fight against Sexual Exploitation
March 08	International Women’s Day
March 14	Pi Day
March 15	World Consumer Rights Day
March 18	Ordnance Factories’ Day (India)
March 20	International Francophonie Day
March 20	World Sparrow Day
March 20	International Day of Happiness
March 21	World Forestry Day
March 21	International Day for Elimination of Racial Discrimination
March 21	World Down syndrome Day
March 21	World Poetry Day
March 22	World Water Day
March 23	World Meteorological Day
March 23	Martyrs’ Day (India)
March 24	World Tuberculosis (TB) Day
March 27	World Theatre Day
2nd Thursday of March	World Kidney Day

APRIL
April 02	World Autism Awareness Day
April 04	International Day of Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action
April 05	National Maritime Day (India)
April 07	World Health Day
April 10	World Homeopathy Day
April 12	International Day of Human Space Flight
April 14	Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
April 17	World Haemophilia Day
April 18	International Day for Monuments and Sites
April 21	Civil Service Day (India)
April 22	Earth Day
April 23	UN English Language Day
April 23	World Book and Copyright Day
April 24	National Panchayati Raj Divas (India)
April 24	World Day for Animals in Laboratories
April 25	World Malaria Day
April 26	World Intellectual Property Day
April 29	Day of Remembrance for All Victims of Chemical Warfare
April 29	International Dance Day
April 30	International Jazz Day
Last Week of April	World Immunisation Week

MAY
May 01	International Workers Day/Labour Day
May 03	World Press Freedom Day
May 08	World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day
May 11	National Technology Day (India)
May 12	International Nurses Day
May 12	World Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Awareness Day
May 15	International Day of Families
May 17	World Telecommunication and Information Society Day
May 17	World Hypertension Day
May 18 (on or around)	International Museum Day
May 20	World Metrology Day
May 21	Anti-Terrorism Day (India)
May 21	World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development
May 22	International Day for Biological Diversity
May 23	World Turtle Day
May 25	World Thyroid Day
May 28	International Day of Action for Women’s Health
May 29	International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
May 31	World No Tobacco Day
1st Sunday of May	World Laughter Day
1st Tuesday of May	World Asthma Day
2nd Weekend of May	World Migratory Bird Day

JUNE
June 01	Global Day of Parents
June 01	World Milk Day
June 04	International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression
June 05	World Environment Day
June 08	World Brain Tumour Day
June 08	World Oceans Day
June 12	World Day Against Child Labour
June 14	World Blood Donor Day
June 17	World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought
June 20	World Refugee Day
June 21	International Yoga Day
June 21	World Hydrography Day
June 21	World Music Day
June 23	International Olympic Day
June 23	United Nations Public Service Day
June 25	Day of the Seafarer
June 26	International Day Against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking

JULY
July 01	National Doctors’ Day (India)
July 01	International Joke Day
July 02	World Sports Journalists Day
July 02	World UFO Day
July 06	World Zoonosis Day
July 11	World Population Day
July 12	Malala Day
July 17	World Day for International Justice
July 18	Nelson Mandela International Day
July 28	World Nature Conservation Day
July 28	World Hepatitis Day
July 29	Global Tiger Day

AUGUST
August 06	Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony
August 07	National Handloom Day (India)
August 09	International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples
August 10	International Biodiesel Day
August 12	International Youth Day
August 13	International Lefthanders Day
August 15	Independence Day (India)
August 19	World Humanitarian Day
August 20	World Mosquito Day
August 20	Sadbhavna Divas (India)
August 23	International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition
August 29	National Sports Day (India)

SEPTEMBER
September 02	Coconut Day
September 05	Teacher’s Day (India)
September 08	International Literacy Day
September 10	World Suicide Prevention Day
September 14	Hindi Divas
September 15	International Day of Democracy
September 15	Engineers’ Day (India)
September 16	International Day for Preservation of Ozone Layer
September 21	International Day of Peace
September 21	World Alzheimer’s Day
September 27	World Tourism Day
September 28	International Right to Know Day
September 28	World Rabies Day
September 01 – 07	National Nutrition Week (India)

OCTOBER
October 01	World Vegetarian Day
October 01	International Day of Older Persons
October 02	International Day of Non-Violence
October 02	National Anti-Drug Addiction Day
October 04	World Animal Day
October 08	Indian Air Force Day
October 09	World Post Day
October 10	World Mental Health Day
October 11	International Day of Girl Child
October 12	World Arthritis Day
October 13	International Day for Disaster Reduction
October 14	World Standards Day
October 15	Global Handwashing Day
October 15	International Day of Rural Women
October 16	World Food Day
October 16	World Allergy Awareness Day
October 17	International Day for the Eradication of Poverty
October 17	World Trauma Day
October 20	World Osteoporosis Day
October 20	World Statistics Day
October 21	Global Iodine Deficiency Disorders Prevention Day
October 24	United Nations Day
October 24	World Polio Day
October 24	World Development Information Day
October 29	World Stroke Day
1st Monday of October	World Habitat Day
October 09-15	National Postal Week (India)
2nd Thursday of October	World Sight Day

NOVEMBER
November 01	World Vegan Day
November 06	International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of Environment in War and Armed Conflict
November 08	World Radiography Day
November 09	Legal Services Day (India)
November 10	World Immunisation Day
November 10	World Science Day for Peace and Development
November 11	National Education Day
November 12	World Pneumonia Day
November 14	Children’s Day
November 14	World Diabetics Day
November 16	National Press Day
November 16	International Day for Tolerance
November 17	International Students’ Day
November 17	World Prematurity Day
November 19	World Toilet Day
November 19	International Men’s Day
November 21	World Fisheries Day
November 21	World Hello Day
November 21	World Television Day
November 25	International Day for Elimination of Violence Against Women
November 26	National Law Day (India)
November 29	International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
2nd Thursday of November	World Quality Day
3rd Thursday of November	World Philosophy Day
3rd Sunday of November	World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims

DECEMBER
December 01	World AIDS Day
December 02	World Computer Literacy Day
December 02	International Day for Abolition of Slavery
December 02	World Pollution Prevention Day
December 03	International Day of Person with Disabilities
December 04	Navy Day (India)
December 05	World Soil Day
December 05	International Volunteer Day
December 07	Armed Forces Flag Day (India)
December 07	International Civil Aviation Day
December 09	International Anti-Corruption Day
December 09	World Patient Safety Day
December 10	World Human Rights Day
December 11	International Mountain Day
December 14	National Energy Conservation Day (India)
December 18	International Migrants Day
December 20	International Human Solidarity Day
December 23	Kisan Divas (India)
December 24	National Consumer Rights Day
2nd Sunday of December	International Children’s Day of Broadcasting

Comparing ASEAN and SAARC

2018-02-27T10:23:00.004+05:30

Comparing ASEAN and SAARC:

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded in 1967 and it has just announced that by 2015 the states included in it will have become a single market like the European Union (EU). Asian already trades 25 percent within itself, which means it is fairly set to become a regional trading bloc like the EU. One can see what has happened. Like the EU, the nation-state is being transformed to get rid of conflict.
Europe went through two traumas; the religious wars spread over centuries and the nationalism of the nation-state that led to two world wars and laid the continent waste. The first stage is the conversion of the warrior state to a market state, then its submergence in the regional identity. Starting 2015, ASEAN will no longer be prickly with sovereignty issues; it will give up foreign policy in favor of a common trade policy. Asian started with founding members Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand; then added Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam in later years.

The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (Saarc) came into being in 1985, with founding members Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan joined in 2007. Both were set up because the members were embroiled in serious disputes. Perhaps ASEAN was more troubled because of its conglomeration of islands and unclear laws dealing with maritime frontiers. Yet, ASEAN was able to avoid conflict, Saarc was not.

What was the reason? Some say ASEAN was a grouping against an outside threat — communism, while in the case of Saarc the enemy was within — India. Yet, ASEAN members had serious interstate disputes which they decided to forget. On the other hand, Saarc members insisted that disputes be resolved first before economic cooperation could start. ASEAN nations were inclined to be trading nations; Saarc nations were inclined to be warlike. ASEAN moved to conflict-avoidance mechanisms; Saarc refused to discuss bilateral disputes.

Not discussing disputes did not mean that Saarc gave priority to trade. ASEAN took no time in agreeing (1997) on two types of free trade areas (Afta) while Saarc made heavy weather of its South Asian Preferential Trade Area (Sapta), signed in 1993. It signed the South Asian Free Trade Area (Safta) in 2004 but added to the agreement Article 14, stating that ‘nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent any Contracting State from taking action and adopting measures which it considers necessary for the protection of its national security’ while leaving some room in the interpretation of what might constitute an issue of national security.

Saarc had to suffer an Indo-Pakistan war at Kargil started by Pakistan in 1999, which prevented three Saarc summits from taking place. India has given Pakistan the most favored nation status but Pakistan has not reciprocated. In 2008, war loomed again after Mumbai was attacked by a jihadi outfit from Pakistan. Pakistan complains that India is destabilizing it; but Pakistan is internationally isolated as it tackles intra-state conflict, its growth rate not matching that of other Saarc members.

Dominated by the army and increasingly vulnerable to passions of national honour inculcated by terrorist groups, Pakistan needs to concentrate on a trade-and-investment regime on a regional basis and also concentrate on improving on the bilateral free trade agreement with India to prevent the security-related restrictions applied by the two on the 2,000-item trade they have allowed so far. India also needs to improve its trade conduct in respect of the non-tariff barriers it applies to what it imports and the concealed subsidy it allows its own products.

JKSSB-2018 Online Exam Pattern

2018-01-31T19:39:00.002+05:30

Watch Here JKSSB-2018 Online Exam Pattern

WHAT IS A GREENHOUSE GAS ?

2018-01-19T19:27:00.002+05:30

A greenhouse gas (often abbreviated as GHG) is a gas that both absorbs and emits radiation in the infrared range, commonly called thermal radiation or heat. When present in the atmosphere, these gases trap radiation in the form of heat, causing a warming process called the greenhouse effect. The presence of four major greenhouse gases, namely water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the Earth's atmosphere keeps the average temperature of 15º C (59º F), whereas without the greenhouse effect the average temperature would be a frosty -18º C (0º F).

Some concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is normal, and in fact necessary for life on Earth as we know it. It is normal for the concentrations of these gases to fluctuate over time, causing the average global temperature to vary over a period of hundreds of thousands or millions of years. These natural fluctuations are slow, especially in comparison to the atmospheric lifetime of GHGs, or the time it takes for a gas emitted to the atmosphere to be removed by the ocean, the biosphere (the living systems of Earth), or by other means. Because the changes in GHG concentrations are slow and buffered, life on Earth has time to adapt to the corresponding changes in temperature, for the most part avoiding mass extinction of other catastrophic events.

With the dawn of the human industrial age, however, came vast additions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, mostly from the combustion of fossil fuels (for example gasoline, coal, and oil). These emissions, or infusions of thermally active gases into the atmosphere came at a much higher rate than anything previously seen on Earth. Whereas with the slow increases seen before, the anthropogenic emissions cause a rapid increase in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs, as you can see in this 2000-year record from the IPCC 2007 Annual Report.

Water vapor is not shown on this plot, not because it is not influenced by anthropogenic changes, but because it is highly variable for other reasons. The three gases shown, in addition to tropospheric ozone (O₃ in the lower atmosphere) and a class of compounds called halocarbons (organic compounds containing chlorine, bromine, or fluorine, for example, freon) are the major greenhouse gases emitted by human activities. Their radiative forcings, or the amount to which each gas can change the atmospheric temperature, are compared below in another plot from the IPCC 2007 Annual Report.

From this plot, it is obvious that the major anthropogenic contributor to climate change is carbon dioxide or CO₂. This is because CO₂ is emitted in amounts that far exceed those of any other greenhouse gas. The massive increases in atmospheric GHG concentrations since the industrial era began are shown below in a figure from the IPCC 2007 report. Notice that the rate of temperature increase (the steepness of the slope) has become larger as more of the world becomes industrialized.

Animal Kingdom Classification

2018-01-14T21:02:00.002+05:30

In the study of zoology there has a vital part of animal kingdom classification. Numerous living organisms are exist on the earth. Out of those organisms a large number of animals are there. All these animals are collectively formed the animal kingdom. Still today more than a million species of animal have been identified.

Their structure, nature and life processes a full of diversified. Some of the animal organisms are living in water, some are on land and maximum of them are living in the air. In this way they occupy more or less all the media of the earth. Some of them act like an enemy to the human being but some other are acting like a friend. To realise and study this wide nature of animals the animal kingdom classification becomes very essential. The classification has been made on the basis of their resemblances and relationships.

Animal Kingdom

It is quite impossible for any person know in detail about all animals of the animal kingdom. But the animal kingdom classification will help in many respects. For this purpose the classification has been done on the basis of characteristics of similarities and differences which have been deduced from there are morphology, anatomy, physiology, cytology, biochemistry etc. similar characteristic features possesses by the animals are placed in a group. The animals are grouped together on the way of evolutionary processes that reflect the true relationship against animals. This process of division regarded as natural systems of animal kingdom classification.

What is classification?

Classification is defined as an orderly or ranking of organisms into groups or sit on the basis of their relationship.

What is the necessity of animal kingdom classification?

a) By classifying the organisms, they are divided into large as well as small groups so that one can easily get an idea about the groups and the individual type.
b) Scientific identification and naming of organisms is possible here.
c) Classification helps to understand the process of organic evolution.

Types of animal kingdom classification: -

It has become a formidable task to classify the animal kingdom. Because, different scientists have been classified it differently. Some of the scientists classified the animal kingdom on the basis of the numbered of cells. On this basis the animal kingdom is classified image your sub-kingdoms, such as protozoa and metazoa. The sub- kingdom is again classified into one phylum which is also known as protozoa but metazoa is divided into many image your phyla. In this type of classification protozoan animals are called single celled organisms and metazoan are all multicellular animals.

Animal Kingdom (On the basis of number of cells)

Some scientists have made the animal kingdom classification on the basis of absence and presence of notochord into two groups, such as Non-chordata or Achordata and Chordata. The animals which have no notochord are placed in non –chordata group and the animals that possess the notochord in the body are placed under the group of chordate.

On the Basis of Absence and Presence of Notochord

The notochord in majority of chordates is subsequently replaced by vertebral columns, which are known as vertebrates. In the case of small number of chordates, the notochord is not being replaced by vertebral column rather notochord remains as a notochord, and they are regarded as protochordates. But in non-cordates, notochord and vertebral column both are absent.

On the Basis of Absence and presence of Vertebral Column

The vertebral column is absent in the invertebrates but presents in all animals of the vertebrate group.
For animal kingdom classification the modern zoologist have elevated some of the previously accepted classes to phylum status.phylum. Each phylum is divided into classes, each class into orders, each order into families, and family into genus. Each genus consist of one or more species and it is the smallest unit of classification.

Many invertebrate animals have been searched out and many of them have now been placed in the new phyla yet their position in the animal kingdom remains n uncertainty. So the classification is becoming more and more complex day by day. By eliminating the complexity in modern animal kingdom classification, the animal kingdom is divided into few major bigger groups is known as

Classification of Living Things & Naming.

2018-01-14T20:50:00.001+05:30

Classification of Living Things & Naming

In science, the practice of classifying organisms is called taxonomy (Taxis means arrangement and nomos means method). The modern taxonomic system was developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linneaeus (1707-1778). He used simple physical characteristics of organisms to identify and differentiate between different species, and is based around genetics.

Linneaeus developed a hierarchy of groups for taxonomy. To distinguish different levels of similarity, each classifying group, called taxon (pl. taxa) is subdivided into other groups. To remember the order, it is helpful to use a mnemonic device. The taxa in hierarchical order:

Domain - Archea, Eubacteria, Eukaryote
Kingdom - Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protists, Eubacteria (Monera), Archaebacteria
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species - smallest classification

The domain is the broadest category, while species is the most specific category available. The taxon Domain was only introduced in 1990 by Carl Woese, as scientists reorganise things based on new discoveries and information. For example, the European Hare would be classified as follows:

Eukaryote --> Animalia --> Chordata --> Mammalia --> Lagomorpha --> Leporidae --> Lepus --> Lepus europaeus.

Eukaryote is just one of the classes inside of the main class Phyla

Binomial nomenclature is used to name an organism, where the first word beginning with a capital is the genus of the organism and the second word beginning with lower-case letter is the species of the organism. The name must be in italics and in Latin, which was the major language of arts and sciences in the 18th century. The scientific name can be also abbreviated, where the genus is shortened to only its first letter followed by a period. In our example, Lepus europaeus would become L. europaeus.

Taxonomy and binomial nomenclature are both specific methods of classifying an organism. They help to eliminate problems, such as mistaken identity and false assumptions, caused by common names. An example of the former is the fact that a North American robin is quite different from the English robin. An example of the latter is the comparison between crayfish and catfish, where one might believe that they both are fish when in fact, they are quite different.

Nomenclature is concerned with the assignment of names to taxonomic groups in agreement with published rules. To study for a test these are the best words to know taxonomist, biologist, chemist, geologist, unicellular, multi- cellular, bilateral symmetry, radial symmetry, chlorophyll, photosynthesis, respiration, reproduction, vertebrates, endoskeleton, exoskeleton, consumers, decomposers, heterotroph, autotroph, vascular, non-vascular. These are all part of classifying things.

Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes

Recall that there are two basic types of cells: eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes are more complex in structure, with nuclei and membrane-bound organelles. Some characteristics of eukaryotes are:

Large (100 - 1000 μm)
DNA in nucleus, bounded by membrane
Genome consists of several chromosomes.
Sexual reproduction common, by mitosis and meiosis
Mitochondria and other organelles present
Most forms are multicellular

Prokaryotes refer to the smallest and simplest type of cells, without a true nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria fall under this category. Some characteristics:

Small (1-10 μm)
DNA circular, unbounded
Genome consists of single chromosome.
Asexual reproduction common, by mitosis.
No general organelles
Most forms are singular

The Three Domains

The three domains are organized based on the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Today's living prokaryotes are extremely diverse and different from eukaryotes. This fact has been proven by molecular biological studies (e.g. of RNA structure) with modern technology. The three domains are as follows:

Archea (Archeabacteria) consists of archeabacteria, bacteria which live in extreme environments. The kingdom Archaea belongs to this domain.

Eubacteria consists of more typical bacteria found in everyday life. The kingdom Eubacteria belongs to this domain.

Eukaryote encompasses most of the world's visible living things. The kingdoms Protists, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia fall under this category.

The Six Kingdoms

Under the three domains are six kingdoms in taxonomy. Animals and Plants are not mentioned below.

Protists, the third kingdom, was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 to classify micro-organisms which are neither animals nor plants. Since protists are quite irregular, this kingdom is the least understood and the genetic similarities between organisms in this kingdom are largely unknown. For example, some protists can exhibit properties of both animals and plants.

Fungi are organisms which obtain food by absorbing materials in their bodies. Mushrooms and moulds belong in this kingdom. Originally, they were part of the plant kingdom but were recategorised when they were discovered not to photosynthesise.

Eubacteria are bacteria, made up of small cells, which differ in appearance from the organisms in the above kingdoms. They lack a nucleus and cell organelles. They have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.

Archae (or Archaebacteria) are bacteria which live in extreme environments, such as salt lakes or hot, acidic springs. These bacteria are in their own category as detailed studies have shown that they have unique properties and features (ex. unusual lipids that are not found in any other organism)which differ them from other bacteria and which allow them to live where they live. Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

Origins of Diversity

The diversity in our planet is attributed to diversity within a species. As the world changed in climate and in geography as time passed, the characteristics of species diverged so much that new species were formed. This process, by which new species evolve, was first described by British naturalist Charles Darwin as natural selection.

For an organism to change, genetic mutations must occur. At times, genetic mutations are accidental, as in the case of prokaryotes when they undergo asexual reproduction. For most eukaryotes, genetic mutations occur through sexual reproduction, where meiosis produces haploid gametes from the original parent cells. The fusion of these haploid gametes into a diploid zygote results in genetic variation in each generation. Over time, with enough arrangement of genes and traits, new species are produced. Sexual reproduction creates an immense potential of genetic variety.

One goal of taxonomy is to determine the evolutionary history of organisms. This can be achieved by comparing species living today with species in the past. The comparison in anatomy and structure is based on data from development, physical anatomy, biochemistry, DNA, behaviour, and ecological preferences. The following are examples of how such data is used:

Anatomy:

Although a horse and a human may look different, there is evidence that their arm structures are quite similar. Their arms' sizes and proportions may be different, but the anatomical structures are quite similar. Such evidence reveals that animals in different taxa may not be that different. Biological features from a common evolutionary origin are known as homologous.

Development

Biochemistry:

Biochemical analysis of animals similar in appearance have yielded surprising results. For example, although guinea pigs were once considered to be rodents, like mice, biochemistry led them to be in their taxon of their own.

Phylogeny, Cladistics & Cladogram

Modern taxonomy is based on many hypotheses' of the evolutionary history of organisms, known as phylogeny. As with the Scientific Method, scientists develop a hypothesis on the history of an animal and utilise modern science and technology to prove the phylogeny.

Cladistics is a classification system which is based on phylogeny. Expanding on phylogeny, cladistics is based on the assumption that each group of related species has one common ancestor and would therefore retain some ancestral characteristics. Moreover, as these related species evolve and diverge from their common ancestor, they would develop unique characteristics. Such characteristics are known as derived characteristics

The principles of phylogeny and cladistics can be expressed visually as a cladogram, a branching diagram which acts as a family (phylogenetic) tree for similar species. A cladogram can also be used to test alternative hypotheses for an animal's phylogeny. In order to determine the most likely cladogram, the derived characteristics of similar species are matched and analysed.

Classification of Living Things Practice Questions

1. If taxonomists had to select an existing kingdom to reclassify, which of the six would most likely be chosen? Why?

2. Complete the following without consulting external sources:

a) The species caudatum is in the family Paramecidae. What would be the binomial name of this organism?

b) Give the abbreviation of the binomial name.

a) Irish moss belongs to the genus Chondrus. The name for this species is crispus. Give the binomial name.

b) Give the abbreviation of the binomial name.

4. Humans and chimpanzees are alike. Which of the following data would most accurately prove this correct?

a) biochemistry

b) DNA

c) appearance

d) development

e) A, B, C

5. Which of the following is out of order?

a) Kingdom --> Phylum --> Class

b) Class --> Family --> Order

c) Family --> Order --> Genus

d) Genus --> Species

e) A, C

f) A, B, D

g) B, C

6. A taxonomist discovers Organism A and Organism B and wishes to classify them. Which of the following choices is the most informative?

a) Both organisms are brown.

b) Both organisms have a tail.

c) Both organisms have ears.

d) Both organisms are nocturnal.

7. DNA analysis is usually done using DNA found in a cell's mitochondria, and not in a cell's nucleus. From your knowledge of mitosis, explain why this is so.

1. Arachbacteria 3.a) Chondrus crispus b) C. cripus 4. B 5. G 6. B

Define ICHTHYOLOGY

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Ichthyology (from Greek: ikhthus, "fish"; and logos, "study"), also known as fish science, is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish. This includes bony fish (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). While a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each year. According to FishBase, 33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016.

==History==

The study of fish dates from the Upper Paleolithic Revolution (with the advent of "high culture"). The science of ichthyology was developed in several interconnecting epochs, each with various significant advancements.

The study of fish receives its origins from human's desire to feed, clothe, and equip themselves with useful implements. According to Michael Barton, a prominent ichthyologist and professor at Centre College, "the earliest ichthyologists were hunters and gatherers who had learned how to obtain the most useful fish, where to obtain them in abundance, and at what times they might be the most available". Early cultures manifested these insights in abstract and identifiable artistic expressions.

===1500 BC–40 AD=== Informal, scientific descriptions of fish are represented within the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Old Testament laws of kashrut forbade the consumption of fish without scales or appendages. Theologians and ichthyologists believe that the apostle Peter and his contemporaries harvested the fish that are today sold in modern industry along the Sea of Galilee, presently known as Lake Kinneret. These fish include cyprinids of the genera Barbus and Mirogrex, cichlids of the genus Sarotherodon, and Mugil cephalus of the family Mugilidae.

=== 335 BC–80 AD ===

Aristotle incorporated ichthyology into formal scientific study. Between 335 BC–322 BC, he provided the earliest taxonomic classification of fish, accurately describing 117 species of Mediterranean fish. Furthermore, Aristotle documented anatomical and behavioral differences between fish and marine mammals. After his death, some of his pupils continued his ichthyological research. Theophrastus, for example, composed a treatise on amphibious fish. The Romans, although less devoted to science, wrote extensively about fish. Pliny the Elder, a notable Roman naturalist, compiled the ichthyological works of indigenous Greeks, including verifiable and ambiguous peculiarities such as the sawfish and mermaid respectively. Pliny's documentation was the last significant contribution to ichthyology until the European Renaissance.

=== European Renaissance ===

The writings of three sixteenth century scholars, Hippolito Salviani, Pierre Belon, and Guillaume Rondelet, signify the conception of modern ichthyology. The investigations of these individuals were based upon actual research in comparison to ancient recitations. This property popularized and emphasized these discoveries. Despite their prominence, Rondelet's De Piscibus Marinis is regarded as the most influential, identifying 244 species of fish.

=== 16th–17th century ===

The incremental alterations in navigation and shipbuilding throughout the Renaissance marked the commencement of a new epoch in ichthyology. The Renaissance culminated with the era of exploration and colonization, and upon the cosmopolitan interest in navigation came the specialization in naturalism. Georg Marcgrave of Saxony composed the Naturalis Brasilae in 1648. This document contained a description of 100 species of fish indigenous to the Brazilian coastline. In 1686, John Ray and Francis Willughby collaboratively published Historia Piscium, a scientific manuscript containing 420 species of fish, 178 of these newly discovered. The fish contained within this informative literature were arranged in a provisional system of classification.

The classification used within the Historia Piscium was further developed by Carl Linnaeus, the "father of modern taxonomy". His taxonomic approach became the systematic approach to the study of organisms, including fish. Linnaeus was a professor at the University of Uppsala and an eminent botanist; however, one of his colleagues, Peter Artedi, earned the title "father of ichthyology" through his indispensable advancements. Artedi contributed to Linnaeus's refinement of the principles of taxonomy. Furthermore, he recognized five additional orders of fish: Malacopterygii, Acanthopterygii, Branchiostegi, Chondropterygii, and Plagiuri. Artedi developed standard methods for making counts and measurements of anatomical features that are modernly exploited. Another associate of Linnaeus, Albertus Seba, was a prosperous pharmacist from Amsterdam. Seba assembled a cabinet, or collection, of fish. He invited Artedi to utilize this assortment of fish; unfortunately, in 1735, Artedi fell into an Amsterdam canal and drowned at the age of 30.

Linnaeus posthumously published Artedi's manuscripts as Ichthyologia, sive Opera Omnia de Piscibus (1738). His refinement of taxonomy culminated in the development of the binomial nomenclature which is in use by contemporary ichthyologists. Furthermore, he revised the orders introduced by Artedi, placing significance on pelvic fins. Fish lacking this appendage were placed within the order Apodes; fish containing abdominal, thoracic, or jugular pelvic fins were termed Abdominales, Thoracici, and Jugulares respectively. However, these alterations were not grounded within evolutionary theory. Therefore, it would take over a century until Charles Darwin would provide the intellectual foundation from which we would be permitted to perceive that the degree of similarity in taxonomic features was a consequence of phylogenetic relationship.

=== Modern era ===

Close to the dawn of the nineteenth century, Marcus Elieser Bloch of Berlin and Georges Cuvier of Paris made attempts to consolidate the knowledge of ichthyology. Cuvier summarized all of the available information in his monumental Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. This manuscript was published between 1828 and 1849 in a 22 volume series. This documental describes 4,514 species of fish, 2,311 of these new to science. It remains one of the most ambitious treatises of the modern world. Scientific exploration of the Americas advanced our knowledge of the remarkable diversity of fish. Charles Alexandre Lesueur was a student of Cuvier. He made a cabinet of fish dwelling within the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River regions.

Adventurous individuals such as John James Audubon and Constantine Samuel Rafinesque figure in the faunal documentation of North America. These persons often traveled with one another. Rafinesque wrote Ichthyologia Ohiensis in 1820. In addition, Louis Agassiz of Switzerland established his reputation through the study of freshwater fish and the first comprehensive treatment of paleoichthyology, Poissons Fossiles. In the 1840s, Agassiz moved to the United States, where he taught at Harvard University until his death in 1873.

Albert Günther published his Catalogue of the Fish of the British Museum between 1859 and 1870, describing over 6,800 species and mentioning another 1,700. Generally considered one of the most influential ichthyologists, David Starr Jordan wrote 650 articles and books on the subject as well as serving as president of Indiana University and Stanford University.

==Modern publications==

== Organizations ==

{| width="80%" class="wikitable" | ! Organizations !! Organizations |- | width="40%" align="left" style="vertical-align: top;" | *American Elasmobranch Society *American Fisheries Society *American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists *Association of Systematics Collections *Ichthyological Society of Hong Kong () *Native Fish Conservancy *Neotropical Ichthyological Association | width="40%" align="left" style="vertical-align: top;" | *North American Native Fish Association *Panhellenic Society of Technologists Ichthyologists *Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology *Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology *Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections *Southeastern Fish Council *Southwestern Association of Naturalists *The World Conservation Union |}

== Notable ichthyologists ==

Members of this list meet one or more of the following criteria: 1) Author of 50 or more fish taxon names, 2) Author of major reference work in ichthyology, 3) Founder of major journal or museum, 4) Person most notable for other reasons who has also worked in ichthyology.

* Alexander Emanuel Agassiz * Louis Agassiz * HIM Emperor Akihito of Japan * Gerald R. Allen * Peter Artedi * Herbert R. Axelrod * William O. Ayres, California * Spencer Fullerton Baird * Tarleton Hoffman Bean * Lev Berg, Russia * Henry Bryant Bigelow * Pieter von Bleeker, East Indies * Marcus Elieser Bloch * George Albert Boulenger * Warren E. Burgess * Pierre Carbonnier * Eugenie Clark * Leonard Compagno * Edward Drinker Cope * Georges Cuvier * Francis Day, India * Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, Scottish * Carl H. Eigenmann * Rosa Smith Eigenmann * * Barton Warren Evermann * Henry Weed Fowler * Joseph Paul Gaimard * Samuel Garman * Charles Henry Gilbert * Theodore Nicholas Gill * Charles Frédéric Girard * George Brown Goode * Albert Günther * Albert William Herre * Carl L. Hubbs * David Starr Jordan * Maurice Kottelat, Swiss * Bernard Germain de Lacépède * Carl Linnaeus * Seth Eugene Meek * Zoological Survey of India * George S. Myers * Joseph S. Nelson Fish of the World * John Treadwell Nichols, China, founder of Copeia * John Roxborough Norman * Peter Simon Pallas * Wilhelm Peters * Felipe Poey * Jean René Constant Quoy * Constantine Samuel Rafinesque * John E. Randall * Charles Tate Regan * John Richardson * * Eduard Rüppell * Johann Gottlob Schneider * H.M. Smith * J.L.B. Smith * Edwin Chapin Starks * Franz Steindachner * Shigeho Tanaka * Ethelwynn Trewavas, English * Achille Valenciennes * Johann Julius Walbaum * Stanley H. Weitzmann * Francis Willughby

===Paleoichthyologists=== * Hans C. Bjerring * Erik Jarvik * Erik Stensiö

== See also == * Ichthyology terms * Meristics

==References==

==Additional references==

* Bond, Carl E (1996) Biology of Fish. Saunders. . * Nelson, Joseph S (2006) Fish of the World. Wiley. . * Michael Barton (2007) Bond's Biology of Fish, Third Edition. Julet. . * Pauly D, Froese R, Palomares ML and Stergiou KI [http://www.fishbase.org/FishOnLine/English/index.htm Fish on line] A guide to learning and teaching ichthyology using the FishBase Information System.

==External links== * [http://www.briancoad.com/main.asp?page=fishdictionary.htm Brian Coad's Dictionary of Ichthyology] * [http://www2.biology.ualberta.ca/jackson.hp/IWR/ Ichthyology Web Resources] * [http://www.prosanta.net/ich.htm List of Ichthyologists]

. Category:Subfields of zoology Category:Vertebrate biology

Define CELL And Cell Organelles.

2018-01-06T21:41:00.002+05:30

All cells, whether they are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have some common features. These common features are:

DNA, the genetic material contained in one or more chromosomes and located in a nonmembrane bound nucleoid region in prokaryotes and a membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes

Plasma membrane, a phospholipid bilayer with proteins that separates the cell from the surrounding environment and functions as a selective barrier for the import and export of materials

Cytoplasm, the rest of the material of the cell within the plasma membrane, excluding the nucleoid region or nucleus, that consists of a fluid portion called the cytosol and the organelles and other particulates suspended in it

Ribosomes, the organelles on which protein synthesis takes place

Prokaryotic cells are fundamentally different in their internal organization from eukaryotic cells. Notably, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles. Prokaryotic cells have the following features:

1. The genetic material (DNA) is localized to a region called the nucleoid which has no surrounding membrane.

2. The cell contains large numbers of ribosomes that are used for protein synthesis.

3. At the periphery of the cell is the plasma membrane. In some prokaryotes the plasma membrane folds in to form structures called mesosomes, the function of which is not clearly understood.

4. Outside the plasma membrane of most prokaryotes is a fairly rigid wall which gives the organism its shape. The walls of bacteria consist of peptidoglycans. Sometimes there is also an outer capsule. Note that the cell wall of prokaryotes differs chemically from the eukaryotic cell wall of plant cells and of protists.

5. Some bacteria have flagella which are used for locomotion and/or pili, which may be used to pull two cells in close contact, and perhaps to facilitate the transfer of genetic material.

Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and numerous membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus) not found in prokaryotes. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in a great many different forms.

The nucleus contains most of the genetic material (DNA) of the cell. Additional DNA is in the mitochondria and (if present) chloroplasts. The nuclear DNA is complexed with proteins to form chromatin, which is organized as a number of linear chromosomes. Genetic control of the cell is carried out by the production of RNA in the nucleus (the process of transcription) and the subsequent transfer of this RNA to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis (the process of translation) is directed. The resulting proteins carry out cell functions. Also located in the nucleus is the nucleolus or nucleoli, organelles in which ribosomes are assembled. The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, a double membrane perforated with pores and connected to the rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane system.

The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, intermediate fibers, and microfilaments, which together maintain cell shape, anchor organelles, and cause cell movement. The microtubules and microfilaments are frequently assembled and disassembled according to cellular needs for movement and maintaining cell shape. Intermediate filaments are more permanent than microtubules and microfilaments.

The cell diagrams shown here represent intestinal epithelial cells with fingerlike projections, the microvilli. The location and appearance of cytoskeletal fibers in different cell types will vary.

A ribosome is the site of protein synthesis in the cell. Each ribosome consists of a large subunit and a small subunit, each of which contains rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and ribosomal proteins. In protein synthesis the mRNA (messenger RNA) moves through the ribosome while amino acids attached to tRNAs (transfer RNAs) are brought to the ribosome. The amino acids are joined to produce the protein. You may access more information on From Gene to Protein: Translation. Ribosomes exist free in the cytoplasm and bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Free ribosomes synthesize the proteins that function in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes make proteins that are distributed by the membrane systems, including those which are secreted from the cell.

The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that encloses every living cell. This membrane blocks uncontrolled movements of water-soluble materials into or out of the cell. The various proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer penetrate into and through the bilayer three-dimensionally. It is the proteins of the membrane that are responsible for the specific functions of the plasma membrane. These functions include controlling the flow of nutrients and ions into and out of the cells, mediating the response of a cell to external stimuli (a process called signal transduction), and interacting with bordering cells. All membranous eukaryotic cell organelles have the common feature of a phospholipid bilayer, although the proteins differ in each case.

Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are the sites of cellular respiration, a process that generates ATP from substrates in reactions using oxygen. All eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria, often many hundreds per cell. Each mitochondrion is about 1-10 um long. Mitochondria contain the enzymes and other components needed for the enzyme complexes that catalyze respiration. The primary function of mitochondria is to synthesize ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and Pi (inorganic phosphate).

Mitochondria are large organelles containing DNA and surrounded by a double membrane. The inner membrane is highly convoluted, with deep folds called cristae. The membranes divide the mitochondrion into two compartments, the central matrix, and the intermembrane space. DNA, in the form of a circular or linear molecule, is found in the matrix. The mitochondrial DNA encodes many of the components for mitochondrial function, while nuclear DNA encodes the remaining components. Components of the protein synthesizing machinery specific for mitochondria-ribosomes, tRNAs and specific proteins and enzymes-are also found in the matrix.

All eukaryotic cells have within them a functionally interrelated membrane system, the endomembrane system which consists of the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, vesicles and other organelles derived from them (for example, lysosomes, peroxisomes), and the plasma membrane. Many materials, including some proteins, are sorted by the functionally cellular membranes of the endomembrane system. The various membranes involved, though interrelated, differ in structure and function.

The endomembrane system plays a very important role in moving materials around the cell, notably proteins and membranes (the latter is called membrane trafficking). For example, while many proteins are made on ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm and remain in the cytoplasm, other proteins are made on ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). The latter proteins are inserted into the lumen of the RER, carbohydrates are added to them to produce glycoproteins, and they are then moved to cis face of the Golgi apparatus in transport vesicles that bud from the ER membrane. Within the Golgi, the protein may be modified further and then be dispatched from the trans face in a new transport vesicle. These vesicles move through the cytoplasm to their final desinations using the cytoskeleton. We can think of the system as analogous to a series of switching yards and train tracks, where materials are sorted with respect to their destinations at the switching yards and sent to those destinations along specific tracks in the cytoskeleton.

Proteins destined for secretion are made on ribosomes bound to the RER. The proteins move through the endomembrane system and are dispatched from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus in transport vesicles that move through the cytoplasm and then fuse with the plasma membrane releasing the protein to the outside of the cell. Examples of secretory proteins are collagen, insulin, and digestive enzymes of the stomach and intestine. (In a similar way, proteins destined for a particular cell organelle move to the organelle in transport vesicles that deposit their contents in the organelle by membrane fusion.)

Like secretory proteins and some other proteins, proteins destined for lysosomes are made on ribosomes bound to the RER and move through the endomembrane system. In this case the lysosomal protein-containing vesicle that buds from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus is the lysosome itself.

The figure below illustrates at a glance the structures that are common to both animal and plant cells, as well as the structures that are unique to each. Structures that are common to both plant and animal cells are labeled between the cells; structures that are unique to plants are labeled on the left of the cells and those unique to animals are labeled on the right.

Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that contain chlorophyll and the enzymes required for photosynthesis, the light-dependent synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Oxygen (O2) is a product of the photosynthesis process, and is released into the atmosphere. Chloroplasts are large organelles bounded by a double membrane and containing DNA. Unlike the mitochondrial double membrane, the inner membrane is not folded. Distinctly separate from the double membrane is an internal membrane system consisting of flattened sacs and called thylakoids. The space between the thylakoid and the outer membranes is called the stroma. The stroma contains the chloroplast DNA as well as components of the protein synthesizing machinery specific for the chloroplast, namely the ribosomes, tRNAs, and specific proteins and enzymes. Most of the components of photosynthesis are located in the thylakoids. The thylakoid membranes are organized into stacks called grana. The interior of the thylakoid is the lumen.

Introduction To Natural Resources

2018-01-06T20:15:00.003+05:30

Introduction To Natural Resources (NR)

Ever since the earth was inhabited, humans and other life forms have depended on things that exist freely in nature to survive. These things include water (seas and fresh water), land, soils, rocks, forests (vegetation), animals (including fish), fossil fuels and minerals. They are called Natural Resources and are the basis of life on earth.

All these mentioned above are natural, and they exist in nature. No human created them. We tap into their supply to survive and also to function properly. Natural resources are all connected in a way. Therefore if one is taken away, it will affect the supply or quality of all others. For example, if water is eliminated from an area, the vegetation, soils, animals and even the air in that area will be affected negatively.

Below is a simple illustration of some great things that we get from some natural resources.
Natural resources can be consumed directly or indirectly. For instance, humans depend directly on forests for food, biomass, health, recreation and increased living comfort. Indirectly forests act as climate control, flood control, storm protection and nutrient cycling.

Raw materials
Sometimes, natural resources can be used asraw materials to produce something. For instance, we can use a tree from the forest to produce timber. The timber is then used to produce wood for furniture or pulp for paper and paper products. In this scenario, the tree is the raw material.

Every item in your home was made from a raw material that came from a natural resource. The tea mug, electricity at home, bread, clothes, you name them: each of them came from a natural resource.

Natural resources come in many forms. It may be a solid, liquid or gas. It may also be organic or inorganic. It may also be metallic or non-metallic. It may be renewable or non-renewable. Click next to see what each category is made up of.

Types of Natural Resources

All Natural Resources fall under two main categories:Renewable and Non-renewable Resources. The table below will help us understand this better.
Renewable resources
Renewable resources are those that are constantly available (like water) or can be reasonably replaced or recovered, like vegetative lands. Animals are also renewable because with a bit of care, they can reproduce offsprings to replace adult animals. Even though some renewable resources can be replaced, they may take many years and that does not make them renewable.

If renewable resources come from living things, (such as trees and animals) they can be calledorganic renewable resources.

If renewable resources come from non-living things, (such as water, sun and wind) they can be calledinorganic renewable resources.

Non-renewable resources
Non-renewable resources are those that cannot easily be replaced once they are destroyed. Examples include fossil fuels. Minerals are also non-renewable because even though they form naturally in a process called the rock cycle, it can take thousands of years, making it non-renewable. Some animals can also be considered non-renewable, because if people hunt for a particular species without ensuring their reproduction, they will be extinct. This is why we must ensure that we protect resources that are endangered.

Non-renewable resources can be called inorganic resources if they come from non-living things. Examples include include, minerals, wind, land, soil and rocks.

Some non-renewable resources come from living things — such as fossil fuels. They can be called organic non-renewable resources.

Metallic and Non-metallic Resources
Inorganic resources may be metallic or non-metallic. Metallic minerals are those that have metals in them. They are harder, shiny, and can be melted to form new products. Examples are iron, copper and tin. Non-metallic minerals have no metals in them. They are softer and do not shine. Examples include clay and coal.

Why are Natural Resources so important?

Natural resources are available to sustain the very complex interaction between living things and non-living things. Humans also benefit immensely from this interaction. All over the world, people consume resources directly or indirectly. Developed countries consume resources more than under-developed countries.

The world economy uses around 60 billion tonnes of resources each year to produce the goods and services which we all consume. On the average, a person in Europe consumes about 36kg of resources per day; a person in North America consumes about 90kg per day, a person in Asia consumes about 14kg and a person in Africa consumes about 10kg of resources per day.

In what form do people consume natural resources? The three major forms include Food and drink, Housing and infrastructure, and Mobility. These three make up more than 60% of resource use.

Food and drink:
This includes agricultural products as well as naturally occurring foods such as game, fish from fresh water and seas, seeds and nuts, medicines, herbs and plants. They also include drinking water, as well as water for sanitation and household use. Think of ceramic plates, silverware (spoons, forks and knives), cans, milk packages, paper and plastic cups — they are all made from raw materials which come from our natural resources.

Mobility:
This includes automobiles, trains, water vessels, airplanes, together with all the fuel that powers them. Can you imagine where all the raw materials used in their production came from?

Housing and infrastructure:
Think about all the houses, public places, roads and constructed objects you have in your city or town. Think about all the energy for heating and cooling that we consume in our homes — can you imagine where all the wood, metals, plastic, stone and other materials came from?

Beyond these three major areas of resource consumption, we consume much more resources from our environment on a daily basis. The role of natural resources in sustaining life on earth is extremely important and we must ensure that we protect the environment and also make it easy for it to replenish itself naturally.

Distribution of Natural Resources

Natural resources are not evenly distributed all over the world. Some places are more endowed that others — for instance, some regions have lots of water (and access to ocean and seas). Others have lots of minerals and forestlands. Others have metallic rocks, wildlife, fossil fuels and so on.

For example, The US has the world's largest coal reserves with 491 billion short tons accounting for 27% of the world's total. Australia is the world's largest net exporter of coal accounting for 29% of global coal exports

China remains the largest producer of gold with a 14% share of the global production.
The United States, Russia, and Canada are the leading producers of timber and pulp. Annual exports of primary and secondary wood products from tropical forests have exceeded US$ 20 billion in recent years and further increases are anticipated.

Many countries have developed their economies by using their natural resources. Some also get a lot of income from their resources in the form of tourism and recreation. Brazil and Peru for example, make a lot of money from The Amazon Forests, which is super diverse in trees and animals.

Crude oil is another important natural resource. From Crude oil, we get many petroleum products such as petrol, diesel and gas. We use these to fuel our cars and provide energy to warm and cool our homes. But Crude oil is not evenly distributed all over the world. Below is an illustration of how much each region of the world produces.

International and local trade has its roots in the fact that resources are not evenly distributed on the earth’s surface. Regions with crude oil can drill oil and sell to regions without oil, and also buy resources such as timber and precious metals (gold, diamonds and silver) from other regions that have them in abundance.

The uneven distribution is also the root of power and greed in many regions. Some countries use their wealth in resources to control and manipulate regions with fewer resources. Some countries and regions have even gone to war over the management, ownership, allocation, use and protection of natural resources and related ecosystems.

Threats to Natural Resources

A. Overpopulation
This is probably the most significant, single threat that natural resources face. The world’s population is increasing at a very fast rate. In the USA, a baby is born every 8 seconds, and a person dies every 13 seconds The increase in populations mean there will be pressure on almost all natural resources. How?
Land Use: With more mouths to feed and people to house, more land will need to be cultivated and developed for housing. More farming chemicals will be applied to increase food production. Many forest or vegetative lands will be converted to settlements for people, roads and farms. These have serious repercussions on natural resources.

Forests: Demand for wood (timber), food, roads and forest products will be more. People will therefore use more forest resources than they can naturally recover.

Fishing: Fresh water and sea food will face problems too as we will continue to depend heavily on them. Bigger fishing companies are going deeper into sea to catch fish in even larger quantities. Some of the fishing methods they use are not sustainable, thereby destroying much more fish and sea creatures in the process.

Need for more: Human's demand for a comfortable life means more items (communication, transport, education, entertainment and recreation) will need to be produced. This means more industrial processes and more need for raw materials and natural resources.

B. Climate Change
The alteration in climate patterns as a result of excessive anthropogenic is hurting biodiversity and many other abiotic natural resources. Species that have acclimatized to their environments may perish and others will have to move to more favorable conditions to survive.

C. Environmental Pollution
Land, water and air pollution directly affect the health of the environments in which they occur. Pollution affects the chemical make-up of soils, rocks, lands, ocean water, freshwater and underground water, and other natural phenomena. This often has catastrophic consequences.

Keyboard Shortcuts And System Commands For Popular Programs

2018-01-06T19:57:00.001+05:30

What Is a Keyboard Shortcut?

In computing, a keyboard shortcut is a set of one or more keys that invoke a command in software or an operating system.
They are typically an alternate means for invoking commands that would otherwise be accessible only through a menu, a mouse, or an aspect of the user interface. These shortcuts can expedite common operations by reducing input sequences to a few keystrokes.
These shortcuts can provide an easier and quicker method of using computer programs. These commands are commonly accessed by using the Alt ket (on PC computers), command key (on Apple computers), Ctrl, and Shift in conjunction with a single letter.
These shortcuts are for the following programs and applications.

Word
Windows
Internet Explorer
File Explorer
Windows System Commands
Firefox
Excel
Mac
Finder
Chrome

This image shows multiple shortcuts to a variety of functions that you can do in Microsoft Word.

Shortcut Keys in Microsoft Word

F1 key: Get help on a selected command or use the Office assistant.
Shift and F1 Key: Review text formatting.
F2 Key: Move text or image.
Shift + F2 Key: Copy text.
F3 Key: Insert an autotext entry.
Shift + F3 Key: Change the case of the selected text.
F4 Key: Perform last action again.
Shift + F4 Key: Perform a Find or Go To action again.
F5 Key: Displays the Go To dialogue box. You can also get to Find and Replace from here.
Shift + F5 Key: Move to a previous revision.
F6 Key: Go to the next frame or pane.
Shift + F6 Key: Go to the previous frame or pane.
F7 Key: Launch the Spell Checker.
Shift + F7 Key: Launch the Thesaurus.
F8 Key: Extend the current selection.
Shift + F8 Key: Shrink the current selection.
F9 Key: Refresh.
Shift + F9 Key: Switch between a field code and its result.
F10 Key: Show KeyTips.
Shift + F10 Key: Display a Shortcut Menu (same as right-clicking).
F11 Key: Go to the next field.
SHIFT + F11 Key: Go to the previous field.
F12 Key: Open Save As, equivalent to tools menu.
Shift + F12 Key: Save document, equivalent to tools menu.
Ctrl and A: Selects all in the current document.
Ctrl and B: Bold text.
Ctrl and C: Copies the item or text.
Ctrl and D: Displays the Font dialogue box.
Ctrl and E: Switch a paragraph between center and left alignment.
Ctrl and F: Displays the Find dialog box to search the current document.
Ctrl and G: Displays the Go To dialog box to search for a specific location in the current document.
Ctrl and H: Displays the Replace dialogue box.
Ctrl and I: Italicize text.
Ctrl and J: Switch a paragraph between justified and left alignment.
Ctrl and K: Create a hyperlink.
Ctrl and L: Left align a paragraph.
Ctrl and M: Indent a paragraph from the left.
Ctrl and N: Create a new document.
Ctrl and O: Opens a new document.
Ctrl and P: Prints a document.
Ctrl and R: Switch the alignment of a paragraph between left and right.
Ctrl and S: Saves a document.
Ctrl and U: Underlines text.
Ctrl and V: Pastes the copied item or text.
Ctrl and X: Cuts the selected item or text.
Ctrl and Y: Redo the last action.
Ctrl and Z: Undo the last action.
Ctrl and Enter: Insert a page break.
Ctrl and F2: Select Print Preview command.
Ctrl and F4: Closes the active window.
Ctrl and F6: Opens the next window if multiple are open.

Windows Shortcut Keys

Windows Key + R: Opens the Run menu.
Windows Key + E: Opens Explorer.
Alt + Tab: Switch between open programs.
Windows Key + Up Arrow: Maximize current window.
Ctrl + Shift + Esc: Open Task Manager.
Windows Key + Break: Opens system properties.
Windows Key + F: Opens search for files and folders.
Windows Key + D: Hide/display the desktop.
Alt + Esc: Switch between programs in order they were opened.
Alt + Letter: Select menu item by underlined letter.
Ctrl + Esc: Open Start menu.
Ctrl + F4: Close active document (does not work with some applications).
Alt + F4: Quit active application or close current window.
Alt + Spacebar: Open menu for active program.
Ctrl + Left or Right Arrow: Move cursor forward or back one word.
Ctrl + Up or Down Arrow: Move cursor forward or back one paragraph.
F1: Open Help menu for active application.
Windows Key + M: Minimize all windows.
Shift + Windows Key + M: Restore windows that were minimized with previous keystroke.
Windows + F1: Open Windows Help and Support.
Windows + Tab: Open Task view.
Windows + Break: Open the System Properties dialog box.
Hold Right SHIFT key for eight seconds: Switch FilterKeys on and off.
Left Alt + Left Shift + Print Screen: Switch High Contrast on and off.
Left Alt + Left Shift + Num Lock: Switch Mouse keys on and off.
Press Shift five times: Switch Sticky keys on and off.
Hold Num Lock for five seconds: Switch Toggle keys on and off.

Internet Explorer Shortcut Keys

Alt + Left Arrow/Backspace: Go back to the previous page.
Alt + Right Arrow: Go to next page.
F5: Refresh page.
F11: Toggle between full-screen and regular view.
Esc: Stop downloading a page.
Ctrl + ( + or -): Zoom in or out of page by 10%.
Ctrl + Enter: Adds www. at the beginning and .com to the end of any text entered in the Address bar.
Ctrl + D: Add the current site to your favorites.
Ctrl + I: View your favorites.
Ctrl + N: Open a new window.
Ctrl + P: Print the current page.
Ctrl + T: Open a new tab.
Ctrl + F4: Closes tabs in the background.
Ctrl + Tab: Switch between tabs.
Spacebar: Click the notification bar.
Shift + Spacebar: Move up one page.
Alt + Down Arrow: Move a selected item down the favorites list.

File Explorer Shortcuts

End: Display bottom of current window.
Home: Display top of current window.
Left Arrow: Collapse the current selections or select a parent folder.
Right Arrow: Display the current selection or select the first subfolder.

Windows System Commands

Type the following commands in your Run dialogue box (Windows Key + R) to run specific programs.

devmgmt.msc: Device Manager

msinfo32: System Information
cleanmgr: Disk Cleanup
ntbackup: Backup or restore Wizard (Windows Backup Utility)
mmc: Microsoft Management Console
excel: Microsoft Excel (if installed)
msaccess: Microsoft Access (if installed)
powerpnt: Microsoft PowerPoint (if installed)
winword: Microsoft Word (if installed)
frontpg: Microsoft FrontPage (if installed)
notepad: Notepad
wordpad: WordPad
calc: Calculator
msmsgs: Windows Messenger
mspaint: Microsoft Paint
wmplayer: Windows Media Player
rstrui: System restore
control: Opens the Control Panel
control printers: Opens the printers dialogue box
cmd: Command Prompt
iexplore: Internet Explorer
compmgmt.msc: Computer Management
dhcpmgmt.msc: DHCP Management
dnsmgmt.msc: DNS Management
services.msc: Services
eventvwr: Event Viewer
dsa.msc: Active Directory Users and Computers
dssite.msc: Active Directory Sites and Services

This image shows some shortcuts for basic functions while browsing in Firefox. The keystrokes begin with Ctrl if using a PC and Cmd if using a Mac.

Firefox Keyboard Shortcuts

Command	Mac OS	Windows
Go back a page.	Command + Left Arrow	Alt + Left Arrow
Go forward a page.	Command + Right Arrow	Alt + Right Arrow
Reload current page.	F5	F5
Toggle between full screen and regular screen.	Command + Shift + F	F11
Stop page from loading.	Esc	Esc
Complete a .com address.	Command + Return	Ctrl + Enter
Complete a .net address.	Shift + Return	Shift + Enter
Complete a .org address.	Command + Shift + Return	Ctrl + Shift + Enter
Clear recent history.	Command + Shift + Delete	Ctrl + Shift + Delete
Add a bookmark for the current page.	Command + D	Ctrl + D
Display available bookmarks.	Command + Shift + B	Ctrl + Shift + B
Display the download window.	Command + J	Ctrl + J
Open a new browser window.	Command + N	Ctrl + N
Print current page.	Command + P	Ctrl + P
Opens a new tab.	Command + T	Ctrl + T
Close the tab.	Command + W	Ctrl + W
Close window.	Command + Shift + W	Ctrl + Shift + W
Undo the close of a window.	Command + Shift + N	Ctrl + Shift + N
Undo the close of a tab.	Command + Shift + T	Ctrl + Shift + T
Moves through each of the open tabs.	Ctrl + Tab	Ctrl + Tab
Go to bottom of page.	Command + Down Arrow	End
Go to top of page.	Command + Up Arrow	Home

Here are a multitude of keyboard shortcuts for Microsoft Excel.

Microsoft Excel Shortcut Keys

F2: Edit the active cell.
F5: Displays the Go To box.
F7: Open the Spelling dialogue box to check a selected range.
F11: Create a chart of data in the current range in a separate sheet.
Alt + Shift + F1: Insert a new worksheet.
Shift + F3: Opens Insert Function dialogue box.
Shift + F5: Opens the Find and Replace dialogue box.
Ctrl + Shift + Colon (:): Enter the current time.
Ctrl + Semicolon (;): Enter the current date.
Ctrl + A: Select all content in the worksheet.
Ctrl + B: Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + I: Italicize highlighted selection.
Ctrl + K: Open the Insert hyperlink dialogue box.
Ctrl + U: Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + 5: Apply strikethrough formatting.
Ctrl + P: Brings up the print dialog box.
Ctrl + Z: Undo.
Ctrl + F9: Minimize a workbook window to an icon.
Ctrl + F10: Maximize a selected workbook window.
Ctrl + F6: Switch to the next workbook window when multiple are open.
Ctrl + Page Up: Move to previous sheet in a workbook.
Ctrl + Page Down: Move to next sheet in a workbook.
Ctrl + Tab: Switch to next tab in dialogue box.
Ctrl + Apostrophe ('): Insert the value of the above cell into the cell currently selected.
Ctrl + Shift + !: Apply the Number format.
Ctrl + Shift + $: Apply the Currency format.
Ctrl + Shift + #: Apply the Date format.
Ctrl + Shift + %: Apply the Percentage format.
Ctrl + Shift + ^: Apply the Exponential format.
Ctrl + Shift + @: Apply the Time format.
Ctrl + Arrow Key: Move to the edge of the current data region in a worksheet.
Ctrl + Space: Select an entire column in a worksheet.
Shift + Space: Select an entire row in a worksheet.

Here is a selection of shortcuts for those using a Mac.

Shortcuts for Mac

Command + X: Cut selected text and copy it.
Command + C: Copy selected text.
Command + V: Paste copied text.
Command + Z: Undo previous command.
Command + A: Select all items.
Command + F: Open Find window to search text.
Command + H: Hide windows of the front app.
Command + N: Open a new document or window.
Command + O: Open a selected item.
Command + P: Print current document.
Command + S: Save current document.
Command + W: Close front window.
Command + Q: Quit the app.
Command + M: Minimize the front window to the Dock.
Command + Spacebar: Open Spotlight search field.
Command + Tab: Switch between open apps.
Command + B: Bold selected text.
Command + I: Italicize selected text.
Command + U: Underline selected text.
Command + Semicolon (;): Find misspelled words in document.
Option + Command + Esc: Choose an app to force quit.
Shift + Command + Tilde (~): Switch between open windows.
Shift + Command + 3: Take a screenshot.
Fn + Up Arrow: Scroll up one page.
Fn + Down Arrow: Scroll down one page.
Fn + Left Arrow: Scroll to beginning of document.
Fn + Right Arrow: Scroll to end of document.

Finder Shortcuts

Shift + Command + F: Open All My Files window.
Shift + Command + K: Open Network window.
Option + Command + L: Open Downloads folder.
Shift + Command + O: Open documents folder.
Shift + Command + U: Open Utilities folder.
Option + Command + D: Show or hide the Dock.
Shift + Command + N: Create a new folder.
Command + Delete: Move selected item to the Trash.
Shift + Command + Delete: Empty Trash.

Here are shortcuts for browsing functions when using Google Chrome. Keystrokes begin with Ctrl for PC users and Cmd for Mac users.

Chrome Keyboard Shortcuts

Command	MacOS	Windows
Open new window.	Command + N	Ctrl + N
Open new tab.	Command + T	Ctrl + T
Reopen the last closed tab.	Command + Shift + T	Ctrl + Shift + T
Move to next tab.	Command + Option + Right Arrow	Ctrl + Tab
Move to previous tab.	Command + Option + Left Arrow	Ctrl + Shift + Tab
Open previous page in browsing history.	Command + [	Alt + Left Arrow
Open next page in browsing history.	Command + ]	Alt + Right Arrow
Close current tab.	Command + W	Ctrl + W
Close current window.	Command + Shift + W	Alt + F4
Open Bookmarks Manager.	Command + Option + B	Ctrl + Shift + O
Open History page.	Command + Y	Ctrl + H
Open Downloads page.	Command + Shift + J	Ctrl + J
Open Find Bar.	Command + F	Ctrl + F
Print current page.	Command + P	Ctrl + P
Save current page.	Command + S	Ctrl + S
Reload current page.	Command + R	F5
Save current page as a bookmark.	Command + D	Ctrl + D
Toggle full-screen mode.	Command + Ctrl + F	F11

How to Create a Windows Shortcut Key

Open the folder or directory that contains the program you wish to create a shortcut for.
Right-click on the program and click Create Shortcut.
This will create a shortcut named "Shortcut to <your program>" in the directory you are in. If you wish to rename this shortcut, right-click the file and click Rename.
Once the above steps have been completed, you can copy this shortcut and paste it anywhere to execute this program.

Once the shortcut has been created, you can assign a keystroke to that Windows shortcut.

Right-click the shortcut and click Properties.
Click the Shortcut tab.
Click in the Shortcut key box and press a letter. For example, if you press "p", the shortcut key will automatically be made to Ctrl + Alt + P. Which means that if saved, pressing Ctrl and Alt and P will run that shortcut.

What Is Global Warming?

2018-01-06T19:48:00.003+05:30

Global warming is the current increase in temperature of the Earth's surface (both land and water) as well as it's atmosphere. Average temperatures around the world have risen by 0.75°C (1.4°F) over the last 100 years about two thirds of this increase has occurred since 1975.
In the past, when the Earth experienced increases in temperature it was the result of natural causes but today it is being caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere produced by human activities.

The natural greenhouse effect maintains the Earth's temperature at a safe level making it possible for humans and many other lifeforms to exist. However, since the Industrial Revolution human activities have significantly enhanced the greenhouse effect causing the Earth's average temperature to rise by almost 1°C. This is creating the global warming we see today. To put this increase in perspective it is important to understand that during the last ice age, a period of massive climate change, the average temperature change around the globe was only about 5°C.

A long series of scientific research and international studies has shown, with more than 90% certainty, that this increase in overall temperatures is due to the greenhouse gases produced by humans. Activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels are the main sources of these emissions. These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized countries.
Global warming is affecting many places around the world. It is accelerating the melting of ice sheets, permafrost and glaciers which is causing average sea levels to rise.It is also changing precipitation and weather patterns in many different places, making some places dryer, with more intense periods of drought and at the same time making other places wetter, with stronger storms and increased flooding. These changes have affected both nature as well as human society and will continue to have increasingly worse effects if greenhouse gas emissions continue to grow at the same pace as today.

What causes global warming?

The cause of global warming is the increasing quantity of greenhouse gases in the our atmosphere produced by human activities, like the burning of fossil fuels or deforestation. These activities produce large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions which is causing global warming. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere to keep the planet warm enough to sustain life, this process is called the greenhouse effect.It is a natural process and without these gases, the Earth would be too cold for humans, plants and other creatures to live.
The natural greenhouse effect exists due to the balance of the major types of greenhouse gases. However, when abnormally high levels of these gases accumulate in the air, more heat starts getting trapped and leads to the enhancement of the greenhouse effect. Human-caused emissions have been increasing greenhouse levels which is raising worldwide temperatures and driving global warming.

Greenhouse gas emissions and the enhanced greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases are produced both naturally and through human activities. Unfortunately, greenhouse gases generated by human activities are being added to the atmosphere at a much faster rate than any natural process can remove them.
Global levels of greenhouse gases have increased dramatically since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the 1750s. Only a small group of human activities are causing the concentration of the main greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases) to rise:

The majority of man-made carbon dioxide emissions is from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil so that humans can power various vehicles, machinery, keep warm and create electricity. Other important sources come from land-use changes (ex: deforestation) and industry (ex: cement production).
Methane is created by humans during fossil fuel production and use, livestock and rice farming, as well as landfills.
Nitrous oxide emissions are mainly caused by the use of synthetic fertilizers for agriculture, fossil fuel combustion and livestock manure management.
Fluorinated gases are used mainly in refrigeration, cooling and manufacturing applications.

Deforestation

Deforestation has become a massive undertaking by humans and transforming forests into farms has a significant number of impacts as far as greenhouse gas emissions are concerned. For centuries, people have burned and cut down forests to clear land for agriculture. This has a double effect on the atmosphere both emiting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and simultaneously reducing the number of trees that can remove carbon dioxide from the air.
When forested land is cleared, soil disturbance and increased rates of decomposition in converted soils both create carbon dioxide emissions.This also increases soil erosion and nutrient leaching which can further reduces the area's ability to act as a carbon sink.

What are the effects of global warming?

Global warming is damaging the Earth's climate as well as the physical environment. One of the most visible effects of global warming can be seen in the Arctic as glaciers, permafrost and sea ice are melting rapidly. Global warming is harming the environment in several ways including:

Desertification
Increased melting of snow and ice
Sea level rise
Stronger hurricanes and cyclones

Desertification

Increasing temperatures around the world are making arid and semi-arid areas even more dry than before. Current research is also showing that the water cycle is changing and rainfall patterns are shifting to make areas that are already dry even drier. This is causing water shortages and an intense amount of distress to the over 2.5 million people in dry regions which are degrading into desert. This process is called desertification.

Increased melting of snow and ice

Around the world, snow and ice is melting at a much faster pace than in the past. This has been seen in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa but is particularly true at the Earth's poles.
Perennial ice cover in the Arctic is melting at the rate of 11.5% per decade and the thickness of the Arctic ice has decreased by 48% since the 1960s. During the past 30 years, more than a million square miles of sea ice has vanished, an area equivalent to the size of Norway, Denmark and Sweden combined. The continent of Antarctica has been losing more than 100 cubic kilometers (24 cubic miles) of ice per year since 2002. Since 2010, the Antarctic ice melt rate has doubled.

Sea level rise

The Earth's sea level has risen by 21 cm (8 inches) since 1880. The rate of rise is accelerating and is now at a pace that has not been seen for at least 5000 years. Global warming has caused this by affecting the oceans in two ways: warmer average temperatures cause ocean waters to expand (thermal expansion) and the accelerated melting of ice and glaciers increase the amount of water in the oceans.

Stronger hurricanes and cyclones

Tropical cyclone activity has seen an obvious upswing trend since the early 1970s. Interestingly, this matches directly with an observed rise in the oceans' temperature over the same period of time. Since then, the Power Dissipation Index which measures the destructive power of tropical cyclones has increased in the Pacific by 35% and in the Atlantic it has nearly doubled. Global warming also increases the frequency of strong cyclones. Every 1 degree C increase in sea surface temperature results in a 31% increase in the global frequency of category 4 and 5 storms.

Green House Effect? What's Your Impact

2018-01-06T19:39:00.002+05:30

The greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the Earth by trapping heat in our atmosphere. This keeps the temperature of the Earth higher than it would be if direct heating by the Sun was the only source of warming. When sunlight reaches the surface of the Earth, some of it is absorbed which warms the ground and some bounces back to space as heat. Green House Gases that are in the atmosphere absorb and then redirect some of this heat back towards the Earth.
The greenhouse effect is a major factor in keeping the Earth warm because it keeps some of the planet's heat that would otherwise escape from the atmosphere out to space. In fact, without the greenhouse effect the Earth's average global temperature would be much colder and life on Earth as we know it would not be possible. The difference between the Earth's actual average temperature 14° C (57.2° F) and the expected effective temperature just with the Sun's radiation -19° C (-2.2° F) gives us the strength of the greenhouse effect, which is 33° C.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that is millions of years old. It plays a critical role in regulating the overall temperature of the Earth. The greenhouse effect was first discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1827, experimentally verified by John Tyndall in 1861, and quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

To understand exactly how the greenhouse effect works, imagine the following: a warm, sunny day where the sun shines bright on the Earth. This sunlight (shortwave radiation) passes into the planet's atmosphere and warms the Earth. Part of this energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface, transformed into heat (longwave radiation) and radiated back towards space. But as this heat goes up through the atmosphere, some of it is trapped by the different greenhouse gases and doesn't escape into space. This in turn warms up the Earth's atmosphere; just like the windows of a greenhouse that lets light in and keeps the heat within to warm the plants growing inside.

Since some of the heat can't escape into space, it continues to add up which then warms up the Earth. This is what we call the greenhouse effect. So the more greenhouse gases you have in the atmosphere, the more heat stays on Earth.
If the amount of energy from the sun and the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere remain the same, then the average temperature on Earth will also be constant. But this is no longer the case. The amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere is the highest it has been in the last 3 million years. This is enhancing the greenhouse effect and making the Earth warmer than normal, which is affecting the planet's weather patterns, creating global warming and climate change.

An everyday example of the greenhouse effect

If you open the door of a car that has been left parked in the sun for a couple of hours, you'll notice that the temperature inside the car is much warmer than the temperature outside. This is because the windows of the car allow the sunlight to enter. This light, once inside, is then partially converted into heat. However, these same windows do not allow the heat inside the car to pass through as easily as light, so some of this heat accumulates. The net effect is that more heat remains in than can come out, increasing the temperature inside the car.

What causes the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is caused by the interaction of the sun's energy with greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases in the Earth's atmosphere. The ability of these gases to trap heat is what causes the greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse gases are made of three or more atoms. This molecular structure makes it possible for these gases to trap heat in the atmosphere and then re-emit it towards the surface which further warms the Earth. This continuous cycle of trapping heat leads to an overall increase in global temperatures. This process, which is very similar to the way a greenhouse works, is why the gases that can produce this effect are collectively known as greenhouse gases.
The principal forcing gases of the greenhouse effect are:

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Methane (CH₄)
Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
Fluorinated gases

The main feedback gas of the greenhouse effect is:

Water vapor

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the fluorinated gases are all well-mixed gases in the atmosphere that do not react to changes in temperature and air pressure, so the levels of these gases are not affected by condensation. Water vapor on the other hand, is a highly active component of the climate system that responds rapidly to changes in conditions by either condensing into rain or snow, or evaporating to return to the atmosphere. Thus the impact of the greenhouse effect is primarily circulated through water vapor, and it acts as a fast feedback.
Carbon dioxide and the other non-condensing greenhouse gases are the key gases within the Earth's atmosphere that sustain the greenhouse effect and control its strength. Water vapor is a fast-acting feedback but its atmospheric concentration is controlled by the radiative forcing supplied by the non-condensing greenhouse gases.
In fact, the greenhouse effect would collapse were it not for the presence of carbon dioxide and the other non-condensing greenhouse gases. Together the feedback by the condensing and the forcing by the non-condensing gases within the atmosphere both play an important role in the greenhouse effect.

All About Nutrient Deficiencies

2018-01-05T21:31:00.003+05:30

All About Nutrient Deficiencies

With the lack of variety in countless nutrition plans and the health of food dependent upon the ever-diminishing nutrients in soil, it’s no wonder that we’d be concerned with nutrient deficiencies. Add regular bouts of exercise, stress and medications to the mix, and all of the sudden we have a recipe for major nutrient scarcity.

How do you know if you’re deficient in nutrients?
Are your lips cracked? You may be deficient in riboflavin, niacin or pyridoxine.
Nutrient deficiencies can have a variety of effects throughout the body. Often the signs are subtle — perhaps you feel a bit “off” or your skin doesn’t look quite as glowing as it could. Occasionally the signs are more obvious. (For instance, it’s kind of hard to ignore your feet tingling, or uncontrolled muscle spasms.)
Now don’t worry — we’re not trying to scare you into buying stock with GNC and loading up on vitamin pills, or trying to turn you into a nutrient hypochondriac. We simply want to highlight some of the physical manifestations of nutrient deficiencies.
As you read through the following, you may fit the criteria for some of the deficiency symptoms. Instead of self-diagnosing and slamming a bottle of “vitamin [fill in the blank],” your concern should simply warrant further investigation into eating patterns and habits. If you notice any of the symptoms/signs fit you, then jot down some notes and initiate a dialogue with your dietitian, naturopath, chiropractor or physician (whoever you work with and trust).
Try to find a “food form” of your desired nutrient before you stock up on supplement bottles. Research suggests that nutrients tend to work better together, and are found in more complex forms in nature. For example, there are over six hundred known carotenoids, which give plants their red or orange colours. We don’t know what all of them do yet, but we’re pretty sure that many are important. Just taking a beta-carotene supplement on its own probably isn’t the same — in fact, as a few high-profile studies have shown, it may be actively harmful.
Also, as we indicate below, taking extra doses of certain vitamins doesn’t necessarily make things better. Nutrients work in complicated ways in the body, and they’re often related to one another (for example, as the amount of X increases, the body may make or absorb less of Y).
Here’s a handy guide to common deficiencies. Part 1 is organized by the body part affected, and alphabetized by part for easier navigation. Part 2 is organized by health conditions and people at risk for deficiencies.

Deficiencies by body part

	If you have…	You may be or have…
Ankles	Swollen ankles	Over-hydrated
Brain	Memory problems, disorientation or dementia	Niacin (B3), vitamin B12, or thiamine (B1) deficiency
Eyes	Puffy, swollen eyes	Over-hydrated
	Sunken, dull or dry eyes	Vitamin A or zinc deficiency; under-hydration
	Dry eyes with gray spots	Vitamin A deficiency
	Red or difficult-to-control eyes	Riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6), thiamine (B1) or phosphorus deficiency
Face	Acne	Vitamin C deficiency
Feet	Tingling feet	Pyridoxine (B6) or vitamin B12 deficiency
Gums	Sore and spongy or red and swollen	Vitamin C deficiency
Hands	Tingling hands	Pyridoxine (B6) or vitamin B12 deficiency
Lips	Cracked lips	Riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), or pyridoxine (B6) deficiency
Lungs	Shortness of breath	Over-hydrated
Mouth and mucous membranes	Dry mucous membranes	Under-hydrated
	Sore mouth	Pyridoxine (B6) or vitamin B12 deficiency
Muscles	Muscle spasms	Calcium, magnesium or vitamin D deficiency
Nails	Brittle, thin nails	Iron deficiency
Saliva	Sticky saliva / dry mouth	Under-hydrated
Skin	Moist skin	Over-hydrated
	Dry, scaly, pale or bruises easily	Iron, vitamin A, C, K, zinc, essential fatty acid or protein deficiency
	Red spots under your skin’s surface	Vitamin C deficiency
	Cool, pale, clammy skin	Under-hydrated
	Scaly, greasy skin	Vitamin A, zinc or riboflavin (B2) deficiency
Tongue	Purple, white, or smooth and slick; painful	Riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), folic acid (B9), B12, zinc or iron deficiency
	Sore tongue	Pyridoxine (B6) or Vitamin B12 deficiency
Urine	Light-coloured urine	Over-hydrated
	Dark coloured urine	Under-hydrated

Part 2: Who’s at risk?

Health condition	Deficiency risk
AIDS	Vitamin B12
Alcoholism	Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), biotin, folic acid (B9)
Blood loss	Iron
Crohn’s disease	Vitamin A
Diabetes mellitus	Riboflavin (B2)
Diarrhea	Selenium
Excessive consumption of goitrogenic foods (cassava, cabbage, rutabagas, turnips, among others)	Iodine
Gastric bypass	Vitamin B12
Gastritis	Vitamin B12
Gluten intolerance (untreated)	Vitamin A
Gut flora irritation/alteration	Vitamin A
Hyperparathyroidism	Pyridoxine (B6)
Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)	Vitamin C
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)	Riboflavin (B2)
Increased energy needs (illness, intense training, injury rehabilitation, etc.)	Vitamin A
Inflammatory bowel disease	Pantothenic acid (B5)
Lactation	Vitamin C
Living in endemic areas with un-supplemented food supplies	Iodine
Menstruation (heavy or lengthy periods)	Iron
Pregnancy	Vitamin C, iron
Raw egg white consumption (excessive amounts)	Biotin
Rheumatoid arthritis	Zinc
Sickle cell anemia	Zinc
Smoking	Vitamin C
Stress (excessive amounts)	Iodine
Sun exposure (insufficient amounts)	Vitamin D
Vegan diet	Vitamin B12

Medication use

Aminosalicylic acid – Vitamin B12 deficiency
Amitryptyline – riboflavin deficiency
Anticoagulant therapy – vitamin K deficiency
Anticonvulsants – vitamin D deficiency, folic acid deficiency, vitamin B12 deficiency
Anti-thyroid therapy (methimazole, propylthiouracil) – iodine deficiency
Barbiturates – vitamin C deficiency
Carbamazepine – biotin deficiency
Cholestyramine – vitamin D deficiency
Colchicines – vitamin B12 deficiency
Colestipol – vitamin D deficiency
Corticosteroids – vitamin D deficiency
Cycloserine – pyridoxine deficiency, folic acid deficiency
Diethylenetriamine – zinc deficiency
Diuretics – zinc deficiency
D-penicillamine – zinc deficiency
EPO use – iron deficiency
Estrogen/oral contraceptives – vitamin C deficiency, folic acid deficiency
Ethionamide – pyridoxine deficiency
Hydralazine – pyridoxine deficiency
Imipramine – riboflavin deficiency
Iron megadoses – copper deficiency
Isoniazid – vitamin D deficiency, niacin deficiency, pyridoxine deficiency
Metformin – vitamin B12 deficiency
Methotrexate – folic acid deficiency
Neomycin – vitamin B12 deficiency
Nitrous oxide – vitamin B12 deficiency
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) – iron deficiency
Omeprazole – vitamin B12 deficiency
Penicillamine – pyridoxine deficiency
Pentamidine – folic acid deficiency
Phenothiazines – riboflavin deficiency
Phenytoin – biotin deficiency
Primidone – biotin deficiency
Probenecid – riboflavin deficiency
Pyrazinamide – pyridoxine deficiency
Pyrimethamine – folic acid deficiency
Salicylates – vitamin C deficiency, iron deficiency
Sulfasalazine – folic acid deficiency
Tetracycline – vitamin C deficiency
Triamterene – folic acid deficiency
Tricyclic antidepressants – riboflavin deficiency
Trimethoprim – folic acid deficiency
Valproate – zinc deficiency
Vitamin A megadoses – vitamin K deficiency
Vitamin E megadoses – vitamin K deficiency
Zinc megadoses – copper deficiency

Define VITAMINS

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If you are like most people, you've probably heard at least one of these sayings: 'Don't forget to take your vitamins!' or 'Eat your veggies -- they are packed with vitamins!' or maybe 'Need more energy? Take your vitamins!' But what exactly are vitamins?

Vitamins are nutrients your body needs to function and fight off disease. Your body cannot produce vitamins itself, so you must get them through food you eat or in some cases supplements. There are 13 vitamins that are essential to your body working well. Knowledge of the different types and understanding the purpose of these vitamins are important for good health.

Types and Examples of Foods

There are two types of vitamins: fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your fat cells, consequently requiring fat in order to be absorbed. Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in your body; therefore, they need to be replenished daily. Your body takes what it needs from the food you eat and then excretes what is not needed as waste. Here is a list of some vitamin types and common food sources:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A - comes from orange colored fruits and vegetables; dark leafy greens, like kale
Vitamin D - can be found in fortified milk and dairy products; cereals; (and of course, sunshine!)
Vitamin E - is found in fortified cereals; leafy green vegetables; seeds; nuts
Vitamin K - can be found in dark green leafy vegetables; turnip/beet greens

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B1, or Thiamin - come from whole grains; enriched grains; liver; nuts; seeds
Vitamin B2, or Riboflavin - comes from whole grains; enriched grains; dairy products
Vitamin B3, or Niacin - comes from meat; fish; poultry; whole grains
Vitamin B5, or Pantothenic Acid - comes from meat; poultry; whole grains
Vitamin B6, or Pyridoxine - comes from fortified cereals; soy products
Vitamin B7, or Biotin - is found in fruits; meats
Vitamin B9, or Folic Acid (Folate) - comes from leafy vegetables
Vitamin B12 - comes from fish; poultry; meat; dairy products
Vitamin C - comes from citrus fruits and juices, such as oranges and grapefruits; red, yellow, and green peppers

Diffusion, Osmosis And Active Transport

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Diffusion is the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform throughout.

Osmosis is a special example of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution – down the water potential gradient)