In this study, the calendar aging of lithium-ion batteries is investigated at different temperatures for 16 states of charge (SoCs) from 0 to 100%. Three types of 18650 lithium-ion cells, containing different cathode materials, have been examined. Our study demonstrates that calendar aging does not increase steadily with the SoC. Instead, plateau regions, covering SoC intervals of more than 20%–30% of the cell capacity, are observed wherein the capacity fade is similar. Differential voltage analyses confirm that the capacity fade is mainly caused by a shift in the electrode balancing. Furthermore, our study reveals the high impact of the graphite electrode on calendar aging. Lower anode potentials, which aggravate electrolyte reduction and thus promote solid electrolyte interphase growth, have been identified as the main driver of capacity fade during storage. In the high SoC regime where the graphite anode is lithiated more than 50%, the low anode potential accelerates the loss of cyclable lithium, which in turn distorts the electrode balancing. Aging mechanisms induced by high cell potential, such as electrolyte oxidation or transition-metal dissolution, seem to play only a minor role. To maximize battery life, high storage SoCs corresponding to low anode potential should be avoided.
The Electrochemical Society (ECS) was founded in 1902 to advance the theory and practice at the forefront of electrochemical and solid state science and technology, and allied subjects.
ISSN: 1945-7111
JES is the flagship journal of The Electrochemical Society. Published continuously from 1902 to the present, JES remains one of the most highly-cited journals in electrochemistry and solid-state science and technology.
- The following article is Open accessCalendar Aging of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Peter Keil et al 2016 J. Electrochem. Soc. 163 A1872
- The following article is Open accessDegradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions
Yuliya Preger et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 120532
View article, Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling ConditionsPDF, Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling ConditionsEnergy storage systems with Li-ion batteries are increasingly deployed to maintain a robust and resilient grid and facilitate the integration of renewable energy resources. However, appropriate selection of cells for different applications is difficult due to limited public data comparing the most commonly used off-the-shelf Li-ion chemistries under the same operating conditions. This article details a multi-year cycling study of commercial LiFePO4 (LFP), LiNixCoyAl1−x−yO2 (NCA), and LiNixMnyCo1−x−yO2 (NMC) cells, varying the discharge rate, depth of discharge (DOD), and environment temperature. The capacity and discharge energy retention, as well as the round-trip efficiency, were compared. Even when operated within manufacturer specifications, the range of cycling conditions had a profound effect on cell degradation, with time to reach 80% capacity varying by thousands of hours and cycle counts among cells of each chemistry. The degradation of cells in this study was compared to that of similar cells in previous studies to identify universal trends and to provide a standard deviation for performance. All cycling files have been made publicly available at batteryarchive.org, a recently developed repository for visualization and comparison of battery data, to facilitate future experimental and modeling efforts.
- The following article is Open accessThe Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their Lifetime
Eniko S. Zsoldos et al 2024 J. Electrochem. Soc. 171 080527
View article, The Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their LifetimePDF, The Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their LifetimeLithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery cells are ubiquitous in electric vehicles and stationary energy storage because they are cheap and have a long lifetime. This work compares LFP/graphite pouch cells undergoing charge-discharge cycles over five state of charge (SOC) windows (0%–25%, 0%–60%, 0%–80%, 0%–100%, and 75%–100%). Cycling LFP cells across a lower average SOC results in less capacity fade than cycling across a higher average SOC, regardless of depth of discharge. The primary capacity fade mechanism is lithium inventory loss due to: lithiated graphite reactivity with electrolyte, which increases incrementally with SOC, and lithium alkoxide species causing iron dissolution and deposition on the negative electrode at high SOC which further accelerates lithium inventory loss. Our results show that even low voltage LFP systems (3.65 V) have a tradeoff between average SOC and lifetime. Operating LFP cells at lower average SOC can extend their lifetime substantially in both EV and grid storage applications.
- The following article is Open accessDevelopment of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery Models
Chang-Hui Chen et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 080534
View article, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPDF, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPresented here, is an extensive 35 parameter experimental data set of a cylindrical 21700 commercial cell (LGM50), for an electrochemical pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) model. The experimental methodologies for tear-down and subsequent chemical, physical, electrochemical kinetics and thermodynamic analysis, and their accuracy and validity are discussed. Chemical analysis of the LGM50 cell shows that it is comprised of a NMC 811 positive electrode and bi-component Graphite-SiOx negative electrode. The thermodynamic open circuit voltages (OCV) and lithium stoichiometry in the electrode are obtained using galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) in half cell and three-electrode full cell configurations. The activation energy and exchange current coefficient through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. Apparent diffusion coefficients are estimated using the Sand equation on the voltage transient during the current pulse; an expansion factor was applied to the bi-component negative electrode data to reflect the average change in effective surface area during lithiation. The 35 parameters are applied within a P2D model to show the fit to experimental validation LGM50 cell discharge and relaxation voltage profiles at room temperature. The accuracy and validity of the processes and the techniques in the determination of these parameters are discussed, including opportunities for further modelling and data analysis improvements.
- The following article is Open accessLithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and Characterization
Manuel Ank et al 2023 J. Electrochem. Soc. 170 120536
View article, Lithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and CharacterizationPDF, Lithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and CharacterizationBattery research depends upon up-to-date information on the cell characteristics found in current electric vehicles, which is exacerbated by the deployment of novel formats and architectures. This necessitates open access to cell characterization data. Therefore, this study examines the architecture and performance of first-generation Tesla 4680 cells in detail, both by electrical characterization and thermal investigations at cell-level and by disassembling one cell down to the material level including a three-electrode analysis. The cell teardown reveals the complex cell architecture with electrode disks of hexagonal symmetry as well as an electrode winding consisting of a double-sided and homogeneously coated cathode and anode, two separators and no mandrel. A solvent-free anode fabrication and coating process can be derived. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy as well as differential voltage, incremental capacity and three-electrode analysis confirm a NMC811 cathode and a pure graphite anode without silicon. On cell-level, energy densities of 622.4 Wh/L and 232.5 Wh/kg were determined while characteristic state-of-charge dependencies regarding resistance and impedance behavior are revealed using hybrid pulse power characterization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A comparatively high surface temperature of ∼70 °C is observed when charging at 2C without active cooling. All measurement data of this characterization study are provided as open source.
- The following article is Open accessReview—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied Technologies
Sajjad Husain Mir et al 2018 J. Electrochem. Soc. 165 B3137
View article, Review—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied TechnologiesPDF, Review—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied TechnologiesHybrid functional materials, constituting both inorganic and organic components, are considered potential platforms for applications in extremely diverse fields such as optics, micro-electronics, transportation, health, energy, energy storage, diagnosis, housing, environment and the highly relevant area is Internet of Things (IoT). Material properties of hybrid materials can be tuned by modification of the composition on the molecular scale to produce smart materials. Cross-cutting approaches, to synergistically couple molecular engineering and processing allows to tailor complex hybrid systems of various shapes with perfect control over size, composition, functionality, and morphology. The detailed description and discussion of variety of hybrid functional organic-inorganic materials and their contribution in the designing of specific modern technologies is the prime focus of this review.
- The following article is Open accessReview—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging Trajectories
Peter M. Attia et al 2022 J. Electrochem. Soc. 169 060517
View article, Review—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging TrajectoriesPDF, Review—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging TrajectoriesLithium-ion batteries can last many years but sometimes exhibit rapid, nonlinear degradation that severely limits battery lifetime. In this work, we review prior work on “knees” in lithium-ion battery aging trajectories. We first review definitions for knees and three classes of “internal state trajectories” (termed snowball, hidden, and threshold trajectories) that can cause a knee. We then discuss six knee “pathways”, including lithium plating, electrode saturation, resistance growth, electrolyte and additive depletion, percolation-limited connectivity, and mechanical deformation—some of which have internal state trajectories with signals that are electrochemically undetectable. We also identify key design and usage sensitivities for knees. Finally, we discuss challenges and opportunities for knee modeling and prediction. Our findings illustrate the complexity and subtlety of lithium-ion battery degradation and can aid both academic and industrial efforts to improve battery lifetime.
- Phospho‐olivines as Positive‐Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries
A. K. Padhi et al 1997 J. Electrochem. Soc. 144 1188
View article, Phospho‐olivines as Positive‐Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium BatteriesPDF, Phospho‐olivines as Positive‐Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium BatteriesReversible extraction of lithium from
(triphylite) and insertion of lithium into at 3.5 V vs. lithium at 0.05 mA/cm2 shows this material to be an excellent candidate for the cathode of a low‐power, rechargeable lithium battery that is inexpensive, nontoxic, and environmentally benign. Electrochemical extraction was limited to ∼0.6 Li/formula unit; but even with this restriction the specific capacity is 100 to 110 mAh/g. Complete extraction of lithium was performed chemically; it gave a new phase, , isostructural with heterosite, . The framework of the ordered olivine is retained with minor displacive adjustments. Nevertheless the insertion/extraction reaction proceeds via a two‐phase process, and a reversible loss in capacity with increasing current density appears to be associated with a diffusion‐limited transfer of lithium across the two‐phase interface. Electrochemical extraction of lithium from isostructural (M = Mn, Co, or Ni) with an electrolyte was not possible; but successful extraction of lithium from was accomplished with maximum oxidation of the occurring at x = 0.5. The couple was oxidized first at 3.5 V followed by oxidation of the couple at 4.1 V vs. lithium. The interactions appear to destabilize the level and stabilize the level so as to make the energy accessible. - The following article is Open accessReview—SEI: Past, Present and Future
E. Peled and S. Menkin 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1703
The Solid-Electrolyte-Interphase (SEI) model for non-aqueous alkali-metal batteries constitutes a paradigm change in the understanding of lithium batteries and has thus enabled the development of safer, durable, higher-power and lower-cost lithium batteries for portable and EV applications. Prior to the publication of the SEI model (1979), researchers used the Butler-Volmer equation, in which a direct electron transfer from the electrode to lithium cations in the solution is assumed. The SEI model proved that this is a mistaken concept and that, in practice, the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the solution in a lithium battery, must be prevented, since it will result in fast self-discharge of the active materials and poor battery performance. This model provides [E. Peled, in “Lithium Batteries,” J.P. Gabano (ed), Academic Press, (1983), E. Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc., 126, 2047 (1979).] new equations for: electrode kinetics (io and b), anode corrosion, SEI resistivity and growth rate and irreversible capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries. This model became a cornerstone in the science and technology of lithium batteries. This paper reviews the past, present and the future of SEI batteries.
- The following article is Open accessComparative Analysis of Silicon-Carbon Composite, Graphite, and Microscale Silicon Anodes for Next-Gen Lithium-Ion Batteries
Jonas L. S. Dickmanns et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 020505
View article, Comparative Analysis of Silicon-Carbon Composite, Graphite, and Microscale Silicon Anodes for Next-Gen Lithium-Ion BatteriesPDF, Comparative Analysis of Silicon-Carbon Composite, Graphite, and Microscale Silicon Anodes for Next-Gen Lithium-Ion BatteriesWhile silicon can significantly enhance the energy density of lithium-ion battery (LiB) anodes, its volume expansion of +280% in the fully lithiated Li15Si4 state and the resulting poor cycle life have limited its use in commercial applications. This study investigates a novel silicon-carbon (Si/C) composite anode material, composed of a carbon host structure infiltrated by silicon. The Si/C performance characteristics is compared with those of state-of-the-art graphite (Gra) and silicon-dominant (Si) anodes in full-cells with an NCA cathode. Full-cell charge and discharge rate tests show the same rate capability for the Si/C and Si anodes, which outperform the Gra anode. For a capacity retention of 80%, the cycle life of the full-cells with the Si/C anode of ∼650 cycles far exceeds the ∼200 cycles obtained with the Si anode but is still short of the ∼1000 cycles obtained with the graphite anode. The projected stack-level gravimetric/volumetric energy densities assuming commercial separator and current collector properties are ∼7%/∼16% higher for the Si/C compared to the graphite anode, approaching the ∼15%/∼20% energy density gains of the Si anodes. Consequently, this Si/C composite is a promising anode active material for LiBs, offering a combination of high energy density, rate capability, and lifetime.
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Highlights
Synthesis overview of a silicon-carbon composite (Si/C) anode material.
Full-cell comparison of graphite, Si-dominant, and Si/C anodes with NCM cathodes.
Enhanced fast-charging of silicon-containing anodes without lithium plating.
Si/C offers an optimal balance between cycle life and energy/power density.
- The following article is Open accessTowards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation Framework
Mark W. Verbrugge and Daniel R. Baker 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170515
View article, Towards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation FrameworkPDF, Towards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation FrameworkThis study focuses on the fast charging of lithium-ion cells with porous graphite electrodes while avoiding lithium plating. We demonstrate that by using a linearized version of the model equations, an optimization problem can be formulated, which bounds the maximum current density and ensures that the open-circuit potential at the graphite surface remains above a critical threshold. Based on these insights, we propose a new charging strategy evaluated using the full cell model, which initiates charging at the maximum allowable constant current (CC) before transitioning to a constant value for the open-circuit potential (CU) at the electrode-electrolyte interface. This CC-CU method is compared to various pulse charging protocols, the results of which are consistent with the proposed strategy providing a good estimate for the optimal charge rate for common use conditions.
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- Experimental Study on the Advanced Treatment of Sulfonic Acid Wastewater Using a Dual-Anode Electrochemical Method
Chao Guo et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 173502
View article, Experimental Study on the Advanced Treatment of Sulfonic Acid Wastewater Using a Dual-Anode Electrochemical MethodPDF, Experimental Study on the Advanced Treatment of Sulfonic Acid Wastewater Using a Dual-Anode Electrochemical MethodSulfonic acid wastewater is highly toxic, corrosive and difficult to biodegrade, posing serious threats to the ecological environment and human health. In this study, a synergistic electrochemical oxidation–electrocoagulation system comprising Ti/PbO2 and Fe dual anodes coupled with a stainless steel cathode was established. Operating parameters were optimized using single-factor experiments and the Box–Behnken response surface method, while treatment efficacy and mechanisms were evaluated by electrochemical characterization, single- and dual-anode comparisons, radical quenching, cyclic testing and spectroscopic analysis. Under 60 min electrolysis, 49 mA·cm−2, pH 3 and 2 cm plate spacing, the predicted COD removal was 35.92%, while the measured COD and TOC removals were 35.70% and 17.90%, respectively. The dual-anode system outperformed the Ti/PbO2 and Fe single-anode systems, confirming synergism between anodic oxidation and electrocoagulation. Quenching reduced COD removal from 35.43% to 12.57%, identifying ·OH-mediated oxidation as a key mechanism. After 10 cycles, COD removal declined slightly from 35.8% to 33.7%, with minor Pb2+ leaching. UV–Vis and FT-IR indicated changes in aromatic conjugated structures, chromophores and sulphonic acid groups. Further mass-spectrometric verification of intermediates and pathways is required.
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Highlight
1.Ti/PbO2-Fe dual-anode coupled oxidation and electroflocculation technology.
2.The response surface method determined the optimal conditions to be: a current density of 49 mA·cm−2, a pH of 3, an electrode spacing of 2 cm, and a reaction time of 60 min.
3.The removal efficiencies for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) reached 35.70%–17.90%, respectively.
4.The treatment performance of the dual-anode system outperformed the sum of the effects of the single-anode systems.
5.The hydroxyl radical-dominated electrocatalytic-electrocoagulation synergistic mechanism maintained stable COD removal performance
- Optimal Yttrium Doping Window in RuO2 for Enhanced Activity and Durability in Three-Electrode Acidic OER
Yang Ying et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 176501
View article, Optimal Yttrium Doping Window in RuO2 for Enhanced Activity and Durability in Three-Electrode Acidic OERPDF, Optimal Yttrium Doping Window in RuO2 for Enhanced Activity and Durability in Three-Electrode Acidic OERRuthenium dioxide (RuO2) is a highly active catalyst for the acidic oxygen evolution reaction (OER), but its anodic dissolution limits long-term operation. Here, we synthesized a series of YxRu1−xO2 catalysts and identified Y–RuO2–2 as the best-performing composition among the samples tested in a three-electrode cell containing 0.1 M HClO4. Y–RuO2–2 requires an overpotential of 206 mV to reach 10 mA cm−2 and remains operational during a 345 600 s (96 h) chronopotentiometry test. In a separate experiment terminated after 100 000 s, post-test XRD, SEM/EDS, and XPS measurements show retention of the rutile framework, no obvious micron-scale Y segregation within the analyzed regions, and a predominantly Ru4+ surface state. ICP-MS analysis of the electrolyte after 100 000 s gives a dissolved-Ru concentration of 55 μg l−1, lower than those measured for commercial RuO2 and hydrothermally prepared undoped RuO2 under the same protocol. EIS and DFT-PDOS results provide qualitative, indirect evidence of electronic-structure and charge-transfer changes associated with moderate Y incorporation. These results establish an experimentally observed composition-performance relationship in three-electrode acidic OER screening, while operando spectroscopy and MEA testing remain necessary for direct mechanistic and device-level validation.
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Highlights
Aliovalent doping enables acid-stable OER via functionalized lattice design.
Overpotential drops to 206 mV @10 mA·cm−2 with negligible decay for 96 h.
Strategy breaks activity-stability trade-off for RuO2.
- The following article is Open accessEffects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical Cells
Kate Leslie et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170513
View article, Effects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical CellsPDF, Effects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical CellsThermal management of Li-ion cells within battery packs for stationary energy storage and electric vehicles is critical to ensure longevity. Cells within packs are often heated or cooled using a thermal plate underneath the pack, which could lead to non-uniform temperature in the cells. To test the effects of temperature gradients on LFP/graphite cylindrical cells, a specialized cell holder was designed to apply a constant temperature to the top of a cell and a different constant temperature to the bottom. Temperatures of 30 °C–40 °C, 25 °C–45 °C, and 15 °C–55 °C were applied to the bottom and tops of the cells, respectively, and verified using an infrared camera. Cells were cycled at a variety of rates for approximately six months, and the capacity loss was compared between the different conditions. For most conditions there was no difference in the capacity fade based on temperature gradient and performance closely matched that of cells tested at a constant temperature of 35 °C. Thermal modelling of the jelly roll suggests that the temperature gradient does not penetrate deeply into the jelly roll due to the excellent axial thermal conductivity and this can explain the independence of capacity loss on the magnitude of the applied temperature gradient.
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- TL-PINN: Transfer Learning-Enhanced Physics-Informed Neural Network for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Charge Estimation
Zhihong Wang et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170512
View article, TL-PINN: Transfer Learning-Enhanced Physics-Informed Neural Network for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Charge EstimationPDF, TL-PINN: Transfer Learning-Enhanced Physics-Informed Neural Network for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Charge EstimationAccurate state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is essential for the safe and efficient operation of battery management systems (BMS). To address the limited accuracy and poor reliability of conventional methods under complex operating conditions, a transfer learning-enhanced physics-informed neural network (TL-PINN) is proposed for SOC estimation. The proposed framework embeds the underlying dynamics of the equivalent circuit into the neural network through differential equation constraints. By jointly optimizing data reconstruction and physical constraints, electrochemical knowledge is explicitly incorporated into the network, enabling improved estimation accuracy and robustness under complex scenarios. Furthermore, maximum mean discrepancy (MMD)-based adaptation and fine-tuning strategies are introduced to facilitate efficient reuse of source-domain knowledge and enhance cross-domain generalization. Experiments conducted on both single-cell and real-world vehicle datasets demonstrate that the base PINN model achieves the best overall performance, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.835%. In cross-temperature transfer scenarios, the RMSE remains below 3.0% across all target temperatures after fine-tuning. Moreover, after transferring the pretrained single-cell model to real-world vehicle operating data, the proposed method still achieves an average RMSE of 4.21%. These results demonstrate the superior adaptability and robustness of the proposed TL-PINN, highlighting its potential for reliable battery state monitoring in electric vehicles.
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- Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Aflatoxin B1 Detection
Amed Gallegos-Tabanico et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 167504
View article, Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Aflatoxin B1 DetectionPDF, Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Aflatoxin B1 DetectionAflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the most toxic and carcinogenic toxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, poses a major risk to food safety and public health due to its frequent occurrence in cereals and derived products. Conventional detection methods, including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), provide high sensitivity but are costly, time-consuming, and unsuitable for on-site use. Currently, no effective method exists to reduce aflatoxin levels in food and feed, thus early detection remains the only viable strategy for managing contamination. This review highlights advances in electrochemical sensors as promising alternatives, emphasizing the role of nanostructured materials, electrode surface modifications, and molecular recognition strategies such as aptamers, molecularly imprinted polymers, and antibodies. Challenges like matrix effects, sensor stability, and reproducibility are discussed, alongside future perspectives toward portable, reliable, and cost-effective detection platforms.
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- Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to Applications
Zeda Zhou and Yixuan Bian 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 167503
View article, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsPDF, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsCortisol, a steroid hormone, is critical in regulating the stress response, metabolic homeostasis, and immune balance in the human body. Since cortisol is widely distributed in body fluids, the use of easily accessible fluids, such as sweat, makes continuous health assessment possible. Wearable sensors support the non-invasive and in situ collection of biomarkers, while electrochemical sensing methods have been widely used for the analysis of biomarkers due to their low cost, easy operation, high sensitivity, and fast response. The development and application of wearable electrochemical sensors provide essential support for non-invasive, real-time, and continuous monitoring of cortisol. This review systematically covers the recent progress in wearable electrochemical sensors, focusing particularly on sensing strategies of different recognition elements and critically evaluating their performance and limitations in complex biological fluids. Additionally, this review introduces the innovative applications of graphene, MXene, metal nanoparticles, and other functional materials in wearable electrochemical sensors, systematically comparing the sensing abilities of each material. Subsequently, in view of the challenges encountered in practical applications, this work discusses microfluidic integration strategies, multilayer interference-resistant interface designs, and machine learning-based data calibration methods. Finally, future prospects for interdisciplinary approaches in advancing precision medicine and real-time health monitoring are reviewed.
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- The following article is Open accessFrom Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation Models
Jingyuan Zhao et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 150520
View article, From Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation ModelsPDF, From Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation ModelsArtificial intelligence (AI) is influencing battery research and life-cycle management, spanning materials discovery, electrode and cell design, manufacturing optimization, diagnostics, safety monitoring, recycling, and certification. These advances are enabled by growing battery datasets and learning methods that extract patterns from complex electrochemical systems. Yet most current models remain task-specific and are trained on fragmented datasets, limiting transferability across chemistries, cell formats, operating conditions, and life-cycle stages. Battery foundation models (BFMs) offer a promising but emerging paradigm for battery intelligence. They may be formulated as large, pre-trained, and adaptable architectures that integrate multimodal battery data with physics-informed priors to represent electrochemical structures, states, and dynamics. Unlike direct analogues of general large language models, BFMs should be understood as physics-aware foundation models designed for scientific reasoning under multiscale physical constraints, heterogeneous and incomplete data, and stringent safety and reliability requirements. By combining self-supervised learning with mechanistic electrochemical models, BFMs may learn more interpretable and transferable representations across materials, formats, and duty cycles. If sufficiently validated, such representations could support materials discovery, manufacturing, diagnostics, recycling, and certification. This Review discusses challenges in data fragmentation, validation, interpretability, and computational sustainability, and outlines a roadmap toward responsible BFMs and integrated battery-domain ecosystems across the lifecycle.
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Highlights:
Trace the shift from general LLMs toward physics-aware foundation models for battery science.
Integrate multimodal data with physics-informed priors to enable robust and transferable models.
Discuss lifecycle-wide applications from materials discovery to recycling and certification.
Frame challenges in data fragmentation, interpretability, and computational sustainability.
Outline a roadmap toward lifecycle-responsible BFMs and integrated domain ecosystems.
- Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery Characterization
David J. Arnot et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 150515
View article, Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery CharacterizationPDF, Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery CharacterizationAs battery function has improved over the past decades, so too has our ability to interrogate the underlying electrochemical processes. Thermal energy generation is a key aspect of batteries affecting electrochemical function, safety, and lifespan. The heat generated by a battery is related to thermodynamics, kinetics, structural changes, and side reactions; measurements of heat production can therefore provide insight into any of these subjects. Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) can quantify heat flow within functioning systems with microwatt (or better) accuracy and precision. The ability to simultaneously measure heat production and electrochemical properties allows for fundamental scientific investigations as well as practical measurements on laboratory scale and commercial cells with different form factors. Herein, we review the use of isothermal microcalorimetry for probing battery thermal effects associated with the (dis)charge reaction, phase changes, and parasitic reactions. This work serves as an introduction for unfamiliar readers and summarizes the research that has been done over the years. We begin with a brief history of IMC as it relates to battery research, followed by an overview of the applicable theory, and highlight extensive examples from the literature. Opportunities for future research directions involving application and advances for the use of IMC are also presented.
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Highlights
Battery energy content is released as either usable work or unwanted heat
Isothermal microcalorimetry measures thermal energy exchange with μW accuracy and precision
Battery thermal processes can be a signature of degradation processes
Thermodynamic properties can be derived from calorimetric measurements
- The following article is Open accessThe Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A Review
Edyta Sobczak and Malgorzata Grabarczyk 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 156503
View article, The Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A ReviewPDF, The Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A ReviewThis review discusses methods of determining the presence of titanium using adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) and catalytic adsorptive voltammetry (CAdSV). The work centers on the key factors that influence the sensitivity and selectivity of the proposed analytical procedures. Particular attention was paid to the role of the complexing agents used and the presence of oxidizing agents. The influence of the type of working electrode and the most commonly used electrode modifiers was also considered. The possibility of determining titanium and other elements simultaneously during a single voltammetric measurement was also discussed. The following sections describe the potential for interference from components of the inorganic and organic matrices. The review also provides examples of how the described voltammetric procedures can be used to determine titanium in real samples with diverse matrices. The most important analytical parameters of the methods described are presented in tabular form to allow comparison of their usefulness for analysis.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron Electrosynthesis
William Lvovich et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 082502
View article, Editors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron ElectrosynthesisPDF, Editors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron ElectrosynthesisThis study investigates aqueous electrolytes for efficient iron electrodeposition directly from Fe3+ at ambient temperature. Concentrated lithium chloride (LiCl) based electrolytes were found to stabilize the Fe3+ in the electrolyte, suppress parasitic hydrogen evolution and suppress redox shuttling of intermediate Fe2+, thus promoting efficient iron electrodeposition. These attributes collectively enabled high Coulombic efficiencies (>75%) at high current densities (>200 mA cm−2). Furthermore, detailed investigation revealed that increasing the LiCl concentration increased the electrolyte viscosity and decreased the Fe2+ out-diffusion rate while also suppressing the activity of water. Sufficiently high LiCl concentrations (>7 M) thus provide a window of current densities in which elevated Coulombic efficiencies can be achieved. Overall, this paper develops an understanding of the effects of electrolyte composition on the competition between Fe electrodeposition, hydrogen co-evolution, and intermediate Fe2+ out-diffusion for efficient Fe metal electrosynthesis.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids Fractionation
Riccardo Candeago et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 113503
View article, Editors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids FractionationPDF, Editors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids FractionationProduction of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from biomass fermentation is a promising pathway for sustainable chemical production. A central challenge is cost-effective recovery and fractionation of VFAs from fermentation broths. Redox-mediated electrodialysis (redox-ED) can be an energy efficient technique for VFA separation, replacing water splitting with redox-reactions. However, the low selectivity between VFAs of different lengths (separation factors <3) obtained using commercially-available anion-exchange membranes limits the final product purity for industrial use. Cascaded operation can overcome these material limitations and increase product purity, yet multistage redox-ED can be complex and has not been extensively explored for selective ion separations. Here, we developed a physics-based model of redox-ED using finite elements to simulate the separation of a ternary carboxylic acid feed (propionic, butyric, and hexanoic) and evaluated five different multistage architectures including series, parallel, co-current, and counter-current setups. The single-stage, two-dimensional steady-state model captured the effect of the flow-field, concentration, and potential gradients, yielding reasonable agreement with experimental data. We then investigated the tradeoff between number of stages, product purity, and productivity, and assessed the impact of membrane selectivity. In sum, cascaded redox-ED with reflux simultaneously improved product purity and productivity, while series or equivalent single-stage architectures presented a tradeoff between VFA purity and productivity.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk Electrodes
Maria Kelly et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 046503
View article, Editors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk ElectrodesPDF, Editors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk ElectrodesVoltammetric measurements of electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) selectivity on rotating ring disk electrodes (RRDE) are a rapid and sensitive method for quantifying an electrocatalyst’s selectivity, i.e. faradaic efficiency (FE). This method has been applied to polycrystalline Au electrocatalysts where a Au disk electrode catalyzes both the CO2RR and hydrogen evolution reaction while the concentric Au ring electrode selectively senses CO by oxidizing CO back to CO2. Such measurements enabled fundamental mechanistic studies but suffer from poor inter-laboratory reproducibility. This work identifies causes of variability in RRDE selectivity measurements by comparing protocols with different electrochemical methods, reagent purities, and glassware cleaning procedures. We observed FECO decrease by 56% during 5 min chronoamperometry measurements, a phenomenon that is not readily apparent in voltammetric scans due to their dynamic nature. Electroplating of electrolyte impurities onto the disk and ring surfaces were identified as a major contributor to Au deactivation. Additionally, the oxygen reduction reaction may lead to higher disk currents in inadequately purged electrolytes, causing an apparent underestimation of FECO at low overpotentials. Lastly, we propose operational bounds for CO2RR selectivity measurements on Au using the RRDE method and provide suggestions on steps for improving the accuracy of this technique.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal Production
Anar Badalbayli et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 032508
View article, Editors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal ProductionPDF, Editors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal ProductionThis study explores chloride molten salt electrolysis (CMSE) as a promising route for energy-efficient iron metal (Fe) production. Moderate temperature (500 °C) LiCl-KCl molten salts offer excellent thermodynamic stability, high ionic conductivity and diffusivity, and high solubility for FeCl3, thereby enabling efficient Fe metal extraction at high electrowinning rates. Here, we demonstrate the two essential steps for converting taconite ore into Fe metal. First, Fe2O3 from taconite pellets was selectively leached in HCl yielding a high-purity FeCl3 aqueous solution, while the gangue components settled at the bottom. Then, anhydrous FeCl3 was electrolyzed in a LiCl-KCl eutectic molten salt at 500 °C at high current density (1 A cm−2) and at high Coulombic efficiency (>85%). Analysis of the electrowon Fe deposits revealed dendritic structures with purity of >99 wt%, which could be further improved to nearly 100 wt% through arc re-melting. CMSE offers low specific energy consumption (3.7 kWhr kg−1), competitive with H2-DRI and other electrolytic approaches being pursued globally. Our findings underscore the potential of CMSE as an energy-efficient route for electrosynthesis of Fe metal.
- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
Guoxin Li et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 026501
View article, Editors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical MicroscopyPDF, Editors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical MicroscopyCathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) is critical for inhibiting the cathode degradation to maintain cell life. However, the evolution of the CEI is still unclear due to its complex and slow dynamic process. Here we used scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) for in situ investigation of CEI formation process on LiFePO4 cathode. Feedback images and probe scan curves showed a heterogeneous passivation that was gently generated on the LiFePO4 particles during both charging and discharging. Besides, a LiFePO4 composited electrode was also used to investigate the CEI formation to simulate the condition of real battery system. The composited cathode does not show obvious CEI formation within first two cycles. The SECM results between the pristine LiFePO4 particles and the composited LiFePO4 indicated the dynamic accumulation of CEI, which is influenced by the ability to charge transfer kinetics of cathode materials. This approach provided a feasible consideration for the connections between the dynamic evolution of the CEI and changes in charge transfer capability of cathode during cycling.
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Highlights
In-situ investigation of cathode-electrolyte interphase formation.
The evolution of native active material and composite slurry were compared.
The electrochemical activity change upon cathode cycling are analysed in situ.
The influence of the charge transfer capability upon CEI generation is revealed.
- Data-Driven Advances in Electrochemical Energy and Sensing: Artificial Intelligence Approaches from Concept to Application
Ghosh et al
View accepted manuscript, Data-Driven Advances in Electrochemical Energy and Sensing: Artificial Intelligence Approaches from Concept to ApplicationPDF, Data-Driven Advances in Electrochemical Energy and Sensing: Artificial Intelligence Approaches from Concept to ApplicationThe intersection of machine learning (ML) and electrochemical research is catalyzing transformative advancements in energy storage and conversion technologies. This review critically examines the role of ML and deep learning (DL) in optimizing electrochemical systems, focusing on batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and sensors. ML-driven approaches facilitate accelerated material discovery, precise property predictions, and enhanced device performance monitoring, surpassing conventional trial-and-error methodologies. Integrating computational materials science, including density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics (MD), with ML enables predictive modelling of electrochemical processes at an unprecedented scale. However, challenges such as data heterogeneity, model interpretability, and computational cost continue to limit widespread adoption. This review identifies key strategies to overcome these barriers, including establishing standardized data repositories, developing hybrid physics-informed ML models, and implementing explainable AI (XAI) for enhanced model transparency. By addressing these challenges, ML has the potential to drive the next wave of breakthroughs in electrochemical energy storage and conversion, accelerating the transition toward a sustainable and energy-secure future.
- The following article is Open accessPhysics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B Cell
Dickinson et al
View accepted manuscript, Physics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B CellPDF, Physics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B CellA comprehensive, teardown-led parameterisation is developed for an electrochemical model of the Molicel P45B, a 4.5 Ah high-power lithium-ion cell with 21700 cylindrical form factor. Parameters are supplied in BPX JSON format, supporting Single Particle Model (SPM) and Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) “Newman-style” models. In continuation of the authors’ previous dissemination of an equivalent circuit model (ECM) of the same cell, detailed insights into the cell’s internal design are presented and compared to prior studies; this includes cell overall design and bill-of-materials, electrode masses and dimensions, and active material morphology and chemistry. The negative electrode is a graphite–SiOx blend and, by contrast to legacy parameterisation work, is described in the model using separately parameterised graphite and Si additive components which contribute in parallel to electrode charge capacity and current. Further, the Si-containing additive is described by an empirical, electrode-specific hysteresis model. Critical reported parameters utilise tuning for best predictive description of full cell voltage measurements, with comparison to values obtained from electrochemical measurements on harvested electrode samples from teardown. The parameterisation is validated holistically using application-relevant pulse and continuous-current data, across the full operating envelope of temperature, state-of-charge, and operating current.
- Thermo-Electrochemical Analysis of Cylindrical Cell Format Effects on Extreme Fast Charging of Li-Ion Batteries
Yasrebi et al
View accepted manuscript, Thermo-Electrochemical Analysis of Cylindrical Cell Format Effects on Extreme Fast Charging of Li-Ion BatteriesPDF, Thermo-Electrochemical Analysis of Cylindrical Cell Format Effects on Extreme Fast Charging of Li-Ion BatteriesExtreme fast charging (XFC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for reducing electric vehicle charging time. However, the influence of cylindrical cell format on thermo-electrochemical behavior under XFC remains insufficiently understood. This study employs a validated coupled airflow–electrochemical–thermal model to systematically investigate the charging performance of 18650, 21700, 26650, and 46120 cells at charge rates of 3C–6C. The analysis evaluates heat generation, temperature distribution, charging characteristics, lithium deposition potential, and lithiation behavior. Results indicate that the average volumetric heat generation rate is weakly affected by cell format, while cell format significantly influences thermal behavior, with larger cells exhibiting substantially higher peak temperatures and internal temperature gradients. These trends are primarily attributed to differences in convective surface-to-volume ratio, heat accumulation, and temperature-dependent changes in overall cell resistance. At 3C charge rate, change of format from 18650 to 46120 raises peak temperature by ~10°C and increases the maximum internal temperature difference by a factor of 4.65. Larger formats also achieve higher state-of-charge levels during the constant-current charging stage and exhibit reduced susceptibility to lithium plating. The findings highlight the critical role of cell geometry in determining XFC performance and provide practical guidance for designing next-generation high-energy battery systems and effective thermal management strategies.
- Modification and Application of Circular Electrode with Rotatory Flow Field for Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries
Guo et al
View accepted manuscript, Modification and Application of Circular Electrode with Rotatory Flow Field for Vanadium Redox Flow BatteriesPDF, Modification and Application of Circular Electrode with Rotatory Flow Field for Vanadium Redox Flow BatteriesVanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are increasingly recognized as promising candidates for large-scale energy storage, owing to their intrinsic safety, cost-effectiveness, and adaptable design. However, inadequate mass transfer and the resulting performance limitations are the main barriers to large-scale deployment and broader commercialization. In this work, a circular electrode coupled with a rotatory flow field is proposed. The main novelty of the proposed configuration lies in the coordinated design of the electrode geometry and flow-field architecture, which aims to simultaneously improve reactant distribution within the porous electrode and reduce the hydraulic penalty associated with electrolyte circulation. Numerical simulations were conducted to evaluate charge/discharge voltages, overpotential, uniformity factor, and polarization behavior for different designs. Compared with the parallel flow field, the proposed configuration improves the V²⁺ concentration uniformity factor by up to 18.27% and increases the discharge voltage by 2.24% at an applied current density of 40 mA/cm² and an inlet flow rate of 4 mL/s. Moreover, the rotatory configuration exhibits a substantially lower pressure drop than the serpentine flow field while maintaining superior electrochemical performance. These results demonstrate that the proposed circular-electrode/rotatory-flow-field coupling provides an effective strategy for simultaneously enhancing mass transport and limiting hydraulic losses in VRFBs.
- By-Product to Product: A Unified Intercalative Soft Carbon for High-Power Lithium-Ion-Based Dual Carbon Batteries
Bhowmik et al
View accepted manuscript, By-Product to Product: A Unified Intercalative Soft Carbon for High-Power Lithium-Ion-Based Dual Carbon BatteriesPDF, By-Product to Product: A Unified Intercalative Soft Carbon for High-Power Lithium-Ion-Based Dual Carbon BatteriesThe pursuit of cost-effective energy storage systems with high power and long cycle life has driven increasing interest in carbon-based dual-ion technologies. Herein, we present a by-product-to-product strategy that transforms petroleum pitch—an abundant industrial by-product—into a high-value soft-carbon framework, enabling a dual-function intercalative system in which a single precursor-derived soft carbon serves as both cathode and anode in lithium-ion-based dual-carbon batteries. As-prepared soft carbon delivers 153 mAh g-1 at a high current density of 2 A g-1 at the anode, enabled by enlarged near-surface domains that facilitate fast, reversible ion storage. Similarly, as a cathode, it delivers 55 mAh g-1 at 2 A g-1, exceeding that of a conventional graphite cathode, owing to abundant active sites and short diffusion pathways, supporting fast charging and enhanced structural stability. The dual-role intercalative behavior establishes a balanced system with a high energy density of ~114 Wh kg⁻¹ even at a high-power density of ~3665 W kg⁻¹ and a durability of 2000 cycles. This work demonstrates pitch-derived soft carbon as a unified bipolar electrode framework, advancing the design of next-generation lithium-ion batteries with high power and long life.
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- The following article is Open accessTowards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation Framework
Mark W. Verbrugge and Daniel R. Baker 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170515
View article, Towards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation FrameworkPDF, Towards Optimizing Li-ion Battery Fast Charging: A Strategy and a Validation FrameworkThis study focuses on the fast charging of lithium-ion cells with porous graphite electrodes while avoiding lithium plating. We demonstrate that by using a linearized version of the model equations, an optimization problem can be formulated, which bounds the maximum current density and ensures that the open-circuit potential at the graphite surface remains above a critical threshold. Based on these insights, we propose a new charging strategy evaluated using the full cell model, which initiates charging at the maximum allowable constant current (CC) before transitioning to a constant value for the open-circuit potential (CU) at the electrode-electrolyte interface. This CC-CU method is compared to various pulse charging protocols, the results of which are consistent with the proposed strategy providing a good estimate for the optimal charge rate for common use conditions.
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- The following article is Open accessEffects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical Cells
Kate Leslie et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170513
View article, Effects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical CellsPDF, Effects of an Induced Temperature Gradient on the Performance and Degradation of LFP/AG Cylindrical CellsThermal management of Li-ion cells within battery packs for stationary energy storage and electric vehicles is critical to ensure longevity. Cells within packs are often heated or cooled using a thermal plate underneath the pack, which could lead to non-uniform temperature in the cells. To test the effects of temperature gradients on LFP/graphite cylindrical cells, a specialized cell holder was designed to apply a constant temperature to the top of a cell and a different constant temperature to the bottom. Temperatures of 30 °C–40 °C, 25 °C–45 °C, and 15 °C–55 °C were applied to the bottom and tops of the cells, respectively, and verified using an infrared camera. Cells were cycled at a variety of rates for approximately six months, and the capacity loss was compared between the different conditions. For most conditions there was no difference in the capacity fade based on temperature gradient and performance closely matched that of cells tested at a constant temperature of 35 °C. Thermal modelling of the jelly roll suggests that the temperature gradient does not penetrate deeply into the jelly roll due to the excellent axial thermal conductivity and this can explain the independence of capacity loss on the magnitude of the applied temperature gradient.
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- The following article is Open accessComparative Benchmarking of a Next-Generation Automotive 4695 Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Cell Against Tesla’s 4680
Denis Düzgün et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170510
View article, Comparative Benchmarking of a Next-Generation Automotive 4695 Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Cell Against Tesla’s 4680PDF, Comparative Benchmarking of a Next-Generation Automotive 4695 Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Cell Against Tesla’s 4680Growing demand for high-energy lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles has accelerated the adoption of large-format 46xx cylindrical cells as a route to higher energy density and improved pack-level efficiency. Tesla’s 4680 cell established an early benchmark. Since then, the 46xx landscape has expanded, with developments reported by manufacturers such as EVE Energy, BAK Battery, Gotion, Lishen and Panasonic. However, independent like-for-like datasets on cell performance, design and materials remain limited. Here, we examine a recently introduced state-of-the-art 4695 cylindrical lithium-ion cell using cell-level electrical characterization, thermal analysis and teardown. The results are compared with previously published data on Tesla’s 4680 cell. The 4695 cell exhibits an advanced internal design with complex current-collector disks and a mandrel-free jelly roll composed of double-sided, uniformly coated electrodes separated by two separator layers. Post-mortem analysis indicates a nickel-rich NCMA cathode and a graphite anode containing ∼3 wt.% silicon. Compared with the 4680 reference cell, the 4695 cell shows approximately 50% lower direct-current resistance and achieves 744 Wh L−1 and 276 Wh kg−1, corresponding to energy densities about 15% higher. GC-MS indicates EC, EMC and DMC as the main electrolyte solvents, while additional detected compounds suggest EP, FEC and PC.
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- The following article is Open accessOptimised Pulse-Fitting for Robust Time-Domain Impedance Analysis of Automotive Lithium-Ion Cells under Application-Specific Pulse Conditions
Rico Klink et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170509
View article, Optimised Pulse-Fitting for Robust Time-Domain Impedance Analysis of Automotive Lithium-Ion Cells under Application-Specific Pulse ConditionsPDF, Optimised Pulse-Fitting for Robust Time-Domain Impedance Analysis of Automotive Lithium-Ion Cells under Application-Specific Pulse ConditionsA pulse-fitting methodology for time-domain analysis of lithium-ion battery impedance is presented and systematically extended to address automotive-relevant measurement constraints under controlled test conditions, including non-ideal current profiles, limited stabilization times, measurement noise, low sampling frequencies, and SOC-dependent OCV contributions. Since no universally applicable test pulse exists for large-format automotive lithium-ion cells, pulse-based diagnostics require evaluation methods that remain robust under application-specific excitation conditions. In this work, a pulse-fitting methodology for time-domain analysis of lithium-ion battery impedance is systematically extended. The approach models the voltage response to current pulses using a physically motivated RC network, enabling the extraction of diffusion-related time constants without relying on frequency-domain techniques. Key enhancements include numerical convolution for non-ideal current profiles, incorporation of a dynamic open-circuit voltage, Tikhonov regularisation, and weighting and scaling strategies to improve robustness against noise and low sampling frequencies. Furthermore, a quadratic programming solver is introduced to increase stability for ill-conditioned problems, and an extrapolation method is proposed to account for insufficient voltage stabilization times. The methodology is validated using both synthetic and experimental pulse data, demonstrating reliable access to low-frequency impedance characteristics. The results highlight the potential of the approach for advanced state estimation and model development.
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- The following article is Open accessThe Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1−δ/2CoδO4 (0 ⩽ δ ⩽ 0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries
Subhadip Mallick et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170508
View article, The Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1−δ/2CoδO4 (0 ⩽ δ ⩽ 0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion BatteriesPDF, The Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1−δ/2CoδO4 (0 ⩽ δ ⩽ 0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion BatteriesIn 2020, the discovery of the lithiated spinel Li2MnNiO4 opened the door to the design of a new class of cathode materials for the lithium-ion battery industry. This compound is typically prepared in air at 400 °C and co-exists with a disordered layered structure of the same composition (LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2), delivering most of its capacity (∼200 mAh g−1) between 4.8 and 3.0 V with essentially no redox on the manganese ions. This communication reports the effects of cobalt substitution on the structural and electrochemical properties of lithiated-spinel/layered Li2(MnNi)1−δ/2CoδO4 composite electrodes over the compositional range 0 ⩽ δ ⩽ 0.667.
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- The following article is Open accessUnderstanding the Limits of Voltage-Based Parametrization of DFN Models
Yibo Wen and Daniel Schröder 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170506
View article, Understanding the Limits of Voltage-Based Parametrization of DFN ModelsPDF, Understanding the Limits of Voltage-Based Parametrization of DFN ModelsVoltage data are widely used for the parametrization of mathematical models for batteries, e.g. for the Doyle–Fuller–Newman (DFN) model. However, the information content and the resulting practical identifiability of the model parameters is currently insufficiently understood. We gain deeper understanding by using a combined framework of global sensitivity analysis and a Jacobian-based method. Balancing the open circuit potential of the electrodes was first used to establish a thermodynamically consistent baseline for the lithium-ion battery model. Then, multi-start fitting showed that low-C-rate voltage-based parametrization remains ambiguous, with distinct parameter sets yielding similarly good voltage fits. Sobol analysis of the full parameter set further revealed that the sensitivity of the voltage-based objective is strongly condition-dependent, with different C-rate conditions and state-of-charge windows emphasizing different subsets of parameters. Jacobian singular value analysis showed that the parameter-to-voltage mapping is strongly anisotropic and effectively low-rank, meaning that the parameters are only weakly linked to the original data. Our results show that voltage-based DFN parametrization is governed by a reduced and excitation-dependent information structure. Practical parametrization should therefore be understood as the identification of a physically consistent and predicatively useful parameter subspace rather than the unique conservation of all information from voltage data alone.
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- The following article is Open accessPhysics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B Cell
Edmund J.F. Dickinson et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc.
View article, Physics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B CellPDF, Physics-Based Parameterisation of a High-Power Silicon–Graphite Lithium-Ion Battery: Electrochemical Model of the Molicel P45B CellA comprehensive, teardown-led parameterisation is developed for an electrochemical model of the Molicel P45B, a 4.5 Ah high-power lithium-ion cell with 21700 cylindrical form factor. Parameters are supplied in BPX JSON format, supporting Single Particle Model (SPM) and Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) “Newman-style” models. In continuation of the authors’ previous dissemination of an equivalent circuit model (ECM) of the same cell, detailed insights into the cell’s internal design are presented and compared to prior studies; this includes cell overall design and bill-of-materials, electrode masses and dimensions, and active material morphology and chemistry. The negative electrode is a graphite–SiOx blend and, by contrast to legacy parameterisation work, is described in the model using separately parameterised graphite and Si additive components which contribute in parallel to electrode charge capacity and current. Further, the Si-containing additive is described by an empirical, electrode-specific hysteresis model. Critical reported parameters utilise tuning for best predictive description of full cell voltage measurements, with comparison to values obtained from electrochemical measurements on harvested electrode samples from teardown. The parameterisation is validated holistically using application-relevant pulse and continuous-current data, across the full operating envelope of temperature, state-of-charge, and operating current.
- The following article is Open accessAnalysis of the Stabilizing Effect of Ca on the Durability of Sodium Ni–Fe–Mn Layered Oxides
Rebecca Wilhelm et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160520
View article, Analysis of the Stabilizing Effect of Ca on the Durability of Sodium Ni–Fe–Mn Layered OxidesPDF, Analysis of the Stabilizing Effect of Ca on the Durability of Sodium Ni–Fe–Mn Layered OxidesSodium-ion batteries are emerging as a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries, particularly for cost-sensitive applications. A key component for such batteries is a durable cathode active material based on abundant and cost-effective resources. NaNi1/3Fe1/3Mn1/3O2 has shown promise due to its excellent cycling stability and relatively high energy density in cells with hard carbon anodes. The addition of Ca to NaNi1/3Fe1/3Mn1/3O2 has been shown to improve processability by reducing its sensitivity to moisture. Here, we investigate the stabilizing role of calcium in NaNi1/3Fe1/3Mn1/3O2. Specifically, we identify the location of calcium within cathode active material particles using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, examine gas evolution during operation with online electrochemical mass spectrometry, and evaluate the influence of calcium on cycling stability, material degradation, and internal resistance evolution in full-cells with a Na reference electrode at two different upper cutoff voltages, 3.9 V and 4.1 V. The stability enhancements are most pronounced at 3.9 V, leading to reduced capacity fading over 1000 cycles and suppressed cathode impedance build-up. Our findings demonstrate that reactive sodium metal—even when used only as reference electrode with a small surface area—can skew full-cell testing due to detrimental side reactions involving sodium alkoxides formed on the sodium metal surface.
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- The following article is Open accessA Novel Multi-Channel Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometer for Battery Gas Analysis Applied to Electrolyte Additive Screening
Michael MacDonald et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 170501
View article, A Novel Multi-Channel Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometer for Battery Gas Analysis Applied to Electrolyte Additive ScreeningPDF, A Novel Multi-Channel Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometer for Battery Gas Analysis Applied to Electrolyte Additive ScreeningA novel multi-channel Online Electrochemical Mass Spectrometer was built to quantify gases in up to six battery cells for the study of interfacial gas generating reactions in alkali-ion cells. It measures an integral signal of the total evolved/consumed gases by sampling each cell once per hour using an automated switching sequence of computer-controlled valves optimized to remove residual gases from the central gas line connecting the six cells without affecting the vacuum chamber containing the quadrupole mass analyzer. It is demonstrated that the new multi-OEMS system enables reproducible gassing studies on machine-made double-sided graphite electrodes since the evolved gas volume easily exceeds the electrode pore volume, so that sluggish gas diffusion around the solid current collector can be avoided. Multi-OEMS can be used for rapid electrolyte additive screening as demonstrated for common CO2 forming additives like VC and FEC, C2H4 forming additives like DTD, and novel additives like EC-bisDTD, a polycyclic compound combining EC and DTD, that can suppress gas generation. The multi-sampling approach accelerates systematic gassing experiments and still resolves interfacial gas generating reactions at relevant timescales for alkali-ion cells.
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- The following article is Open accessElectrolyte Design Enables Improved Capacity Retention of LiFePO4 Cells with Both Graphite and Silicon-Carbon Composite Anodes
Thitiphum Sangsanit et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc.
View article, Electrolyte Design Enables Improved Capacity Retention of LiFePO4 Cells with Both Graphite and Silicon-Carbon Composite AnodesPDF, Electrolyte Design Enables Improved Capacity Retention of LiFePO4 Cells with Both Graphite and Silicon-Carbon Composite AnodesLiFePO4 (LFP) cells show lower gravimetric and volumetric energy density than other types of Li-ion cells. To improve this, a Si-containing anode is employed in LFP cells. However, LFP cells with Si-C composites in the anode show more rapid capacity loss than cells with only graphite in the anode. Lithium alkoxides produced a poorly passivated negative electrode surfaces in carbonate electrolytes travel to the positive electrode and cause Fe dissolution. This Fe moves to the negative and compromises the SEI leading to Li inventory loss and capacity fade. It is more difficult to passivate Si-C effectively in typical electrolytes due to its large volume changes. To solve this issue, we use an electrolyte, based on the solvents sulfolane and toluene, where alkoxide production is impossible and which eliminates Fe dissolution from LFP. LFP/Si-C cells with sulfolane:toluene electrolytes show excellent capacity retention, much better than cells with traditional carbonate electrolytes. Alkoxide-suppressing additives were also explored in this work, and 10% FEC in an EC-free electrolyte also showed promising results. This will open the way to employ a Si-C–containing anode in LFP cells to achieve higher gravimetric and volumetric energy density without sacrificing lifetime.
- Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]
Wolfgang Schmickler and Sergio Trasatti 2006 J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 L31
View article, Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]PDF, Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]We compare the adsorption energies calculated by Nørskov et al. with data derived from experimental values; except for Ni and Co, which absorb hydrogen strongly, there is a linear relation. We discuss the model proposed by these authors in the light of extensive previous work and of experimental data and find it overly simplistic.
- Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution
J. K. Nørskov et al 2005 J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 J23
View article, Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen EvolutionPDF, Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen EvolutionA density functional theory database of hydrogen chemisorption energies on close packed surfaces of a number of transition and noble metals is presented. The bond energies are used to understand the trends in the exchange current for hydrogen evolution. A volcano curve is obtained when measured exchange currents are plotted as a function of the calculated hydrogen adsorption energies and a simple kinetic model is developed to understand the origin of the volcano. The volcano curve is also consistent with Pt being the most efficient electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution. © 2005 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- The following article is Open accessReview—SEI: Past, Present and Future
E. Peled and S. Menkin 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1703
The Solid-Electrolyte-Interphase (SEI) model for non-aqueous alkali-metal batteries constitutes a paradigm change in the understanding of lithium batteries and has thus enabled the development of safer, durable, higher-power and lower-cost lithium batteries for portable and EV applications. Prior to the publication of the SEI model (1979), researchers used the Butler-Volmer equation, in which a direct electron transfer from the electrode to lithium cations in the solution is assumed. The SEI model proved that this is a mistaken concept and that, in practice, the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the solution in a lithium battery, must be prevented, since it will result in fast self-discharge of the active materials and poor battery performance. This model provides [E. Peled, in “Lithium Batteries,” J.P. Gabano (ed), Academic Press, (1983), E. Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc., 126, 2047 (1979).] new equations for: electrode kinetics (io and b), anode corrosion, SEI resistivity and growth rate and irreversible capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries. This model became a cornerstone in the science and technology of lithium batteries. This paper reviews the past, present and the future of SEI batteries.
- The following article is Open accessOxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries
Roland Jung et al 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1361
View article, Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion BatteriesPDF, Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion BatteriesLayered LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) is a widely used class of cathode materials with LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) being the most common representative. However, Ni-rich NMCs are more and more in the focus of current research due to their higher specific capacity and energy. In this work we will compare LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111), LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 (NMC622), and LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) with respect to their cycling stability in NMC-graphite full-cells at different end-of-charge potentials. It will be shown that stable cycling is possible up to 4.4 V for NMC111 and NMC622 and only up to 4.0 V for NMC811. At higher potentials, significant capacity fading was observed, which was traced back to an increase in the polarization of the NMC electrode, contrary to the nearly constant polarization of the graphite electrode. Furthermore, we show that the increase in the polarization occurs when the NMC materials are cycled up to a high-voltage feature in the dq/dV plot, which occurs at ∼4.7 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC111 and NMC622 and at ∼4.3 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC811. For the latter material, this feature corresponds to the H2 → H3 phase transition. Contrary to the common understanding that the electrochemical oxidation of carbonate electrolytes causes the CO2 and CO evolution at potentials above 4.7 V vs. Li/Li+, we believe that the observed CO2 and CO are mainly due to the chemical reaction of reactive lattice oxygen with the electrolyte. This hypothesis is based on gas analysis using On-line Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry (OEMS), by which we prove that all three materials release oxygen from the particle surface and that the oxygen evolution coincides with the onset of CO2 and CO evolution. Interestingly, the onsets of oxygen evolution for the different NMCs correlate well with the high-voltage redox feature at ∼4.7 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC111 and NMC622 as well as at ∼4.3 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC811. To support this hypothesis, we show that no CO2 or CO is evolved for the LiNi0.43Mn1.57O4 (LNMO) spinel up to 5 V vs. Li/Li+, consistent with the absence of oxygen release. Lastly, we demonstrate by the use of 13C labeled conductive carbon that it is the electrolyte rather than the conductive carbon which is oxidized by the released lattice oxygen. Taking these findings into consideration, a mechanism is proposed for the reaction of released lattice oxygen with ethylene carbonate yielding CO2, CO, and H2O.
- High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion Batteries
D. A. Stevens and J. R. Dahn 2000 J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 1271
View article, High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion BatteriesPDF, High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion BatteriesElectrochemical techniques have been used to study the reversible insertion of sodium into hard‐carbon host structures at room temperature. In this paper we compare these results with those for lithium insertion in the same materials and demonstrate the presence of similar alkali metal insertion mechanisms in both cases. Despite the gravimetric capacities being lower for sodium than lithium insertion, we have achieved a reversible sodium capacity of 300 mAh/g, close to that for lithium insertion in graphitic carbon anode materials. Such materials may therefore be useful as anodes in rechargeable sodium‐ion batteries. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Todd M. Bandhauer et al 2011 J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 R1
View article, A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion BatteriesPDF, A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion BatteriesLithium-ion batteries are well-suited for fully electric and hybrid electric vehicles due to their high specific energy and energy density relative to other rechargeable cell chemistries. However, these batteries have not been widely deployed commercially in these vehicles yet due to safety, cost, and poor low temperature performance, which are all challenges related to battery thermal management. In this paper, a critical review of the available literature on the major thermal issues for lithium-ion batteries is presented. Specific attention is paid to the effects of temperature and thermal management on capacity/power fade, thermal runaway, and pack electrical imbalance and to the performance of lithium-ion cells at cold temperatures. Furthermore, insights gained from previous experimental and modeling investigations are elucidated. These include the need for more accurate heat generation measurements, improved modeling of the heat generation rate, and clarity in the relative magnitudes of the various thermal effects observed at high charge and discharge rates seen in electric vehicle applications. From an analysis of the literature, the requirements for lithium-ion thermal management systems for optimal performance in these applications are suggested, and it is clear that no existing thermal management strategy or technology meets all these requirements.
- The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer Interfaces
Charles Monroe and John Newman 2005 J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 A396
View article, The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer InterfacesPDF, The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer InterfacesPast theories of electrode stability assume that the surface tension resists the amplification of surface roughness at cathodes and show that instability at lithium/liquid interfaces cannot be prevented by surface forces alone [Electrochim. Acta, 40, 599 (1995)]. This work treats interfacial stability in lithium/polymer systems where the electrolyte is solid. Linear elasticity theory is employed to compute the additional effect of bulk mechanical forces on electrode stability. The lithium and polymer are treated as Hookean elastic materials, characterized by their shear moduli and Poisson’s ratios. Two-dimensional displacement distributions that satisfy force balances across a periodically deforming interface are derived; these allow computation of the stress and surface-tension forces. The incorporation of elastic effects into a kinetic model demonstrates regimes of electrolyte mechanical properties where amplification of surface roughness can be inhibited. For a polymer material with Poisson’s ratio similar to poly(ethylene oxide), interfacial roughening is mechanically suppressed when the separator shear modulus is about twice that of lithium. © 2005 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon Materials
D. A. Stevens and J. R. Dahn 2001 J. Electrochem. Soc. 148 A803
View article, The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon MaterialsPDF, The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon MaterialsIn this paper, we compare the interactions of lithium and sodium with a range of carbon materials in electrochemical cells. Through wide angle in situ X-ray scattering studies, we demonstrate that both lithium and sodium can be inserted into the interlayer space in disordered carbon materials. This insertion process is accompanied by an increase in the interlayer spacing in these materials. Small-angle in situ scattering studies are presented to clearly show the insertion of lithium and sodium into nanopores within disordered hard carbons. We also show that very little, if any, sodium can be inserted into graphitic materials in contrast to the large capacity seen for lithium insertion. © 2001 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- Hydrogen Oxidation and Evolution Reaction Kinetics on Platinum: Acid vs Alkaline Electrolytes
Wenchao Sheng et al 2010 J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 B1529
View article, Hydrogen Oxidation and Evolution Reaction Kinetics on Platinum: Acid vs Alkaline ElectrolytesPDF, Hydrogen Oxidation and Evolution Reaction Kinetics on Platinum: Acid vs Alkaline ElectrolytesThe kinetics of the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on polycrystalline platinum [Pt(pc)] and high surface area carbon-supported platinum nanoparticles (Pt/C) were studied in 0.1 M KOH using rotating disk electrode (RDE) measurements. After corrections of noncompensated solution resistance from ac impedance spectroscopy and of hydrogen mass transport in the HOR branch, the kinetic current densities were fitted to the Butler–Volmer equation using a transfer coefficient of
, from which HOR/HER exchange current densities on Pt(pc) and Pt/C were obtained, and the HOR/HER mechanisms in alkaline solution were discussed. Unlike the HOR/HER rates on Pt electrodes in alkaline solution, the HOR/HER rates on a Pt electrode in 0.1 M were limited entirely by hydrogen diffusion, which renders the quantification of the HOR/HER kinetics impossible by conventional RDE measurements. The simulation of the hydrogen anode performance based on the specific exchange current densities of the HOR/HER at illustrates that in addition to the oxygen reduction reaction cell voltage loss on the cathode, the slow HOR kinetics are projected to cause significant anode potential losses in alkaline fuel cells for low platinum loadings ( at and ), contrary to what is reported for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. - The following article is Open accessReview—Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries
Xia Cao et al 2021 J. Electrochem. Soc. 168 010522
View article, Review—Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium BatteriesPDF, Review—Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium BatteriesThe conventional LiPF6/carbonate-based electrolytes have been widely used in graphite (Gr)-based lithium (Li) ion batteries (LIBs) for more than 30 years because a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer forms on the graphite surface and enables its long-term cycling stability. However, few of these electrolytes are stable under the more stringent conditions needed with a Li metal anode (LMA) and other anodes, such as silicon (Si), which exhibit large volume changes during charge/discharge processes. Many different approaches have been developed lately to stabilize Li metal batteries (LMBs) and Si-based LIBs. From this aspect, localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) have unique advantages: not only are they stable in a wide electrochemical window, they can also form stable SEI layers on LMA and Si anode surfaces to enable their long-term cycling stability. The ultrathin SEI layer formed on a Gr anode can also improve the safety and high-rate operation of conventional LIBs. In this paper, we give a brief summary of our recent work on LHCEs, including their design principle and applications in both LMBs and LIBs. A perspective on the future development of LHCEs is also discussed.
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- 1902-present
Journal of The Electrochemical Society
doi: 10.1149/issn.1945-7111
Online ISSN: 1945-7111
Print ISSN: 0013-4651