In this study, the calendar aging of lithium-ion batteries is investigated at different temperatures for 16 states of charge (SoCs) from 0 to 100%. Three types of 18650 lithium-ion cells, containing different cathode materials, have been examined. Our study demonstrates that calendar aging does not increase steadily with the SoC. Instead, plateau regions, covering SoC intervals of more than 20%–30% of the cell capacity, are observed wherein the capacity fade is similar. Differential voltage analyses confirm that the capacity fade is mainly caused by a shift in the electrode balancing. Furthermore, our study reveals the high impact of the graphite electrode on calendar aging. Lower anode potentials, which aggravate electrolyte reduction and thus promote solid electrolyte interphase growth, have been identified as the main driver of capacity fade during storage. In the high SoC regime where the graphite anode is lithiated more than 50%, the low anode potential accelerates the loss of cyclable lithium, which in turn distorts the electrode balancing. Aging mechanisms induced by high cell potential, such as electrolyte oxidation or transition-metal dissolution, seem to play only a minor role. To maximize battery life, high storage SoCs corresponding to low anode potential should be avoided.
The Electrochemical Society (ECS) was founded in 1902 to advance the theory and practice at the forefront of electrochemical and solid state science and technology, and allied subjects.
ISSN: 1945-7111
JES is the flagship journal of The Electrochemical Society. Published continuously from 1902 to the present, JES remains one of the most highly-cited journals in electrochemistry and solid-state science and technology.
- The following article is Open accessCalendar Aging of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Peter Keil et al 2016 J. Electrochem. Soc. 163 A1872
- The following article is Open accessDegradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions
Yuliya Preger et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 120532
View article, Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling ConditionsPDF, Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling ConditionsEnergy storage systems with Li-ion batteries are increasingly deployed to maintain a robust and resilient grid and facilitate the integration of renewable energy resources. However, appropriate selection of cells for different applications is difficult due to limited public data comparing the most commonly used off-the-shelf Li-ion chemistries under the same operating conditions. This article details a multi-year cycling study of commercial LiFePO4 (LFP), LiNixCoyAl1−x−yO2 (NCA), and LiNixMnyCo1−x−yO2 (NMC) cells, varying the discharge rate, depth of discharge (DOD), and environment temperature. The capacity and discharge energy retention, as well as the round-trip efficiency, were compared. Even when operated within manufacturer specifications, the range of cycling conditions had a profound effect on cell degradation, with time to reach 80% capacity varying by thousands of hours and cycle counts among cells of each chemistry. The degradation of cells in this study was compared to that of similar cells in previous studies to identify universal trends and to provide a standard deviation for performance. All cycling files have been made publicly available at batteryarchive.org, a recently developed repository for visualization and comparison of battery data, to facilitate future experimental and modeling efforts.
- The following article is Open accessThe Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their Lifetime
Eniko S. Zsoldos et al 2024 J. Electrochem. Soc. 171 080527
View article, The Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their LifetimePDF, The Operation Window of Lithium Iron Phosphate/Graphite Cells Affects their LifetimeLithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery cells are ubiquitous in electric vehicles and stationary energy storage because they are cheap and have a long lifetime. This work compares LFP/graphite pouch cells undergoing charge-discharge cycles over five state of charge (SOC) windows (0%–25%, 0%–60%, 0%–80%, 0%–100%, and 75%–100%). Cycling LFP cells across a lower average SOC results in less capacity fade than cycling across a higher average SOC, regardless of depth of discharge. The primary capacity fade mechanism is lithium inventory loss due to: lithiated graphite reactivity with electrolyte, which increases incrementally with SOC, and lithium alkoxide species causing iron dissolution and deposition on the negative electrode at high SOC which further accelerates lithium inventory loss. Our results show that even low voltage LFP systems (3.65 V) have a tradeoff between average SOC and lifetime. Operating LFP cells at lower average SOC can extend their lifetime substantially in both EV and grid storage applications.
- The following article is Open accessDevelopment of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery Models
Chang-Hui Chen et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 080534
View article, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPDF, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPresented here, is an extensive 35 parameter experimental data set of a cylindrical 21700 commercial cell (LGM50), for an electrochemical pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) model. The experimental methodologies for tear-down and subsequent chemical, physical, electrochemical kinetics and thermodynamic analysis, and their accuracy and validity are discussed. Chemical analysis of the LGM50 cell shows that it is comprised of a NMC 811 positive electrode and bi-component Graphite-SiOx negative electrode. The thermodynamic open circuit voltages (OCV) and lithium stoichiometry in the electrode are obtained using galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) in half cell and three-electrode full cell configurations. The activation energy and exchange current coefficient through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. Apparent diffusion coefficients are estimated using the Sand equation on the voltage transient during the current pulse; an expansion factor was applied to the bi-component negative electrode data to reflect the average change in effective surface area during lithiation. The 35 parameters are applied within a P2D model to show the fit to experimental validation LGM50 cell discharge and relaxation voltage profiles at room temperature. The accuracy and validity of the processes and the techniques in the determination of these parameters are discussed, including opportunities for further modelling and data analysis improvements.
- The following article is Open accessReview—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied Technologies
Sajjad Husain Mir et al 2018 J. Electrochem. Soc. 165 B3137
View article, Review—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied TechnologiesPDF, Review—Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Functional Materials: An Integrated Platform for Applied TechnologiesHybrid functional materials, constituting both inorganic and organic components, are considered potential platforms for applications in extremely diverse fields such as optics, micro-electronics, transportation, health, energy, energy storage, diagnosis, housing, environment and the highly relevant area is Internet of Things (IoT). Material properties of hybrid materials can be tuned by modification of the composition on the molecular scale to produce smart materials. Cross-cutting approaches, to synergistically couple molecular engineering and processing allows to tailor complex hybrid systems of various shapes with perfect control over size, composition, functionality, and morphology. The detailed description and discussion of variety of hybrid functional organic-inorganic materials and their contribution in the designing of specific modern technologies is the prime focus of this review.
- The following article is Open accessLithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and Characterization
Manuel Ank et al 2023 J. Electrochem. Soc. 170 120536
View article, Lithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and CharacterizationPDF, Lithium-Ion Cells in Automotive Applications: Tesla 4680 Cylindrical Cell Teardown and CharacterizationBattery research depends upon up-to-date information on the cell characteristics found in current electric vehicles, which is exacerbated by the deployment of novel formats and architectures. This necessitates open access to cell characterization data. Therefore, this study examines the architecture and performance of first-generation Tesla 4680 cells in detail, both by electrical characterization and thermal investigations at cell-level and by disassembling one cell down to the material level including a three-electrode analysis. The cell teardown reveals the complex cell architecture with electrode disks of hexagonal symmetry as well as an electrode winding consisting of a double-sided and homogeneously coated cathode and anode, two separators and no mandrel. A solvent-free anode fabrication and coating process can be derived. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy as well as differential voltage, incremental capacity and three-electrode analysis confirm a NMC811 cathode and a pure graphite anode without silicon. On cell-level, energy densities of 622.4 Wh/L and 232.5 Wh/kg were determined while characteristic state-of-charge dependencies regarding resistance and impedance behavior are revealed using hybrid pulse power characterization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A comparatively high surface temperature of ∼70 °C is observed when charging at 2C without active cooling. All measurement data of this characterization study are provided as open source.
- The following article is Open accessReview—SEI: Past, Present and Future
E. Peled and S. Menkin 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1703
The Solid-Electrolyte-Interphase (SEI) model for non-aqueous alkali-metal batteries constitutes a paradigm change in the understanding of lithium batteries and has thus enabled the development of safer, durable, higher-power and lower-cost lithium batteries for portable and EV applications. Prior to the publication of the SEI model (1979), researchers used the Butler-Volmer equation, in which a direct electron transfer from the electrode to lithium cations in the solution is assumed. The SEI model proved that this is a mistaken concept and that, in practice, the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the solution in a lithium battery, must be prevented, since it will result in fast self-discharge of the active materials and poor battery performance. This model provides [E. Peled, in “Lithium Batteries,” J.P. Gabano (ed), Academic Press, (1983), E. Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc., 126, 2047 (1979).] new equations for: electrode kinetics (io and b), anode corrosion, SEI resistivity and growth rate and irreversible capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries. This model became a cornerstone in the science and technology of lithium batteries. This paper reviews the past, present and the future of SEI batteries.
- The following article is Open accessReview—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging Trajectories
Peter M. Attia et al 2022 J. Electrochem. Soc. 169 060517
View article, Review—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging TrajectoriesPDF, Review—“Knees” in Lithium-Ion Battery Aging TrajectoriesLithium-ion batteries can last many years but sometimes exhibit rapid, nonlinear degradation that severely limits battery lifetime. In this work, we review prior work on “knees” in lithium-ion battery aging trajectories. We first review definitions for knees and three classes of “internal state trajectories” (termed snowball, hidden, and threshold trajectories) that can cause a knee. We then discuss six knee “pathways”, including lithium plating, electrode saturation, resistance growth, electrolyte and additive depletion, percolation-limited connectivity, and mechanical deformation—some of which have internal state trajectories with signals that are electrochemically undetectable. We also identify key design and usage sensitivities for knees. Finally, we discuss challenges and opportunities for knee modeling and prediction. Our findings illustrate the complexity and subtlety of lithium-ion battery degradation and can aid both academic and industrial efforts to improve battery lifetime.
- The following article is Open accessErratum: Advanced LiTFSI-LiPF6 Dual-Salt Electrolyte for High-Power and Wide-Temperature Operation of Lithium-Ion Batteries [J. Electrochem. Soc., 172, 120530 (2025)]
David J. Kautz et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 039001
View article, Erratum: Advanced LiTFSI-LiPF6 Dual-Salt Electrolyte for High-Power and Wide-Temperature Operation of Lithium-Ion Batteries [J. Electrochem. Soc., 172, 120530 (2025)]PDF, Erratum: Advanced LiTFSI-LiPF6 Dual-Salt Electrolyte for High-Power and Wide-Temperature Operation of Lithium-Ion Batteries [J. Electrochem. Soc., 172, 120530 (2025)] - The following article is Open accessCations Make the Difference: Stabilizing Forward-Bias Bipolar Membrane CO2 Electrolysis
Valerio Fagnini et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 153502
View article, Cations Make the Difference: Stabilizing Forward-Bias Bipolar Membrane CO2 ElectrolysisPDF, Cations Make the Difference: Stabilizing Forward-Bias Bipolar Membrane CO2 ElectrolysisZero-gap CO2 electrolyzers employing Anion Exchange Membranes (AEMs) ensure beneficial cathodic alkalinity. However, (bi)carbonates formed at the cathode from CO2 feed gas migrate through the AEM to the anode, releasing gaseous CO2. They also react with metal cations translocated from the anolyte, causing malfunction through blocking of the Gas Diffusion Electrode (GDE) by salt precipitation. Forward-bias Bipolar Membranes (BPMs) mitigate anodic CO2 loss, but cation management remains crucial to avoid salt deposition. In this work, the performance of an electrolysis process employing a forward-bias BPM is optimized and compared to AEM- and reverse-bias BPM-based systems, achieving remarkable Energy Efficiency for CO (EECO)≈35%, Faradaic Efficiency for CO (FECO) > 80% and reduced CO2 loss. An innovative cation management comprising intermittent cation supply to the anolyte is performed, avoiding process failure through salt deposition. Na+-, K+- and Cs+- based electrolytes are investigated, highlighting the influence of metal cation identity on selectivity and stability of the electrolysis process.
Highlights
Forward-bias membranes mitigate (bi)carbonate transport to the anode and CO2 loss
Dynamic cation management reduces salt deposition in zero-gap electrolyzers
Stable CO formation achieved at near pure-water anolyte molarity
Metal cation identity influences product selectivity and process stability
Anolyte control within the experiment improves long-term carbon utilization
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- The following article is Open accessChromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen Incorporation
Haruki Katori et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 162503
View article, Chromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen IncorporationPDF, Chromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen IncorporationAs an alternative to hexavalent chromium plating, chloride-based hydrate melts enable crystalline chromium electrodeposition from trivalent chromium without the use of organic complexing agents. Cr films deposited from these hydrate melt-based baths uniquely contain a metastable δ-Cr phase absent in conventional baths. Achieving hard coatings with adequate mechanical properties requires a systematic understanding of the crystallographic features including phase formation. In this study, the deposition of δ-Cr and its subsequent phase transformation to α-Cr were systematically investigated from the perspectives of crystal growth mode and hydrogen incorporation. The results indicate that δ-Cr preferentially forms during the initial nucleation and coalescence stage, where isotropic fine grains are generated. As electrodeposition proceeds, the crystal growth mode transitions to columnar growth, in which α-Cr becomes the dominant phase. The obtained δ-Cr was confirmed to transform into α-Cr at relatively low temperatures ranging from room temperature to 250 °C. The thermal desorption spectrum of hydrogen and time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) experiments using deuterium as a stable isotope label suggest that the formation and stability of the electrodeposited δ-Cr phase may well be attributed to incorporated hydrogen. These findings provide a fundamental basis for microstructural control of electrodeposited Cr from chloride-based hydrate melts.
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- Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to Applications
Zeda Zhou and Yixuan Bian 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 167503
View article, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsPDF, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsCortisol, a steroid hormone, is critical in regulating the stress response, metabolic homeostasis, and immune balance in the human body. Since cortisol is widely distributed in body fluids, the use of easily accessible fluids, such as sweat, makes continuous health assessment possible. Wearable sensors support the non-invasive and in situ collection of biomarkers, while electrochemical sensing methods have been widely used for the analysis of biomarkers due to their low cost, easy operation, high sensitivity, and fast response. The development and application of wearable electrochemical sensors provide essential support for non-invasive, real-time, and continuous monitoring of cortisol. This review systematically covers the recent progress in wearable electrochemical sensors, focusing particularly on sensing strategies of different recognition elements and critically evaluating their performance and limitations in complex biological fluids. Additionally, this review introduces the innovative applications of graphene, MXene, metal nanoparticles, and other functional materials in wearable electrochemical sensors, systematically comparing the sensing abilities of each material. Subsequently, in view of the challenges encountered in practical applications, this work discusses microfluidic integration strategies, multilayer interference-resistant interface designs, and machine learning-based data calibration methods. Finally, future prospects for interdisciplinary approaches in advancing precision medicine and real-time health monitoring are reviewed.
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- The following article is Open accessTime and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite Anodes
Jihed Ayari et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160510
View article, Time and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite AnodesPDF, Time and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite AnodesThis work addresses the limited understanding of how changes in SiOx/graphite anodes and the N/P ratio induced by aging influence the temperature-dependent transition between degradation mechanisms. It provides insight into the potentially evolving risk of lithium plating and its implications for the safe and durable operation of batteries. Commercial 3.5 Ah Li-ion 18 650 cells with SiOx/graphite anodes (∼2.5 wt.% Si) and Ni-rich LiNi1−x−yMnxCoyO2 cathodes were systematically aged in the temperature range from −10 °C to +45 °C at 0.5 C and 0.85 C. Aging rates were evaluated at both beginning-of-life, i.e. 100%–95% state-of-health and mid-of-life (92.5%–87.5% state-of-health) using Arrhenius plots. The V-shaped Arrhenius plots at beginning-of-life exhibited minima, while the minima of the mid-of-life aged cells were either shifted to higher temperatures or even vanished in the investigated temperature range, indicating an increased susceptibility to lithium plating in the aged cells. Post-mortem analyses using FIB-SEM/EDX mapping revealed that SiOx degradation and related side reactions are more pronounced at high temperatures, while most likely lithium plating predominates at low temperatures. Loss of anode active material in the form of SiOx degradation and the resulting decrease in the N/P ratio is most likely the cause of the observed changes in the Arrhenius plots after cycling.
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Highlights
Aging of commercial 18650 Li-ion cells investigated from -10°C to 45°C
V-shaped Arrhenius plots for new cells indicate Li plating at low temperatures
Post-Mortem analysis and FIB-SEM/EDX show degradation of SiOx
Degradation of SiOx in anode decreases N/P ratio and changes Arrhenius plot
High temperature aging most likely increases later susceptibility to Li plating
- Deep Learning for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation via Explainable Feature Screening
Zhijun Gao et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160509
View article, Deep Learning for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation via Explainable Feature ScreeningPDF, Deep Learning for Lithium-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation via Explainable Feature ScreeningAccurate state of health estimation is essential for the safe and reliable operation of lithium-ion battery management systems, yet practical prediction remains difficult because battery degradation involves strong nonlinearity, local capacity regeneration, and long-range temporal dependence. This study proposes an Informer encoder and Newton–Raphson-optimized extreme learning machine framework (InE-NRBO-ELM) that integrates random forest and SHapley Additive exPlanations feature screening (RF-SHAP) with an Informer encoder and a Newton–Raphson optimizer for extreme learning machine regression. Nineteen candidate health features are first evaluated to retain the most informative inputs and suppress redundant interference. The Informer encoder then learns long-range degradation representations, while the Newton–Raphson optimizer jointly optimizes the extreme learning machine regularization coefficient and hidden node number to improve regression stability. Experiments on the NASA and CALCE datasets show that the proposed method accurately tracks both gradual degradation and local regeneration behavior. Under a 60% training ratio, the model achieved mean absolute percentage error of 0.4801%, mean absolute error of 0.00342, and root mean square error of 0.00460 across eight batteries. Within the controlled NASA and CALCE test conditions, benchmark, robustness and ablation studies demonstrate stable performance and the complementary roles of input screening, temporal representation, and adaptive regression optimization.
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Highlights
A new deep learning framework improves lithium-ion battery health estimation.
Explainable feature screening keeps the most useful aging signals from charge data.
Long-range sequence learning captures gradual degradation and local recovery trends.
Tests on two public datasets showed accurate and stable predictions across batteries.
Average error stayed below 0.5%, supporting reliable battery management decisions.
- Ti3C2Tx MXene/CeO2-Integrated Graphite Conductive Ink Based Flexible Electrode for Norepinephrine Detection
Selen Uruc et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 167502
View article, Ti3C2Tx MXene/CeO2-Integrated Graphite Conductive Ink Based Flexible Electrode for Norepinephrine DetectionPDF, Ti3C2Tx MXene/CeO2-Integrated Graphite Conductive Ink Based Flexible Electrode for Norepinephrine DetectionThe development of conductive and sustainable materials with high electrochemical performance remains an important goal for next-generation sensing platforms. In this study, a flexible electrochemical sensor was fabricated on a low-cost cellulose-based paper substrate using an MXene/cerium oxide/graphite (MXene/CeO2/G) composite conductive ink. The conductive ink was formulated by dispersing MXene, CeO2, and graphite as individual components within the same matrix, forming a composite structure. This combination improved both the electrical conductivity and the electrocatalytic activity toward norepinephrine (NE) oxidation. The electrochemical behavior of the MXene/CeO2/G screen-printed electrode (SPE) was investigated, and the oxidation process was found to be diffusion and adsorption-controlled. The electroactive surface area of the electrodes was also determined, indicating an increased number of active sites. The effect of pH was examined, and the highest current response was obtained at pH 6.4. Under optimized conditions, the sensor exhibited a detection limit (LOD) of 77.29 nM and a linear range of 0.25–25 µM using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The sensor showed good selectivity in the presence of common interfering species. Recovery values ranged between 95.1% and 107.0%, with low relative standard deviation (RSD), confirming the reliability of the method. The applicability of the sensor was demonstrated in artificial urine samples. These results demonstrate that MXene/CeO2/G-based conductive inks provide a promising approach for the development of flexible and cost-effective electrochemical sensors.
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Highlights
MXene/CeO2/graphite ink was developed for SPE fabrication.
Flexible and low-cost SPEs were fabricated on paper substrates.
NE was detected using a non-enzymatic approach with DPV.
The sensor demonstrated successful applicability in artificial urine samples.
- Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to Applications
Zeda Zhou and Yixuan Bian 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 167503
View article, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsPDF, Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for Cortisol Monitoring in Body Fluids: From Materials to ApplicationsCortisol, a steroid hormone, is critical in regulating the stress response, metabolic homeostasis, and immune balance in the human body. Since cortisol is widely distributed in body fluids, the use of easily accessible fluids, such as sweat, makes continuous health assessment possible. Wearable sensors support the non-invasive and in situ collection of biomarkers, while electrochemical sensing methods have been widely used for the analysis of biomarkers due to their low cost, easy operation, high sensitivity, and fast response. The development and application of wearable electrochemical sensors provide essential support for non-invasive, real-time, and continuous monitoring of cortisol. This review systematically covers the recent progress in wearable electrochemical sensors, focusing particularly on sensing strategies of different recognition elements and critically evaluating their performance and limitations in complex biological fluids. Additionally, this review introduces the innovative applications of graphene, MXene, metal nanoparticles, and other functional materials in wearable electrochemical sensors, systematically comparing the sensing abilities of each material. Subsequently, in view of the challenges encountered in practical applications, this work discusses microfluidic integration strategies, multilayer interference-resistant interface designs, and machine learning-based data calibration methods. Finally, future prospects for interdisciplinary approaches in advancing precision medicine and real-time health monitoring are reviewed.
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- The following article is Open accessFrom Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation Models
Jingyuan Zhao et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 150520
View article, From Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation ModelsPDF, From Task-Specific AI to Battery Foundation ModelsArtificial intelligence (AI) is influencing battery research and life-cycle management, spanning materials discovery, electrode and cell design, manufacturing optimization, diagnostics, safety monitoring, recycling, and certification. These advances are enabled by growing battery datasets and learning methods that extract patterns from complex electrochemical systems. Yet most current models remain task-specific and are trained on fragmented datasets, limiting transferability across chemistries, cell formats, operating conditions, and life-cycle stages. Battery foundation models (BFMs) offer a promising but emerging paradigm for battery intelligence. They may be formulated as large, pre-trained, and adaptable architectures that integrate multimodal battery data with physics-informed priors to represent electrochemical structures, states, and dynamics. Unlike direct analogues of general large language models, BFMs should be understood as physics-aware foundation models designed for scientific reasoning under multiscale physical constraints, heterogeneous and incomplete data, and stringent safety and reliability requirements. By combining self-supervised learning with mechanistic electrochemical models, BFMs may learn more interpretable and transferable representations across materials, formats, and duty cycles. If sufficiently validated, such representations could support materials discovery, manufacturing, diagnostics, recycling, and certification. This Review discusses challenges in data fragmentation, validation, interpretability, and computational sustainability, and outlines a roadmap toward responsible BFMs and integrated battery-domain ecosystems across the lifecycle.
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Highlights:
Trace the shift from general LLMs toward physics-aware foundation models for battery science.
Integrate multimodal data with physics-informed priors to enable robust and transferable models.
Discuss lifecycle-wide applications from materials discovery to recycling and certification.
Frame challenges in data fragmentation, interpretability, and computational sustainability.
Outline a roadmap toward lifecycle-responsible BFMs and integrated domain ecosystems.
- Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery Characterization
David J. Arnot et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 150515
View article, Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery CharacterizationPDF, Isothermal Microcalorimetry for Battery CharacterizationAs battery function has improved over the past decades, so too has our ability to interrogate the underlying electrochemical processes. Thermal energy generation is a key aspect of batteries affecting electrochemical function, safety, and lifespan. The heat generated by a battery is related to thermodynamics, kinetics, structural changes, and side reactions; measurements of heat production can therefore provide insight into any of these subjects. Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) can quantify heat flow within functioning systems with microwatt (or better) accuracy and precision. The ability to simultaneously measure heat production and electrochemical properties allows for fundamental scientific investigations as well as practical measurements on laboratory scale and commercial cells with different form factors. Herein, we review the use of isothermal microcalorimetry for probing battery thermal effects associated with the (dis)charge reaction, phase changes, and parasitic reactions. This work serves as an introduction for unfamiliar readers and summarizes the research that has been done over the years. We begin with a brief history of IMC as it relates to battery research, followed by an overview of the applicable theory, and highlight extensive examples from the literature. Opportunities for future research directions involving application and advances for the use of IMC are also presented.
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Highlights
Battery energy content is released as either usable work or unwanted heat
Isothermal microcalorimetry measures thermal energy exchange with μW accuracy and precision
Battery thermal processes can be a signature of degradation processes
Thermodynamic properties can be derived from calorimetric measurements
- The following article is Open accessThe Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A Review
Edyta Sobczak and Malgorzata Grabarczyk 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 156503
View article, The Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A ReviewPDF, The Use of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for the Determination of Ti(IV): Advantages, Limitations, Applications—A ReviewThis review discusses methods of determining the presence of titanium using adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) and catalytic adsorptive voltammetry (CAdSV). The work centers on the key factors that influence the sensitivity and selectivity of the proposed analytical procedures. Particular attention was paid to the role of the complexing agents used and the presence of oxidizing agents. The influence of the type of working electrode and the most commonly used electrode modifiers was also considered. The possibility of determining titanium and other elements simultaneously during a single voltammetric measurement was also discussed. The following sections describe the potential for interference from components of the inorganic and organic matrices. The review also provides examples of how the described voltammetric procedures can be used to determine titanium in real samples with diverse matrices. The most important analytical parameters of the methods described are presented in tabular form to allow comparison of their usefulness for analysis.
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- Corrosion of Candidate Cladding and Structural Materials for Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Applications
Tolin Skov-Black and Dev Chidambaram 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 151502
View article, Corrosion of Candidate Cladding and Structural Materials for Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor ApplicationsPDF, Corrosion of Candidate Cladding and Structural Materials for Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor ApplicationsGeneration IV reactors aim for more efficient, cheaper, safer nuclear power with less waste generation. Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs) are expected to be among the first GenIV designs to operate. SFR structural and cladding materials must withstand high‐temperature liquid sodium, where degradation is driven by selective dissolution and impurity‐mediated reactions rather than electrochemistry. This review focuses on corrosion and mass transfer in sodium, highlighting the coupled role of temperature gradients, flow velocity, and impurities (notably oxygen and carbon) in driving elemental leaching and redistribution, carburization/decarburization, and formation of stable ternary oxides such as Na–Cr–O compounds. Corrosion behavior is then assessed for major candidate classes: austenitic stainless steels as a performance baseline; ferritic–martensitic steels and the role of carbon activity and chromium content; ODS steels and chemistry-dependent oxide development; nickel-based alloys with comparatively high sodium solubility; and SiC/SiC composites with impurity-sensitive intergranular attack. A database of recent experiments (temperature, impurity level, flow, exposure time) is used to map existing data and expose gaps for advanced cladding deployment. Key gaps are the limited parametric studies spanning oxygen/carbon activity, velocity, and irradiation damage, and the lack of long-duration datasets and validated mechanistic models for SFR deployment.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron Electrosynthesis
William Lvovich et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 082502
View article, Editors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron ElectrosynthesisPDF, Editors’ Choice—Understanding the Role of Multivalency in Chloride-Based Electrolytes for Efficient Iron ElectrosynthesisThis study investigates aqueous electrolytes for efficient iron electrodeposition directly from Fe3+ at ambient temperature. Concentrated lithium chloride (LiCl) based electrolytes were found to stabilize the Fe3+ in the electrolyte, suppress parasitic hydrogen evolution and suppress redox shuttling of intermediate Fe2+, thus promoting efficient iron electrodeposition. These attributes collectively enabled high Coulombic efficiencies (>75%) at high current densities (>200 mA cm−2). Furthermore, detailed investigation revealed that increasing the LiCl concentration increased the electrolyte viscosity and decreased the Fe2+ out-diffusion rate while also suppressing the activity of water. Sufficiently high LiCl concentrations (>7 M) thus provide a window of current densities in which elevated Coulombic efficiencies can be achieved. Overall, this paper develops an understanding of the effects of electrolyte composition on the competition between Fe electrodeposition, hydrogen co-evolution, and intermediate Fe2+ out-diffusion for efficient Fe metal electrosynthesis.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids Fractionation
Riccardo Candeago et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 113503
View article, Editors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids FractionationPDF, Editors’ Choice—Modeling of Multistage Redox-Mediated Electrodialysis for Volatile Fatty Acids FractionationProduction of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from biomass fermentation is a promising pathway for sustainable chemical production. A central challenge is cost-effective recovery and fractionation of VFAs from fermentation broths. Redox-mediated electrodialysis (redox-ED) can be an energy efficient technique for VFA separation, replacing water splitting with redox-reactions. However, the low selectivity between VFAs of different lengths (separation factors <3) obtained using commercially-available anion-exchange membranes limits the final product purity for industrial use. Cascaded operation can overcome these material limitations and increase product purity, yet multistage redox-ED can be complex and has not been extensively explored for selective ion separations. Here, we developed a physics-based model of redox-ED using finite elements to simulate the separation of a ternary carboxylic acid feed (propionic, butyric, and hexanoic) and evaluated five different multistage architectures including series, parallel, co-current, and counter-current setups. The single-stage, two-dimensional steady-state model captured the effect of the flow-field, concentration, and potential gradients, yielding reasonable agreement with experimental data. We then investigated the tradeoff between number of stages, product purity, and productivity, and assessed the impact of membrane selectivity. In sum, cascaded redox-ED with reflux simultaneously improved product purity and productivity, while series or equivalent single-stage architectures presented a tradeoff between VFA purity and productivity.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk Electrodes
Maria Kelly et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 046503
View article, Editors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk ElectrodesPDF, Editors’ Choice—Rapid Deactivation Convolutes Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Selectivity Measurements on Gold Rotating Ring Disk ElectrodesVoltammetric measurements of electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) selectivity on rotating ring disk electrodes (RRDE) are a rapid and sensitive method for quantifying an electrocatalyst’s selectivity, i.e. faradaic efficiency (FE). This method has been applied to polycrystalline Au electrocatalysts where a Au disk electrode catalyzes both the CO2RR and hydrogen evolution reaction while the concentric Au ring electrode selectively senses CO by oxidizing CO back to CO2. Such measurements enabled fundamental mechanistic studies but suffer from poor inter-laboratory reproducibility. This work identifies causes of variability in RRDE selectivity measurements by comparing protocols with different electrochemical methods, reagent purities, and glassware cleaning procedures. We observed FECO decrease by 56% during 5 min chronoamperometry measurements, a phenomenon that is not readily apparent in voltammetric scans due to their dynamic nature. Electroplating of electrolyte impurities onto the disk and ring surfaces were identified as a major contributor to Au deactivation. Additionally, the oxygen reduction reaction may lead to higher disk currents in inadequately purged electrolytes, causing an apparent underestimation of FECO at low overpotentials. Lastly, we propose operational bounds for CO2RR selectivity measurements on Au using the RRDE method and provide suggestions on steps for improving the accuracy of this technique.
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- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal Production
Anar Badalbayli et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 032508
View article, Editors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal ProductionPDF, Editors’ Choice—Molten Salt Electrolysis in Chloride Melts for Energy-Efficient Iron Metal ProductionThis study explores chloride molten salt electrolysis (CMSE) as a promising route for energy-efficient iron metal (Fe) production. Moderate temperature (500 °C) LiCl-KCl molten salts offer excellent thermodynamic stability, high ionic conductivity and diffusivity, and high solubility for FeCl3, thereby enabling efficient Fe metal extraction at high electrowinning rates. Here, we demonstrate the two essential steps for converting taconite ore into Fe metal. First, Fe2O3 from taconite pellets was selectively leached in HCl yielding a high-purity FeCl3 aqueous solution, while the gangue components settled at the bottom. Then, anhydrous FeCl3 was electrolyzed in a LiCl-KCl eutectic molten salt at 500 °C at high current density (1 A cm−2) and at high Coulombic efficiency (>85%). Analysis of the electrowon Fe deposits revealed dendritic structures with purity of >99 wt%, which could be further improved to nearly 100 wt% through arc re-melting. CMSE offers low specific energy consumption (3.7 kWhr kg−1), competitive with H2-DRI and other electrolytic approaches being pursued globally. Our findings underscore the potential of CMSE as an energy-efficient route for electrosynthesis of Fe metal.
- The following article is Open accessEditors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
Guoxin Li et al 2025 J. Electrochem. Soc. 172 026501
View article, Editors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical MicroscopyPDF, Editors’ Choice—Investigation of the Dynamic Evolution of the Cathode-Electrolyte Interphase Using Scanning Electrochemical MicroscopyCathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) is critical for inhibiting the cathode degradation to maintain cell life. However, the evolution of the CEI is still unclear due to its complex and slow dynamic process. Here we used scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) for in situ investigation of CEI formation process on LiFePO4 cathode. Feedback images and probe scan curves showed a heterogeneous passivation that was gently generated on the LiFePO4 particles during both charging and discharging. Besides, a LiFePO4 composited electrode was also used to investigate the CEI formation to simulate the condition of real battery system. The composited cathode does not show obvious CEI formation within first two cycles. The SECM results between the pristine LiFePO4 particles and the composited LiFePO4 indicated the dynamic accumulation of CEI, which is influenced by the ability to charge transfer kinetics of cathode materials. This approach provided a feasible consideration for the connections between the dynamic evolution of the CEI and changes in charge transfer capability of cathode during cycling.
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Highlights
In-situ investigation of cathode-electrolyte interphase formation.
The evolution of native active material and composite slurry were compared.
The electrochemical activity change upon cathode cycling are analysed in situ.
The influence of the charge transfer capability upon CEI generation is revealed.
- Study on the Preparation of Polysilicon from Fluorine-Containing Silicon Slag by Molten Salt Electrolysis and the Performance of Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes
Zhou et al
View accepted manuscript, Study on the Preparation of Polysilicon from Fluorine-Containing Silicon Slag by Molten Salt Electrolysis and the Performance of Lithium-Ion Battery AnodesPDF, Study on the Preparation of Polysilicon from Fluorine-Containing Silicon Slag by Molten Salt Electrolysis and the Performance of Lithium-Ion Battery AnodesAiming at the problems of difficult treatment and low resource utilization rate of fluorine-containing silicon slag (mainly composed of SiO2 and F), an industrial solid waste generated from the wet-process phosphoric acid industry, this study adopts the molten salt electrolysis method and uses fluorine-containing silicon slag as precursor to directly prepare polysilicon via electrolytic deoxidation in molten CaCl2. The effects of tableting pressure, electrolytic voltage and time, the obtained product were systematically investigated. The results demonstrate that under the 30 MPa, 3.2 V, and 12 h of electrolysis at 900 ℃, polysilicon can be successfully obtained. Characterizations via SEM and TEM confirm that the product is silicon nanowires with a diameter of 20-50 nm, growing along the [111] crystallographic orientation. The electrolysis process follows a dual-path reduction mechanism: direct reduction of SiO2, and reduction of the CaSiO3 intermediate generated from the reaction between SiO2 and CaO. The as-prepared polysilicon as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries exhibits outstanding electrochemical performance. After 1000 cycles at a current density of 1 A/g, the Coulombic efficiency still remains at 97%, proving the application potential of this solid waste resource utilization route in the field of new energy material preparation.
- Electrolytic Recovery of Spent Indium Zinc Oxide Targets in Aqueous Solution
Zhou et al
View accepted manuscript, Electrolytic Recovery of Spent Indium Zinc Oxide Targets in Aqueous SolutionPDF, Electrolytic Recovery of Spent Indium Zinc Oxide Targets in Aqueous SolutionIndium zinc oxide (IZO, typical mass ratio of indium oxide to zinc oxide is 9:1) is widely employed in advanced electronic devices. During the preparation and application of IZO, a large amount of spent IZO is generated. However, the recycling of spent IZO commonly confronts significant challenges, including high energy consumption, severe environmental pollution, and complex pretreatment requirements, which impede the sustainable utilization of strategic metal resources. To address these issues, this study proposes a green electrochemical method for recycling In and Zn from spent IZO at room temperature. Operating in an environmentally benign sodium salt aqueous electrolyte, this process achieves efficient and continuous electro-deoxidation of IZO. It demonstrated that the method enables highly efficient recovery of metallic indium and zinc while effectively removing impurities including Al, Si, and Fe. The entire process is characterized by low carbon emissions, absence of toxic reagents, and a less environmental burden.
- Core-Shell Technology Assisted Graphite-Silicon Composite Anode for NCA-based Li-ion Battery
Gupta et al
View accepted manuscript, Core-Shell Technology Assisted Graphite-Silicon Composite Anode for NCA-based Li-ion BatteryPDF, Core-Shell Technology Assisted Graphite-Silicon Composite Anode for NCA-based Li-ion BatteryThis study demonstrates the development of surface engineered silicon nanoparticles with TiO2 coating (Si@TiO₂) and its reinforcement into pristine MCMB graphite (Gr) matrix, forming a composite (GST) electrode for high-energy LIBs. The study further delves into structural characterization and electrochemical performance of the developed GST composite, which is benchmarked against Gr-silicon composite (GS). Comprehensive structural analysis of GS and GST reveals uniform dispersion and successful integration of Si within the Gr matrix and the formation of a well-defined TiO2 shell (≈ 10 nm thickness) over Si nanoparticles. Electrochemical analysis shows superior performance for GST. In full-cell, GST-NCA composite delivers ≈ 144 mAhg-1anode and retains ≈ 81 % of its initial capacity after 100 cycles at C/3, outperforming the GS-NCA counterpart, while also exhibiting excellent rate capability up to 8C and stable long-term cycling over 300 cycles at C/3, maintaining ≈ 99 % coulombic efficiency. EIS shows lower impedance for GST, suggesting improved charge transfer kinetics. Post-cycling characterizations reveal improved SEI deposition with fewer cracks and a lower thickness growth for GST compared to GS after cycling, confirming its superior mechanical integrity. These results demonstrate that TiO2-based core-shell architecture effectively suppresses Si-induced degradation, enabling stable, high-performance full-cells for future LIBs.
- Exact Electrochemical Impedance of Heterogeneous Electrodes Modeled as Coupled Finite $RC$ Transmission Lines
Allagui et al
View accepted manuscript, Exact Electrochemical Impedance of Heterogeneous Electrodes Modeled as Coupled Finite $RC$ Transmission LinesPDF, Exact Electrochemical Impedance of Heterogeneous Electrodes Modeled as Coupled Finite $RC$ Transmission LinesIn this work, we investigate the electrical response of a heterogeneous porous electrode/electrolyte system, modeled as two $RC$ transmission line (TL) subdomains of different lengths and with distinct electrical properties, coupled through an ideal interface that enforces the continuity of both voltage and current, thus giving rise to a shared flux between the two diffusion problems. This is different combining the impedances of the $RC$ TL segments in series, which implicitly imposes a blocking condition at the interface, and thereby discards any dynamic coupling between the subdomains. We derive the exact input impedance of the overall composite system, and demonstrate that it does not reduce to the sum of two independent $Z_{\mathrm{n}}= p^{-1} {\coth p} $ ($p = \sqrt{j\omega\tau}$) impedances except in the limit where both subdomains share identical characteristic electrical and propagation properties. We analyze how variations in downstream subdomain's electrical and geometrical properties affect the overall impedance response, and show that the internal coupling induces characteristic signatures in the impedance spectrum, most pronounced in the low and intermediate frequency regimes. The results provide a simple, yet physically grounded picture for interpreting the impedance spectra of electrochemical energy storage and conversion devices with spatially heterogeneous porous structures
- Mass Transport and Transmembrane Electric Potential in Multi-Ionic Systems: From Entropy and Nernst-Planck to Hodgkin-Huxley.
Kocherginsky
View accepted manuscript, Mass Transport and Transmembrane Electric Potential in Multi-Ionic Systems: From Entropy and Nernst-Planck to Hodgkin-Huxley.PDF, Mass Transport and Transmembrane Electric Potential in Multi-Ionic Systems: From Entropy and Nernst-Planck to Hodgkin-Huxley.A new equation for transmembrane electric potential for several ions with different charges is suggested. This potential is determined by a system of Nernst-Planck equations for each of ions. We explain why the experimental slope of may change from to 0 and even change its sign for multicomponent systems. Ohm’s law for electric current of each ion is not valid anymore. Problems with Nikolsky-Eisenman equation for experiments with solid membranes and multivalent ions disappear. Cl- concentrations in the donor and acceptor solutions change their places in the nominator and denominator of final equation. At zero total current a gradient of one ion concentration may lead to coupled co- or counter-transport of another ion in a membrane, leading to both electrogenic and electrically silent transport. Instead of Hodgkin-Huxley a new model describes mutual influence of transported K+ and Na+ ions, important in explanation of an action potential. Our theory describes many phenomena, and it will be useful in new experimental situations. One of the examples is spontaneous oscillations of both voltage and current at temperature-induced phase transitions in biomimetic membranes without any proteins.
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- The following article is Open accessChromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen Incorporation
Haruki Katori et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 162503
View article, Chromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen IncorporationPDF, Chromium Electrodeposition from Hydrate Melts: Formation of Metastable δ-Cr Phase in Conjunction with Hydrogen IncorporationAs an alternative to hexavalent chromium plating, chloride-based hydrate melts enable crystalline chromium electrodeposition from trivalent chromium without the use of organic complexing agents. Cr films deposited from these hydrate melt-based baths uniquely contain a metastable δ-Cr phase absent in conventional baths. Achieving hard coatings with adequate mechanical properties requires a systematic understanding of the crystallographic features including phase formation. In this study, the deposition of δ-Cr and its subsequent phase transformation to α-Cr were systematically investigated from the perspectives of crystal growth mode and hydrogen incorporation. The results indicate that δ-Cr preferentially forms during the initial nucleation and coalescence stage, where isotropic fine grains are generated. As electrodeposition proceeds, the crystal growth mode transitions to columnar growth, in which α-Cr becomes the dominant phase. The obtained δ-Cr was confirmed to transform into α-Cr at relatively low temperatures ranging from room temperature to 250 °C. The thermal desorption spectrum of hydrogen and time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) experiments using deuterium as a stable isotope label suggest that the formation and stability of the electrodeposited δ-Cr phase may well be attributed to incorporated hydrogen. These findings provide a fundamental basis for microstructural control of electrodeposited Cr from chloride-based hydrate melts.
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- The following article is Open accessTime and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite Anodes
Jihed Ayari et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160510
View article, Time and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite AnodesPDF, Time and Temperature Dependent Aging Mechanisms in Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells with SiOx/Graphite AnodesThis work addresses the limited understanding of how changes in SiOx/graphite anodes and the N/P ratio induced by aging influence the temperature-dependent transition between degradation mechanisms. It provides insight into the potentially evolving risk of lithium plating and its implications for the safe and durable operation of batteries. Commercial 3.5 Ah Li-ion 18 650 cells with SiOx/graphite anodes (∼2.5 wt.% Si) and Ni-rich LiNi1−x−yMnxCoyO2 cathodes were systematically aged in the temperature range from −10 °C to +45 °C at 0.5 C and 0.85 C. Aging rates were evaluated at both beginning-of-life, i.e. 100%–95% state-of-health and mid-of-life (92.5%–87.5% state-of-health) using Arrhenius plots. The V-shaped Arrhenius plots at beginning-of-life exhibited minima, while the minima of the mid-of-life aged cells were either shifted to higher temperatures or even vanished in the investigated temperature range, indicating an increased susceptibility to lithium plating in the aged cells. Post-mortem analyses using FIB-SEM/EDX mapping revealed that SiOx degradation and related side reactions are more pronounced at high temperatures, while most likely lithium plating predominates at low temperatures. Loss of anode active material in the form of SiOx degradation and the resulting decrease in the N/P ratio is most likely the cause of the observed changes in the Arrhenius plots after cycling.
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Highlights
Aging of commercial 18650 Li-ion cells investigated from -10°C to 45°C
V-shaped Arrhenius plots for new cells indicate Li plating at low temperatures
Post-Mortem analysis and FIB-SEM/EDX show degradation of SiOx
Degradation of SiOx in anode decreases N/P ratio and changes Arrhenius plot
High temperature aging most likely increases later susceptibility to Li plating
- The following article is Open accessThe Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1-δCoδO4 (0≤δ≤0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries
Subhadip Mallick et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc.
View article, The Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1-δCoδO4 (0≤δ≤0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion BatteriesPDF, The Impact of Cobalt Substitution in Lithiated Spinel/Layered Li2(MnNi)1-δCoδO4 (0≤δ≤0.667) Cathodes for Li-Ion BatteriesIn 2020, the discovery of the lithiated spinel Li2MnNiO4 opened the door to the design of a new class of cathode materials for the lithium-ion battery industry. This compound is typically prepared in air at 400 °C and co-exists with a disordered layered structure of the same composition (LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2), delivering most of its capacity (~200 mAh/g) between 4.8 and 3.0 V with essentially no redox on the manganese ions. This communication reports the effects of cobalt substitution on the structural and electrochemical properties of lithiated-spinel/layered Li2(MnNi)1-δCoδO4 composite electrodes over the compositional range 0≤δ≤0.667.
- The following article is Open accessThe Role of Nitrates in Pitting Corrosion of Stainless Steel in Concentrated Salt Solutions: Understanding Critical Ratios in Fully Immersed and Atmospheric Environments
Daria Bentley et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc.
View article, The Role of Nitrates in Pitting Corrosion of Stainless Steel in Concentrated Salt Solutions: Understanding Critical Ratios in Fully Immersed and Atmospheric EnvironmentsPDF, The Role of Nitrates in Pitting Corrosion of Stainless Steel in Concentrated Salt Solutions: Understanding Critical Ratios in Fully Immersed and Atmospheric EnvironmentsNitrates, common atmospheric compounds, have been observed in atmospheric environments where they can deposit on metal surfaces along with seawater aerosols. In many cases, nitrates have been shown to inhibit localized corrosion of stainless steels, a common infrastructure material component, at various nitrate:chloride ratios. In this study, full immersion polarization scans were performed on 304 Stainless Steel (SS304) coupons at a variety of scan rates, temperatures, and nitrate:chloride ratios to further examine the inhibitory influences. Additionally, atmospheric exposures were performed with droplet experiments in an atmospheric chamber under both static and diurnal relative humidity cycles. Atmospheric exposures examined the same initial nitrate:chloride ratios as explored in full immersion but also looked at influences of droplet size effects as well as dynamic conditions. Pit frequency and pit area calculations to quantify the effects of nitrates in these solutions were completed. It was found that the inhibition ratios for nitrates to chloride in full immersion do not translate directly to atmospheric conditions.
- The following article is Open accessSelective Electrochemical Recovery of Valuable Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using a Betaine-Based Deep Eutectic Solvent
Kazem Mohammadzadeh et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 162502
View article, Selective Electrochemical Recovery of Valuable Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using a Betaine-Based Deep Eutectic SolventPDF, Selective Electrochemical Recovery of Valuable Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using a Betaine-Based Deep Eutectic SolventThe rapid growth in lithium-ion battery (LIB) deployment has led to increasing volumes of end-of-life batteries, creating an urgent need for sustainable recycling technologies capable of recovering critical metals from complex waste streams. Although leaching has been successfully shown in various DES systems, selective recovery of metals/metal oxides still remain a challenge. In this study, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) of betaine hydrochloride and ethylene glycol is employed as a green medium for both dissolution of valuable metals and selective electrochemical recovery from LIB black mass. Rapid dissolution of Li, Ni, Co, and Mn together with 86% Cu was achieved within 30 min at 100 °C. Based on electrochemical studies, it was observed that temperature and potential/ current can be adjusted for selective metal recovery. Copper was selectively deposited at 40 °C, while increasing the deposition temperature to 60 and 80 °C enabled deposition of Ni–Co alloys. Manganese was recovered from the remaining electrolyte via carbonate precipitation. The integrated process achieved overall recovery efficiencies of approximately 98% for Cu, ∼90% for Ni and Co, and ∼80% for Mn. Thus, this work demonstrates a selective and environmentally benign strategy for recovering valuable metals from complex LIB waste streams, providing a promising pathway toward circular battery recycling.
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- The following article is Open accessModelling Intermediate-Current Transitions in Asymmetric-Valence Binary Electrolytes
Georgina C. Ryan et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 166502
View article, Modelling Intermediate-Current Transitions in Asymmetric-Valence Binary ElectrolytesPDF, Modelling Intermediate-Current Transitions in Asymmetric-Valence Binary ElectrolytesAsymmetric valences in a binary electrolyte can significantly affect the performance of systems such as reverse electrodialysis cells, batteries, and supercapacitors. To generate a theoretical understanding of this effect, we consider a steady one-dimensional Poisson Nernst Planck model of an electrolytic cell with imposed constant ionic fluxes, focusing on varying ion valences in a general asymmetric binary electrolyte. Numerical simulations reveal a smooth transition between the qualitatively distinct near-equilibrium and strongly non-equilibrium steady-state regimes. These regimes are distinguished by a valence-dependent transition point at an intermediate current where the classical Debye-scale boundary layer vanishes. We characterize this transition using asymptotic analysis, recovering the Gouy Chapman and limiting-current results in the appropriate limits, and determining the correct transition results when neither is appropriate. We provide implicit solutions for the potential and ion concentrations of general asymmetric binary electrolytes and, notably, we provide explicit analytic expressions for the asymptotic composite solutions for
, , and electrolytes. We show how the results can be presented in a collapsed phase diagram that can be used to predict qualitative intermediate-current steady-state behavior in terms of ion valences and fluxes.figure placeholder
Highlights
Valence ratio controls behavior in steady-state electrolytes with current.
Asymptotic analysis of Poisson Nernst Planck equations produces mathematical model.
Analytic solutions derived with asymmetric valences for concentrations and potential.
Smooth transition between Gouy Chapman theory and limiting current regime.
Diffuse layer vanishes at a critical current.
- The following article is Open accessDirect Electrochemical Recovery of Rhodium from Spent Hydroformylation Catalyst Streams
Ching-Hsiu Chung et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 163501
View article, Direct Electrochemical Recovery of Rhodium from Spent Hydroformylation Catalyst StreamsPDF, Direct Electrochemical Recovery of Rhodium from Spent Hydroformylation Catalyst StreamsHomogeneous Rhodium-based catalysts are essential for hydroformylation because of their high activity, but recovering these valuable critical metals from spent reaction streams remains difficult using conventional energy- and chemical-intensive methods. Here, the direct recovery of the spent Rh from a post-reaction hydroformylation stream is achieved via electrowinning at both cathode and anode, followed by electro-stripping in diluted acid. Under optimized conditions, a single electrowinning stage recovered 37.6% of the spent Rh catalyst (19.3% from the cathode and 18.3% from the anode). Three cascade electrowinning stages increase cumulative Rh recovery to 77.6%, and subsequent electro-stripping yielded an overall Rh recovery of 24.0%. Reticulated Vitreous Carbon (RVC) and activated carbon cloth (ACC) electrodes were selected to maximize Rh recovery, and dichloromethane (DCM) containing tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6) served as a conductive reaction medium that maintained hydroformylation catalytic performance. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed reduction of the spent Rh catalyst to Rh(0) at the working electrode and oxidation to Rh(III) at the counter electrode. Mass spectrometry confirmed that the stripped Rh in the acidic solution existed as chloride- or nitrate- ligated complexes. A techno-economic analysis indicates that the process achieves cost savings of more than 100 000 USD per kilogram of Rh recovered, corresponding to approximately 40% of the average Rh market value from recent years. This work uniquely demonstrates the direct electrochemical recovery of spent homogeneous hydroformylation catalysts from an industrially relevant reaction medium.
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- The following article is Open accessAnion Effects on Manganese Dioxide Charge Storage in Electrochemical Capacitor Systems
Fahad J. Mujammami and Scott W. Donne 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160506
View article, Anion Effects on Manganese Dioxide Charge Storage in Electrochemical Capacitor SystemsPDF, Anion Effects on Manganese Dioxide Charge Storage in Electrochemical Capacitor SystemsHerein the behavior of electrodeposited manganese dioxide is examined in different aqueous electrolytes to demonstrate the impact the electrolyte anion has on its performance as an electrochemical capacitor electrode. Potassium salts of sulfate, chloride, perchlorate and nitrate were used. A double pulse chronoamperometric technique is used to deposit the manganese dioxide onto a platinum coated quartz EQCM electrode. These confirm manganese dioxide as the electrodeposition product, as well as enable determination of the manganese dioxide electrochemically active surface area. Performance and mechanistic analyses were conducted using cyclic voltammetry in which case the sulfate system performed best (217 F·g−1 at 0.01 V·s−1). The rate of capacitance fade (dC/dlog(v)) decreased as the Coulombic efficiency tended to unity. EQCM data show that the sulfate system is unique in that sulfate adsorption and desorption contribute to charge storage. This was not the case for the other systems, in which case only cation (de)intercalation processes were apparent. It is demonstrated that K+ (de)intercalation is a relatively facile process, albeit with limited capacity, compared to H+ (de)intercalation, which has access to greater charge because of diffusion within the manganese dioxide structure. In the sulfate system, anion adsorption and desorption was also a relatively slow process.
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- The following article is Open accessMultiscale Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Integrating P4D Analysis with Microstructure-Resolved DEM Simulations
Timothy Carlson et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc. 173 160505
View article, Multiscale Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Integrating P4D Analysis with Microstructure-Resolved DEM SimulationsPDF, Multiscale Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Integrating P4D Analysis with Microstructure-Resolved DEM SimulationsIncorporating electrode microstructure design and manufacturing variability remains a major barrier to developing predictive digital twins of practical batteries. This work presents an integrated simulation workflow that upscales manufacturing-induced microstructural features to cell-level electrochemical behavior and validates predictions against published experimental data. The workflow begins with discrete element method (DEM) mixing simulations of active material particles stochastically generated from particle size distributions. The resulting microstructure is then compressed using Finite Element (FE) calendering simulations to match experimentally observed mass loading and porosity. Spatially resolved continuum properties, including local particle radii, specific surface area, and porosity, are extracted from the calendered microstructure. Tortuosity is further quantified through effective diffusivity and solid conductivity simulations to determine Bruggeman coefficients. These parameters are mapped into an inhomogeneous, anisotropic pseudo-4D (P4D) electrochemical model and compared with conventional P4D simulations assuming uniform electrode properties. The integrated workflow shows that realistic manufacturing-induced heterogeneity modifies cell-scale transport behavior and predicted rate capability. Two representative electrode cases from Wood et al. [Journal of Power Sources 515, 230,429 (2021)] are simulated and compared with experimental performance data.
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Highlights
Enables efficient analysis and optimization of structured electrodes.
Creates heterogeneous battery cell virtual twins from manufacturing simulation.
Captures microstructure effects on performance and aging via homogenization.
Enables efficient multiphysics simulation of heterogeneous energy materials.
Validates predicted trends against published experimental results.
- The following article is Open accessAssessment of Power-Limiting Processes in LiFePO4-Based Composite Electrodes Linking Design and Electrochemical Performance
Mohamed Raghibi et al 2026 J. Electrochem. Soc.
View article, Assessment of Power-Limiting Processes in LiFePO4-Based Composite Electrodes Linking Design and Electrochemical PerformancePDF, Assessment of Power-Limiting Processes in LiFePO4-Based Composite Electrodes Linking Design and Electrochemical PerformanceOptimizing electrode design represents a key strategy for improving Li-ion batteries to meet the requirements of electric mobility. Here, we investigate the effects of composition, porosity, and loading on the electrochemical response of LiFePO4 (LFP)-based electrode using galvanostatic cycling (determination of the limiting current density, Jlim) and Impedance Spectroscopy. A complete characterization by electron microscopy, laser granulometry, and gas adsorption, allows microstructure characterization and defines both active material and composite electrodes' surface. Subsequently, the limiting processes are identified and correlated to the evolution of Jlim and the effective diffusion coefficient (Deff). The impedance spectra exhibit a strong dependence with porosity and carbon content with a dominant contribution ascribed to the electronic contact resistance (Rc). Once Rc is minimized at an optimal porosity of 20%, the effect of low carbon content is partially mitigated, leading to a four- to nine-fold increase in Jlim across all compositions. Increasing the LFP loading (0.8 to 2.9 mAh·cm⁻²) results in a twofold drop in performance. Variations in Jlim and Deff indicate a shift from active material-driven to electrolyte-driven limitations. No charge transfer contribution is observed in the impedance spectra, and it is considered negligible, as confirmed by low-temperature measurements.
- Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution
J. K. Nørskov et al 2005 J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 J23
View article, Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen EvolutionPDF, Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen EvolutionA density functional theory database of hydrogen chemisorption energies on close packed surfaces of a number of transition and noble metals is presented. The bond energies are used to understand the trends in the exchange current for hydrogen evolution. A volcano curve is obtained when measured exchange currents are plotted as a function of the calculated hydrogen adsorption energies and a simple kinetic model is developed to understand the origin of the volcano. The volcano curve is also consistent with Pt being the most efficient electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution. © 2005 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]
Wolfgang Schmickler and Sergio Trasatti 2006 J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 L31
View article, Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]PDF, Comment on “Trends in the Exchange Current for Hydrogen Evolution” [J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, J23 (2005)]We compare the adsorption energies calculated by Nørskov et al. with data derived from experimental values; except for Ni and Co, which absorb hydrogen strongly, there is a linear relation. We discuss the model proposed by these authors in the light of extensive previous work and of experimental data and find it overly simplistic.
- The following article is Open accessReview—SEI: Past, Present and Future
E. Peled and S. Menkin 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1703
The Solid-Electrolyte-Interphase (SEI) model for non-aqueous alkali-metal batteries constitutes a paradigm change in the understanding of lithium batteries and has thus enabled the development of safer, durable, higher-power and lower-cost lithium batteries for portable and EV applications. Prior to the publication of the SEI model (1979), researchers used the Butler-Volmer equation, in which a direct electron transfer from the electrode to lithium cations in the solution is assumed. The SEI model proved that this is a mistaken concept and that, in practice, the transfer of electrons from the electrode to the solution in a lithium battery, must be prevented, since it will result in fast self-discharge of the active materials and poor battery performance. This model provides [E. Peled, in “Lithium Batteries,” J.P. Gabano (ed), Academic Press, (1983), E. Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc., 126, 2047 (1979).] new equations for: electrode kinetics (io and b), anode corrosion, SEI resistivity and growth rate and irreversible capacity loss of lithium-ion batteries. This model became a cornerstone in the science and technology of lithium batteries. This paper reviews the past, present and the future of SEI batteries.
- The following article is Open accessOxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries
Roland Jung et al 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A1361
View article, Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion BatteriesPDF, Oxygen Release and Its Effect on the Cycling Stability of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) Cathode Materials for Li-Ion BatteriesLayered LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) is a widely used class of cathode materials with LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) being the most common representative. However, Ni-rich NMCs are more and more in the focus of current research due to their higher specific capacity and energy. In this work we will compare LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111), LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 (NMC622), and LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) with respect to their cycling stability in NMC-graphite full-cells at different end-of-charge potentials. It will be shown that stable cycling is possible up to 4.4 V for NMC111 and NMC622 and only up to 4.0 V for NMC811. At higher potentials, significant capacity fading was observed, which was traced back to an increase in the polarization of the NMC electrode, contrary to the nearly constant polarization of the graphite electrode. Furthermore, we show that the increase in the polarization occurs when the NMC materials are cycled up to a high-voltage feature in the dq/dV plot, which occurs at ∼4.7 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC111 and NMC622 and at ∼4.3 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC811. For the latter material, this feature corresponds to the H2 → H3 phase transition. Contrary to the common understanding that the electrochemical oxidation of carbonate electrolytes causes the CO2 and CO evolution at potentials above 4.7 V vs. Li/Li+, we believe that the observed CO2 and CO are mainly due to the chemical reaction of reactive lattice oxygen with the electrolyte. This hypothesis is based on gas analysis using On-line Electrochemical Mass Spectrometry (OEMS), by which we prove that all three materials release oxygen from the particle surface and that the oxygen evolution coincides with the onset of CO2 and CO evolution. Interestingly, the onsets of oxygen evolution for the different NMCs correlate well with the high-voltage redox feature at ∼4.7 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC111 and NMC622 as well as at ∼4.3 V vs. Li/Li+ for NMC811. To support this hypothesis, we show that no CO2 or CO is evolved for the LiNi0.43Mn1.57O4 (LNMO) spinel up to 5 V vs. Li/Li+, consistent with the absence of oxygen release. Lastly, we demonstrate by the use of 13C labeled conductive carbon that it is the electrolyte rather than the conductive carbon which is oxidized by the released lattice oxygen. Taking these findings into consideration, a mechanism is proposed for the reaction of released lattice oxygen with ethylene carbonate yielding CO2, CO, and H2O.
- High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion Batteries
D. A. Stevens and J. R. Dahn 2000 J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 1271
View article, High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion BatteriesPDF, High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion BatteriesElectrochemical techniques have been used to study the reversible insertion of sodium into hard‐carbon host structures at room temperature. In this paper we compare these results with those for lithium insertion in the same materials and demonstrate the presence of similar alkali metal insertion mechanisms in both cases. Despite the gravimetric capacities being lower for sodium than lithium insertion, we have achieved a reversible sodium capacity of 300 mAh/g, close to that for lithium insertion in graphitic carbon anode materials. Such materials may therefore be useful as anodes in rechargeable sodium‐ion batteries. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries
Todd M. Bandhauer et al 2011 J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 R1
View article, A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion BatteriesPDF, A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion BatteriesLithium-ion batteries are well-suited for fully electric and hybrid electric vehicles due to their high specific energy and energy density relative to other rechargeable cell chemistries. However, these batteries have not been widely deployed commercially in these vehicles yet due to safety, cost, and poor low temperature performance, which are all challenges related to battery thermal management. In this paper, a critical review of the available literature on the major thermal issues for lithium-ion batteries is presented. Specific attention is paid to the effects of temperature and thermal management on capacity/power fade, thermal runaway, and pack electrical imbalance and to the performance of lithium-ion cells at cold temperatures. Furthermore, insights gained from previous experimental and modeling investigations are elucidated. These include the need for more accurate heat generation measurements, improved modeling of the heat generation rate, and clarity in the relative magnitudes of the various thermal effects observed at high charge and discharge rates seen in electric vehicle applications. From an analysis of the literature, the requirements for lithium-ion thermal management systems for optimal performance in these applications are suggested, and it is clear that no existing thermal management strategy or technology meets all these requirements.
- The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer Interfaces
Charles Monroe and John Newman 2005 J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 A396
View article, The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer InterfacesPDF, The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer InterfacesPast theories of electrode stability assume that the surface tension resists the amplification of surface roughness at cathodes and show that instability at lithium/liquid interfaces cannot be prevented by surface forces alone [Electrochim. Acta, 40, 599 (1995)]. This work treats interfacial stability in lithium/polymer systems where the electrolyte is solid. Linear elasticity theory is employed to compute the additional effect of bulk mechanical forces on electrode stability. The lithium and polymer are treated as Hookean elastic materials, characterized by their shear moduli and Poisson’s ratios. Two-dimensional displacement distributions that satisfy force balances across a periodically deforming interface are derived; these allow computation of the stress and surface-tension forces. The incorporation of elastic effects into a kinetic model demonstrates regimes of electrolyte mechanical properties where amplification of surface roughness can be inhibited. For a polymer material with Poisson’s ratio similar to poly(ethylene oxide), interfacial roughening is mechanically suppressed when the separator shear modulus is about twice that of lithium. © 2005 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon Materials
D. A. Stevens and J. R. Dahn 2001 J. Electrochem. Soc. 148 A803
View article, The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon MaterialsPDF, The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon MaterialsIn this paper, we compare the interactions of lithium and sodium with a range of carbon materials in electrochemical cells. Through wide angle in situ X-ray scattering studies, we demonstrate that both lithium and sodium can be inserted into the interlayer space in disordered carbon materials. This insertion process is accompanied by an increase in the interlayer spacing in these materials. Small-angle in situ scattering studies are presented to clearly show the insertion of lithium and sodium into nanopores within disordered hard carbons. We also show that very little, if any, sodium can be inserted into graphitic materials in contrast to the large capacity seen for lithium insertion. © 2001 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
- The following article is Open accessThe Development and Future of Lithium Ion Batteries
George E. Blomgren 2017 J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 A5019
View article, The Development and Future of Lithium Ion BatteriesPDF, The Development and Future of Lithium Ion BatteriesThis year, the battery industry celebrates the 25th anniversary of the introduction of the lithium ion rechargeable battery by Sony Corporation. The discovery of the system dates back to earlier work by Asahi Kasei in Japan, which used a combination of lower temperature carbons for the negative electrode to prevent solvent degradation and lithium cobalt dioxide modified somewhat from Goodenough's earlier work. The development by Sony was carried out within a few years by bringing together technology in film coating from their magnetic tape division and electrochemical technology from their battery division. The past 25 years has shown rapid growth in the sales and in the benefits of lithium ion in comparison to all the earlier rechargeable battery systems. Recent work on new materials shows that there is a good likelihood that the lithium ion battery will continue to improve in cost, energy, safety and power capability and will be a formidable competitor for some years to come.
- The following article is Open accessDevelopment of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery Models
Chang-Hui Chen et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 080534
View article, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPDF, Development of Experimental Techniques for Parameterization of Multi-scale Lithium-ion Battery ModelsPresented here, is an extensive 35 parameter experimental data set of a cylindrical 21700 commercial cell (LGM50), for an electrochemical pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) model. The experimental methodologies for tear-down and subsequent chemical, physical, electrochemical kinetics and thermodynamic analysis, and their accuracy and validity are discussed. Chemical analysis of the LGM50 cell shows that it is comprised of a NMC 811 positive electrode and bi-component Graphite-SiOx negative electrode. The thermodynamic open circuit voltages (OCV) and lithium stoichiometry in the electrode are obtained using galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) in half cell and three-electrode full cell configurations. The activation energy and exchange current coefficient through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. Apparent diffusion coefficients are estimated using the Sand equation on the voltage transient during the current pulse; an expansion factor was applied to the bi-component negative electrode data to reflect the average change in effective surface area during lithiation. The 35 parameters are applied within a P2D model to show the fit to experimental validation LGM50 cell discharge and relaxation voltage profiles at room temperature. The accuracy and validity of the processes and the techniques in the determination of these parameters are discussed, including opportunities for further modelling and data analysis improvements.
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- 1902-present
Journal of The Electrochemical Society
doi: 10.1149/issn.1945-7111
Online ISSN: 1945-7111
Print ISSN: 0013-4651