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example of elementary examination

2010-08-13T01:04:00.000-07:00

Name: Date:

Mathematics

Write the place of the underlined digit.

1. 67 415
2. 33 216
3. 87 412
4. 91 578
5. 61 432

Write in words.
1. 8 328
2. 41 721
3. 634
4. 93 458
5. 28 396

Write in Figures

1. Seventy eight thousand three hundred thirty six. ___________________________
2. Twenty one thousand five hundred sixty four. ____________________________
3. One hundred thousand. ____________________________
4. Eighty six thousand eight hundred seventy four. ___________________________
5. Fifteen thousand four hundred thirty one. ___________________________

Write > < or = in each pair of numbers.

1. 246 _______ 154 6. 28362 _______ 4591
2. 140 _______ 193 7. 179 _______ 6821
3. 87 _______ 64 8. 334 _______ 7489
4. 3478 _______ 2356 9. 5631 _______ 4110
5. 16, 482 _______ 354 10. 3964 _______ 2356

Round off to the nearest place value indicated.

1. 1 783 3. 88 765 5.16278
2. 6 924 4. 4 321

Write Odd or Even.

1. 38 5. 773
2. 46
3. 91
4. 3 827
Write in symbols

1. twenty five pesos and thirty centavos
2. one hundred pesos
3. ninety three pesos and seventy five centavos
4. seven hundred sixty three pesos and fifty centavos
5. nine hundred forty six pesos and seventy five centavos

Write the following numbers in Roman numerals.

1. 456 6. 32
2. 384 7. 419
3. 69 8. 79
4. 302 9. 1 328
5. 1 928 10. 869

Write the numbers in column, then add.

1. 42 131 + 11 021 + 10 102
2. 25 041+ 13 102 + 61 213
3. 52 345 + 90 000 + 12 230
4. The answer in addition is called _______________.
a. Difference c. sum or total
b. Product d. quotient
5. a. minuend b. subtrahend c. addends d. product
are the numbers that are added together.

Name:
Grade and Section:

1st Periodical Test
English

I. Multiple Choice

1. Which of the pair of words has rhyming sound
a. boys – girls
b. sacks – shoes
c. bee – see
2. Which has a final consonant ch
a. chair
b. hush
c. watch
3. Which of the following has a rising intonation?
a. what is your name?
b. the flower is blooming.
c. Can you do the duck walk?
4. ________ animals need to be loved and care?
a. do
b. does
c. who
5. Which of the following expression should you see it your going to turn down an invitation.
a. I’m sorry
b. I don’t like
c. Thank you
6. The following phrases are courteous expression except.
a. I’m sorry
b. Good morning
c. I got out
7. Which of the following expression will you see it you are going to use a comport room.
a. Excuse me, Ma’am may I go out?
b. I go out
c. I use the comfort room
8. Which of the following is not the same as the others.
a. wash
b. street
c. strong
9. Which of the following has consonant /br/
a. flash
b. brick
c. clock

10. What is the correct spelling?
a. bright
b. brawn
c. breve

II. A. Write if the voice rises at the end of the sentences and if the voice falls at the end of the sentence.

______1. Do you walk to school everyday?
______2. Clara likes to pay computer.
______3. Do you watch basketball games?
______4. Do birds fly?
______5. Mother cooks food everyday.

B. Enumeration:

Write words with initial consonant sound:

Final Consonant sound /F/

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

III. Write 5 words that rhymes.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

IV. Spelling (1-10)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Name:
Date:

SCIENCE

I. Identify the word or group of words being described.
_______________1. They are nerves which carry the message to the brain.(eye)
_______________2. It focuses the image on the retina.
_______________3. It is an eye infection like a small boil.
_______________4. It controls the amount of light which enters the eye.
_______________5. It protects the inner eye from dust.
_______________6. Allows the light to enter the inner part of the eye.
_______________7. Part where image is formed.
_______________8. It brings the message to the brain. (Ear)
_______________9. Tiny hairs inside the nose.
_______________10. Two openings in the nose.

II. Match the correct answer. Write the letter on the blank.
_______1. It is the largest organ of the body a. fan sighted
_______2. It is the inner part of the skin. b. taste buds
_______3. send the messages to the brain (nose) c. sweat glands
_______4. sense organ for smelling d. capillaries
_______5. it is the passages between the outer e. papillae
Ear and middle ear.
_______6. where the fluids that maintain our sense f. melanin
of balanced located at.
_______7. it separates the middle ear from the g. nerve endings
outer ear.
_______8. too much bleeding of the nose h. nose bleeding
_______9. they enable the skin to detect what is i. eardrum
hot from cold
_______10. it is a pigment cell responsible j. cochlea
For giving color of the skin
_______11. it is small reddish – pink taste buds k. ear canal
_______12. it is enlarge when the environment is hot l. nose
_______13. these glands eliminate excess salt from m. olfactory nerves
your body through perspiration n. dermis
_______14. these sends messages to the brain (tongue) o. skin
_______15. cannot see near things clearly p. epidermis

II. Enumerate:

Name:
Grade:

Filipino III

Unang Panahunanag Pagsusulit

I – Basahing mabuti ang bawat pangungusap, tanong, talata o maikling seleksyon.
Bilugan ang titil ng tamang sagot.

1. Anong bagong salita ang mabubuo kung isasaayos ang mga pantig na nakakahon?

a.Katahimikan c. kapayapaan
b.Kalayaan d. kapanatagan
2. Dadalhin sa ospital si Lolo Paquito. Nagmamadali ang ambulansya. Ano ang tunog na malilikha nito?
a. Bruk…Bruk…Bruk c. We…We…We
b. Tot…Tot…Tot… d. Put…Put…Put…
3. Alin ang mg ass. na ingay/huni ng mga hayop ang mabangis?
a. Moo! Moo! Moo! c. Meow! Meow! Meow!
b. Ngrr! Ngrr! Ngrr! d. Tweet! Tweet! Tweet!
4. Ang Wang! Wang! Wang! Ay ingay na ginagawa ng bumbero. Ano naman ang para sa tren?
a. Eng! Eng! Eng! c. Pot! Pot! Pot!
b. Tsug! Tsug! Tsug! d. Bruk! Bruk! Bruk!
5. Alin sa mg ass. Na salita ang higit na makakatulong sa pagbibigay ng tamang direksyon?
a. malapit lang po c. tapat o katabi ng tindahan
b. doon sa dako roon d. diyan lang
6. Suot niya ang damit na ____ ngayon. Ito ay mula sa balat ng____.
a. oso – oso c. osu – osu
b. uso – uso d. oso – osu
7. Nais mong gamitin ang aklat ng iyong katabi. Ang dapat mong sabihin sa kanya?
a. maaari ko bang hiramin ang aklat na iyan?
b. pahiram nga ng aklat na iyan.
c. puwede ko na bang gamitin yan?
d. gusto kong basahin ang aklat na iyan.
8. Nasalubong ni Maricel ang kanyang guro sa pasilyo ng silid aralan. Paano niya ito babatiin?
a. paalam napo c. magandang umaga po
b. magandang araw po d. wala po ano man
9. Alin sa mga sumusunod na salita ang higit na makatutulong sa pagbibigay ng tamang direksyon. Alin ito.
a. malapit lang po c. tapat o katabi ng tindahan
b. doon sa dako roon d. diyan lang
10. May napulot na bola si Aiza sa palawan. Lumapit siya sa mga batang nagkakatuwaan. Tinanong niya ang mga ito “sa_____ ba ang bolang ito?”
a. akin c. inyo
b. iyo d. kanila

II – Isulat sa patlang ang tamang sagot sa patlang.
______________1.ay ngalan ng tao, hayop, bagay, pook at pangyayari.
______________2.ito ay uri ng pangalan na nagbibigay ngalan sa karaniwang ngalan ng
tao, bagay, hayop, pook at pangyayari.
______________3. tiyak na ngalan ng tao, nagay, pook, at pangyayari, nagsisimula sa
malaking titik.
______________4. pangalang hindi matiyak kung lalaki o babae.
______________5. pangalang para sa babae.
______________6. pangalang para sa bagay.
______________7. pangalang para sa lalaki.

III. Salungguhitan ang pangalan sa pangungusap. Isulat sa patlang kung pambalana o panlapi.
______________1. Si Neil ay matalino at mabuti.
______________2. Siya ay kinalulugdan ng kanyang mga magulang.
______________3. Ang mga kapatid niya ay humahanga rin sa kanya
______________4. Tanyag din siya sa Lopez Elementary School
______________5. Si Bb. Roxas ay isa sa mga pumupuri sa kanya
______________6. Siya ay may aklat na paborito niyang basahin
______________7. Ang kanyang kaklase ay may magagandang balita para sa kanya.
______________8. Nagsasaliksik siya sa National Library.
______________9. Mula Hunyo, kinakikitaan na siya ng sipag sa pag-aaral.
______________10. Tumatanggap siya ng medalya noong Marso.

IV – Tukuyin ang kasarian ng pangalangh may salungguhit sa pangungusap. Isulat ang
PL kung panlalaki, PB kung pambabae, DT kung di-tiyak at WK kung walang
kasarian.
______________1. Sama-samang nagtungo ang mag-aaral sa simbahan.
______________2. Ang sanggol ay kay kinis-kinis.
______________3. Darating sa Lunes ang tiya ni Fred.
______________4. malinis ba lagi ang uniporme mo?
______________5. Ang lola ay nagkukuwento gabi-gabi.
______________6. Matitibay ang mga ngipin ng kuya ko.
______________7. Bagong lipat sa aming barangay si G. Dante Lina
______________8. Mabait sa pasyente ang nars.
______________9. Ang reyna ay iginagalang ng lahat.
______________10. Kumain tayo ng sari-saring prutas.

IV. Bilugan ang paksang Diwa ng Talata.
1.Maraming bata sa elementarya ang nagkakatipu-tipon sa awditoryum ng paaralan. Nais nilang mapanuod ang dulang ipalalabas ng mga nasa hayskul, ang “Ibong Adarna.” Gusto nilang Makita ang mga kasuotang pangmaharlika noong unang panahon. Ang iba namn ay nais mapanuod ang pag-arte ng mga tauhan sa dula.

2.Si Alyssa ay napiling lakambini ng kanilang klase. Siya rin ang magiging panlaban ng klase sa paligsahan sa kagandahan. Mahaba ang kanyang buhok, maputi at makinis ang kutis, mataangos ang ilong at may biloy sa magkabilang pisngi.

3.Magdiriwang si Diana ng kanyang ikalabingwalong taong gulang sa Martes. Idadaos ang kanyang debut sa Shangrila Hotel. Ang kanyang gown ay tinahi ng bantog na couturier, si Pitoy Moreno. Ito ay kulay asul at may kulay gintong nakaburda sa baywang na yari sa telang seda.

SAN LEONARDO CENTRAL SCHOOL
San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija

UNANG MARKAHANG PAGSUSULIT
Sibika at Kultura III

Pangalan: ____________________ Petsa: _______________
Antas: _______________________ Iskor: _______________

I. Tukuyin ang tamang sagot ng mga sumusunod. Isulat ang sagot sa unahan ng bilang.
______________1. tinatawag na Perlas ng Silangan.
______________2. Ang tawag sa bawat tumpok ng Lupa na naliligid ng tubig.
______________3. Ang pinakamaliit na pangkat ng mga pulo
______________4. ikalawang pinakamalaking pangkat ng pulo.
______________5. tinatawag din itong piyer. Daungan ito ng barko.
______________6. Anyong tubig na naliligiran ng lupa.
______________7. pinakamalaking anyong Tubig.
______________8. Anyong tubig na bumabagsak mula sa bundok o mataas na lugar
______________9. Ito ay maliliit kaysa sa karagatan.
______________10. Isang mataas na anyong lupa may bibig ito sa ibabaw.
______________11. Anyong lupa na kung saan tayo ay nakatira.
______________12. Anyong tubig na umaagos papunta sa lawa, look o dagat.
______________13. ito ay kapatagan sa ibabaw na mataas na bahaging lupa.
______________14. ito ang pinakamataas na anyong lupa.
______________15. pinakamalaking pangkat ng mga pulo.

II. Panuto: Basahin ang bawat tanong o pahayag mula sa opsyon. Bilugan ang letra ng
tamang sagot.
1.Ang Pilipinas ay binubuo ng humigit kumulang sa ________ na pulo.
a. 7, 107 b. 7,701 c. 7,007 d. 7, 807
2.Alin sa mga sumusunod ang totoo tungkol sa Pilipinas
a.lahat ng pulo sa pilipinas ay natitirhan
b.ang pilipinas ay binubuo ng maraming pulo
c.lahat ng tao sa pilipinas ay marunong bumasa
d.malaki ang mga gusali sa pilipinas.
3.Ang pinakamalaki sa pangkat at _________.
a.Luzon
b.Vizayas
c.Mindanao
d.Wala sa nabanggit
4.Saan matatagpuan ang Mt. Pinatubo?
a. Bulacan b. Zambales c. Maynila d. Cavite
5. Alin ang gagamitin mong simbolo o sagisag para sa bulkan?
a. b. c. d.

6. Alin ang gagamitin mong simbolo o sagisag para sa dagat.
a. b. c. d.

7.Tinatawag sa kapuluan ang pilipinas sapagkat ito ay binubuo ng
a.Maraming maliit at malaking pulo
b.Magagandang tanawin
c.Maraming pangisdaan
d.Maraming kahuyan
8.Ano ang anyong tubig na makitid kaysa dagat at hindi gaanong malalim?
a. ilog b. bukal c. lawa
9. Ano ang ahensyang patuloy na nagbabantay sa mga bulkan?
a. PAG-ASA b. PHILVOCS c. DSWD d. DPWH
10. Ano ang ahensyang patuloy na nagbabantay ng lagay ng panahon?
a. PAG-ASA b. PHILVOCS c. DSWD d. DPWH

III. Pag-iisa: Isulat ang mga hinihinging sagot.

___________1. Tinaguriang Rice Granary of the Philippines.
___________2. Lalawigang sinilangan ni dating Pangulong Ramon Magsaysay
___________3. Kilala bilang Economic Processing Zone of the Philippines
___________4. Lalawigan ng mga makata at bayani.
___________5. Kilala bilang Sugar bowl of the Philippines.

1 – 4 Suriin ang larawan sa ibaba at sagutan ang bilang.

____________________________1. Direksyon na nasa pagitan ng Hilaga at Kanlungan
____________________________2. Direksyon Na nasa pagitan ng Hilaga at Silangan
____________________________3. Direksyon sa pagitan ng Silangan at Timog
____________________________4. Direksyon sa pagitan ng Timog at Kanluran

2010-06-22T06:43:00.000-07:00

Ang paglalarawan ay isang paraan ng pang araw-araw na pagpapahayag na dapat nating matutunan. Ang paglalarawan ay nauuri ayon sa pakay o layunin ng pagpapahayag na inihahatid naman ng instrumentong ginamit natin sa paglalarawan. May mga pagkakataon na maaaring hindi natin namalayang nakapaglalarawan na pala tayo. May tatlong paraan ng paglalarawan:
Ang paglalarawan ay isang anyo o paraan ng pagpapahayag ng mga kaisipan o pala-palagay.
Maaring tungkol sa tao, hayop, bagay, lugar at pangyayari.
Ginagamitan ito ng makulay, mahuhugis at maaanyo at ibang mapapandamang (naamoy, nalalasahan, naririnig) pananalita.
• batay sa pandama - nakita, naamoy, nalasahan, nahawakan, at narinig.
• batay sa nararamdaman - bugso ng damdamin.
• batay sa observasyon - batay sa observasyon ng mga nagyayari.
Mga Uri ng Paglalarawan
1. Konkreto/ Karaniwan/ Obhetibong Paglalarawan
Nagbibigay lamang ng impormasyon sa inilalarawan,
hindi ito naglalaman ng saloobin at ideya ng paglalarawan. Ibinibigay lamang nito ang karaniwang anyo ng inilalarawan ayon sa pangmalas ng pangkalahatan.
2. Masining/Subhetibong Paglalarawan
Nagkakaroon ng isyu o nagkakaroon ng pagtatalo sa masining o subhetibong paglalarawan. Nagiging subhetibo kapag ito'y masining, nangangahulugang paano titingnan ang isang bagay. Ang sining ay dapat bang tumugon sa lipunan?
Ginagamit din ang masining na paglalarawan sa panitikan,
gaya sa tula, nobela at maikling kuwento. Hindi rin dapat kaligtaan na ito'y ginagamit na may layunin.
Sa kabuuan, pinagagalaw ng masining na paglalarawan ang guniguni ng bumabasa o nakikinig upang makita ang isang larawang buhay na buhay. Ito'y naglalaman ng damdamin at pananaw ng sumusulat. Ibinibigay niya ang isang buhay na larawan ayon sa kanyang nakikita at nadarama.
3. Teknikal na Paglalarawan
Pangunahing layunin ng siyensiya ang mailarawan nang akma ang anumang dapat at kailangang malaman mula sa mundo at kalawakan, kaysa nakatuon ang manunulat ng teknikal na sulatin sa eksaktong representasyon ng mga bagay-bagay at pangyayari. Sa pagkakamit ng kaeksaktuhan o kaakmaan, kalimitang gumagamit ng mga ilustrasyon ang manunulat ng teknikal na sulatin upang makita ng mambabasa ang larawan o hitsura ng inilalarawan. Subalit hindi pa rin sapat ang mga ilustrasyon at/o drowing o litrato upang magbigay ng sapat na representasyon. Tumutulong ang mga ito sa pagpapakita ng larawan.
Ngunit hindi sinasagot ang mga sumusunod na mga katanungan:
• Ano iyon?
• Para ano iyon?
• Ano ang nagagawa?
• Ano ang nangyayari pagkatapos na magawa iyon?
• Saan iyon gawa?
• Anu-ano ang mga batayang bahagi niyon?
Upang masagot nang buo ang mga katanungang nabanggit, kailangan munang sa paningin ng manunulat ang malinaw na larawan ng bagay o prosesong inilalarawan. Kailangan ding may sapat na kaalaman siya sa pagbibigay ng pangalan sa mga bahaging inilalarawan at sa mga kaugnayan ng mga ito sa bawat isa. Higit sa lahat, kailangang malaman niya ang layunin at/o tungkulin ng bagay o organismo.
PAGLALARAWAN - Ito'y isang anyo ng pagpapahayag na
naglalayong bumuo ng isang malinaw na larawan sa isip ng
mga mambabasa o nakikinig. sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng
tiyak na salitang naglalarwan, gaya ng pang-uri at
pang-abay, malinaw na naipakikita ang katangian ng tao,
bagay, lugar o pangyayari na ating nakikita, naririnig o
nadarama.
- napapagalaw at napakikislot din ng
paglalarawan ang ating mga guni-guni, imahinasyon at
nakatatawag ng paningin at pansin ng mga mambabasa.

MGA KATANGIAN NG ISANG MAHUSAY NA PAGLALARAWAN

1. May tiyak at kawili-wiling paksa
2. Gumagamit ng wasto at angkop na pananalita.
3. Malinaw na pagbuo sa mga larawang nais ipakita.
4. Isinasaalang-alang ang pagpili ng sariling pananaw sa
paglalarawan.

Iba't Ibang pananaw na magagamit:

a. distansya sa bagay na inilalarawan gaya ng agwat
o layo nito
b. kung nasa loob o labas
c. ayon sa sariling palagay o damdamin ng
naglalarawan bunga ng kanyang karanasan o ng
karanasan ng ibang tao.
d. ayon sa sariling palagay batay sa kanyang
narinig o nabasa.

5. Pumupukaw ng higit sa isang pandamdam: Paningin;
pandinig; pang-amoy; panlasa at panalat.
6. may kaisahan sa paglalahad ng mga kaisipang inilalarawan
7. May tiyak na layunin sa paglalarawan.
Mga Uri ng Paglalarawan

1. Karaniwan o konkretong Paglalarawan - layunin nito ang
magbigay ng kaalaman hinggil sa isang bagay ayon sa
pangkalahatang pangmalas ng manunulat. Sa pamamagitan ng
tiyak na salitang naglalarawan, naipakikita ang fisikal
o konkretong katangian. Higit na bib\nibigyang - diin sa
paglalarawang ito kung ano ang nakikita at hindi and
nilalaman ng damdamin o kuru-kuro ng manunulat.

2. Masining?abstraktong Paglalarawan - naglalayung pukawin
ang guni-guni at damdamin ng mambabasa. Higit na
nabibigyang diin dito hindi ang tiyak na larawang
nakikita kundi ang makulay na larawang nililikha ng
imahinasyon. Gumagamit ito ng mga salitang nagpapaganda
rito gaya ng mga tayutay at iba pang mga salitang
patalinhaga.

Mga Halimbawa ng Masining o Pbstratikong Paglalarawan:

1. Paglalarawan sa Tao
- ... sapagkat si Susana'y mukhang angel ng
kagandahan sa kanya... (Talulot sa pagas na
Lupa - Landicho)

2. Paglalarawan sa Damdamin
- ...punung-puno ng nakatatakot na larawan ang
kanyang ulo. (O Pangsintang labis - Tumangan)

3. Paglalarawan sa Bagay
- ... ang dambuhalang makinang iyon ay waring isang
kapangyarihang nalalamon... (Makina - Marisa)

4. Paglalarawan ng tanawin o Lugar
- sa sinag ng bukang - liwayway ay tila nga naman
nag-aanyayang kung paano ang bahay na malaki.
Tisang balot ng lumot sa bubong ay tila
nagliliwanag. pati ang kurtinang gagalaw-galaw sa
marahang simoy ng hangin ay tila kumakaway.
(Kasalan sa Malakaing bayan - Pineda)

Tula

N—Noy , karamihan, isinisigaw ng Pilipino,
sa buong mundo, lahat-lahat, mabango-mabango !
Bakit ?..Bayan, sobrang-nasirang mga politiko,
karamihan humi-hingi, tunay na pagbabago !
Opisyales mga nanumpa, umaktong “dorobo”,
mandaraya, magnanakaw-sagradong mga boto !
Nakapagtataka, kay daming “maka-pili ” na TAO,
di masisi, dahil Peso, ng mga Politiko !

O—Ompisa noong siya’y sumigaw sa panguluhan,
kay dami ng napukawan, kasama na si JUan !
nagising sa pagtulog na may kasinunga-lingan,
EDSA-dos (2), pala’y di totoo, lahat-kalukuhan !
pati na ” CONSTITUTION ” dinusta at niyurakan,
walang ginawa, pati alipores, nagpa-YAMAN !
kumulilat ang Pilipinas, sa NASYONG SAMAHAN,
nagsisi si JUAN, bulsa niya ay ninakawan !

Y—Yang mga botante ngayon, mga handang-handa na,
sana nga sa isip-puso di mag-pabigla-bigla !
baka sa silaw ng pilak, at yaman, tutukan-ka,
sagradong boto, mabili at magka-bakla-bakla !
di alam, sarili’y , Espiritu nila’y wala na,
tulad sa lindol, TAO’t ” properties” mga patay na,
pagsisisi na lamang lagi, wala ng GINHAWA !

May MAkuKUha Ka Sa BasURa…AlamiN
Ni: Edong Magpayo

Alas Diyes’y Medya (10:30 AM) ng umaga, ika 28 ng Hulyo, 2007 habang pinapatay ko ang oras sa pag-aantay ng aming programa sa DYPR AM ay pinili ko munang maupo sa harapan ng labas ng himpilan… Habang nililibang ko ang aking sarili sa paggawa ng balitang pang-kalikasan na aking babasahin ay namatyagan ko ang isang matandang lalake na namumulot ng basura sa panulukan ng Mabini at gamit lamang ang isang matulis na bagay na siya niyang pinandadampot sa mga basurang kaniyang nadadaanan sa kalye.

Naisip ko agad na sila ay bahagi ng programang Oplan Linis ng Lungsod ng Puerto Princesa, at isa nga sila sa dahilan kung bakit patuloy na nanatiling malinis ang pinakapusod ng lungsod. Maaaring isa rin siya sa naging tulay upang mapagwagian natin ang titulong “Pinakamalainis at Luntiang Lungsod sa Pilipinas”, at dahil gantimpalang iyon ay mas nakilala pa sa kalinisan ang Puerto Princesa, hindi lamang sa ating bansa bagkus sa ibang panig pa ng mundo.

2010-06-20T07:04:00.001-07:00

Significance of humanities

Diversification meaning the school is producing productive people into society that are well rounded in all areas, not just a concentrated person in one area and ignorant to all others.

Ten reason to study humanities
1. To practice the analytical thinking skills you need to be a successful student and employee.
2. To improve your skill at oral and written communication.
3. To see the interconnectedness of all areas of knowledge -- how it all fits together..
4. To develop a global perspective by studying cultures throughout the world.
5. To deepen your understanding and appreciation of other's cultures and other's points of view.
6. To support and strengthen your local arts community by learning to appreciate the importance of creativity.
7. To clarify your values by comparing and contrasting them to what others have thought.
8. To deepen your sources of wisdom by learning how others have dealt with failures, success, adversities, and triumphs.
9. To appreciate what is enduring and to be able to tell the difference between the meaningless and the meaningful.
10. To be inspired by some of the greatest minds and thoughts of the ages.
Characteristics of Art
Art is often considered to be a very subjective field because the perceived quality of a particular art work depends largely on the taste of the individual. While there is no defining characteristic of art, there are characteristics which are common to many works of art. One characteristic of some art is that it is open to different interpretations and communicates on different levels. Often a work of art demonstrates the creator’s facility or high ability. It can sometimes provoke an interplay between conscious thought and unconscious reaction. It typically requires creative perception or participation by both by the artist and the audience. Art is frequently aesthetic in nature or is pleasing to experience.
"Painting only can "describe" everything which can be seen and suggest every emotion which can be felt! Art reaches back into the babyhood of time, and is man's only lasting monument!"

Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium[1] to a surface (support base). The application of the medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush but other objects may be used. In art the term describes both the act and the result, which is called a painting. Paintings may have for their support such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, clay or concrete. Paintings may be decorated with gold leaf, and some modern paintings incorporate other materials including sand, clay, and scraps of paper.
Painting is a mode of expression and the forms are numerous. Drawing, composition or abstraction and other aesthetics may serve to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, be loaded with narrative content, symbolism, emotion or be political in nature.
A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by spiritual motifs and ideas; examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to Biblical scenes rendered on the interior walls and ceiling of The Sistine Chapel, to scenes from the life of Buddha or other scenes of eastern religious origin.

History
The oldest known paintings are at the Grotte Chauvet in France, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth or humans often hunting. However the earliest evidence of painting has been discovered in two rock-shelters in Arnhem Land, in northern Australia. In the lowest layer of material at these sites there are used pieces of ochre estimated to be 60,000 years old. Archaeologists have also found a fragment of rock painting preserved in a limestone rock-shelter in the Kimberley region of North-Western Australia, that is dated 40 000 years old. [1] There are examples of cave paintings all over the world—in France, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia, India etc.
In Western cultures oil painting and watercolor painting are the best known media, with rich and complex traditions in style and subject matter. In the East, ink and color ink historically predominated the choice of media with equally rich and complex traditions.
Different types of paint are usually identified by the medium that the pigment is suspended or embedded in, which determines the general working characteristics of the paint, such as viscosity, miscibility, solubility, drying time, etc.
Examples include:
• Acrylic paint is fast-drying paint containing pigment suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints can be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when dry.
• Pastel is an art medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder.
• An enamel paint is a paint that air dries to a hard, usually glossy, finish. In reality, most commercially-available enamel paints are significantly softer than either vitreous enamel or stoved synthetic resins.
• Encaustic painting, also known as hot wax painting, involves using heated beeswax to which colored pigments are added. The liquid/paste is then applied to a surface—usually prepared wood, though canvas and other materials are often used.
• Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related mural painting types, done on plaster on walls or ceilings.
• Gouache[p](English pronunciation: /ɡuːˈæʃ/; French: [ˈɡwaʃ]), the name of which derives from the Italian guazzo, water paint, splash or bodycolor (the term preferred by art historians) is a type of paint consisting of pigment suspended in water.
• Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent fast drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder medium (usually a glutinous material such as egg yolk or some other size).
• Water miscible oil paint (also called "water soluble" or "water-mixable") is a modern variety of oil paint which is engineered to be thinned and cleaned up with water, rather than having to use chemicals such as turpentine.
History of the humanities
In the West, the study of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens. During Roman times, the concept of the seven liberal arts evolved, involving grammar, rhetoric and logic (the trivium), along with arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (the quadrivium).[13] These subjects formed the bulk of medieval education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing."
A major shift occurred with the Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as subjects to be studied rather than practiced, with a corresponding shift away from the traditional fields into areas such as literature and history. In the 20th century, this view was in turn challenged by the postmodernist movement, which sought to redefine the humanities in more egalitarian terms suitable for a democratic society.[14]

The elements of painting are the basic components of a painting. In Western art the elements of painting are generally considered to be:
• Color
• Tone (or value)
• Line (a narrow mark made by a brush, or a line created where two things meet)
• Shape (2D, can be positive or negative) and Form (3D)
• Space (or volume)
• Texture (or pattern)
Sometimes these elements are also added to the list:
• Composition
• Direction (vertical, horizontal, angled)
• Size
• Time and movement (how the viewer perceives and looks at the painting)

abstract - the art consists of colour and shape to represent emotion. the painting wasn't to what is would appear to be in real life.
Sonia Delaunay
Jackson Pollock
Pam Sanders

cubism - the painting uses many geometric shapes.
Pablo Picasso
Marc Chagall
Georges Braque

expressionism - the artist is more concerned on how the feel about the object rather than what is looks like.
Wassily Kandinsky
Ludwig Kirchner
Edvard Munch

impressionism - the painting looks as if the artist took one quick glance at the subject. it is presented in bold colour and not much detail.
Claude Monet
Mary Cassett
Pierre Auguste Renoir

pointillism - many dots of paint make up a pointillism picture. by far away, they blend together.
Paul Seurat
Paul Signac
Chuck Close

pop art - it stands for popular art. contains interesting everday objects in bright colours. it's inspired by comic strips, ads and popular entertainment.
Andy Warhol
Roy Lichtenstein
David Hockney

Postimpressionism - still life and landscapes. used alot of colour and shadows.
Vincent Van Cogh
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Paul Gauguin

Primitivism - Art which looks like it's been painted by a child. Very plain, simple and 2-d
Paul Klee
Henri Matisse

Realism - It shows exactly how something looks in real life. very popular in France
Leonardo Da Vinci
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Honore Daumier

Surrealism - generally based on dreams. Very strange and mysterious. the aim of the picture is to show an item in a different way
Salvador Dali
Henri Rousseau
Max Ernst
Types of Painting
A landscape is an outdoor scene. A landscape artist uses paint to create not only land, water, and clouds but air, wind, and sunlight.
A portrait is an image of a person or animal. Besides showing what someone looks like, a portrait often captures a mood or personality.
A still life shows objects, such as flowers, food, or musical instruments. A still life reveals an artist's skill in painting shapes, light, and shadow.
A real life scene captures life in action. It could show a busy street, a beach party, a dinner gathering, or anyplace where living goes on.
A religious work of art shares a religious message. It might portray a sacred story or express an artist's faith.

Humanities

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The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences.

History of the humanities

In the West, the study of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens. During Roman times, the concept of the seven liberal arts evolved, involving grammar, rhetoric and logic (the trivium), along with arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (the quadrivium). These subjects formed the bulk of medieval education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing."

A major shift occurred with the Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as subjects to be studied rather than practiced, with a corresponding shift away from the traditional fields into areas such as literature and history. In the 20th century, this view was in turn challenged by the postmodernist movement, which sought to redefine the humanities in more egalitarian terms suitable for a democratic society.

Different kind of Microscope

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Optical Microscope: The first ever created. The optical microscope has one or two lenses that work to enlarge and enhance images placed between the lower-most lens and the light source.

Simple Optical Microscope—uses one lens, the convex lens, in the magnifying process. This kind of microscope was used by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek during the late-sixteen and early-seventeenth centuries, around the time that the microscope was invented.

Compound Optical Microscope—has two lenses, one for the eyepiece to serve the ocular perspective and one of short focal length for objective perspective. Multiple lenses work to minimize both chromatic and spherical aberrations so that the view is unobstructed and uncorrupted.

Stereo Microscope: This is also known as the Dissecting Microscope, and uses two separate optical shafts (for both eyes) to create a three-dimensional image of the object through two slightly different viewpoints. This kind of microscope conducts microsurgery, dissection, watch-making, small circuit board manufacturing, etc.

Inverted Microscope: This kind of microscope views objects from an inverted position than that of regular microscopes. The inverted microscope specializes in the study of cell cultures in liquid.

Petrographic Microscope: This kind of microscope features a polarizing filter, a rotating stage, and gypsum plate. Petrographic Microscopes specialize in the study of inorganic substances whose properties tend to alter through shifting perspective.

Pocket Microscope: This kind of microscope consists of a single shaft with an eye piece at one end and an adjustable objective lens at the other. This old-style microscope has a case for easy carry.

Electron Microscopes: This kind of microscope employs electron waves running parallel to a magnetic field providing higher resolution. Two Electron Microscopes are the Scanning Electron Microscope and the Transmission Electron Microscope.

Scanning Probe Microscope: This kind of microscope measures interaction between a physical probe and a sample to form a micrograph. Only surface data can be collected and analyzed from the sample. Types of Scanning Probe Microscopes include the Atomic Force Microscope, the Scanning Tunneling Microscope, the Electric Force Microscope, and the Magnetic Force Microscope.

NEUST March

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NEUST Mission and Vission

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MISSION

By offering graduate, undergraduate and short-term courses within the areas of specialization and according to its capabilities, NEUST ensures to primarily provide advance instruction, professional training in arts, science and technology education and other related fields, undertake research and extension service, and provide progressive leadership in these areas.

VISION

NEUST is a recognized leader in the region and managed by committed and ethical public servants where:

A culture of excellence, ethics and solidarity thrives and prospers in each academic and administrative unit, and

Each college, institute and campus is a center of development/ excellence in its respective programs of instruction, research and extension services and production, transforming students, alumni and other clienteles into high quality, competent and ethical leaders, professionals and/or middle level manpower in the fields of Science and Technology education, management, arts and Technology-based Education and Training.

Paintings

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Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda or La Joconde) is a sixteenth-century portrait painted in oil on a poplar panel in Florence, Italy by Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci during the Renaissance. The work is currently owned by the Government of France and is on display at the Louvre museum in Paris under the title Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo. Arguably, it is the most famous and iconic painting in the world.

The painting is a half-length portrait and depicts a woman whose facial expression is frequently described as enigmatic. Others believe that the slight smile is an indication that the subject is hiding a secret. The ambiguity of the subject's expression, the monumentality of the composition, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the continuing fascination and study of the work. In 1911, it was stolen and copied; the copies were sold as the genuine painting. It was recovered in 1913.

In the Christian Gospels, the Last Supper was the last meal Jesus shared with his Twelve Apostles and disciples before his death. The Last Supper has been the subject of many paintings, of which that by Leonardo da Vinci is perhaps best known.

According to what Paul the Apostle recounted in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26, in the course of the Last Supper, and with specific reference to eating bread and drinking from a cup, Jesus told his disciples, "Do this in remembrance of me". In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus institutes a new covenant of his blood and body, the wine and bread. Many Christians describe this as the "Institution of the Eucharist" (see Maundy Thursday). Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions.Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described as early as the mid-50s of that century (the date of the writing of 1 Corinthians), 20-25 years after the death of Jesus. The Gospel of John recounts, instead of the institution of this new covenant with wine and bread, Jesus' washing of the disciples' feet, and also depicts Jesus as speaking at length in his farewell discourse about his divine role.

A typical Filipina country woman as portrayed by Amorsolo. This painting also demonstrates his characteristic backlighting technique.

Physics

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Physics Branches
Here is a list of main branches of physics, along with a summary of what is studied in that particular branch. Every branch of physics is further divided into smaller sub-branches. As explained before, every one of these branches except mathematical physics, has an experimental and theoretical sub-division. The classification of these branches of physics is artificial and these branches overlap onto each other to create further specialized fields.

Classical Mechanics
This is the oldest branch of physics which analytically describes motion of all objects on the macroscopic scales. It describes everything from why large objects like balls bounce, why pendulum swings to why planets revolve around the Sun! It describes 'mechanics' of all kinds on the large scale and its classical, because it cannot explain motion at atomic level. Fluid mechanics is one specialized sub-branch of classical mechanics, which describes the physics of all types of fluids.

Mathematical Physics
This is the branch of physics, which gives theoretical physics its tools of analysis. Mathematics is the language of nature and therefore if one wants to understand nature, one must understand mathematics. Mathematics brings precision to physics. It is the branch which is an overlap of pure mathematics and physics. Mathematical physics techniques form the toolbox of a physicist. Just like a workman must use the right kind of tools to get his job done, so must a physicist use the right mathematical tools to solve a problem! The more and more deeply we explore nature, every new law discovered can only be expressed in a new form of mathematics.

Classical Electrodynamics
This field is the most broadly applied of all the branches of physics. Classical electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism, which describes all kinds of electromagnetic phenomena from atomic to global scales. It is the theoretical basis of optics, telecommunication and many other sub-fields. Its domain extends over all of nature, as the 'Electromagnetic Force' is all pervading and we live in an electromagnetic world.

Quantum Mechanics
This branch describes a new kind of mechanics, which can explain phenomena at the sub-atomic level, which classical mechanics fails to describe. It provides the clearest picture of nature at the sub-atomic scales. Quantum physics, is based on the principle of uncertainty, and predicts all phenomena in terms of probabilities. It describes a weird sub-atomic world, which is totally different from the world at macroscopic scales. Studying quantum physics requires quite a bit of mathematical expertise and it is the theoretical basis of all branches of physics, that describe phenomena at atomic or sub-atomic scales. For more on this read, 'Basics of Quantum Mechanics for Dummies'.

Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
Thermodynamics and statistical physics is one of the core branches of physics, which gives a theoretical mechanism to describe the motion of and phenomena in multi-particle systems. Even though a single particle motion can be analyzed by quantum mechanics, it cannot describe multi-particle systems analytically, as the variables of calculation there are too many. So, a statistical approach is needed that describes motion of matter in bulk. Thermodynamics is a predecessor of statistical mechanics. Statistical mechanics combined with quantum mechanics, forms quantum statistical mechanics.

Condensed Matter Physics
Condensed Matter Physics is a sub-branch of quantum physics and statistical mechanics, which describes all phenomena that occur in matter, which is in condensed form. This includes everything from liquids, solid and gases. The physics of semiconductor devices, which make today's age of information technology possible, is a result of research developments in condensed matter physics. It describes all phenomena in bulk matter like ferromagnetism, superfluidity and superconductivity.

Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics describes all the phenomena that occur at the level of the atomic nucleus. It deals with and explains phenomena like radioactivity, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Developments in nuclear physics led to the production of nuclear weapons like the atom bomb, the Hydrogen bomb and made nuclear energy source available to mankind. For more on this, read 'List of Radioactive Elements'.

Quantum Field theory
This is the physics which describes the physics of particles, which are very small and very fast. It is also known as particle physics. It is based on the three theoretical foundations of quantum mechanics, special theory of relativity and the concept of fields. It is based on the unification of all these three foundations and it describes the physics of fundamental particles of matter. It is one of the most difficult branches of physics, which describe the ultimate building blocks of nature.

Non-Linear Dynamics
This is a sub-field of classical mechanics, which solves the problems on macroscopic scales, which cannot be solved by classical mechanics. It is an advanced branch of mathematics, which attempts to solve non-linear differential equations of motion, which are not amenable to a solution by conventional techniques. A greater part of it is also known as 'Chaos Theory', which delves in to the organized chaos that exists in the macroscopic world. It is the most happening branch of physics currently. For more on this read, 'An Introduction to Chaos Theory'.

Astronomy and Astrophysics
Astronomy is the observational study of the universe in all its manifestations and astrophysics (a confluence of all branches of physics), is the theoretical basis, which can explain all those phenomena. It is the most all encompassing of all the branches of physics, which has a singular goal of explaining every phenomenon that occurs in the universe.

General Theory of Relativity and Cosmology
The general theory of relativity is the correct theory, which describes gravitation at all scales. It interprets gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of space-time. Space around massive objects actually gets warped and bent. Gravity is the result of this warping of space time. Special relativity unifies space and time in to 'Spacetime' and general relativity makes 'Spacetime' interact with matter. How much space warps, depends on the content of matter and energy in it. In simple words, general relativity is described by, 'Matter tells space how to bend, space tells matter how to move!' For more read 'Does the Fourth(4th) Dimension of Time Exist'.

Physics is the study of matter, energy and the interactions of the two.

Physics can be divided into two main branches: mechanics (the study of the behavior of forces and objects acting due to those forces); and, electricity and magnetism (which delves into the science of the atom).

The fundamental branches of physics:

classical mechanics
electromagnetism (including optics)
relativity
thermodynamics
quantum mechanics
astronomy
electromagnetism

Some of the more popular or modern branches of physics:

Astro and space physics (study of stars, planets, black holes, etc.)
geophysics (study of like earthquakes and plate tectonics)
nuclear physics
particle physics
medical physics
biophysics, and quantum physics, which is mostly theoretical

Classical Physics :

Mechanics
Acoustics
Thermics
Electromagnetics
Optics

Modern Physics:

Relativistic Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Acoustics
Quantum Thermodynamics
Quantum Electrodynamics
Quantum Optics

Applied Physics :

Cosmophysics
Astrophysics
Planetophysics
Geophysics
Molecular Physics
Atomic Physics
Nuclear Physics
Particle Physics
Solid-State Physics
Fluid Physics
Plasma Physics
Phononics
Thermal Physics
EM Instrumentation
Electronics
Photonics

Physicist

Famous Physicists

Classical Period

William Gilbert
1544-1603
English
hypothesized that the Earth is a giant magnet

Galileo Galilei
1564-1642
Italian
performed fundamental observations, experiments, and mathematical analyses in astronomy and physics; discovered mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four largest satellites of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede

Willebrod Snell
1580-1626
Dutch
discovered law of refraction (Snell's law)

Blaise Pascal
1623-1662
French discovered that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the walls of its container (Pascal's principle)

Christiaan Huygens
1629-1695
Dutch
proposed a simple geometrical wave theory of light, now known as ``Huygen's principle''; pioneered use of the pendulum in clocks

Robert Hooke
1635-1703
English
discovered Hooke's law of elasticity

Sir Isaac Newton
1643-1727
English
developed theories of gravitation and mechanics, and invented differential calculus

Daniel Bernoulli
1700-1782
Swiss
developed the fundamental relationship of fluid flow now known as Bernoulli's principle

Benjamin Franklin
1706-1790
American
the first American physicist; characterized two kinds of electric charge, which he named ``positive'' and ``negative''

Leonard Euler
1707-1783
Swiss
made fundamental contributions to fluid dynamics, lunar orbit theory (tides), and mechanics; also contributed prolifically to all areas of classical mathematics

Henry Cavendish
1731-1810
British
discovered and studied hydrogen; first to measure Newton's gravitational constant; calculated mass and mean density of Earth

Charles Augustin de Coulomb
1736-1806
French
experiments on elasticity, electricity, and magnetism; established experimentally nature of the force between two charges

Joseph-Louis Lagrange
1736-1813
French
developed new methods of analytical mechanics

James Watt
1736-1819
Scottish
invented the modern condensing steam engine and a centrifugal governor

Count Alessandro Volta
1745-1827
Italian
pioneer in study of electricity; invented the first electric battery

Joseph Fourier
1768-1830
French
established the differential equation governing heat diffusion and solved it by devising an infinite series of sines and cosines capable of approximating a wide variety of functions

Thomas Young
1773-1829
British
studied light and color; known for his double-slit experiment that demonstrated the wave nature of light

Jean-Babtiste Biot
1774-1862
French
studied polarization of light; co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire

André Marie Ampère
1775-1836
French
father of electrodynamics

Amadeo Avogadro
1776-1856
Italian
developed hypothesis that all gases at same volume, pressure, and temperature contain same number of atoms

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
1777-1855
German formulated separate electrostatic and electrodynamical laws, including ``Gauss' law''; contributed to development of number theory, differential geometry, potential theory, theory of terrestrial magnetism, and methods of calculating planetary orbits

Hans Christian Oersted
1777-1851
Danish
discovered that a current in a wire can produce magnetic effects

Sir David Brewster
1781-1868
English
deduced ``Brewster's law'' giving the angle of incidence that produces reflected light which is completely polarized; invented the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope, and improved the spectroscope

Augustin-Jean Fresnel
1788-1827
French
studied transverse nature of light waves

Georg Ohm
1789-1854
German
discovered that current flow is proportional to potential difference and inversely proportional to resistance (Ohm's law)

Michael Faraday
1791-1867
English
discovered electromagnetic induction and devised first electrical transformer

Felix Savart
1791-1841
French
co-discovered that intensity of magnetic field set up by a current flowing through a wire varies inversely with the distance from the wire

Sadi Carnot
1796-1832
French
founded the science of thermodynamics

Joseph Henry
1797-1878
American
performed extensive fundamental studies of electromagnetic phenomena; devised first practical electric motor

Christian Doppler
1803-1853
Austrian
experimented with sound waves; derived an expression for the apparent change in wavelength of a wave due to relative motion between the source and observer

Wilhelm E. Weber
1804-1891
German
developed sensitive magnetometers; worked in electrodynamics and the electrical structure of matter

Sir William Hamilton
1805-1865
Irish
developed the principle of least action and the Hamiltonian form of classical mechanics

James Prescott Joule
1818-1889
British
discovered mechanical equivalent of heat

Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau
1819-1896
French
made the first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light; invented one of the first interferometers; took the first pictures of the Sun on daguerreotypes; argued that the Doppler effect with respect to sound should also apply to any wave motion, particularly that of light

Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault
1819-1868
French
accurately measured speed of light; invented the gyroscope; demonstrated the Earth's rotation

Sir George Gabriel Stokes
1819-1903
British
described the motion of viscous fluids by independently discovering the Navier-Stokes equations of fluid mechanics (or hydrodynamics); developed Stokes theorem by which certain surface integrals may be reduced to line integrals; discovered fluorescence

Hermann von Helmholtz
1821-1894
German
developed first law of thermodynamics, a statement of conservation of energy

Rudolf Clausius
1822-1888
German
developed second law of thermodynamics, a statement that the entropy of the Universe always increases

Lord Kelvin
(born William Thomson)
1824-1907
British
proposed absolute temperature scale, of essence to development of thermodynamics

Gustav Kirchhoff
1824-1887
German
developed three laws of spectral analysis and three rules of electric circuit analysis; also contributed to optics

Johann Balmer
1825-1898
Swiss
developed empirical formula to describe hydrogen spectrum

Sir Joseph Wilson Swan
1828-1914
British
developed a carbon-filament incandescent light; patented the carbon process for printing photographs in permanent pigment

James Clerk Maxwell
1831-1879
Scottish
propounded the theory of electromagnetism; developed the kinetic theory of gases

Josef Stefan
1835-1893
Austrian
studied blackbody radiation

Ernst Mach
1838-1916
Austrian
studied conditions that occur when an object moves through a fluid at high speed (the ``Mach number'' gives the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of sound in the fluid); proposed ``Mach's principle,'' which states that the inertia of an object is due to the interaction between the object and the rest of the universe

Josiah Gibbs
1839-1903
American
developed chemical thermodynamics; introduced concepts of free energy and chemical potential

James Dewar
1842-1923
British
liquified nitrogen and invented the Dewar flask, which is critical for low-temperature work

Osborne Reynolds
1842-1912
British
contributed to the fields of hydraulics and hydrodynamics; developed mathematical framework for turbulence and introduced the ``Reynolds number,'' which provides a criterion for dynamic similarity and correct modeling in many fluid-flow experiments

Ludwig Boltzmann
1844-1906
Austrian
developed statistical mechanics and applied it to kinetic theory of gases

Roland Eötvös
1848-1919
Hungarian
demonstrated equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass

Oliver Heaviside
1850-1925
English
contributed to the development of electromagnetism; introduced operational calculus and invented the modern notation for vector calculus; predicted existence of the Heaviside layer (a layer of the Earth's ionosphere)

George Francis FitzGerald
1851-1901
Irish
hypothesized foreshortening of moving bodies (Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction) to explain the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment

John Henry Poynting
1852-1914
British
demonstrated that the energy flow of electromagnetic waves could be calculated by an equation (now called Poynting's vector)

Henri Poincaré 1854-1912
French
founded qualitative dynamics (the mathematical theory of dynamical systems); created topology; contributed to solution of the three-body problem; first described many properties of deterministic chaos; contributed to the development of special relativity

Janne Rydberg
1854-1919
Swedish
analyzed the spectra of many elements; discovered many line series were described by a formula that depended on a universal constant (the Rydberg constant)

Edwin H. Hall
1855-1938
American
discovered the ``Hall effect,'' which occurs when charge carriers moving through a material are deflected because of an applied magnetic field - the deflection results in a potential difference across the side of the material that is transverse to both the magnetic field and the current direction

Heinrich Hertz
1857-1894
German
worked on electromagnetic phenomena; discovered radio waves and the photoelectric effect

Nikola Tesla
1857-1943
Serbian-born American
created alternating current

2010-06-16T07:06:00.000-07:00

Overview of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.

Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.
Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.

Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false.

Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way.

Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting.

The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna. During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the argument from design).
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery.
In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis". New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA. Following the establishment of the Central Dogma and the cracking of the genetic code, biology was largely split between organismal biology—the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to cellular and molecular biology. By the late 20th century, new fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms.

Definition
noun, plural: characteristics
(1) A distinguishing quality, trait or feature of an individual, thing, disorder, etc.
(2) A distinctive mark, feature, attribute, or property of an individual or thing.

adjective
Being a feature or trait that helps identify an individual, thing, etc.

Supplement
For instance, a living thing is considered alive when it shows the following general characteristics:
• It is made up of cell(s).
• It is capable of growth and development.
• It obtains energy and utilizes it.
• It can reproduce.
• It responds to its environment.
• It is capable of adapting to its environment.

Word origin: Greek charaktēristikós (to designate, characterize)
Related forms: characteristically (adverb)

Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines which attempts to explain social behavior in animal species by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have.

Auguste Comte was a French philosopher, a founder of the discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term

Karl Heinrich Marx was a German[2] philosopher, political economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, communist, and revolutionary, whose ideas played a significant role in the development of modern communism.

David Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with Karl Marx and Max Weber, is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science.[1]

Ferdinand Tönnies (July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort (Eiderstedt, North Frisia) - April 9, 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, as well as bringing Thomas Hobbes back on the agenda, by publishing his manuscripts. He is best known for his distinction between two types of social groups — Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. He was, however, a prolific writer and also co-founder of the German Society for Sociology (being its president 1909-1933, when he was ousted by the Nazis). In English his name is often spelt without the umlaut as Ferdinand Toennies, as this spelling can also be accepted in German.

Robert King Merton was a distinguished American sociologist. He theorized "the unintended consequence," the "reference group," and "role strain" but is perhaps best known and least acknowledged for having created the concept of the "self-fulfilling prophecy." A central element of modern sociological, political and economic theory, the "self-fulfilling prophecy" is a process whereby a belief or an expectation, correct or incorrect, affects the outcome of a situation or the way a person or a group will behave.[1]

Maximilian Carl Emil "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist, who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the remit of sociology itself.[1] Weber's major works dealt with the rationalization and so-called "disenchantment" which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity.

Georg Simmel (March 1, 1858 – September 28, 1918) was one of the first generation of German sociologists. His neo-Kantian approach laid the foundations for sociological antipositivism, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?'[1], presenting pioneering analyses of social individuality and fragmentation.

Talcott Parsons Parsons developed a general theory for the study of society called action theory, based on the methodological principle of voluntarism and the epistemological principle of analytical realism.

Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens is a British sociologist who is renowned for his theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. He is considered to be one of the most prominent modern contributors in the field of sociology, the author of at least 34 books, published in at least 29 languages, issuing on average more than one book every year. In 2007, Giddens was listed as the fifth most-referenced author of books in the humanities.

Paul Felix Lazarsfeld was one of the major figures in 20th-century American sociology. The founder of Columbia University's Bureau for Applied Social Research, he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. "It is not so much that he was an American sociologist," one colleague said of him after his death, "as it was that he determined what American sociology would be."

Sir Francis Galton FRS cousin of Sir Douglas Galton, half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English Victorian polymath, anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician.

Max Horkheimer was a German philosopher-sociologist, famous for his work in critical theory as a member of the 'Frankfurt School' of social research. His most important works include The Eclipse of Reason (1947) and, in collaboration with Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947). Through the Frankfurt School, Horkheimer planned, supported and made other significant works possible.

Jürgen Habermas is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his work on the concept of the public sphere, the topic of his first book entitled The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere.

Harrison Colyar White White is an influential scholar in the domain of social networks.[1] He is credited with the development of a number of mathematical models of social structure including vacancy chains and blockmodels. He has been a leader of a revolution in sociology that is still in process, using models of social structure that are based on patterns of relations instead of the attributes and attitudes of individuals.

The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences.

Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society.

A nationalism study is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of nationalism and related issues. While nationalism has been the subject of scholarly discussion since at least the late eighteenth century, it is only since the early 1990s that it has received enough attention for a distinct field to emerge.

Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines which attempts to explain social behavior in animal species by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have.

Geography is the study of the Earth and its lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena.

Vitamins and Minerals

2010-04-29T07:00:00.000-07:00

_{The Principal Vitamins}

Vitamin	Source	Symptoms of Deficiency
A (retinol)	From provitamin carotene found in yellow and green vegetables: preformed in liver, egg yolk, butter and milk	Rhodopsin deficiency, night blindness, retarded growth, skin disorders and increase in infection risk
B₁ (thiamine)	Yeast, grains and milk	Beriberi-muscle weakness (including cardiac muscle) neuritis, and paralysis
B₂ (riboflavin)	Green vegetables, liver, wheat germ, milk and eggs	Eye disorders and skin crackling, especially at corners of the mouth
B₃ (niacin)	Fish, liver, red meat, yeast, grains, peas, beans, and nuts	Pellagra-diarrhea, dermatitis, and nervous system disorder
Pantothenic acid	Liver, yeast, green vegetables, grains and intestinal bacteria	Neuromuscular dysfunction and fatigue
Biotin	Liver, yeast, eggs and intestinal bacteria	Mental and muscle dysfunction, fatigue and nausea
B₆ (pyridoxine)	Fish, liver, yeast, tomatoes and intestinal bacteria	Dermatitis, retarded growth and nausea
Folate	Liver, green leafy vegetables, and intestinal bacteria	Macrocytic anemia (enlarged red blood cells) and spina bifida
B₁₂ (cobalamins)	Liver, red meat, milk and eggs	Pernicious anemia and nervous system disorders
C (ascorbic acid)	Citrus fruit, tomatoes and green vegetables	Scurvy-defective bone formation and poor wound healing
D (cholecalciferol, ergosterol)	Fish liver oil, enriched milk and eggs; provitamin D converted by sunlight to cholecalciferol in the skin	Rickets-poorly developed, weak bones, osteomalacia; bone reabsorption
E (tocopherol, tocotrienols)	Wheat germ, cotton seed, palm and rice oils; grain, liver and lettuce	Hemolysis of red blood cells
K (phylloquino)	Alfalfa, liver, spinach, vegetable oils, cabbage and intestinal bacteria	Excessive bleeding due to retarded blood clotting

_{Important Minerals}

Mineral	Function	Symptoms of Deficiency
Calcium	Bone and teeth formation, blood clotting muscle activity and nerve function	Spontaneous action potential generation in neurons and tetany
Cobalt	Component of vitamin B₁₂; red blood cell production	Anemia
Copper	Hemoglobin and melanin production, electron-transport system	Anemia and loss of energy
Fluorine	Provides extra strength in teeth; prevents dental caries	No real pathology
Iodine	Thyroid hormone production, maintenance of normal metabolic rate	Goiter and decrease in normal metabolism
Iron	Component of hemoglobin; ATP production in electron-transport system	Anemia, decreased oxygen transport, and energy loss
Magnesium	Coenzyme constituent; bone formation; muscle and nerve function	Increase nervous system irritability, vasodilation, and arrhythmias
Phosphorus	Bone and teeth formation; important in energy transfer (ATP); component of nuclei acids	Loss of energy and cellular function
Potassium	Muscle and nerve function	Muscle weakness, abnormal electrocardiogram, and alkaline urine
Sodium	Osmotic pressure regulation; nerve and muscle function	Nausea, vomiting, exhaustion, and dizziness
Zinc	Component of several enzymes; carbon dioxide transport and metabolism; necessary from protein metabolism	Deficient carbon dioxide transport and deficient protein metabolism

Lesson Planning in Teaching

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LESSON PLANNING IN TEACHING

The nature and Importance of Lesson Planning

The day is past when teaching can be carried on in a haphazard manner. Contemporary experience in other field of human endeavor suggests the need and wisdom for a careful planning of educational activities. The bewildering large and ever increasing range of school curriculum plus the growing recognition of the complexity of the teaching and learning procedures, add weight to the argument for rigorous planning of instructional program. Lesson planning is an integral part of teaching in all levels of our school system. Planning is made because it results in better teaching and more productive learning. It is a means to an end, not an end in itself. It is essentially an experience for anticipatory teaching. A lesson plan serves as a blue print for the teacher and her pupils to the point of destination or goals to be accomplished. All wee-taught lessons are the results of careful planning.

A lesson plan or a course plan furnishes the teachers a clear comprehensive of the main objectives which subjects or course seek to realize. It gives a general over-view of the goals to be achieved and the learning experiences to be provided for the day, week, a semester or year.

The sole purpose of lesson planning or course planning is the improvement of teaching of the teachers and the learning of the pupils. A well-made lesson plan will give the teachers a feeling of confidence and security in the classroom, because she will have definite and appropriate experiences ready to develop with her pupils.

Types of Lesson Planning

The teacher’s responsibility in most cases is to plan pupil experiences within the framework set forth in the course of study, the textbook, the manual or whatever general plan for the day or week used in the elementary or the secondary school. In planning the lesson or course the teacher must be sensitive to the philosophy or aims, policies, and practices of the school to which he or she belongs.

In planning classroom activities for the pupils or students, three types of plans are often used, namely:

1. Course Plan – the course plan give a general overview of the goals to be achieved and the learning experiences to be provided for the quarter or year. This is a long range plan. It provides the general framework within which the work of the quarter and year will be carried out. Its scope is determined largely by the educational philosophy of the school, the limitations of the facilities and equipment and the requirements of the governments.

2. The Daily Lesson Plan – This refers to each day plan which has to do with a specific part of the unit to be dealt with during the given class period. It covers a small part of a larger experience extending over days. The daily plan may have a direct relationship to a larger unit, but may also be a unit within it. It may have definite relationship to the preceding part of the unit and also to the part to follow. A daily plan may be either detailed or a more outline of the activities for the period or for a day.]

The essential elements of a good daily lesson plan are the following:

1. The daily lesson plan should indicate a clear understanding of the aims to be achieved. This involves recognition of both the general and specific aims of the course. The teacher’s and the pupils aim of the course. The teachers and the pupil’s aims must be interrelated.

2. The daily lesson plan should definitely correlate the new lesson to the previous work of the course. Many new teachers are prone to think of each lesson as an isolated experience unless the teacher provides for this conscious recognition of the connections between past and present experience, pupil’s progress will be implied.

3. The daily lesson plan should indicate the application of appropriate teaching procedures to the lesson. It is an accepted fact that different types of learning require different methods for efficient development. The lesson plan should reveal discernment in analysis of the learning types involve and application of approved teaching technique to each.

4. The daily lesson plan should provide for the proper evaluation of success in the realization of the aims and objectives. Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching procedure. Intelligent teaching requires such evaluation. The lesson plan is defective if it does not provide for it.

5. The daily lesson plan should project today’s lesson into tomorrow’s situation. When the lesson activities for today are over, the teacher and the pupils should have their attention focused upon the next step. Unless the principle of continuity is utilized, the daily lesson is likely to be poorly planned and executed.

6. The daily lesson plan should contain provision to meet individual difference. This can be accomplished by giving the pupils differentiated.

7. The daily lesson plan should have provision for review or drill. Much confusion still exists among classroom teachers as to real meaning of the term review to cover the process of drill.

8. The daily lesson plan should include the assignment for the pupils or students. The assignment to be effective should prepare the pupils for the effective execution of their work.

3. The Teaching Unit Plan – This plan covers a unit of a course for teaching. This plan is usually used when the basic textbook is divided into units. A unit may be composed of chapters which represent wholeness or generalization.

Each teacher is required to organize the course into units problems, projects, topic or cases.

The Basic Steps in Lesson Planning

Successful planning for pupil learning is so crucial in the teaching learning process that we should examine more carefully the basic elements of planning as in teaching competence, inasmuch as a good teaching and effective planning go hand in hand. The rigorous planning of the instructional program involves the following five basic steps:

1. Formulating goals or aims to accomplish - The first major elements in planning is preparing meaningful goals or aims for the proposed learning activity.

2. Selecting and organizing subject-matter – The second element in planning is the selection and organization of subject-matter to be learned.

3. Determining methods or procedures in planning – The third element in planning is determining how to proceed in developing the subject-matter or accomplish the goals or aims set up.

4. Evaluating the effectiveness of the procedure – The fourth element in lesson planning is to evaluate what has been done in terms of the objectives or aims established.

5. Revision of Plan – The fifth major element in planning has to do with the revision of plan. If the teacher is evaluating the day by day growth of her pupils, she will also be able to revise her plan constantly to make learning more certain for each pupil.

6. Giving the assignment - The last major element in instructional planning is giving the assignment. An assignment is generally recognized as the most important phase of teaching learning activity.

Teacher-Pupil Planning

Teacher-pupil planning is often used in integration method and Unit method of teaching in elementary grades. The teacher-pupil planning is a fulfillment of the democratic right of pupils to participate in making decisions that affect them.

Teacher-pupil planning is an educational process. Through planning activity pupils contribute their own ideas. Pupils have opportunities to make choices. They have opportunities to react to the ideas and feelings of others.

Once the area or topic of study has been selected, the group can begin to find their reason for choosing this particular area of study and what they expect to get out of it. These we call objectives their objectives.

The next activity is a matter of choosing the specific activities that the pupils will perform. Through discussion these must be related to the objectives in order to insure that adequate activities have been selected to fulfill the sought objectives.

After choosing the specific activities the group organized itself to the work or project. It is possible that some of the activities can be done individual.

The last step in teacher-pupil planning is planning for evaluation of the work that has been done. Evaluation must be done frequently during the pursuit of a unit. To be effective, evaluation must be continuous process rather than sporadic.

Other Factors to Be Considered in Planning

There are other supplementary factors to be considered in instructional planning. They are the following:

1. School curriculum – The curriculum is the best point of departure for planning for teaching. A curriculum is an organized course of study required for the completion of a course or required for graduation.

2. Instructional materials and devices – Another important factor to be considered in planning is the availability of instructional materials and device. All pertinent instructional materials and devices should be prepared in advance.

3. Individual differences – One of the most important factors to be considered in the instructional planning is the principle of individual difference. It is an accepted fact that the pupils differ in ability, interest, and needs.

Some Suggestions in the Use of a Lesson Plan

The following are to be considered in the use of a lesson plan:

1. The lesson plan must be used as a guide rather than a crutch or a device in teaching.

2. The lesson plan, once used, should become the basic for extended development.

3. The lesson plan must be brief, yet detailed enough to be of value to the teacher.

4. The lesson plan should be limited in its scope or area to be covered.

5. The lesson plan should be free from the logical arrangement of the textbook.

6. The instructional plan should be reviewed as flexible that can be changed as conditions and needs demand.

GUIDE TO OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT AND REPORT

Assignment for Observation

Aims:

1. To develop an understanding and appreciation of the importance of lesson planning in teaching.

2. To acquaint the students of the contents of a good lesson plan and implication in teaching.

It is generally accepted that careful planning is a significant dimension of method of teaching and it is one that is critical to the success of a teacher. Lesson planning is a continuous task of effective teaching is to be maintained.

Make a report on the lesson plan in relation to the following:

1. Aims or objectives of the lesson (general and specific aims.)

2. Organization of the subject-matter or activities outlines in the plan.

3. Methods or procedures used in teaching the subject-matter.

4. Criteria for evaluation

5. Assignment or other activities

6. The nature of planning – purely teacher plan or teacher-pupil plan.

DRESS FOR WOMEN

The clothing you wear should enhance your best points, accent your personality and be appropriate for your way of life. Dressing well, buying wisely, and electing and combining various articles of apparel into a stunning costume are matters of good taste. If you cannot differentiate between what is good and bad taste in dress, you are likely to be handicapped in the business and to make a poor impression socially.

How to Cultivate the Good Taste

Good taste is not a matter of heredity. It can be acquired but it requires careful observation, study, and practice, constant attention to changes in fashions, experimentation, thought and discrimination.

Good taste is marked by simple, becoming, harmonious costumes which are appropriate for the occasion. Poor taste is marked by color combinations which clash, costumes which mix sports and dressy styles, cloths which are too tight or revealing and excessive use of jewelry and make up.

Trends In Fashion

In planning a wardrobe, the attractive dressed young women must consider the influence of tends in fashions. The clothing industry is ever on the alert for new ideas that will change the styles for the next season. Designers often refer to the fashions of yesterday for suggestion that can be adapted to the current style.

Standards for Business Dress

Every young woman must make the transition from a school girl’s wardrobe to one suitable for her vocational choices or her role as a young matron.

Building a Basic Wardrobe

To secret of a good basic wardrobe lies in appropriateness, comfort and conservatives simplicity, when it comes to choosing quantity or quality in her wardrobe, the astute young women will probably choose quality. Good fabrics retain their shape, clean well and always look smart, even when the garment is no longer new.

Selecting Clothes that are Right for You

a women’s height, weight, proportion and facial contour limit what looks well on her. Line, design, texture, and color can be used to produce illusions to cover figure faults or to emphasize attractive points. On the other hand, figure faults may be magnified by unwise choices.

Keeping all in this mind, select from the following notes those rules which will produce the best results for you, either by emphasizing your good points or minimizing your bad ones.

Notes on Line

1. Vertical lines add height and are slenderizing

2. Horizontal lines add width and therefore cut height

3. To lengthen a vertical or a horizontal line accent with a parallel line.

4. To shorten a vertical or a horizontal line use a line in the opposite

Direction.

5. Broken lines decrease height and often add width.

Notes on Fabrics

1. Shiny surface make the figure seem larger. Satin and sequins are only for the all and slender.

2. Knobby, bumpy, rough fabrics should be avoided for short or heavy figures because they add width and weight.

3. All thick, heavy fabrics add width and weight.

4. Tweeds, unless they are soft with rather smooth surfaces, add width and weight.

5. Smooth-surfaced crepes and woolens are slenderizing.

6. Very thin, transparent, diaphanous, or clinging fabrics show up figure faults. Only a slender, well-proportioned woman should wear these fabrics.

The Short Women. Should avoid horizontal lines, such as are created by a strongly contrasting blouse and skirt combination or a belt contrasting with the material of the dress.

The following suggestions for the short woman should be helpful:

1. Key everything to your size.

2. Carry a small bag of the same color as your costume, with globes to match. Contrasting gloves and bag emphasize the hip line.

3. Select straight-line or semi fitted coats, small collars, short-haired furs.

4. Choose hats with medium crowns, which are neither too tall not too flat.

5. Avid two-color combinations.

6. Match sweaters or blouses to the color of your skirt.

7. Straight-line skirts are best. Avoid extreme fullness in skirts.

8. Avoid horizontal lines in style or fabric. Use up and down interest.

9. Choose small, definite patterns in printed dresses.

10. Wear high heels, but not exaggerated heels which are out of proportion to your figure and height.

11. Wear belts that match the basic color of your costume or are made of the same material as your garment.

12. Wear detail only on the bodice, to help create the long-legged look.

13. Avoid patch pockets on skirts and coats.

The Tall Woman. Can use horizontal lines to minimize her height. She can select big, bright bags, with colored gloves to match, and large, important-looking jewelry. The tall girl should avoid any silhouette that appears to increase her height.

These helpful suggestions for the tall woman should keep her from mistakes in her choices of clothing.

1. Do not wear garments too tight or too tailored

2. Use soft fabrics and draped lines.

3. Choose plaids and checks in becoming colors and bulky fabrics when suitable. Avoid vertical stripes.

4. Wear big, broad collars and full sleeves

5. Bulky topcoats, fur coats, long jacketed suits, striking prints and fabrics are meant for you.

6. Avid fabrics with small prints or designs and fabrics with a shiny finish, such as satin. Both will accentuate your size.

7. Choose full skirts, pleated or circular. Wear them at your natural waistline or slightly below it.

8. Wear medium-crowned hats. Balance with a fairly wide brim. Avoid upturning feathers, tall trims, or sharp upturned brims.

9. Wear flats for sports, medium or low heeled shoes for casual wear, and high heels for dress. Ankles which look slimmer and feet that look smaller will compensate for the slight addition in height.

Accessories

No matter how carefully you have selected the basic garments in your wardrobe your costume ensemble is not complete until you have chosen accessories that harmonize with them. Accessories help produce the total effect of the ensemble that determines weather you are well dressed. Carelessly selected accessories can ruin the effect of an otherwise attractive costume.

Hats, handbags, shoes, blouses, neckwear and jewelry used with basic dresses and suits can provide the variation in costume so dear to the heart of every woman. With accessories, she can “dress a suit down” for the office and “dress a suit up” for a date in the evening. The transformation takes place in the few moments required to attach a flower to a simple hat, change a tailored blouse for a dressy one, and empty the contents of a large tailored handbag into a smaller dressier purse.

Shoes, Handbags, Gloves. Fashion trends are more gradual and less obvious in these items; therefore it is generally advisable to select good quality and simple designs in shoes, handbags and gloves. Shoes and bags should be matched to the basic color of your wardrobe.

Slips and Hose. If the fabric of a garment is transparent, the slip should be matched to the garment. If the color of the garment cannot be matched a neutral beige slip is preferable to pink or white because it is less conspicuous.

Hose, an important part of the costume, are often the least considered of the accessories. Sheerness of hose should be determined by both the occasion and the costume. Avoid selecting hose which provide too much color contrast with the basic garment.

Jewelry, Neckwear, Blouses. The shape of your face influences the type of neckline and the kind of jewelry that will be most flattering to you.

Hats. Choosing a hat probably deserve more careful consideration than the choice of any other single accessory. Hats center attention on the face and should not in and of them be the center of attraction. Hair style, facial contour, and figure proportions are all factors to be considered in buying a hat. Since your hat is part of the total ensemble it is well to view yourself in a full-length minor as you try on hats. Hat styles can minimize or build height and add to or detract from the appearance of weight. Emphasis for the hat than upon shoes, bags, or glove s.

Basic Facts about Color. Although each seasons fashions offer a complete new range of colors with fascinating names, your personal coloring does not change. Understanding the basic principles of color will arm you against this seasonal onslaught and help you know which of the new shades and tones you can wear. You will be able to from which they are derived.

Color Qualities. Each color has three qualities: hue, value and intensity.

Hue is the name of the color and distinguishes one color from another, such as red, green, or blue. Several items of different color, such as an apple, a brick and a ruby all may be of the same hue.

Value refers to the lightness and darkness of color. A tint is a value, while a shade is the dark value in the same color. The use of tints, true color and shades all of the same hue produces a monochromatic color scheme.

Intensity refers to the purity of color. The grayer in the color, the less intensity. Intensity in the degree of brightness of a hue.

How Color can be Accented or Toned Down. A color may be emphasized or accented by its complement or through repetition.

A color may be toned down by a neighboring color or by the same color in a deeper tone.

Emotional Response to Color. Colors produce an emotional response in both the wearer and the viewer. This response may differ sharply with different people, depending on the situation, the surroundings and other variables.

The warm color – the advancing, aggressive reds, oranges and yellows and their combinations – suggest warmth, health and joy. These colors make objects appear larger and nearer and people in clothes of these colors appear larger.

The cool colors are the blues, greens, violets and their combinations. They make objects appear smaller and farther away. They evoke quite feeling. They are restful colors and therefore can be used more satisfactorily to cover larger surface. The blue of a summer sky and the green of a peaceful landscape are excellent examples of this fact.

Color Combinations. Individual taste and difference in personal coloring are the basis for forming innumerable pleasing color harmonies, all of which can be classified under one of the several types of color combinations.

A monochromatic color combination is achieved by using the same hue in different values, such as light, medium, and dark green.

A complementary color scheme is produced by using the two colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. This is usually a forceful combination and to achieve the best effect, requires that one of the colors be used in less intensity than the other.

An analogous color harmony is made up of the colors that are next to each other and between any two primary colors. Blue, blue green and green make up an analogous combination.

A triadic color combination is made up of any three colors on the color wheel that form an equidistant triangle. This is the most difficult combination to use effectively.

Factors Influencing Choice of Color in Clothing

Color of Hair, Skin and Eyes. To choose the colors in clothes that will be the most flattering to you, consider the color of your hair, your complexion, and your eyes. Do not choose a color simply because you like it, without considering the many elements in your make-up that could cause this color to be a poor choice for you.

Since your hair is a dominating note in your coloring consider it first in determining your choice of colors.

Next examine your complexion. Skin tones are made up of red and yellows. Cleanse your face thoroughly and remove any colored clothing near your face.

Next your eyes if your eyes are your best feature you will want to choose colors that will accent them. Bright intense colors make dark eyes appear darker, while light colors make light eyes appear lighter. Blue, gray, green, and hazel eyes reflect the color worn.

Personality. Your temperament also is a factor in color selection. If you are a dynamic person, the intense vital colors are for you. If you are a calm, serene person choose neutrals and delicate pastels.

Season and Occasion. Winter and summer wardrobes show the effect that the seasons have on selection of color. The warm tones are featured in the fall and winter while the cool colors are popular in spring and summer to counteract effects of the temperature.

Occasion for which you dress also dictates the suitability of color. Some large department stores and business firms forbid their employees to wear bright intense colors because they attract attention away from the merchandise that is being displayed or distract other workers.

There is more latitude for the use of color in sportswear and in dressing for social occasions.

Color Selection Pointers

1. Dark colors make a person appear more slender.

2. Light colors make a person seem larger

3. One-color costumes add height

4. Two-color combinations cut the figure and make it appear shorter and wider.

5. Large, printed patterns usually make a person appear larger.

6. Small, definite patterns and plain colors are best for the short person

7. Multicolored plaids and checks make the figure seem heavier and wider.

8. Pastel colors tend to produce a delicate quality.

Intelligent Shopping

The less money you have to spend on clothes the more knowledge you need about what is becoming to you. People who can buy in exclusive shops need consider only what looks well on them because buyers have selected garments with good style fine workmanship and quality fabrics.

What to Buy. A careful inventory of your clothing and accessories should bring to your attention items you need to purchase. Before setting out on your shopping trip, decide exactly what you intend to buy and the price range within which your purchase should fall.

When to Buy. It is wise to replace important items in your wardrobe before you actually need them. If you buy clothing hastily and under the pressure of immediate need, you will often find it unsatisfactory in one way or another. The hasty shopper often pays more and gets less quality for her money.

Value versus Price. Comparison shopping helps you to recognize the quality of material and workmanship in apparel and accessories in relation to the price charged. You may do comparison shopping by visiting several stores, by reading fashion magazines by following newspaper advertising closely, or through all three methods.

Buyer’s Check List. Before you buy an article of clothing be sure you can answer these questions in the affirmative.

1. Does it fit? A garment should never be tight unless the particular design calls for tightness. A too tight garment always makes the wearer feel uncomfortable and look larger than she is. Take extra care to see that a dress or suit fits properly through the shoulders. Dior said once that if a garment fits from the waist up, the rest of its bound to look well. Be sure that the waistline of a dress is at your waistline.

2. Is it comfortable? Every closet contains a few articles that never will be worn because they are not comfortable. You do not have to sacrifice style to gain comfort. Be patient and forget about size. If you look attractive in a new ensemble your friends will tell you so, and they will not ask the size. Catering to vanity is a poor substitute for comfortable clothes.

3. Is it becoming? Do not be influenced by high-pressure sales people. You will wear the garment a long time, and it must be something you will not tire of. If you need support in taking time to make your decision ask a friend to go shopping with you.

4. Does it harmonize with the rest of your wardrobe? The new garment should blend with other clothing that you already have. Ask yourself if a new purchase can be worn often enough to justify its being in your wardrobe. Avoid picking up a so called bargain that requires building a complete ensemble around it before it can be worn.

5. Is it appropriate for the type of work or social activities in which you engage? Most business women stay fairly close to the conservative. Buy new clothes with an eye to using them in your working wardrobe after their newness wears off. The afternoon or evening dresses that you need however should be bought to suit particular social occasions and should never be worn out at work.

6. Does it enhance your personality? Fussy frills on an athletically inclined girl or strictly tailored clothes on a frail Dresden type are completely out of character. Use clothes to highlight and enhance your personality.

7. Do you feel well dressed and at ease wearing it? Some of your clothes you like especially well because they make you feel confident or you have had unusually good times when wearing them. You invariably pick the favorite suit or dress when something special is scheduled. The goal of all your wardrobe planning is to feel and look your best because you are at ease in what you are wearing.

Clothing Care and Maintenance

Cleanliness is a basic prerequisite in the care of your clothes. Whether a garment can be washed or must be dry cleaned see that it is always clean before you wear it.

Leadership in Philippine Community Schools

The system is headed by a Secretary of Education, who is a member of the President’s cabinet. Under him are the directors of public and private schools who are responsible for the control and supervision of over 27 thousand schools and more than 100 thousand teachers in fifty-two provinces.

The story of little Democracies is the story of the community school in action. It is a record of achievement in one province where the schools concentrated on developing a program designed to raise the hopes and aspirations of the people. This story of Bataan is more than a record of nine moth achievements in one province. It is a symptomatic expression of the hopes and desire of many people throughout the nation. It is the record of the daring spirit of a youthful division superintendent of schools and loyal group of professional workers. It is the story of old men and women and young boys and girls finding satisfaction in working co-operatively to improve their own mode of living. It is a record of what can be accomplishing when latent force are unleashed and given freedom of expression. It is the record of a beginning a point well made by the author in his prefatory statement. More than anything else, it is a record of democracy in action at the grass-roots, the cogon, and level.

The situational is present time is entirely different; since 1950, statements like the following have been issued by the director of public schools (General Memorandum No. 51, s. 1950):

While in the past it was customary for the field to wait for the general office to issue instructions on matters taken up at the [superintendents] convention it is believed that insofar as the implementation of the program herein indicated is concerned the time is ripe for the superintendent themselves to exercise leadership and initiative.

Since leadership is not confined only to the superintendent’s level it is expected that supervisors, principals and classroom teachers will exercise the same leadership as opportunities arise or as situations demand.

The superintendents, supervisors, principals and teachers should feel free to initiate curriculum study and development to meet local needs and problems.

The real educator’s success in measured by the positive difference he makes in the school and the community in much the same way that the success of the school will be measured by the difference its presence makes in the way the people live and work together. On the objectives of education the committee proposed:

Primary Grades “proposal No. 9: Assumption by the educational system of the responsibility of the leadership in community improvement involving functional literacy, worthwhile reaction, home beautification, community sanitation, and increase agricultural and industrial production not only as ends in themselves but also as means for implementing more concretely instruction in the class room and to carry out the program the inclusion of community extension services as part of the teachers regular duties………

Secondary Schools. “Proposal No. 10: let it be established as a policy that the high school will justify its self first by it success in preparing the young people for life in the present and foreseeable future; seconds the difference that it makes in the standards of living of the people of the community in which it is located; and third by the successful effort to teach the youth the ways of democracy.

Strengthening the Public School Teachers Association. In order to relax control of the “field” the late senator Esteban R. Abada when he was director of public schools, silently supported the strengthening of the Philippine public school, Teachers Association (PPSTA) an effort which resulted ultimately in actual encouraging a “new policy of militancy. . . . Removing from the over the heads of teachers the threat of the sword of the general office ready to enforce strict regulation of a highly centralized system.”

Revision of the Service manual for Teachers. The service manual has from the beginning served as the bible for teachers, supervisors, and superintendents and it was meant to be followed to the letter. The new revision was made to relax control over the field and to encourage and develop local initiative. The new manual contains the following significant provision:

While the field is . . . . Supplied with courses of study, teacher’s manual and other curricular aids and source of information that will be helpful to supervisor, principals, and teachers in planning and organizing instruction the task of developing the curriculum, which in this case refers to the organized experience through which children learn and grow will be mainly the teachers responsibility. He will have to use all available materials and resources in order to provide children with abundant, interesting and profitable learning activities. The best possible type of curriculum can be developed if teachers in the same school, district or division teaching the same subjects, courses or grades as the case may be pool their talents and resources and with the leadership and guidance of the principal and district supervisor and the technical assistance of the specialist, such as the division or general office supervisor undertake the development or revision of the curriculum in a co-operative manner laying stress on the use of local resources or materials. Lay persons who can make a contribution to the task of curriculum development or evaluating should be encourage and ask to do so.

The new Role of School Superintendent. Before the war division superintendent served in the capacity of sub-lieutenants to the director of education who gave them order and instruction to follow. As a result of the new policy division superintendent became educational leaders in their respective province who served the director of the public schools in an advisory capacity. The following served as the themes of the conventions around which the program of the public schools revolved:

1950: Education for better Living in Rural Areas.

1951: Adult Education: Economic, Cultural-Social, Citizenship-Civic and Health and Sanitation.

1952: Developing and Enriching the Curriculum of the Community School.

1953: Improving the community School Program for Economic Development

1954: Vitalizing the Community School Program for Moral and Civic Education in a Democracy.

1955: Evaluating the Community School Program.

Living in rural areas, was accordingly broken up into the following sub problems.

Gearing the curriculum to rural education
Problems and conditions of learning in rural education
The organization and operation of the community centered school
The high school and its responsibilities in rural areas
Agricultural and trade and industrial education in rural areas (including occupational information and guidance and the relation of home industries to rural economy).
Adult education in rural areas
Teacher education for rural areas
Financing rural education.

Little Democracies of Bataan. It is left to each division to implement the theme as developed at the superintendents’ convention.

Relating the School Subjects to Community Activities. The curriculum of the community school has two parts and these are closely integrated: the school subjects-arithmetic, reading and language, writing social studies and civic music etc.

Aims:

1. To encourage pupils to increase food production by raising poutry and growing vegetables

2. To give them the opportunity to learn by reading and observation about projects undertaken by others.

Guide Question:

1. What have you done to make home clean and beautiful? Why should you clean and beautiful your yard and home.

2. Do you eat eggs for breakfast? What should you do to always have an ample supply of eggs for your family? Have you seen Mrs. Enguitos Project?

Field Trip:

1. The class visited Mrs. Enguitos duck project. They saw her fence, her clean, hygienic duck house; the water pool also had made for the ducks and the number of eggs her ducks had laid a day.

2. They saw how Mrs. Enguito had channeled the water flowing outside her yard into a pool for the ducks to swim in.

Discussion and Application:

1. The following day the class discussed the project and how they could. If they wished set up a similar one in their own homes.

2. Later on during the year as many as were willing to take up duck raising as their project were given further encouragement and guidance and Mrs. Enguito served as the “expert” in duck raising since the teacher was not.

The Role of the Central Office. It must not be inferred from what has been said that the general office of the bureau of public schools not to mentioned the departments of education have relinquished all their powers to the field.

Developing Public Opinion

Public opinion is one of the most potent factors in social life. Recently public opinion stopped the catching and killing of squirrels in the white house ground in Washington D.C because they ruined the golf link of the president. A more humane way to deal with the problem was suggested by one of the lovers of animal life, and this was followed thus saving the squirrels and the golf links also.

Education of the Public

Our country is among the richest in the world in natural resources. But our wealth is not shared equally among us. What we need most is not dollars but character to work hard to claim and get only that which we deserve. There should not be unearned increments. Public office should be a through our vote which is the strongest power in a democracy.

EVALUATION OF COMMUNITY EDUCATION PROGRAM

The overall objectives as defined by the constitutions of the Philippines being to develop moral character personal discipline civic conscience and vocational efficiency and to teach the duties of citizenship educational evolution must be concerned with showing the extent to which ultimate goals are achieve. This has not been done so far.

We are changing our educational values and we must now change our educational evaluation. Since mere knowledge is no longer power unless it is well integrated with the entire personality evaluation must now take cognizance of values other than bits of knowledge other than mere isolated habits and skills.

When education is concerned with the development of no less than the whole child and only functioning segments of him evaluation must needs be concerned with . . . things that make the sum total of human character and personality. . . .

It is our purpose to consider and describe some of the newer means of evaluation particularly those that have been found useful in other countries and to show in what way we may adapt such means to our own purposes in carrying out the objectives of the community school.

1. Procedure of Evaluation

a. Initial survey condition and needs of a particular community.

b. Identification and definition of objectives

c. Determination of ideas or indicators of progress

d. Construction and refinement of evaluation techniques

e. Application of such techniques and instrument

f. Analysis, organization and interpretation of the results

g. Planning and carrying out of appropriate remedial

h. Reporting the finding to all concerned

a. Survey of Conditions and Need. The procedure varies in different communities but it must include in the survey team persons who will later be concerned with improving the conditions and in meeting the needs that may be found, meaning not only teachers and community leaders but parents including illiterate ones and representative pupils. The parent-teacher association in fact should be concerned with such a survey and each class in the school should take up certain aspects of such a survey.

b. identification and Definition of Objectives. What are the goals to be achieved? Again these should be determined by all concerned and with as wide a participation as possible. In the meeting of the PTA or adults in literacy classes and in the various classes in school, the findings of the survey should be discussed with a view to leading children youth and adults to be aware of the condition and needs and to be led to desire to help in improving and meeting them. What needs to be done to provide safe drinking water to provide water for irrigation to do away with the breeding places of mosquitoes to keep animals from plants to improve school attendance to improve production of food, to inspire the children and young people to higher goals I life, to obey town ordinance or to make religion or literacy teaching functional.

c. Determination of Indices or Indicators of Progress. Given a specific objective – to provide safe drinking water- what may be some of the indicator of progress toward its attainment?

d. Construction of Valid Techniques and Instruments of evaluation. This is often a difficult job and it may require the help of expert in evaluation but it can be done without such experts.

e. Application of Techniques and Instruments of Evaluation. Once the techniques or instrument is agreed upon implementation and application come naturally next in the process.

f. Analysis, Organization and Interpretation of results. This may seem a very technical job but it need not be. A simple chart showing improvement in number of families in different puroks, without mentioning the names of families along certain lines is easily made.

g. Remedial Measures and Follow-up. Often community program are not continued long enough to bear concrete results and if they are, no suitable follow-up or remedial action is undertaken to ensure permanence and continuity of the progress that has been achieved.

h. Reporting to the People. Community assembly may be held for the purpose of reporting to the people what happened and what might be done next. In this stage again the pupil and the adults should take an active part. They should be the ones really to report and not the teachers. In doing so they will get further motivation in undertaking new projects.

2. The Substance to Be Evaluated

Truly comprehensive evaluations embrace all the significant factors that are contributory to personal and social well-being – material, ethical, social, arithmetic or religious.

Use of Motivation

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THE USE OF MOTIVATION IN TEACHING

AND IN LEARNING

Aims of the Chapter:

1. To give the students adequate knowledge of the nature and uses of motivation in education.

2. To develop among the students an understanding of the different types of motives and incentives and their value in teaching and in learning.

The Meaning of Motivation

He key to directing and guiding learning is the understanding of the needs, motives, and interests of the learning consequently much of the teacher’s work centers around problems of motivation. Almost invariably the teacher who fails in her teaching is the one who is unable to take proper account of motivation factors. He understanding and proper use of motivational techniques bring interest, good morale, effective learning, and a sense of real achievement to the classroom. Lack of understanding and improper attempts to direct and guide learning often result in increased tension, disciplinary problems, inefficient learning, and a sense that the school activities are little more than busy work. The understanding and proper use of motivational technique bring interest, effective teaching and productive learning.

Motivation is not a bag of tricks which the teacher uses to produce learning. Rather it is a process which belongs to the learner. It is similar to vision in that it involves extern al stimulation, appropriate mechanism of response, and an internal stimulation, appropriate mechanism of response, and an internal force which energizes the response. The basic substratum of motivation may be found in the need of the child. The first characteristic of motives is that they have an energizing function. They stir up behavior. Besides releasing energy, motives have a character of directionality. Energy produced by needs seeks a discharge in relevant incentives, or goal objects which satisfy needs. In brief, motivation maybe described as a process in which energies produced by needs are expected in the direction of goals.

Motivation of school learning depends upon such factors as the learner’s purpose or intent to learn, his self-concept and self confidence, his level of aspiration, and his knowledge and appraisal of how well he is doing in relation to his goal. It is the job of the teacher to create an atmosphere which provides desirable outlets for needs in which interests will as a consequence flourish.

Motivation has many connotations as used in education. The term motivation is often used to denote springs of actions, they be native or acquired. It means causing or inducing movements. Motivations are simply the moving power that elicits vigorous effort to learn or to do things. Motivation is that which impels one to move, whether such impulsion is conscious or unconscious. It is also used to mean stimulation of a desire on the part of the learner to learn. In other words, motivation provides the energy or power for learning to occur, Motivation may also denote is condition, stemming from basic biological drives, which energizes, selects and directs learning.

Motivation determines the presence and vigor of activity. It refers not only to the presence and vigor of activity, but also the amount of self which is utilized. Although motivation provides the energy that makes it possible for learning to occur, more is needed for the realization of learning. Learning efficiency may be greatly impaired if there is neither explicit nor self-induced intention to learn. Self-direction is essential to promote a complete development of self. Teachers guide and direct their development best when they are sensitive to maturing the self–direction in the pupils.

Although motivation provides energy or power that makes it possible for learning to occur, more s needed for the realization of learning to occur, more is needs for the realization of learning. Motivation is the heart of the learning process. A strong inner urge will mean stronger efforts. Adequate motivation not only sets in motion the activity which results in learning, but also sustains and directs it. The learner must be motivated so that his interest will be directed toward a definite objective which will take him far beyond the experiences which are utilized as motivation toward further learning. It can be concluded that the fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate and facilitate learning activity.

Likewise, motivation is the psychological factor in learning. His response of the organism is dependent on the sensitivity of the sensory receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), the condition of the effectors, and the general tone of the organism. Defects of vision, hearing, and the oral functioning of the glands affect learning directly. His psychological factor in all its varied forms is based ultimately on a sense of well-being and satisfaction. This satisfaction results from anticipation of successful accomplishment of a task that is attractive in itself, or negatively, the avoidance of painful or undesirable consequences. Such experiences tend to impress themselves, and as to be remembered and learned.

Types of Motivation

There are many types of motivation as there is author’s o the subject. The two types of motivation generally known in education are the following:

1. Intrinsic Motivation – This type of motivation is an internal stimulus to learning. Intrinsic motivation is based on motives that every individual strives to satisfy. Motives are intrinsic, or within the person. They have their roots in needs and drives. Motives refer to drives that exercise all behavior. Motive is a thought, feeling, or condition that causes one to act. Motives are highly individualized. They stir up behavior. Besides releasing energy, motives have a character of directionality. It is an organic state that prompts one to action. A worthy motive is an inducer, an inciter, or an impeller, and is always based on interest. An interest does necessary result in a motive, but it is always the staring point. In general, a motive is a tendency which I aroused by a certain stimulus. Motive releases energy and arouses activity. To motivate activity is to arouse, to direct, and to sustain it. Motives activity is to arouse, to direct, and to sustain it. Motives are potent factors in learning for they encourage the learner in his learning activities for they encourage the learner in his learning activities. Motives are dynamic forces that affect the behavior, the thoughts, and motions of the pupils. Motives as directors of behavior are fundamentally important in the teaching and learning process. Good learning is impossible without the aroused and directed will of the learner. Thus, intrinsic motivation where needs are directly satisfied by the learning itself, probably produces the most efficient, pervasive, and permanent learning.

The desire for knowledge, the desire to explore, and the desire to construct are the most common forms of intrinsic motivation. Interest of the learner in a certain subject-matter is an internal desire to do better work. Education should start at the point of contact, and within the range of interest and capacity of the pupils (whole hearted purposeful activity). In this type of motivation the pupils work, not for medals and glory, but for personal satisfaction that comes with accomplishment. The learner is spurred by an inner drive toward the achievement of ends within his own experiences and comprehension. When motive is external to the activity, motivation is bad. Good motivation obtains when the motive for dig the act lies within the act.

2. Extrinsic Motivation – This type of motivation is an external stimulus to

Learning activity. Praise and blame, rivalry, rewards and punishments are some of the more common types of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives. Incentives are artificial devices introduced into the methods of teaching for the purpose of stimulating and directing the activity of the learner. Incentive is the means employed to evoke attitude conducive to learning. The stimulus that gives rise to a motive is called incentives. Incentives are essentially the environmental arrangements of stimuli designed to cause pupils to react more vigorously than they would without these additional stimuli. Incentives vary according to the sex, brightness and dullness, and age of the learner. Devices used to stimulate first-graders will not appeal to high school students. Similarly, bright and dull pupils, for example, differ in their response to praise and blame.

In extrinsic motivation the pupil is encouraged to do good school work by such dives as markers, honors, prizes, scholarships, and privileges. The present trend toward the elimination of marks in curricular activities, and awards in extra – curricular activities, show that educators are fast losing confidence in their effectiveness as incentives.

The types of motivation are presented here as an attempt to clarify and crystallize the meaning and nature of motivation and its function in the teaching process of presenting motives and incentives in order to vitalize learning on the part of the pupils and teaching on the part of the teachers. It plays a significant part in the accomplishment of the proper integrative and interactive processes between the learner and his environment.

Not all of the different types of motivation given are acceptable to progressive education. The followers of the progressive school reject competition, rewards, praise and blame, and knowledge of results as motives of learning. They emphasize cooperation and sharing of interest within and among the various groups which constitute the larger society of mankind. The progressive schools have subordinated competition and acquisitive motives to social motives. Likewise, the proponents of the new education claim that individualistic incentives or external motives are undesirable forms of motivation. It can be included however, that extrinsic motivation, in which secondary or intermediary incentives are used to carry the cleaning, is frequently necessary, although not as effective as the primary type.

Progressive or new education stresses cooperation and sharing rather than competition or competitive and acquisitive learning. The fundamental concept of progressive education is that education should take place in and through the life situation, that is, through occupational activities true to life and carried out in that spirit of cooperation and responsibility necessary for human beings banded together in a community. Traditional education emphasized competitive and acquisitive motive, in consonance with social order which revered individualism and regarded accumulation of wealth as a criterion of successful living. In other words, success in life is measured in terms of material wealth. Progressive education stresses cooperation and sharing. In consonance with its ideal of democracy, a sharing of interest within and among the various groups which constitute the larger society of mankind. Exaggerated competition is no longer to be encouraged in the classroom.

Characteristically, Philippine schools have fostered competition without teaching children how to complete. By pacing a high premium upon individual achievement the school generally assist in the development of a keen sense of rivalry among pupils. There can be little doubt that competition operates as on of the outstanding incentives in school learning. Competition gets its strength from the ego and social needs of the individual who comes to value his place in a particular group or groups and who strives to maintain that place or better it. As with other important incentives, its roots grow in the soil of basic needs but its form and consequences are culturally determined.

It should be clear that effect of competition upon the performance either of individual or of group depends upon factors such as the nature of the task, the structure of the groups involved and the previous experiences and personalities of the individuals who comprise competing groups. Generalization about the effects of competition can be made only when these various factors are taken into account. It is probable that when a group has a little structure or common interests and goals, competition becomes an individual matter. On the other hand, the teacher should consider some of the excellent results and highly motivated conditions obtaining in cases when the work of the groups has been directed toward meaningful and challenging materials.

Any school motives or incentives must be considered in terms of the total effect. Even though fair competition may be effective in some circumstances as an incentive in motivating academic achievement, there is still the question as to its effect upon other kinds of learning than the subject –matter performance.

Competition may be desirable school incentive when: (1) each pupil has training how to complete, (2) expect rewards for their efforts, (3) there is sufficient and varied competitive activities to allow all to experience, (4) groups are somewhat evenly matched complete as groups, (5) losing is considered not as failure as a temporary setback.

Importance of Motivation to learning

The purpose and importance of motivation to learning should be clearly understood by the teacher. The fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate and to facilitate learning activity. Learning is an active process that needs to be motivated and guided toward desirable ends. Learning is self-initiated, but it must be aided by motives or incentives so that the learner will persist in the learning activity. A definite motive or incentive is valuable in all work, as motives and incentives make for readiness. The greater the readiness, the greater attention will be given to the work on hand and the sooner will the desired result be achieved. It is important to attempt to get the learner into a state of readiness for it increases the alertness, vigor, and wholeheartedness of learning. In trying to achieve some end, the more acute the readiness, the more satisfying the reaction. The activities which are futile become annoying. One sure means of Putting the law of effect into operation is to assist the learner to achieve ends and purposes which he is zealous to attain.

The real problem in motivating schoolwork is to discover values strong enough to stimulate the pupils to effective efforts. The value that appeals strongly top one individual may have little or no appeal to another individual. Moreover, the value that appeal strongly to one individual at one time may not appeal as strongly at another time. The teacher must be continually on the alert to perceive these differences and fluctuations. Since all learners do not react similarly, the motivation of learning must be varied for different individuals.

An understanding of the nature of motivation is important, because motivation determines, not only the intensity of the effort to learn, but also the extent to which this effort is made an activity of the total personality. Motivation of learning activities help the pupil to concentrate on what he is doing, and thereby to gain satisfaction. Continuous motivation is needed to help learners concentrate on the lesson to be learned. The experiments made in its simplest form is seen in the experiments made in the way animals and human beings learn. In human learning, the motives that are applied most often are the impulse to mastery and desire for social approval. As shown by experiments, the impulse to mastery I the most effective motive for learning. The mastery motive can be utilized in directing the learning. Process by the use of the teacher’s marks, scores in objective tests, and the graphic records of progress.

The importance of motivation to learning is seen in the experiments in human learning. From experiments with a couple of high school students, Turney came to the conclusion “that the two major factors in school achievement are intelligence and motivation, and that the latter is more important.” Book likewise asserts “ that motivation is the control factor in every learning process. In the same manner, McMurry once said, “I believe that motivation is the most important principle in education Thorndike makes the same point in explaining that thought and action occur largely in the service of wants , interest, and attitudes and are stimulated and guided by them.”

The importance of motivation in life is well expressed by DR. Jose Rizal when he said: “Man works for an objects. Remove that objects, and you reduce him to inaction. The most active man in the world will fold his arms on the instant he understands that it is madness to be stir himself, that his work will be the cause of his trouble, that for him it will be the cause of vexation at home.”

Motives Important in Teaching and Learning

Motives are important aspects of motivation. They release energy and arouse activity. It is not enough just to activate an organism. The energy released is ineffective unless action is directed toward some objects that is capable of satisfying the drive. Improvement in learning will take place when activities are converged upon well-defined and attainable goals. Learning cannot be successful without persistent, selective, and purposeful effort. This principle has far-reaching implications for educational procedure. The needs for adequate motives for doing school work is clearly as great as the need for adequate motives for doing any other types of work.

The different types of motives useful in teaching and in learning are the physiological, psychological, and habit motives. Physiological motives insure the preservation of life such as sex, hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, and the desire to maintain homeostatic balance. These are the motives that insure a strong urge to live, the desire to preserve one’s self, or to keep on living . Psychological motives refer to the desire to be noticed, admired, and honored or emulated. They are sometimes called the ego-motives. Habit motives refer to the well established habits which furnish their own source of motivation. In other word, habits are self-initiated, or habits make for readiness.

Some of the motives useful in motives useful in motivation are the following:

1. Interest – One of the appeals that have been employed in effective motivation is the appeal to interest. The term interest as used here means the attention that a piece of subject matter draws from the learner. In addition to its being a feeling of worth, interest is dynamic. It is a motivating the force that incites us to attend to a person, a thing or an activity. It is not an end in itself but rather a most important means to that ultimate end of growth and development. By creating a proper mental set, interest guarantees attention and paves the way for activity leading to further activity. Interest and drives are concomitants of acquired ability.

Interest to be effective must be natural and must exist because of the character of the individual’s mental make-up and the nature of the object presented. The so-called acquired interest, or created interest as it is sometimes called is in reality another form of motivation. The fundamental thing in motivation is the recognition on the part of the learner of the connection that the mastery of the subject has with something he desires to secure. One’s interest is of highly motivating import. Interest is stimulated and increases in its intensity. The teacher should utilize the pupil’s interest as a drive to more excellent work. The children’s interest, weather native or acquired must be utilized in the classroom.

2. Personal Development – Another appeal that maybe made strong with many pupils is an appeal of the value of subject-matter as a means of bringing about definite personal development. The pupils are made to feel the need of intellectual growth and the desire to attain such growth. The pupil may value the subject as a mark of personal attainment. For example the pupil may study Spanish just to feel intellectual superior to those who have never studied the subject. The desire to be educated is worthy of being stimulated and employed as a means of motivating school work. The motive of personal growth stimulates pupils to great efforts that they may grow in resources. The teacher should endeavor to create conditions which will imbue them with the desire to grow. The school should endeavor to have pupils learn only those things and processes which are of immediate use and value in life situations.

3. Instinctive Urges – Many psychologists believe that a human being inherits a large number of instinctive urges – that is unlearned mode of response and that every instinct is the equivalent of a fundamental and insistent urge or impulse. They believe every instinctive urge result in state of readiness and drives to action. It cannot be denied that some instincts or innate tendencies can be utilized as motives or drives for school work. Some instincts are essentially good and their satisfaction may be availed of as a stimulus to learning. The undesirable instinct maybe thwarted to neglect, substitution and repression.

Instinctive urges that are useful in promoting learning are gregariousness, competition, desire for social approval, manipulation and collection. Several experiments have revealed that children work better and faster and improve more rapidly when working together under the spur of competition has been found effective because it increase achievement. Competition is effective in stimulating achievement. Indeed the presence of a co working group has the effect of increasing the efficiency and speed of the individual but the quality of the thought processes is usually superior when the performer is working alone. When the quality is the end in view the presence of a co-working group is probably always beneficial but when judgment and reasoning are involve or when the materials studied are different in nature working alone appears to be much superior. It can be said therefore that some pupils are stimulated by see presence of their fellows and do better work in groups other can accomplish more when working alone. Then again difference exist according to the nature of the some kinds of work being done best when alone others being done in groups.

Social facilitation has been found experimentally to be an important factor for the motivation of achievement. The display of result gives definiteness to the urge to succeed to overcome assistance. The urge to surpass others in all its manifold forms is one of the most interesting and important human urges. Competition between groups if conducted properly gives training in cooperation. The school now being conducted in such a way that opportunity is given for the developing. Rivalry is motivation with the goal of superiority in achievement. Psychologically rivalry has been found effective because it increase achievement. However in teaching and learning situations too much emphasis upon competition may develop undesirable habits of behavior.

The desire for social approval is a strong drive to learning. A special king of reward for achievement is the approval given pupils by classmate, teachers, and parents. As an incentive it includes praise complementary remarks acceptance by a group, publicity and the like. It might be conceive on broad sense as including those cases of reward for achievement in which favorable attention is gained.

4. Emotions - Motives of type predominantly emotional in character are found in the studies which use praise and reproof and also to be selective in its applicant. Pupils also differ individually in their responsiveness to both commendation and disapproval.

Teachers have always employed sarcasm commendation and censure a means of stimulating the pupils. They likewise employed censure and sarcasm a the chief means of influencing pupils to take their work seriously. From a review of the studies dealing with emotional motives certain principles are established. Praise is better than proof as a motive for diligent work. It is better regardless of age, sex, grade or degree of intellectual maturity. It has been observed that both praise and reproof maybe effectively employed as motivating influence but praise is better for you to standpoint of both immediate and remote return. Some pupils respond to censure than to praise and there are some teachers who because of certain personality traits can neither commend nor reprove pupils in an effective manner.

In general, older children and children who are dull respond to praise, and reproof has an unfavorable effect on them. Reproof, on the other hand, may have a desirable effect on some of the brighter pupils, although on the whole. Praise is better . Poor pupils need praise and encouragement , but the bright pupils are so accustomed to smooth sailing that occasional reproof may spur them to do better work. With younger and less mature pupils , praise is likely to be more effective than reproof and can be employed to great advantage.

5. Knowledge of Results and Success – A powerful idea of the results to be achieved is very important in fixing facts and forming habits. In many teaching situation, the pupils hardly know how they stand. They are not certain whether they making progress, or whether their work highly satisfactory. Hence, a learner should be praised of his progress or growth. The effect of “knowledge of result” was first investigated by Judd in 1905. Book Norvel (1922) found in control experiments that every man and woman fell below his score when knowledge of results was added to the learning situation, every subject of experiment surpassed the record he had made when he had no knowledge of the results of his effort. The studies made by Thorndike and others report consistent evidence of the motivation effect of knowledge of results upon various kinds of both mental and motor behavior.

Pupils. in general, want a knowledge of results. The use of graphs and records showing their achievements in different subjects like reading , arithmetic and other activities will meet this need. They can observe, not only their own progress, but also those of their classmates. Hence, they will be motivated to beat and to improved their own records as well as those of their class mates. The desire for social approval will drive them to work harder in order to improve their records. An Objectives knowledge of results is a highly desirable motive to use in teaching .

The types of motives mentioned are not all acceptable to progressive education, Traditional education has made more use of the competitive and acquisitive motives ; on the other hand, progressive education has stressed cooperation and sharing, in consonance with the democratic way of life. It is the believe of the writer, using the electic approach , that in teaching and learning both individualistic and social motives are desirable in forms of motivation. If the understanding of the Motives as observed in the process of teaching in natural and functional, based upon the native equipment of the learner and upon his daily activities, the accomplishment of purpose of education becomes more certain as the process rises to the realistic and psychological level. Motives are the chief sources of spontaneous attention and joyful effort. These are also the bases of potential energy of the disposal of the teacher and the learner. It is generally accepted in the field of education that effective learning can be mentioned by a teacher who possess a dynamic personality and who reflects in his own attitude the influences of a broad and wholesome experience. Teaching and learning, to be effective and productive, must have motive.

The desire for success id derived from ego and social needs. The child craves not only to feel a sense of achievement himself, but also wants his accomplishment to be admired by other. Success is always perceived in relation to the individual’s concept of himself, and in terms of the meaning of various incentives as they spell success or failure in the eyes of others. Thus a child who sees himself as a top ranking scholar may set as his goal the attainment of the highest grade in the class. Anything less than in his level of achievement is not perceived as success.

Uses of Incentives in Teaching and Learning

The term incentive is used in education to describe both the incentive device and the attitude produced by it. From the point of view of the function of the school, incentives are artificial devices introduced into methods of teaching for the purpose of stimulating and directing the activity of the learner. Incentives are the means employed to evoke attitudes conducive to learning. The stimulus that gives rise to a motive is called incentive. While motive arte internal urges to reaction, incentives are external. They are essentially the environmental arrangements of stimuli designed to cause pupils top read more vigorously than they would without these additional stimuli.

Incentives vary according to the sex, brightness and dullness, and age of the learner. Devices used to stimulate first graders will not appeal to high school students, Similarly, bright and dull pupils for example, differ in their response to praise and blame.

The dividing line between motives and incentives is not always as definite and clear as we might desire. The purpose of motives and incentives is not to increase the effort devoted to motives and incentives but to high ten the interest in the task at hand. Much of the work of the teacher is to arrange situations, largely external stimuli, to stimulate the better incentives into drives to the work desired and to make the work satisfying. Proper uses of incentives call for adjustment to the mental and physical growth of the pupils as well as to the goals of instruction to which attention is desired to be directed. The highest type of incentive that will produce the desired reactions should be selected.

The types of incentives which maybe of the use to facilitate learning in the classroom are.

1. School marks – School marks do stimulate school work to a greater degree. Test scores and school marks used as a basis for grading offer a powerful stimulus to educative activity. Recognition of the pupil’s work in the form of grades has its favorable effect upon the learner. Experimental psychology has demonstrated that achievement. There is danger, however, that school marks or grades grain more attention than the intrinsic values of learning.

2. Exhibiting good works – In the lower grades, the teacher’s practice of exhibiting the best work produces good results. When a pupil knows that the best work is to be exhibited, the desire to do better work is stimulated or created. According to Luba, children can be motivated to do better work when incentives such as prizes are offered than when there is no incentives. His findings also show that dull children respond to extrinsic rewards more often than to bright, This attitudes is closely related to the desire for social approval. The feeling is made all the more pleasant when the completion of the activity receives group approval group approval and recognition.

3. Game or play – In the lower primary grades, games or play maybe introduced to provide incentive for better work in subject such as arithmetic, reading, language, phonics, and spelling. The desire to play, when properly stimulated and directed, will facilitate learning and a great factor in the physical and mental development of the child. It develops personal discipline which is essential in a democracy.

4. Examination – Education seem to agree that pupils tend to accomplish more when confronted with the realization that a day of reckoning is surely at hand. The motivating value of an examination varies with the esteem in which it is held by the pupils. To have a motivating value, the examination must come at frequent intervals; it would then be possible for the pupils to keep cumulative graph or records of their achievements. Such records constitute one of the most effective means of motivation is to motivate or to provide incentives for careful review and the gaining of new vistas.

5. Honor Roll – This type of incentives is more often used in secondary schools and colleges. With students in the higher grades, recognition by means of the honor roll serves to give incentives for such of their work. In the elementary grades, teachers sometimes offer stars to pupils who have done perfect work, as a recognition of their achievements or accomplishments. This type of incentive drill, however, appeals only to bright pupils. The below –average and pupils will not be stimulated at all.

6. Emulation – Emulation as a school incentives was widely employed in the past. It should always be employed. The principle governing emulation should be to excel without hurting or degrading others. Emulation is exemplified in cases where the pupils are urged by the teacher to do their test in oral or written exercises, and the pupils select the best work and commend it; where rapid and neat work in number is called for, and the successful pupil is praised. Effort, as well as success, is a powerful factor in child-training and in effective child-living.

7. Material rewards – There are various types of rewards, and we are particularly concerned here with the rewards teachers give and their effect upon school behavior , The use of material rewards in school is not common for obvious reasons, but there is some evidence as to how such rewards effect the learning of the children. The important drawbacks in the use materials rewards in school learning seem to be;

1) In order to keep performance at a high level it seems necessary to increase rewards periodically,

2) The attainment of material reward becomes the primary goal, and school learning only an incidental means to an end – a means which quickly cast aside when the reward is attained;

3) Other kinds of incentives arte just as effective or more effective and do not lead to the relegation of learning to a secondary position.

The use of marks or grades, the giving of honor through assemblies, honor societies, and scholarship; and the awarding of prizes in the form of ribbons, cups or trophies are all always in which the educators attempt to foster desirable behavior and promote a maximum of effort toward school goals.

8. Punishment - Punishment and the fear of punishment are still used as form of extrinsic motivation in the school room the last fifty years. There is a little question that fear, anxiety and avoidance of pain are powerful motivation forces. Punishment has been assumed, at one or another to accomplish these ends :

1) Teach the child respect for authority

2) Block undesirable responses

3) Force the child to do something he was not ready to do or did not want to do

4) Set an example for potential offender

5) Make the student pay attention to class work

6) Motivate students to learn assigned material.

9. Vocational Goal – Often high school and college students are impelled to learn by the incentives of vocational aims or life interests. Inspite of importance of vocational aims and objectives there is considerable evidence that parents, schools, and society in general, have in large measure failed in helping young people develop these desirable incentives. Studies have shown that mature goals and definite vocational choice are related to academic achievement. It is an accepted fact that motivational process is composed of both energy and direction. The pupil who has clear goals – a definite direction for the release of energy – is obviously more apt to succeed.

In the use of incentives in teaching and learning the following opoints musty be taken into consideration by the teacher:

1) The teacher must bear in mind that the incentives toward which pupils strive are quite different from those which the teacher would think desirable.

2) The teacher should not consider themselves as the sole mediators of all rewards and punishment in the classroom.

3) The ultimate goal of teaching and learning should not center exclusively around ho many facts have been learned by around the kinds of motives and incentives pupils learn.

4) The strength of social approval as an incentive should be in proportion to need for attention and social recognition of the group and the teacher.

5) Any school incentives must be considered in terms of its total effect to the learner and upon other kinds of learning.

6) The use of individual competition must be minimized. Competition if too intense will lead to emotional disturbance and interface with social adjustment. Group competition may be used more often. We need cooperation rather than competition.

The Use of Devices or Audio-Visual Aids

It is generally accepted that the best learning takes place when the greatest number of senses are stimulated. The use of devices or audio-visual materials will stimulate the greatest number of senses. For this reason, good teachers have always used devices or audio-visual materials. A device is any means other than the subject –matter itself, that is employed by the teacher in presenting the subject -matter to the learner.

The modern pupil is literally surrounded pupil is literally surrounded with endless profusion of aids to his learning, such as workbooks, drill cards, graphs, picture, maps, slides, film strips, motion pictures, radio and exhibits of all kinds. Television also offer great possibilities for use in the classroom. This situation grows out of the demands of an enriched and diversified curriculum and of the urge to vitalize instruction by providing a boarder background of experience for the pupils and means of adjusting learning to the differences in interest and aptitudes of children.

In brief the uses of visual and audio-visual devices maybe given as follows:

To challenge the attention of the pupils.
To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils.
To facilitate the understanding of the pupils
To provide incentive for action
To develop the ability to listen

Other Forms of Visual Aids

There are other forms of visual aids which can be used to stimulate students interest and to facilitate their understanding. The other forms of visual devices useful in teaching and learning are the follows:

Demonstration – dramatization and lecture-demonstration are good examples.
Field trips – science study trips, excursions, visit to factories, museums, government institution and to places of historical interest fall under field trips.
Laboratory experiments – experiments conducted by the students in the classroom through the direction and guidance of the teacher.

Classification of Device

The classification of devices helps one to see clearly their nature and understand better the criteria that should guide their selection. The device maybe classified into:

Extrinsic
Intrinsic

Nutt classified instructional devices into two types namely:

Material devices
Mental devices

Bossing classified visual materials into two groups from the viewpoint of usage – those available within the classroom and those out of the classroom. The examples given are:

Classrooms visual aids – pictures, semi pictorial devices such as maps, globes, models and blackboards
Field and excursion visual aids – nature study, field factory, commercial establishments, civic institutions, and places of historical interest.

Criteria Governing the Selection of Devices

1. A device should always be a means of helping the pupil learn the particular subject-matter presented.

2. A device should be adapted to meet the individual needs of the pupils.

3. Device should not be too numerous enough to permit selection by both teacher and learner; their helpfulness or lack of it should be looked into.

4. Devices should not be too numerous.

5. Device should be economical.

6. Devices should not be mere attraction.

7. Device should be readily usable.

8. Device should be adapted to the subject-matter and to the goals to be secured through the mastery of the subject-matter

General Suggestion for the Use of Devices

Some general suggestions to guide the teacher in his use of instructional devices are as follows:

The order or system of the use of instructional devices should be well planned by the teacher.
The teaching device should serve some vital purpose well established in advance.
The teacher should use a teaching device judiciously.
The teacher should be sure that the teaching devices are within the view of all members of the class.
The teacher should use various types of devices.
The teacher must bear in mind that device are not required in all types of leaning, except when the teacher is working with a section of dull pupils.
The teacher must not consider devices as a substitute for teaching procedure or method.
The teacher should not consider devices as ends in themselves but as means to an end.
The teacher must bear in mind that no one device is effective for all types of learning and in all situations.
The teacher should not use devices as mere tricks.

Important Points Concerning Motivation

Motivation is essential in any teaching and learning situation. Knowledge of motivation is therefore fundamental to the teacher to make schoolwork interesting to the learner. To make teaching and learning effective, the following points concerning motivation must be taken into consideration.

The principles of motivation state that the learner must be motivated before learning takes place.
Motivation is basic to learning and therefore it should be made an integral part of the teaching and learning processes.
Motives and incentives are potent factors in motivation.
Motivation of learning is one of the basic essentials of any set of educative experience.
Motivation is more effective if positive stimulation in the form of praise and rewards is given rather than negative stimulation in the form of blame and punishment.
Competition and rivalry are often used as drives to stimulate learning.
Continuous motivation is essential in developing concentration of attention.
Motivation is important, not only as an energizer and director of learning, but as a habit-system in itself.
Motivation is more effective if it is based on immediate goals rather than on remote goals or objectives.

10. Motivation is effective if it is self-initiated.

11.Motivation is effective if it employs a variety of kinds of motivational devices and techniques and a variety of instructional materials.

Good Grooming for Women

Your daily appearance, down to the last detail, reveals to others at a glance, a great deal about your personality. If you pay attention to every aspect of good grooming, to personal cleanliness, to appropriate clothing, you will look clean, neat and smart. You will not only make a favorable impression on others but you will be free from concern about your appearance so that you can be relaxed and poised. You will be more “employable” and more “promotable”.

Personal Cleanliness

Like other valuable personal assets, cleanliness cannot be taken for grated. Advertisements warn us that “even your best friend wont tell you if you are offending by bad breath or body odor. Avoid too-hot or too-cold water. Use a mild soap – and completely rinse off all the soap. Finish with cool or lukewarm water in order to close the body pores.

Use a reliable deodorant, either one that removes the odor. Deodorants available in powder, experiment until you find the deodorant that suits you best. Then use it!

For use superfluous under arm or leg hair the razor is best. Chemical depilatories often irritate the skin and sometimes cause infection.

Brush your teeth two or three times a day, if possible. The best time is immediately after a meal, but this not always convenient.

Care of The Skin

The clear complexion depends on inner cleanliness. No mount of scrubbing from the outside will help if the difficulty lies within. Diet, rest, fresh air and exercise will produce and maintain a good skin.

Blotches and pimples usually are caused by faulty diet or digestive disorders. If a corrected diet does not eliminate these skin blemishes, consult your doctor.

Caution to sun worshipers – exposure of your skin to the sun speeds up the chronological aging of your skin. It may even cause spotty discolorations, scaly and warty areas that sometimes are found to be precancerous tissue.

Your skin must be clean to be attractive. Whether your cleanse your face and neck with soap and water or with cosmetics makes little difference. A very dry skin will be more attractive if all the natural oil is not removed, while a very oily skin requires removal of excess oil.

How to Apply Make-Up. Cosmetics skillfully applied achieve a fresh natural look and can do much to enhance your best features.

After cleansing your skin, apply a light coat of powder base. For best results, choose a powder base one shade darker than your skin tone.

Use paste or liquid rough sparingly. Rouge is used to accent the upper part of your face. If it is blended too low on the cheekbones it gives your face drawn down look. The safest color choices are the lighter shades of pink or coral which give the most youthful coloring.

In perfumes, colognes, and after bath scents, choose related odors or matched perfume kits. Use perfume sparingly. Excessively heavy scents are oppressive and mark you as a person of poor taste.

Eye make-up used conservatively and skillfully can add to the beauty of our eyes. Take care the eye shadow is feathered lightly at the extreme outer side so that the color merges with the skin tone, without leaving a line of demarcation.

Brown eye shadow is probably most satisfactory for everyday make-up. Blue and green eye shadows are best used, if at all, for evening occasions.

To darken and define the eyebrows used a sharply pointed eyebrow pencil. Finish by brushing the brows again.

Mascara lightly applied to the upper eyelashes intensifies eye color and makes your eyes appear larger. Avoid a beaded, heavily made-up, theatrical appearance. Eye make-up, like all other make-up, is better avoided entirely if it is not applied carefully to achieve a natural look.

Lipstick can be more attractively and accurately applied by outlining the lips with a well-sharpened lip liner or a lipstick brush.

You should not need to re-define your lip line for many hours, and touching up your lips is easily and accurately done. Lipstick applied in this manner stays on longer and offers the possibility of reshaping your lips slightly when reshaping will improve your mouth.

Care of The Hair

Your hair is the natural frame for your face. Clean hair, becomingly styled, can add the finishing touch to your costume. Hat styles and modifications of necklines correspond with current hair fashions. An out-ot-date hairdo dates you as surely as does last year hat.

Beautiful hair starts with diet, as do other elements of physical beauty. Your hair reflects your general health, and the perfection of new growth depends on good care and on your physical condition. The first step toward beautiful hair is cleanliness.

Brush your hair every night. Pick up a small section at a time and draw the brush all the way to the ends of the hair. Use a natural-bristle brush. Nylon bristles are harsher to the scalp and in some cases can damage the hair follicles. Let your head drop down, then brush. This position has two advantages. First, the blood rushes to your head, and circulation is improved, which is one of the reasons for brushing in the first place. Second you can brush your hair longer because your arms do not tire so quickly. The relaxation you get in the process should be an inducement to better care of your hair.

Shampoo your hair every week or ten days. Always use a liquid or cream shampoo. Do not uses bar soap, for bits of soap are rubbed up under the little scales that grow on the hair, and are almost impossible to remove.

Your haircut is the basic essential for an attractive coiffure. Experiment until you find a hair-dresser who cuts you hair the way you like it and in the most be coming fashion.

Toady many women set their own hair. Current magazines print diagrams showing exactly how to block and set your hair to achieve the latest hair styles. Learn to use these diagrams.

Care of The Hands

Your hands are always on exhibition. Well-cared for hands and manicured nails help greatly in creating a favorable impression. They also can help you to be more confident and natural in your relations with others. Your other attractive qualities will be minimized if you must hide short, bitten nails.

Keep your nails shaped, short, clean, and well manicured. Be sure that the polish always covers the nail. Cultivate the habit of giving a little attention to your hands every day, with a complete manicure once a week.

Aids to Good Grooming

Keep your sewing box, your shoeshine kit and other grooming aids in convenient places. You will be surprised to fine how much easier these tasks seem and how much more readily you do them if the required materials are organized and within easy reach.

A clothes brush also should be handy for use just before you leave your room. Loose hair or dandruff on your shoulders marks you as a careless person. Look quickly in a full length mirror to see that the seams of your hose are straight and that your slip does not show.

The details so essential to good grooming do not take a great deal of time when done daily. Keeping your clothes clean and ready for wear is not a heavy task unless you allow a great deal of laundry to accumulate. Done bit by bit, washing clothes becomes a regular part of your routine and can even be a pleasant diversion from other duties.

Before storing your off-season wardrobe, look over the garments for needed repairs, have them cleaned and put them in mothproof bags or in a cedar chest. This is a good time to take stock of your clothes, discard those that you no longer wear, and plan the replacements that you will need for the next season.

Secrets of Good Grooming

1. To minimize a large nose, see that your hair is styled with large waves and curls, with the ends of the hair low. Also, brush your hair away from your face.

2. To conceal a low hairline, part the hair higher on your head. Use a straight center part or a part parallel to your eyebrows, and wear short bangs.

3. Before changing to a new hairdo, experiment with some false pieces to see how you like the change.

4. If perspiration on your hands causes you embarrassment when you dance, use a little antiperspirant on your palms before going out.

5. To reduce the hips, stand sidewise to a wall and bump ten minutes daily on each side.

6. To prolong the life of a girdle, hang it by the garters to dry after washing.

7. If you want to look chic Bermudas or shorts, exercise to reduce fat from the inner knee. Lie on your back. Alternately extend each leg straight up and from the letters of the alphabet with your toes.

8. If you have a good tan expert for strap marks, use an antiseptic lotion first and then cover the strap marks with tinted make-up base.

9. “Press” a velvet or velveteen garment by hanging it in a stem-filled bathroom. To remove lint draw the sticky side of cellophane tape across the fabric.

10. If your sweaters shed fuzz, wrap them in a cloth and put them in the refrigerator overnight.

11. Freshen cloth-lined purses by wiping the inside with a cloth dampened with cologne.

12. If a hat veil needs pressing in a hurry, pull it quickly back and fort over a lighted lamp bulb.

Vocational and Technical Education

Technical Assistance to Help People Help Themselves

Leaders who are concerned with giving aid to barrios and villages all over the Philippines should encourage the people to help themselves.

1. Any technical aid which does not reach the majority of the people who are the producers of wealth will fail to bear fruit in increased production and better standards of living. Technical assistance which remains in the form of reports and recommendations, programs, and blue prints of economic development and rural reconstruction will amount to a waste of effort and resources leading to frustration and disillusionment.

2. The new technology does not only need to be imported from the advance countries, but should become part of the economic life of the peoples in the underdeveloped countries. It is not something which can be passed on from one government to another, but something that should enter into the ways of living and working of the masses of the people.

3. Unless the higher income per capita means a higher standard of living for the majority of the people the aim of economic development will not be achieved. The result may only mean the widening of the gap between the rich minority who have grown richer and the poorer majority whose poverty would then appear more glaring and all the more burdensome.

4. The rise in national; income must express itself in better food, clothing, and shelter, better health, better education, and a more decent and active life for the great majority of the people.

5. In matters of economic development. Governments and peoples cannot always be considered identical. It is a mistake to give too much Attention to the governments representing forces which are sooner or later defined to disappear and too little attention to the people. For what does it profit you to win all governments of the underdeveloped world and lose the people.

6. Underdeveloped countries would like to see concrete results in the form of new methods of production, new factories, new enterprises and new irrigation system, and hydroelectric plants.

7. Care should be taken that technical and financial assistance will not result in benefits to a reactionary and corrupt group or class and leave the majority of the people in poverty.

8. It is only when people have a decent way of life to defend that they will struggle to preserve it. But if they are poor and miserable, they will be indifferent to the world struggle and can easily be led to participate in any movement that promises improvement of their condition.

5. Workers’ Education

The Labor Education Center of the University of the Philippines can claim a number of accomplishments, not the least of which is, to unite a number of the trade union movements and to make many of the workers feel that, united and determined, they do not have to depend upon lawyers and politicians to have their own rights respected by their employers.

There is still far to go and much to do to educate all the workers about their rights and responsibilities and to encourage them to work together in order to enable them to bargain effectively and honorably with representatives of management. But gradually, the cause of united labor in the Philippines is being advance to the province and out of the way place. There still too much fragmentation and division among workers who through ignorance and selfishness tend to work for their individual interest to the detriment of the ultimate goal, which is to improve their earning power and standards of living as a group and as individuals.

The center has two kinds of staff – the regular staff, who work in Diliman, and the stand-by staff, who are recruited from the outside labor unions, business and industry, and the various branches of government social security the economic and social council, education the universities and any other sources which may have the kind of men needed to handle the work that is required; such as teaching the workers procedures of collective bargaining, accounting of union funds labor legislation, management of cooperatives providing for workers welfare or any other subject of interest to labor unions in any part of the country.

So impressive has been the achievement of the Center that the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) provide funds for the construction of a $ 240,000-building “without counterpart funds and without any strings attached to the aid.” The fact is that, according to the director the amount asked for was $160,000, but the additional amount was most welcome because additional rooms will be provided to enable to center to function more effectively.

6. Supervision of Occupational Training Programs

It goes without saying that the present method – which is no method at all of occupational training in the Philippines, is highly unsatisfactory. It seldom result in the proper matching of the three elements of efficient production: namely, the needs of society for different types and levels of trained personnel, the capacities and aptitudes of the trainees, and the quality and amount of training provided. Without the benefit of a periodic survey of occupational needs, no one knows, whether there are too many engineers or nurses. Mere interest in a profession or vocation is no guarantee that the individual will succeed in it. More vocational or professional training facilities, if they are of the wrong kind or if there are too many of them, will complicate rather than solve the problem. It will result in intellectual unemployment and in many occupational misfits. Eventually, it will lead to dissatisfactory among people who should be working to help improve the standard of living of all. Because of the failure of thousands of graduates of our schools, colleges, and universities to find employment, they and their families are dissatisfied.

Training for Specific Occupational

1. Police Training

The improvement of the police forces is a practical and necessary service which can be established in the Philippines at relatively little cost compared to the tremendous good that will result from it. But before such a service can be effected nationally, police work must first of all be established such as a career on a civil service basis, which is true in

Thailand

. It is different in our country where in the various towns every new mayor has a new set of policemen who in many cases are not selected according to their merit. They are also paid very meager salaries and since their appointment is political their eye is not be very strict in enforcing ordinance for the simple reason that they do not offend the very persons who elected the mayor. There are some exceptions, of course.

2. Domestic Service as a Career

One of the most significant social developments in recent years in Europe and America is the recognition given to domestic service as a career like teaching or law. For nearly fifty years there has been an international federation the purpose of which is to maintain and improve standards of education for housekeeping and to protect the rights of employed housekeepers. This development is the more significant because career for women is a comparatively modern conception. Lately has come an acceptance of marriage and homemaking as a career, while the inclusion of domestic work in the homes of others among the worthwhile careers open to girls is a development of the last few years.

3. Training of Tourist Guides

A course for tourist guides which consist of 16 lectures and five practical demonstrations on Saturday afternoons is designed to give basic training in the practical work of guides in the United Kingdom. Students are carefully selected from among men and women who have the right background and temperament for guide lecturing. Students will be expected to have a working knowledge of English history, geography, topography, national and local government, art and architecture and to be well informed on current exhibitions and events likely to be of interest to visitors. The course last for n early three months.

Some implications of the training course for guide-lecturing in the United Kingdom can be drawn for our work in the Philippines along similar and allied lines.

First, after hearing a number of guides for tourist in manila-who are very few indeed, so few that it is difficult to find them when they are needed-I believe we should follow the English scheme of training guide lectures.

Second, as a means of promoting tourism in the Philippines, which is the aim of the tourist bureau and the desire of our thousands of businessmen all over the country, such a training scheme should be effective.

Third, we can well start tourism in our schools. In every community there are interesting place from the geographic, economic, artistic, health as well as historical standpoints.

UNESCO has published a number of volumes on the educational use of museums by pupils and students in different grades. These volumes are available at the UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines, at the RFC building in Aduana, and at the UNESCO Field Science Office, United Nations Building, Padre Faura Street, Manila or they may be purchased from a bookseller in Manila.

Fifth, I should like to draw the attention of our leaders and teachers of vocational and professional courses to the principle that is indicated at the outset in regard to the training course for guides in England.

4. Homemaking Education in the Philippines

Since the establishment of the present system of education more than fifty years ago, homemaking has been a very important part of the education of Filipino youth, at the first called domestic science it was given to girls only but later certain phases of home and family like education were offered to boys as well. It is believed that unless husbands have an understanding of their duties and responsibilities in homemaking the best efforts of their wives will fail to result in the maximum happiness and well-being of the family. The lead in this movement was started be fore the war in the high school department of the University of the Philippines, where boys and girls discussed together the problems of home and family shared experience in doing home chores-coking and housekeeping-and planning of home budgets.

A bee project is an example of a hobby which pays. It needs little space and capital to start and one derives so much benefit from the work devoted to it. Here are some facts about bee culture in Paris.

1. A bee project may be carried out under trees in the yard, and with as little as 3,500 francs which is the price of a box containing 20,000 bees and queen bee.

2. There is very little work involve no more than waiting for the proverbial coconut to fall, for after the boxes are installed, the bees do all the work except for the extraction of one third of the honey and for putting water and floating corks in a shallow vessel-the bees alight on the corks to drink from the pan.

3. The bees, besides giving honey increase fruit crops tremendously and also give pollen which is both food and medicine. The bees on coming home from their errands drop some of the pollens near the beehive. This pollen is collected and eaten or sold to drugstore at 1,000 francs (P6.00) a kilo. Both the honey and the pollen are food and disease-preventive, besides.

4. Properly placed in the front yard, a beehive can serve in place of a ferocious dog to protect the family and in the backyard to keep away robbers. The bees know their keepers whom they do not sting but woe to strangers w no such calendar:

April-May: Plowing the area four or five times, incorporating 20-30 carts loads of compost or cattle manure. Desuckering is attended to where there are already banana plants.

June-July: Pits are dug, spaced at six feet both ways in case of dwarf varieties and eight feet in the case of toll ones. Plant three month old sword suckers or selected rhizomes and bits of rhizomes.

August: Give first digging to the entire area. Replace dead suckers. Harvest of early varieties leaving only one good sucker produces at the time of the flowering of mother plant.

September-October: Deepening drainage canals, application of manure or compost desuckering and earthing up operations for June-July planting late planting of certain varieties.

November-December: Harvest period at its peak; application of second dose of manure for the June-July planted crop; planting fresh perennial areas and deep digging operations with desuckering and removal of suckers for sake.

December-January: Third digging for wet land bananas, application of fertilizers. Earthling up the plants, irrigation.

January-June: Dry season. Irrigate once in three or four days or as often as necessary. Remove unwanted suckers up to the time of flowering. Maintain only one sucker to follow.

June-September: Complete harvest of dwarf varieties commenced in May-June. Harvest of tall varieties completed at the end of September.

Increased Production for Better Nutrition

Production in bananas as in other crops varies with the effort and wisdom of cultivation, manuring, watering and irrigation, control of disease and pest, selection of suckers, plant rotation, following a plant calendar suited to the climate, and other specific procedures.

9. Agriculture in Theory and Practice

In nine cases out of ten the only practical suggestion that our educational critics are ready to make if asked to do so is something like this: “Establish more vocational schools to teach the pupils to work.”

D. Rural Education

1. General Trends

I have just complete a study of the situation of rural education and the training of rural school teachers in 35 countries a large number of terrorist on all continents, and in faraway islands and in all region of the world. Our thousands of barrio teachers would be happy to know what I have discovered.

1. With rare excerptions the world over, there are two kinds of civilization the city or urban and the rural. Each has its own standards of living its own sense of values and its measures of propriety. Truly said the rural people are the backbone of a nation for they not only constitute from sixty to eighty percent of the population but they also pay the bulk of taxes. On the other hand, they receive considerably less in benefits be it in the form education health facilities transportation and communication not top mentioned the other convenience and amenities of life such as electricity, gas, water system, telephone radio and television or even the “national language.” There are only two occasions when the rural people receive any attention when the taxes are collected and during election campaigns. Otherwise they are left alone to shift for theselve.

2. In the field of education discrimination against the rural people is well known. The schools are generally inferior in quality and inadequate as to number and space. In many places they are mere shacks without the floor except the ground no ventilation except as the air may come through the door which is often closed especially during the winter without benches, blackboards, not to mention textbooks and other teaching materials. In some schools even in France and the United States there are no toilets or what there are many be dilapidated and unsanitary. Instruction is of course meager and formal and often abbreviated both as to length of the school year and as to school hours. The pupils may have only the sun to tell the time by and in the rainy season they are often late in coming and have to return home early to avoid being benighted. Many of them get wet on their way to school and have to turn right back home. They come to school barefooted and bareheaded and probably without breakfast.

3. Still worse, half of the worlds children of school age are without school facilities of any kind and the great majority of these, running into 150 million, come from rural areas. Thus, the children who need the best education have either none of it or the worst that may be found.

4. Teachers from rural areas are generally speaking, ill prepared for their work, probably just a little ahead of their classes, without professional background and little cultural training. In the majority of cases there are young people mostly women who are just beginning in their career if it maybe called a career. They are there only temporarily as for the most part they look than their colleagues in cities in spite of the fact that they work more and have greater responsibilities. For they not only teach all classes up to eight grades and all the subjects but they may also be expected to be walking encyclopedia and inspiration of the adult people who are generally illiterate and have no one else to look up to for guidance and leadership. Rural school teachers are jacks of all grades. They are sanitarians, agriculturist, social workers, nurse, health inspectors, spiritual guides and recreation managers all in one. They may even be called upon to decide disputes. They are expected to know everything and be everything to all men.

5. Supervision of teaching is often nil in rural schools, which are visited and inspected maybe once a year if ever by persons who are also ill-prepared for their work. So teaching what there is of it may be nothing more than the teachers asking question for the pupils to answer in concert by reading what the books says . In many places in Latin America especially, rural school teachers may not have schools or classes to teach at all or where there are such schools and classes there may be teachers or what teachers there are assigned to them may not want to teach there, but because there are no inspector to find out the teachers assigned there may draw their salaries.

6. Then, of course, where there are schools and teachers the pupils may stay in school for only a very short time – one year or two at the most of irregular attendance. In a short time for lack of practice and reading material they revert to illiteracy and join the adult illiterates who constitute half of the world’s population. Ignorance, disease, poverty that is the lot of most of the people in rural areas. As the backbone of their countries they cannot very strong since they have little or no participation in their government. As one writer put it, of the activity known as politics and government they have no participation except to support it with their taxes which they cannot afford to pay.

Pharmacology

2010-04-29T06:26:00.000-07:00

Pharmacology-is the study of drug action.

-More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.

Medication-A drug or medicine.

-The administration of a drug or medicine. (Note that "medication" does not have the dangerous double meaning of "drug.")

Generic name-The term "generic name" has several meanings as regards drugs:

The chemical name of a drug.
A term referring to the chemical makeup of a drug rather than to the advertised brand name under which the drug is sold.
A term referring to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising.

Brand Name-is a name, sign, symbol, slogan or anything that is used to identify and distinguish a specific product, service, or business. A legally protected brand name is called a proprietary name.

10 Rights of Patient in Receiving Medications

1. Right Patient
2. Right Medication
3. Right Dosage
4. Right Route
5. Right Time
6. Right Documentation
7. Right Client Education
8. Right to Refuse
9. Right Assessment
10. Right Evaluation

Routes of drug administration

To obtain a general effect, the drug is usually given by oral or parenteral route. The choice depends on the drug i.e. the existence of preparations appropriate for these uses and on the state of the patient. Emergency or the impossibility of intake by mouth makes the parenteral route necessary.

Parenteral route

A drug to be injected by parenteral route, must be sterile and little irritant. The injection requires a syringe and a needle or a device of administration already set up.

Oral route

The digestive tract goes from the mouth to the rectum. The membranes which the drug must cross are the digestive epithelium and the vascular endothelium.

Pulmonary route

It is a route of fast absorption avoiding the liver: drugs absorbed by the lungs, reach the left atrium and the left ventricle, and then the general circulation. The pulmonary route is used:

for local treatment: bronchial indications but with possibility of partial absorption and general effects. The forms used are aerosols conveying drugs such as antibiotics, mucolytic, beta-adrenergic mimetic, muscarinic receptor antagonists. A lot of devices like pressurized atomizers, aerosol-batchers or sprays, inhalers of dry powder are used to introduce drugs into bronchial airways.
for general treatment: medical gases and general anesthetics by inhalation. Oxygen, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide which are in gas form are administered naturally by pulmonary route. The anesthetics such as fluothane, liquids easily volatile, are administered by inhalation

Nasal route

It is used:

for local treatment with vasoconstrictive and antiallergic drugs but with possibility of absorption and general effects.
for general treatment: the nasal route can be used for the administration of polypeptide hormones such as desmopressin.

Cutaneous or transdermal route

The permeability of the skin to drugs depends on the drug itself, in particular its liposolubility and on the vehicle in which the drug is introduced.

Other routes: ocular, ear and vaginal

These routes are used for local treatment but a diffusion in the body is possible, with adverse effects, for example, after prescription of ophthalmic solutions, containing beta-blockers. The drugs administered by these routes are called ophthalmic solutions for the eyes, drops for the ears, and ovules for the vagina.

Forms of Drugs

Drugs are created in many different forms that include:

Ø Tablet

Ø Capsule

Ø Cream

Ø Ointment

Ø Lotion

Ø Powder

Ø Liquid

Ø Suppositories

Ø Transdermal

Tablets:

Contain dried powdered active drug as well as binders and fillers to provide bulk and proper tablet size. Scored tablets have an indented line running across the top. A scored tablet can be easily broken into two pieces with a knife to produce two doses.

Enteric tablets are covered with a special coating that resists stomach acid and dissolves in the alkaline environment of the small intestine to avoid irritation.

Slow-release tablets are made to provide a continuous, sustained release of certain drugs. Abbreviation for slow-release tablet is SR and for long acting tablets, the abbreviation is LA in the trade name of the drug. Example: Procan SR and Entex LA.

Caplets are easy-to-swallow coated tablets in the form of capsules.

Capsules is a drug form that comes in two varieties, soft gelatin shell made in one piece in which the drug is in a liquid form inside the shell and a hard shell made in two pieces that fit together and hold the drug, which is in a powdered or granular form.

Cream is a semisolid emulsion of oil such as lanolin or petroleum and water. The main ingredient is water. Many topical drugs are made in a cream base.

Ointment is a semisolid emulsion of oil such as lanolin or petroleum and water. Oil is the main ingredient. Many topical drugs are made in an ointment base such Kenalog ointment and specially formulated ophthalmic ointments.

Most creams and ointments are applied to the skin without precise measurement with the exception of nitroglycerin ointment used to prevent angina. Nitroglycerin is precisely measured in inches on a specially marked applicator paper which is taped to the patient's skin.

Lotion is a suspension of an active drug in a water base for external use. Example is Keri lotion.

Powder is a finely ground form of an active drug.

Liquid comes in the form of either solutions or suspensions. Solutions come in the form of elixirs, syrups, tinctures, liquid sprays and foams.

Elixirs contain an alcohol and water base with added sugar and flavoring. Example would be Tylenol elixir.

Liquid sprays contain a solution of the drug combined with water or alcohol to be sprayed by a pump or aerosol propellant.

Suspensions contain fine, un-dissolved particles of a drug suspended in a liquid base.

Suppositories contain a solid base of glycerin or cocoa butter containing the drug.

Transdermal form of drugs is relatively new. It consists of a multi-layered disk containing a drug reservoir, a porous membrane, and an adhesive layer to hold it to the skin.

Pharmacology-is the study of drug action.

Medication-A drug or medicine.

-The administration of a drug or medicine. (Note that "medication" does not have the dangerous double meaning of "drug.")

Generic name-The term "generic name" has several meanings as regards drugs:

The chemical name of a drug.
A term referring to the chemical makeup of a drug rather than to the advertised brand name under which the drug is sold.
A term referring to any drug marketed under its chemical name without advertising.

10 Rights of Patient in Receiving Medications

1. Right Patient
2. Right Medication
3. Right Dosage
4. Right Route
5. Right Time
6. Right Documentation
7. Right Client Education
8. Right to Refuse
9. Right Assessment
10. Right Evaluation

Routes of drug administration

Parenteral route

A drug to be injected by parenteral route, must be sterile and little irritant. The injection requires a syringe and a needle or a device of administration already set up.

Oral route

The digestive tract goes from the mouth to the rectum. The membranes which the drug must cross are the digestive epithelium and the vascular endothelium.

Pulmonary route

It is a route of fast absorption avoiding the liver: drugs absorbed by the lungs, reach the left atrium and the left ventricle, and then the general circulation. The pulmonary route is used:

for local treatment: bronchial indications but with possibility of partial absorption and general effects. The forms used are aerosols conveying drugs such as antibiotics, mucolytic, beta-adrenergic mimetic, muscarinic receptor antagonists. A lot of devices like pressurized atomizers, aerosol-batchers or sprays, inhalers of dry powder are used to introduce drugs into bronchial airways.
for general treatment: medical gases and general anesthetics by inhalation. Oxygen, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide which are in gas form are administered naturally by pulmonary route. The anesthetics such as fluothane, liquids easily volatile, are administered by inhalation

Nasal route

It is used:

for local treatment with vasoconstrictive and antiallergic drugs but with possibility of absorption and general effects.
for general treatment: the nasal route can be used for the administration of polypeptide hormones such as desmopressin.

Cutaneous or transdermal route

The permeability of the skin to drugs depends on the drug itself, in particular its liposolubility and on the vehicle in which the drug is introduced.

Other routes: ocular, ear and vaginal

Forms of Drugs

Drugs are created in many different forms that include:

Ø Tablet

Ø Capsule

Ø Cream

Ø Ointment

Ø Lotion

Ø Powder

Ø Liquid

Ø Suppositories

Ø Transdermal

Tablets:

Enteric tablets are covered with a special coating that resists stomach acid and dissolves in the alkaline environment of the small intestine to avoid irritation.

Caplets are easy-to-swallow coated tablets in the form of capsules.

Cream is a semisolid emulsion of oil such as lanolin or petroleum and water. The main ingredient is water. Many topical drugs are made in a cream base.

Lotion is a suspension of an active drug in a water base for external use. Example is Keri lotion.

Powder is a finely ground form of an active drug.

Liquid comes in the form of either solutions or suspensions. Solutions come in the form of elixirs, syrups, tinctures, liquid sprays and foams.

Elixirs contain an alcohol and water base with added sugar and flavoring. Example would be Tylenol elixir.

Liquid sprays contain a solution of the drug combined with water or alcohol to be sprayed by a pump or aerosol propellant.

Suspensions contain fine, un-dissolved particles of a drug suspended in a liquid base.

Suppositories contain a solid base of glycerin or cocoa butter containing the drug.

Transdermal form of drugs is relatively new. It consists of a multi-layered disk containing a drug reservoir, a porous membrane, and an adhesive layer to hold it to the skin.

Halimbawa ng Isang Tagalog Tisis

2010-04-29T06:19:00.001-07:00

KABANATA 1

PANIMULA

Kaligiran ng Pag-aaral

Ang panitikan ay isang uri ng pagsulat maging pasalaysay man ito o patula. Para sa akin, pinag-aaralan ang Panitikan upang ating mapagtanto ang tunay na kahulugan ng bawat kasaysayan. Kahit ang bawat nilalaman ng isang kasaysayan ay tinatawag na kathang isip lamang o tunay na nangyari ito ay nagtuturo sa atin ng kaisipang may malalim na damdamin. Dito natin nababanaag ang damdamin o ang punto de bista o ang gustong ipahayag ng isang manunulat. Tumatalakay ito sa lahat ng aspeto ng ating buhay, tulad ng mga pangyayari sa ating kapaligiran, sa pulitika, sa buhay-buhay, sa pangyayari, sa paligid at nagbibigay diin sa bawat damdamin ng mga taong nasasangkot dito, tulad halimbawa ng damdaming pagkasuklam, pagkapoot, pag-ibig, pagmamahal, pagkatakot at iba pa. Sa aking palagay pinag-aaralan natin ang Panitikan upang matutunan natin ang tamang landas sa ating pamumuhay dahil sa panitikan tinatalakay ang bawat yugto ng buhay ng isang tao, ordinaryo man o maykaya sa buhay. At dito rin sa mga ito tayo natututo. Sana sa pamamagitan nito nasagot ko ang mga tanong mo kahit papaano.

Ayon kay Maribel Nagaño, Rehistradong Nars, na mahalaga ang pag-aaral ng panitikang Filipino sa propesyon natin bilang isang nars. Dahil sa pakikipag komunikasyon sa mga taong makakasalamuha sa pang-araw-araw na pagtatarabaho sa Ospital. At maging sa mga pasyente, gaya ng mga tagalog, mas higit nilang maiintindihan ang salitang tagalog kaysa sa wikang Ingles na wika ng mundo.

Ayon sa kasaysayan, ang NEUST, Kursong Narsing at maging sa larangan ng Ibang kurso ay bihasa sa pagsasalita ng tagalog, hindi dahil sa tagalog ang kanilang wika kung hindi, hinasa na ito ng mga guro sa larangan ng pagsasalita at pakikipag komunikasyon sa ibang tao.

Hindi lang sa mga pasalita nagagamit ng mga mag-aaral ang kaalaman sa larangan ng panitikan maging sa pagsulat, gaya ng mga pablikasyon ng unibersidad. Naipapaabot ng mga estudyante ang kanilang malawak na kaisipan at naibabahagi sa mga kapwa mag-aaral ng NEUST.

Ayon sa populasyon ng Kursong Narsing sa NEUST, bumaba ito ng malaki kumpara sa dating populasyon. Dahil ito sa pagtaas ng mga nakapagtapos ng kursong Narsing ng walang trabaho.

Kung pagbabatayan ang mga nasabing ulat at pahayag ay masasabi bilang konklusyon na bawat taon ay patuloy na bumababa ang bilang ng mga mag-aaral na kumukuha ng kursong Nursing sa NEUST

Layunin ng Pag-aaral

Layunin ng pag-aaral na ito na malaman ang kahalagahan ng panitikan sa kursong Bachelor of Science in Nursing o Narsing sa pang araw-araw na pakikisalamuha sa mga pasyenteng kanilang binibigyan ng pangalalaga.

Pagpapahayag ng Suliranin

Sinisikap na sagutin ng pag-aaral na ito ang mga sumusunod na katanungan:

1. Anu-ano ang dahilan kung bakit patuloy na pinag-aaralan ng BSN ang tungkol sa panitikang Filipino?

2. Anu-ano ang kahalagahan ng Panitikang Pilipino sa henerasyon?

3. Bilang isang mag-aaral ng kursong nursing, anu-ano ang

maidudulot nito sa aking magiging propesyon?

Kahalagahan ng pag-aaral

Para sa mga mag-aaral, ang pag-aaral na ito ay inaasahang maging kanilang motibasyon upang kanilang mas lalong pag-ibayuhin ang pagsisikap sa kanilang pag-aaral maging ito man ay sa kursong Nursing o hindi.

Para sa mga magulang, inaasahang ang pag-aaral na ito ay maging daan upang sila ay makatulong sa pagbubukas ng kamalayan ng kanilang mga anak, na siya ring mga mag-aaral,

Para sa mga propesor, ang pag-aaral na ito ay inaasahang maging kanilang dahilan upang mas lalo pa nilang pataasin ang antas at kalidad ng kanilang pagtuturo sa kanilang mga mag-aaral.

Para sa pamunuan ng Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology, inaasahang ang pag-aaral na ito ay magsilbing daan upang kanilang simulan ang paggawa ng higit na epektibong hakbang tungo sa pagpapataas ng kalidad ng edukasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa kursong Narsing.

Para sa mga mananaliksik, inaasahang ang pag-aaral na ito ay mapukaw ang kanilang pansin at malaki ang maiambag sa kanilang pakikipag komunikasyon at gagawin pang pag-aaral tungkol sa pampanitikang pag-aaral ng mga mag-aaral ng NEUST sa mga taong kanilang nakasasalamuha.

Saklaw at Delimitasyon ng Pag-aaral

Sumasaklaw ang pag-aaral na ito sa kahalagahan ng panitikang Filipino sa kursong Narsing sa Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technoogy. Saklaw lamang ng pag-aaral na ito ang mga studyante ng Narsing mula 2009 hanggang 2010.

Depinisyon ng Termino

Board of Nursing. Isang lupon na binubuo ng mga taong maykatungkulan sa larangan ng panggagamot na siyang nagpapatupad ng mga batas na dapat sundin ng isang Nurse.

Kurso. Isang programa o palatuntunan ng pag-aaral na maaaring tapusin ng isang mag-aaral sa loob ng maikli o mahabang panahon.

Mananaliksik, ang katawagan sa isang taong nangangalap ng mga impormasyon o datos ukol sa isang bagay na gustong malaman.

NEUST Advocate. Ang opisyal na pahayagan o lathalaan ng mga mag-aaral ng Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology.

Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology. Isang prominenteng pamantasan sa buong Pilipinas na matatagpuan sa General Tinio, Cabanatuan City.

Nurse. Isang taong nagtatrabaho upang tulungan ang mga doctor sa pag-aalaga ng mga maysakit.

Panitikan ay ang pagsulat ng tuwiran o tuluyan at patula. Subalit upang maipagkaiba ito mula sa ibang mga walang saysay na babasahin o patalastas lamang, ang mga panitikan ay ang mainam na pagsulat na may anyo, pananaw, at diwang nakasasanhi ng matagal na pagkawili at gana.

Student Publication. Ang tawag sa mga nakalimbag na aklat, peryodiko o lathalaan, at pahayagan na ginawa ng mga mag-aaral bunga ng kanilang malikhaing pag-iisip.

KABANATA 2

MGA KAUGNAY NA LITERATURA AT PAG-AARAL

Mga Kaugnay na Literatura

Ayon kay Cedrick Potter sa kanyang sipi na “Sa bawat pagkumpas ng kamay hawak-hawak ang pluma at papel, larawan ng isang lahi ang mamumukadkad. Sa bawat titik, nakabaon ang pusong nais sumigaw upang maihatid ang sari-saring opinyon at ideya. Sa bawat obrang nalilimbag, hatid ay ang ipamulat sa susunod na henerasyon ang makulay na nakaraan at masiglang kinabukasan” dahil sa pamamagitan ng ikinikilos ng isang tao ay mayroon na itong ipinahahatid na mensahe, gaya ng mga simbolo na makikita sa paligid. At sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng wika at panitikan ito ay patuloy na mamamalagi sa katangian ng isang tunay na Pilipino.

Teoryang Klasismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay maglahad ng mga pangyayaring payak, ukol sa pagkakaiba ng estado sa buhay ng dalawang nag-iibigan, karaniwan ang daloy ng mga pangyayari, matipid at piling-pili sa paggamit ng mga salita at laging nagtatapos nang may kaayusan.

Teoryang Humanismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita na ang tao ang sentro ng mundo; ay binibigyang-tuon ang kalakasan at mabubuting katangian ng tao gaya ng talino, talento atbp.

Teoryang Imahismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay gumamit ng mga imahen na higit na maghahayag sa mga damdamin, kaisipan, ideya, saloobin at iba pang nais na ibahagi ng may-adhika na higit na madaling maunawaan kaysa gumamit lamang ng karaniwang salita.

Teoryang Realismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang mga karanasan at nasaksisan ng may-akda sa kanyang lipunan. Samakatuwid, ang panitikan ay hango sa totoong buhay ngunit hindi tuwirang totoo sapagkat isinaalang-alang ng may-akda ang kasiningan at pagkaefektibo ng kanyang sinulat.

Teoryang Feminismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay magpakilala ng mga kalakasan at kakayahang pambabae at iangat ang pagtingin ng lipunan sa mga kababaihan. Madaling matukoy kung ang isang panitikan ay feminismo sapagkat babae o sagisag babae ang pangunahing tauhan ay ipimayagpag ang mabubuti at magagandang katangian ng tauhan.

Teoryang Arkitaypal

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang mga mahahalagang bahagi ng akda sa pamamagitan ng mga simbolo. Ngunit hindi basta-basta masusuri ang mga simbolismo sa akda. Pinakamainam na alamin muna ang kabuuang konsepto at tema ng panitikan sapagkat ang mga simbolismong napapaloob sa akda ay magkaugnay sa isa’t isa. Ang lahat ng simbolismo ay naaayon sa tema at konseptong ipinapakilala ng may-akda sa mga mambabasa.

Teoryang Formalismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay iparating sa mambabasa ang nais niyang ipaabot gamit ang kanyang tuwirang panitikan. Samakatuwid, kung ano ang sinasabi ng may-akda sa kanyang panitikan ang siyang nais niyang ipaabot sa mambabasa – walang labis at walang kulang. Walang simbolismo at hindi humihingi ng higit na malalimang pagsusuri’t pang-unawa.

Teoryang Saykolohikal

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipaliwanag sa pamamagitan ng pagpapakita ng mga salig (factor) sa pagbuo ng naturang behavior (pag-uugali, paniniwala, pananaw, pagkatao) sa isang tauhan sa kanyang akda. Ipinakikita sa akda na ang tao ay nagbabago o nagkakaroon ng panibagong behavior dahil may nag-udyok na mabago o mabuo ito.

Teoryang Eksistensyalismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita na may kalayaan ang tao na pumili o magdesisyon para sa kanyang sarili na siyang pinakasentro ng kanyang pananatili sa mundo (human existence).

Teoryang Romantisismo

Ang layunin ng teoryang ito ay ipamalas ang iba’t ibang paraan ng tao o sumasagisag sa tao sa pag-aalay ng kanyang pag-ibig sa kapwa, bansa at mundong kinalakhan. Ipinakikita rin sa akda na gagawin at gagawin ng isang nilalang ang lahat upang maipaalam lamang ang kanyang pag-ibig sa tao o bayang napupusuan

Teoryang Markismo

Ang layunin ng teoryang ito ay ipakita na ang tao o sumasagisag sa tao ay may sariling kakayahan na umangat buhat sa pagdurusang dulot ng pang-ekononiyang kahirapan at suliraning panlipunan at pampulitika. Ang mga paraan ng pag-ahon mula sa kalugmukan sa adka ay nagsisilbing modelo para sa mga mambabasa.

Teoryang Sosyolohikal

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang kalagayan at suliraning panlipunan ng lipunang kinabibilangan ng may-akda. Naipakikita rito ang pamaraan ng mga tauhan sa pagsugpo sa suliranin o kalagayan ng lipunan na nagsisilbing gabay sa mga mambabasa sa magpuksa sa mga katulad na suliranin.

Teoryang Moralistiko

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ilahad ang iba’t ibang pamantayang sumusukat sa moralidad ng isang tao – ang pamantayan ng tama at

mali

. Inilalahad din nito ang mga pilosopiya o proposisyong nagsasaad sa pagkatama o kamalian ng isang kilos o ugali ayon sa pamantayang itinakda ng lipunan. Sa madaling sabi, ang moralidad ay napagkakasunduan ayon na rin sa kaantasan nito.

Teoryang Bayograpikal

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipamalas ang karanasan o kasagsagan sa buhay ng may-akda. Ipinahihiwatig sa mga akdang bayograpikal ang mga bahagi sa buhay ng may-akda na siya niyang pinakamasaya, pinakamahirap, pinakamalungkot at lahat ng mga “pinaka” na inaasahang magsilbing katuwang ng mambabasa sa kanyang karanasan sa mundo.

Teoryang Queer

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay iangat at pagpantayin sa paningin ng lipunan sa mga homosexual. Kung ang mga babae ay may feminismo ang mga homosexual naman ay queer.

Teoryang Historikal

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang karanasan ng isang lipi ng tao na siyang masasalamin sa kasaysayan au bahagi ng kanyang pagkahubog. Nais din nitong ipakita na ang kasaysayan ay bahagi ng buhay ng tao at ng mundo.

Teoryang Kultural

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakilala ang kultura ng may-akda sa mga hindi nakakaalam. Ibinabahagi ng may-akda ang mga kaugalian, paniniwala at tradisyon minana at ipasa sa mga sunod na salinlahi. Ipinakikita rin dito na bawat lipi ay natatangi.

Teoryang Feminismo-Markismo

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ilantad ang iba’t ibang paraan ng kababaihan sa pagtugon sa suliraning kanyang kinakaharap. Isang halimbawa nito ay ang pagkilala sa prostitusyon bilang tuwirang tugon sa suliraning dinaranas sa halip na ito’y kasamaan at suliranin ng lipunan.

Teoryang Dekonstraksyon

Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang iba’t ibang aspekto na bumubuo sa tao at mundo. Pinaniniwalaan kasi ng ilang mga pilosopo at manunulat na walang iisang pananaw ang nag-udyok sa may-akda na sumulat kundi ang pinaghalu-halong pananaw na ang nais iparating ay ang kabuuan ng pagtao at mundo.

Mga Kaugnay na Pag-aaral

Sa aking pag-aaral hindi lang lkayang abutin ang isang bagay kung indi ito lalakipan ng pag kilos. Kaya kung ating ihahabing sa pag-aaral n panitikan ay hindi natin ito matutunan kung hindi natin ito isasabuhay. Nag-uugat ang lahat ng likhaing pampanitikan mula sa buhay, at naglalarawan ng kalinangang pinagmulan nito.

KABANATA 3

PAMAMARAAN NG PAG-AARAL

Naglalahad ang kabanata na ito ng mga pamamaraan at instrumentong gagamitin sa paglilikom at pagsusuri ng mga datos na kakailanganin upang masagot ang mga suliranin sa pag-aaral na ito.

Disenyo ng Pananaliksik

Ang paglalarawang pananaliksik ang gagamitin sa pag-aaral na ito. Naniniwala ang mananaliksik na ito ang pinaka-angkop na paraan upang matuklasan ang mga katotohanan na magiging batayan ng interpretasyon sa pagkakatulad o pagkakaiba, pag-uuri-uri at pagbibigay halaga sa mga nabanggit na talatanungan.

Ang talatanungan ang pangunahing instrumentong gagamitin sa paglikom ng mga datos. Magkakaroon din ng pormal na pakikipanayam ang mga mananaliksik sa mga respondent tungkol sa kanilang mga pananaw hinggil sa Kahalagahan ng pag-aaral ng panitikan sa kursong Narsing ng Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology.

Mga Kalahok sa Pag-aaral

Tinangka ng mananaliksik na ilahok ang apatnapu’t pitong (47) bahagdan ng mga estudyante na kukuha at kumukuha na kursong Nursing sa College of Arts and Science sa NEUST.

TALASANGGUNIAN

A. INTERNET

http://www.panitikan_sa_larangan_ng_narsing/index.html

http://wikipedia.com

http://pinoyhenyo.com

http://www.wikianswer.com

TALATANUNGAN

Panuto: Sagutan ang mga sumusunod na katanungan ng maigi at pagkatapos ay kukunin ng mga mananaliksik makalipas ang ilang minuto. Kayo ay makakaasa na lahat ng mga impormasyon na inyong ilalahad ay mananatiling confindential ng mga mananaliksik.

I. Basahin ang mga sumusunod na katanungan. Lagyan ng Check (√) ang loob ng kahon batay sa inyong palagay

Tanong	Lubos na Sang-ayon	Sang-ayon	Hindi Sang-ayon	Lubos na Hindi Sang-ayon	Walang masasabi
1. Sapat ba ang kalidad ng edukasyon na ibinibigay ng NEUST sa mga mag-aaral na kumukuha ng kursong Nursing?
2. Kaunti lang ba ang bilang ng mga mag-aaral sa kursong Narsing ng NEUST na interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino?
3. Sapat nab a ang leksyon na itinuturo ng mga mag-aaral bago ito?
4. Kailangan bang pagtuunan ng pansin ng mag-aaral ang pag-aaral ng panitikang Filipino?
5. Malaki ba ang bilang ng mga estudyanteng interesadong pag -aralan ang Panitikang Filipino?

II. Bilugan ang titik ng napiling kasagutan sa mga sumusunod na katanungan.

1. Ano ang iyong masasabi kung ikukumpara ang kaalaman ng mga Narsing student ng NEUST sa larangan ng Panitikan sa ibang unibesidad?

a.) Mas magaling.

b.) Kulang at nahuhuli sa leksyon.

c.) Magaling ngunit kailangan pang pag-ibayuhin ang pag-aaral

2. Kung istilo ng pagtuturo ang pagbabatayan, ano ang pagkakaiba ng mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST Institute of Nursing sa mga trainers at mga propesor ng ibang unibersidad?

a.) Ang mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST ay mas student-centered, mas

interaktibo, at mas advanced ang pagtuturo kumpara sa mga trainers at mga

propesor ng ibang unibersidad.

b.) Nahuhuli sa panahon ang istilo ng pagtuturo ng mga trainers at mga propesor ng

NEUST kumpara sa mga trainers at mga propesor ng ibang unibersidad.

c.) Hindi masyadong mahigpit o strikto ang mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST

kumpara sa mga trainers at mga propesor ng ibang unibersidad.

3. Mas mahigpit ba ang NEUST pagdating sa pag-aaral Panitikang Filipino ng mga estudyante ng kursong Nursing kumpara sa ibang unibersidad na nagtuturo Panitikan?

a. OO

b. HINDI

c. MEDYO

III. Basahin ang mga sumusunod na pangungusap. Lagyan ng ekis (√) ang loob ng kahon batay sa iyong palagay o opinyon.

Tanong	Lubos na Sang-ayon	Sang-ayon	Hindi Sang-ayon	Lubos na Hindi Sang-ayon	Walang masasabi
1. Sa NEUST Teacher’s nakasalalay ang pagtaas o pagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino.
2. Sa mga mag-aaral nakasalalay ang pagtaas o pagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino.
3. Nakasalalay sa mga librong nakalimbag ang kamalayan ng mga Narsing Student sa panitikang Filipino.

KABANATA 4

PRESENTASYON AT INTERPRETASYON NG MGA DATOS

Talahanayaan Bilang 1

Talahanayan Bilang 1.1

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Sapat ba ang kalidad ng edukasyon na ibinibigay ng NEUST sa mga mag-aaral na kumukuha ng kursong Narsing?	5 4 3 2 1	15 28 3 0 1	75 112 9 0 1	31.9 59.6 6.4 0 2.1	4.19	SA
Total		47	197	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 1.1 na 28 respondente o 59.6% ang sumasang-ayon na sapat ang kalidad ng edukasyon na ibinibigay ng NEUST sa mga mag-aaral na kumukuha ng kursong narsing; 15 respondente o 31.9% ang lubos na sumasang-ayon; 3 respondente o 9% ang hindi sang-ayon; 1 respondente o 2.1% ang walang masabi; at wala ang nag nagsabing hindi sila lubos na sang-ayon na may berbal na deskripsyon “sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 1.2

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Kaunti lang ba ang bilang ng mag-aaral sa kursong narsing ng NEUST na interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino?	5 4 3 2 1	3 21 15 3 5	15 96 45 6 5	6.4 44.7 31.9 6.4 10.6	3.55	SA
Total		47	167	100

Inilalahad sa talahanayan bilang 1.2 na 21 respondente o 96% ang sumasang-ayon na konti lang ang mga mag-aaral na interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino sa kursong narsing ng NEUST; 15 respondente o 31.9% ang hindi sang-ayon; 5 respondente o 10.6% ang walang masabi; at tig-3 respondente o 6.4% ang nagsasabing sila ay lubos na sumasang-ayon at lubos na hindi sumasang-ayon na may berbal na deskripsyong “sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 1.3

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Sapat nab a ang leksyon na itinuturo sa mga mag-aaral bago nito?	5 4 3 2 1	4 22 13 2 6	20 88 39 4 6	8.51 46.81 27.66 4.26 12.177	3.34	DS
Total		47	157	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 1.3 na 22 respondente o 46.81% ang nagsasabing sila ay sang-ayon; 13 respondente o 27.66% and hindi sang-ayon; 6 respondente o 12.177% ang mga walang masabi; 4 respondente o 8.51% ang lubos na sumasang-ayon; at 2 respondenete o 4.26 ang lubos na hindi sumasang-ayon na may berbal na deskripsyong “hindi sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 1.4

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Kailangan bang pagtuunan ng pansin ng mga mag-aaral ang pag-aaral ng Panitikang Filipino?	5 4 3 2 1	16 28 1 1 1	80 112 3 2 1	34.04 59.57 2.13 2.13 2.13	4.21	SA
Total		47	198	100

Inilalahad sa talahanayan bilang 1.4 na 28 respondente o 112% ang nagsasabing sila ay sang ayon na kailangang pagtuunan ng pansin ng mga mag-aaral ang pag-aaral ng Panitikang Filipino; 16 respondente o 34.04% ang lubos na sumasang-ayon; at tig1 respondente ang nagsasabing sila ay hindi sang-ayon, lubos na hindi sumasang-ayon, at walang masabi na may berbal na deskripsyong “sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 1.5

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Malaki ba ang bilang ng mga estudyanteng interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino?	5 4 3 2 1	6 23 10 0 8	30 92 30 0 8	12.77 48.94 21.28 0 17.02	3.40	DS
Total		47	160	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 1.5 na 23 respondente o 48.94% ang nagsasabing sila ay sang ayon na malaki ang bilang ng mga estudyanteng interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino; 10 respondente o 21.28% ang hindi sumasang-ayon; 8 respondente o 17.02% ang walang masabi; 6 respondente ang nagsasabing sila ay lubos na sumasang ayon; at walang respondente ang nagsasabing sila ay lubos na di sumasang-ayon na may berbal na deskripsyong “hindi sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 2

(Talahanayan Bilang 2.1) Kaalaman ng mga estudyante sa kurong narsing ng NEUST sa larangan ng Panitikang sa ibang unibersidad.

	F	P	R
a.) Mas magaling	13	27.66	2
b.) Kulang at nahuhuli sa leksyon	2	4.26	3
c.) Magaling ngunit kailangan pang pag-ibayuhin ang pag-aaral	32	68.09	1
Total	47	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 2.1 na rank 1 – 32 respondente o 68.09% ang nagsasabing magaling ngunit kailangan pang pag-ibayuhin ang pag-aaral; rank 2 – 13 respondente ang sabing kulang at nahuhuli sa leksyon; at rank 3 ang mga nag sabing mas magaling.

(Talahanayan Bilang 2.2) Istilo ng pagtuturo

	F	P	R
a.) Ang mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST ay mas student centered, mas aktibo at mas advanced ang pagtuturo kumpara s mga trainers at mga propesor ng ibang Unibersidad.	30	63.83	1
b.) Nahuhuli sa panahon ang istilo ng pagtutuo ng mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST kumpara sa mga trainers ng mga propesor ng ibang Unibersidad	6	63.83	3
c.) Hindi masyadong mahigpit o istrikto ang mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST kumpara sa mga trainers at mga propesor ng ibang Unibersidad	11	23.40	2
Total	47	100

Inilalahad sa talahanayan bilang 2.2 na rank 1 – 30 respondente o 63.83% ay nagsasabing ang mga trainers at mga propesor ng NEUST ay mas student-centered, mas aktibo at mas advanced ang pagtuturo; rank 2 – 11 respondente o 23.40% ang naglalahad na hindi masyadong mahigpity o istrikto ang mga trainers at propesor ng NEUST; at rank 3 – 6 respondente o 12.77% ang nagsasabing nahuhuli sa panahon ang istilo ng pagtuturo ng mga trainers at propesor ng NEUST.

(Talahanayan Bilang 2.3) Kahigpitan ng NEUST sa pagtuturo ng Panitikan

	F	P	R
OO	9	19.15	2
HINDI	8	17.02	3
MEDYO	30	63.83	1
Total	47	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 2.3 na rank 1 – 30 respondente o 63.83% ay nagpapahayag na hindi masyado ang kahigpitan ng NEUST sa pagtuturo ng Panitikan; rank 2 – 9 respondente o 19.15% ang nagsasabing mahigpit magturo ng Panitikang Filipino ang NEUST; at rank 3 – 8 respondente ang nagsasabing hindi.

Talahanayan Bilang 3

Talahanayan Bilang 3.1

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Sa mga Guro ng Neust nakasalalay ang pagtaas o bagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino.	5 4 3 2 1	15 21 7 3 1	75 84 21 6 1	31.91 44.68 14.89 6.83 2.13	3.98	SA
Total		47	187	100

Inilalahad sa talahanayan bilang 3.1 na 21 respondente o 44.68% ang nagsasabing sang-ayon sila na sa mga guro ng NEUST nakasalalay ang pagtaas at pagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino; 15 respondente o 75% naman ang lubos na nagsang-ayon; 7 respondente o 14.89% ang nagsasabing di sila sang-ayon; 3 respondente o 6.83% ang nagsasabing lubos na hindi sila sang-ayon; at 1 respondente o 2.13% ang walang masabi na may berbal na diskripsyong “sang-ayon.”

Talahanayan Bilang 3.2

Kategorya	DR	F	WF	P	WM	VI
Sa mga mag-aaral nakasalalay ang pagtaas o pagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino.	5 4 3 2 1	18 23 3 0 3	90 92 9 0 3	38.40 48.94 6.38 0 6.38	4.13	SA
Total		47	194	100

Ipinapakita sa talahanayan bilang 3.2 na 23 respondente o 48.94% ang nagsang-ayon na sa mga mag-aaral nakasalalay ang pagtaas o pagbaba ng kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa Panitikang Filipino; 18 respondente o 38.40% ang lubos na sumang-ayon; tig3 respondente o 6.38% ay di sumasang-ayon at walang masabi; at walng respondente na nagpahayag na lubos na di sumasang-ayon na may berbal na diskripsyong “sang-ayon.”

KABANATA 5

PAGLALAGOM, KONKLUSYON AT REKOMENDASYON

PAGLALAGOM

Ang pag-aaral na ito ay isinagawa sa layuning madetermina ang kahalagahan ng Panitikang Filipino ng Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology sa kursong Narsing. Ang

Ginamit na pamamaraan ng pananaliksik ay deskriptib nanormatib sarbey namn ang ginamit sa pangangalap ng mga datos at impormasyon. Ang mga mananaliksik ay nagdisenyo ng isang kwestyuneyr na ginamit na instrumento sa pangangalap ng mga datos mula sa mga respondente. Ang pag-aaral na ito ay isinagawa sa taong-akademiko 2010.

Sa apatnapu’t pitong (47) respondenteng unang taon na kumukuha ng kursong Narsing sa NEUST.

KONKLUSYON

Batay sa mga nakalap na datos at impormasyon ang mga mananaliksik ay humantong sa mga sumusunod na konklusyon:

a.) Ang karamihan sa mga mag-aaral na kumukuha ng kursong narsing ay nag-sasabing sapat ang kalidad ng edukasyon na ibinibigay sa kanila ng pamantasan.

b.) Aminado ang mga mag-aaral na kaunti lamang ang bilang ng mga mag-aaral na interesadong pag-aralan ang Panitikang Filipino

c.) Madami ang hindi sumang-ayon na Sapat ang leksyon na itinuturo sa mga mag-aaral bago ito.

d.) Karamihan ay nag-sasabing dapat pang pagtuunan ng pansin ang pag-aaral ng panitikang Filipino.

e.) Hindi sang-ayon ang mga studyante na interesado silang pag-aralan ang panitikang Filipino sa kanilang kurso.

f.) Magaling ngunit kailangan pang pag-ibayuhin kumpara sa ibang unibersidad ang kaalaman ng mga mag-aaral ng NEUST sa larangan ng Panitikang Filipino.

g.) Mas student-centered ang mga propesor sa NEUST kumpara sa ibang UNibersidad.

h.) Mataas ang nakuhang impormasyon sa medyo mahigpit ang NEUST sa pagtuturo ng Panitikan.

i.) Sumasang-ayon ang lahat na sa guro nakasalalay ang kinalaman ng mga mag-aaral sa panitikang Filipino.

j.) Tanggap ng mga mag-aaral na sa kanila nakasalalay ang pagtaas at pagbaba ng kanilang kaalaman sa Panitikang Filipino.

REKOMENDASYON

Kaugnay ng isinagawang pag-aaral, buong-pagpapakumbabang iminumungkahi ng mga mananaliksik sa mga kinauukulang indibidwal, pangkat, tanggapan o institusyon ang mga sumusunod na rekomendasyonp;

Para sa mga namumuno sa paaralan, maging mahigpit sa pagtanggap ng mga guro sa Panitikang Filipino. Kailangan ipatupad ang minimum na kwalipikasyong itinakda ng serbisyo sibil sa pagtanggap ng mga bagong guro sa nabanggit na signature.

Sa CHED. Pag-aralan kung paano madaragdagan ang pondong inilaan sa pagpapabuti ng pagtuturo sa Panitikang Filipino sa mga Paaralan o UNibersidad.

Para sa mga guro ng Pamantasan, maging mahigpit at istrikto sa pagtuturo ng Panitikang Filipino sa mga mag-aaral. Mag-isip ng ibang istilo ng pagtuturo upang makadagdag ng interest sa mga mag-aaral upang mahikayat itong mag-aral mabuti.

Para sa mga Mag-aaral, bigayang pansin ang mga leksyon na itinuturo ng mga guro sa panitikang Filipino. Pag-ibayuhin pa ang pag-aaral upang mapabilis ang pag-unawa sa mga leksyon at mapabilis ang pagtuturo ng mga guro upang makadagdag kaalaman.

Para sa mga Magulang, bigyang-pansin ang mga anak sa kanilang pag-aaral. Hikayatin patio na mag-aral mabuti at ipaalam kung ano ang magandang idudulot nito sa kanilang buhay at kung paano ityo makatutulong.

Para sa iba pang Mananaliksik, ipagpatuloy o palawakin pa ang pag-aaral na ito upang makatuklas ng iba pang solusyon sa mababang istado ng panitikang Filipino sa lalawigan.

Para sa iba pang mga Mananaliksik/CHED, magsagawa ng katulad na pag-aaral hingil sa ibang asignatura at/o sa ibang local upang mahangaan ng mga posibleng solusyon ang iba pang matutukoy na suliraning pang edukasyon.

Tula (Sa Paghihintay ng Kamatayan)

2010-04-29T06:16:00.000-07:00

Sa Paghihintay ng Kamatayan

Nakaratay ang aking katauhan

sa katreng tigib ng kalumbayan

naghihintay sa Anghel ng Kamatayan

na siyang magwawakas nitong kalalagayan.

Unti-unting nanghihina

ang pisikal na katawan

habang nawawalan ng pananalig

sa diyos nilang tinatawag,

Hesus na Tagapagligtas!

Ako'y nakalugmok

binawian ng dangal

sakit na dumapo sa aki'y nakadidiri

walang lunas kundi kamatayan.

Batik sa aking katauhan

isang itim na tuldok

sa puting kalooban

siya ninyong nakikita

mga mapaghanap ng kasiraan!

Anghel ng Kamatayan

halina't iyong ipikit

ang aking mga mata

patigilin ang tibok ng aking puso

bawiin ang aking buhay.

Lipunang mapanlibak

na tumutugis sa akin

kayo'y mananahimik na

nalalapit na ang katapusan

ng aking pagdurusa.

Baka doon sa sinasabi ninyong

kabilang buhay

ako'y kilalanin ng Diyos

na siyang makapagbibigay

ng dangal sa aking pagkatao

Tula (Ang Bagong Bayani)

2010-04-29T06:12:00.001-07:00

ANG BAGONG BAYANI

ni Rafael A. Pulmano

Nilisan ang bansa kapalit ng dolyar
Singaporeang paslit ang inalagaan
Ang sariling anak, nalamnan ang tiyan
Gutom sa kalinga ng magulang naman.

Gurong naghahangad ng riyal na kita
Nag-domestic helper sa

Saudi Arabia

Four years nagtiyagang pakadalubhasa
Sa ibang lahi pa nagpapaalila.

Dating chief engineer sa sariling nasyon
Sa abroad nag-apply: karpentero-mason
Noo'y naka-jacket sa lamig ng aircon
Sa init ng araw ay sunog na ngayon.

Sawa na sa laging galunggong ang ulam
Nagsikap marating ang bansa ng sakang
Sariling katawan ang ikinalakal
Umuwing mayaman, malamig na bangkay.

Nagtiis maglayo yaong bagong kasal
Upang pag-ipunan ang kinabukasan
Masakit na birong pag-uwi ng bahay
Nangulilang kabyak, may iba nang mahal.

Sila ang overseas contract workers natin
Masipag, marangal, at mapangarapin
Kahit may panganib, ayaw magpapigil
Legal o ilegal, bansa'y lilisanin.

Gobyernong kaylangan ang foreign currency
Passport, POEA at etceterang fee
Saludung-saludo, labis ang papuri
Sa OFWs - ang Bagong Bayani.

ISANG TULA PARA SA MASA

2010-04-29T06:11:00.000-07:00

ISANG TULA PARA SA MASA

Ang politika at politiko dito sa ating bansa ay isang institusyong nangangailangan ng masusing pagbabago hindi lamang sa bulok na sistemang nakakubkob dito kundi sa nakaririnding kasamaan na lumalaganap. Narito ang isang tula sa tagalog na tungkol sa mga pulitiko at sa politika ng bansang Pilipinas.

Ang orihinal na tula ay maging inspirasyon sana sa lahat upang magsalita at lumaban sa oras na pakiramdam natin ay tinatapakan tayo ng mga higanteng lider ng bansa.

MGA HAYOP SA PILIPINAS

Labing-apat na hayop, nagtumaas, nagtumayog,

Nagharing uri sa pedestal at bantayog,

Niyukuran, tiningala, sinamba't sinunod,

Yaman, kapangyarihan ang sa kanila’y bumusog.

Masang alipin ‘di na alam kung saan susuling,

Pumurol na ang tabak, natunaw sa libing.

Ang ganti sa hagupit ng hayop na kapiling

Mga piping hiyaw, mga luhang haling!

Tangả ang sisira sa kalawang na bakal,

Yuyurakan ka kahit na luhuran,

Timawang hayop sa gutom ay basal,

Walang pagkilala kay Bathala at dasal!

Sa hukom ng Hari doon ang higanti,

Pagsibol ng araw sa dilim ng gabi,

Mga hayop na busog at mga nakangisi,

Sa apoy ng impiyerno, hahantong sa huli!

Maraming lider ng bansa ang nagtamasa ng katakut-takot na yaman na ninakaw sa kaban ng bayan. Mga yaman ng bansang hindi napakinabangan ng nakararaming mga mahihirap. Ang masang Pilipino'y isang pulubing nakatanghod sa isang panginoong hindi marunong maawa. Hindi nakauunawa ng higit na kahulugan ng salitang pag-ibig.

Ipagwalang-bahala man ito ng mga nakapaligid, umaasa akong sa mga huling araw at sa araw ng paghuhukom ay haharap sila sa tunay na Panginoon na maraming daing at pagsisisi ngunit hindi NIYA sila pakikinggan.

Ang tulang tagalog na ito ay inihahandog sa mga Pilipinong pasan ang hirap ng buhay.

Paggawa ng Tisis sa Filipino

2010-04-29T06:09:00.000-07:00

*kabanata 1, ang suliranin at kaligiran nito
-introduksyon
-layunin ng pag-aaral
-kahalagahan ng pag-aaral
-saklaw at limitasyon
-depinisyon ng terminolohiya

*kabanata 2, mga kaugnay na pag-aaral at literatura

*kabanata 3, disenyo at paraan ng pananaliksik
-disenyo ng pananaliksik
-mga respondete
-instrumentong pampananaliksik
-tritment ng mga datos

*kabanta 4, presentasyon at interpretasyon ng mga datos

*kabanata 5, lagom, kongklusyon at rekomendasyon

*listahan ng mga sanggunian

part ng apendiks

*pormularyo ng pagpapatibay ng paksang pamagat ng pag-aaral
*liham sa paghingi ng pahintulot sa interbyu
*transkripsyon ng interbyu
*liham sa paghingi ng pahintulot sa pagsasarbey
*sarbey-kwestyoner
*liham paanyaya sa mga panelist
*pormularyo sa pag-eebalweyt ng pamanahong papel
*pormularyo sa pag-eebalweyt ng pasalitang presentasyon

2010-04-29T06:00:00.001-07:00

TULA TUNGKOL SA ABORSIYON

SILANG MGA WALANG DIYOS
Anonymous

Siya’y nagsimulang dugo sa balakang,
Sa simula’y walang malay,
Walang hugis, walang kulay.

Siya’y sanhi ng isang palag ng kasamaan.
Siya’y bunga ng mga kasidhian
Ng mga pag-aalab, ng mga kapusukan.

Lumangoy siya sa sinapupunan ng ina.
Nagkaroon ng buhay, umamot ng hininga,
Biniyayaan ng dakilang Bathala.

NGunit narito na naman ang imbay ng hangal
Ang puso’y nalupig ng bigong kasal.
Sarili ang isinalang, ibinalibag ang diwang banal

Hinatulan siya sa dilim na pusikit.
Siya’y walang puwang sa daigdig,
Sa impiyerno man o sa langit.

Siya’y sinikwat, niligis inukit, ,
Winasak, dinurog, sinaklit,
Siya’y kinarit, Hindi nakakapit!

Humantong sa ilalim, doon sa kawalan!
Hindi nila siya binigyan ng kalayaan
Ipinagkait ang pintig ng damang kabutihan!

Tamang Solusyon sa Hindi inaasahang Pagbubuntis (MUST READ!)

Isang maituturing na malaking pagsubok sa isang tao maging babae o lalake ang masangkot sa pagbubuntis o makabuntis sa hindi inaasahang pagkakataon. Nais ko na ibahagi sa inyo ang aking naging karanasan sa ganitong pagsubok para sa ganito mang paraan ay mahikayat ko kayo na piliin ang desisyon na huwag hadlangan ang pagsibol ng isang bagong buhay. Hindi ko mapigilan ang sarili ko na magalak tuwing naalala ko nung aking nabasa yung isang message sa isang thread ditto sa mukamo.com na ginawa ni ginoong Hangin at may isang babaeng nag-reply na hindi siya sumasang-ayon sa abortion, bagamat noon man nung siya at ang kanyang nobyo ay nasangkot sa ganitong pagsubok (hindi inaasahang pagbubuntis) ay binalak din nilang ipalag-lag ang bata pero sa huli ang kanilang balaking iyon ay nagbago rin, natatandaan ko pa naka-type sa message niya na

“ wala namang kasalanan ang bata”

isa ito sa mga salitang nagpa-realize sa akin na hindi ko dapat isipin o balaking ipa-abort ang bata at ang isa ko pang nagustuhang sinabi niya ay yung

“hindi ako nagsisisi na hindi namin itinuloy ang pag-papalag-lag sa kanya”

malakas ang impact ng isinulat niyang ito sa akin, hindi ko alam kung anung salita ang gagamitin para maihayag ang aking naramdaman noon pero sa simpleng paraan ang masasabi ko ay naliwanagan ako sa pagkakataong iyon na nabasa ko ang isinulat niya. Simple lang ang message ng ginang na ito sa totoo lang, nabasa ko at narinig na ang ganitong payo sa maraming mga tao, tv, radio atbp. Pero sa palagay ko nasa tao rin minsan kung gaano siya ka-open tumangap ng payo. Kung minsan nga sa isang bata lang ay bigla tayong napapa “OO NGA ANO” pero bata lang iyon mas marami tayong karanasan sa kanya pero napapaisip niya sa atin kung minsan ang mga bagay na napapabayaan nating gawin o sundin. Isang simpleng menshae lang, maikling salita at payo pero kung tutuusin ang maliit at maikling mensaheng ito ay nakadag-dag upang magkaroon ng malaking pwersa para mangibabaw ang tamang desisyon, desisyon na sumagip sa buhay ng aking anak, desisyon na naglitas sa aming magkasintahan sa habang buhay na pagsisisi at maaring walang kapatawarang kasalanan. Isang simpleng post messsage pero may malaki palang potensyal na makapagdulot ng malaking pagbabago sa buhay ng isang tao, nito ko nagunita ang impluwensyang magagawa ng isang forum, thread at post. Ang artikulo ko na ito ay masasabing isang napaka-simple o unfromal work dahil sa totoo lang hindi naman talaga ako manunulat nito nalang ako nahilig sa pagsusulat nung napunta ako sa Saudi dahil minsan hindi mo naman masasabi sa iyong mga kasamahan ang iyong damdamin kayat sa journal ko nalang sinasabi ang aking mga saloobin. Ngayon ay nilalakasan ko ang aking loob na i-post ang aking mga isinulat patungkol sa aking karanasan tungkol sa isyu na ito, layunin ko na sana ay mahikayat ko kayong inyong buhayin ang bata at maiiwas ko kayo sa isang napakabigat na kasalanan. Kaya eto po ako ngayon ang inyong lingkod na magbabahagi ng aking karanasan at magbibigay ng payo na sana ay inyong pakinabangan kung kayo man ay masangkot sa ganitong uri ng pagsubok o kung ang isa sa mga mahal nyo sa buhay ang makadanas ng ganitong pangyayari.

Panimula

Bakit ba naiisipan ng mga magkasintahang ipalag-lag ang bata? Kung tayo ang titingin sa sitwasyon, masasabi natin na hindi natin gagawin ito kung tayo ang masangkot sa ganoong pag-subok, maganda kung ganoon ang ating isipan pero kung atin itong sasabihin ng diretso sa dalawang taong dumadanas ng ganitong pagsubok malaki ang posibilidad na hindi maging epektibo ang iyong pagpapayo kahit na ang iyong intension ay mabuti. May kasabihan nga na

“Laging magaling ang nanonood kesa sa manlalaro”

Kahit saan mo tignan mapa sports, pelikula o pagpili ng bibilhing gamit laging mukhang magaling o expertong pakingan magkomento yung taong nanonood o nakikinig lang, napakadali sa kanilang sabihin ang mga bagay-bagay, madali lang nilang sabihing

“dapat ganun o ganito”

nagagawa nilang magbigay ng mga ganyang comments dahil hindi nila nararamdaman yung aktuwal na “pressure” yung pagod, mismong sitwasyon, mga maliliit na bagay na nagpapalito sa iyong pagdesisyon. Kaya sa artikulo ko na ito ginawa ko ang buo kung makakaya para maiwasang maging malabnaw ang aking pagpapaliwanag at pagpapayo.

Naiintindihan ko ang pakiramdam ng mag-couple na may ganitong publema, mapa bata, nasa tamang edad na sila, legal o illegal silang magkasuyo iisa lang sila ng nararamdaman.

Natatakot ipag-alam ang katotohanan

Natural na ayaw ninyong ipaalam na nakabuntis o nabuntis kayo kung wala pa kayo sa tamang edad, wala pa sa plano o hindi naman nyo asawa o kasintahan ang nakabuntis o nabuntis ninyo dahil hindi ninyo pa alam kung ano ang isasagot sa mga tanung na maririnig ninyo, hindi pa kayo handa sa anu mang consequences na maaring isingil sa inyo at higit sa lahat maaring hindi pa kayo handang tangapin ang katotohanan. Normal na maranasan ninyo ang mga ganitong pakiramdam o sitwasyon kahit hindi pagbubuntis ang isyu ay ayaw din natin ng iskandalo, ayaw natin na kapag tinanung tayo ng “bakit” ay wala tayong maisagot o kung minsan ay hindi ganoon kadaling tangapin ang katotohanan lalo na kung taliwas sa ating nakasanayang paniniwala. Ang isa sa nais kung ipaalala sa puntong ito ay…

Nangyari Na Ang Nangyari

Nabuntis o nakabuntis ka na at hindi mo na maibabawi ang pangyayaring ito. Hindi mo na maibabalik ang kahapon kaya huwag mong sayangin ang iyong oras sa labis na pagsisisi although dapat matutunan natin ang ating pagkakamali pero ang sobrang pag-sisisi ay hindi makakalutas ng iyong kasalukuyang publema kundi ang pakinabang nito ay maiiwas ka sa posibilidad na maulit ang iyong dating pagkakamali. Ang dapat gawin sa sitwasyon na ito ay humanap ng solusyun! At papaano natin susulusyunan ang publema?

Alamin ang tunay na suliranin

Alamin natin kung ano ba talaga ang ating pinupublema, sa ganitong pangyayari maraming nagkakamali na i-identify kung ano ang tunay na suliranin, madalas ang bukang bibig ng mga tao “ang pagbubuntis” ang problema. Walang publema sa pagbubuntis, ang inyong pinupublema ay yung “paano” nag-dalang tao. Kung tutuusin normal lang namang makabuntis(lalake) o mabuntis ang isang babae, hindi ito publema kundi isang natural na pangyayari lamang, isang abnormality o publema kung hindi ka mabuntis o makabuntis(lalake) pero kapag nangyari ito sa hindi tamang processo halimabawa maling tao, pagkakataon o inaasahang pangyayari dito na ang nagiging simula ng publema. Halimbawa ay nagdalang tao ang isang dalaga na wala pa sa edad na mabuntis o di kaya ay mabuntis ang isang babae ngunit ang Ama ng kanyang dinadalang bata ay hindi niya kasintahan o Asawa at ang isa ko pang nakikitang posibilidad ay mabuntis ang isang babae na nasa gipit na sitwasyon ang kanilang budget nandidito sa mga sitwasyong ito ang publema uulitin ko…

Nakabuntis/Nabuntis ng nasa minor na Edad

Ang madalas na publema dito ay paano sasabihin sa magulang.

Nabuntis/Nakabuntis ng hindi niya kasintahan o asawa

Ang madalas na publema ay paano sabihin sa kanyang asawa ang nangyari.

Nabuntis/Nakabuntis ng walang sapat na pangsuportang pinansyal sa bata

pera ang publeama.

Palagay ko itong tatlong ito ang madalas na mabigat na pinupublema ng mga taong nasasangkot sa hindi inaasahang pagbubuntis o makabuntis ay kung papaano sasabihin ang katotohanan o di kaya ay papaano susuportahan ang bata.

Alam ko na kung minsan sa buhay natin mahirap tangapin o sabihin ang katotohanan lalo nat mayroon tayong masasaktan na mahal natin sa buhay, hindi rin lingid sa kaalaman ko na mahirap ang buhay ngayon at pahirap ng pahirap pa kaya hindi biro ang magpalaki ng bata, hindi biro ang gastusing haharapin ng isang mag-aalaga sa kanya pero gaano mang kabigat o katotoo ang mga suliraning nagbabanta ay hindi ito sasapat upang maging validong dahilan para kitilin ang buhay ng isang sangol.

Maraming debate tungkol sa abortion may nagsasabi na kung sa una palang ay nalaman mong buntis ka ay hindi pagpatay ang abortion dahil dugo palang ang nasa- sa pupunan ng ina pero para sa akin lang hindi lang natin pinaguusapan ditto kung dugo, fetus o tao na ang nasa tiyan ng ina kundi pinaguusapan natin ditto kung papaano natin tatangapin ang isang sitwasyon, ang masakit sa isang abortion ay hindi yung mismong processo na inilalag-lag ang bata kundi yung sandaling pinagdesisyunan ninyong huwag siyang buhayin. Imaginin mo na ikaw ay nasa isang sinehan at nakikita mo na sa isang sinaryo ang iyong Ina ay nagdalang-tao ng hindi inaasahan at ang batang ito kunwari ay ikaw at nakita mo sa pelikulang ito ay napagpasyahan niyang ilag-lag ka, tiyak na masakit ang magiging pakiramdam mo hindi siguro yung processo ng pagpapalaglag sa iyo kundi yung sandaling nakita mong pinasyahan ng iyong ina na huwag kang buhayin, kung masakit ito sa iyo na may matured ng pag-iisip ay di bat mas nakakaawa naman itong gawin sa isang buhay na walang muwang sa pangyayari?

Kahit ano pang paraan o dahilan ng pagbubuntis, biglaan o hindi inaasahan, kapus ka man o talagang walang pera, sana kaibigan ito lang ang iyong tandaan

Hindi sagot ang abortion kailanman, hindi sagot ang pagpatay sa isang inosenteng buhay. Ang publema ay wala sa bata kundi nasa sitwasyon nung nabuo ninyo siya, kaya dun natin ituon ang ating atensyon kung mayroon tayong dapat ituwid para mai-tama.

Eto ang mga kaisaipan noon kaya pinili kung buhayin ang bata.

“Hindi ako ma-mamatay tao”

Tulad ng iba ay nagkakasala din ako at may mga kaugaliaang nahihirapan akong baguhin, minsan tulad din ng iba ay madali akong nahuhulog sa tukso pero sa pagkakataong ito hindi ko hahayaang manaig ang pagiging makasarili o maimpluswensyahan ng masma ang puso ko.

“Hindi ako duwag”

Isa itong magandang pagkakataon para patunayan ng isang lalaki ang kanyang tapang, harapin ang sitwasyon gawin ang tama kaysa sa takasan ito sa pamamagitan ng pagsasakripisyo ng inosenteng buhay.

“Mahal ko ang asawa at anak ko”

Hindi ko magagawang silay saktan kailanman.

Maaring ang inyong mga sitwasyon sa kasalukuyan ay isang kakaibang storya o pangyayari na hindi natalakay sa artikulo kung ito, maaring ang pamagat ay kaintere-interesante dahil sa mga pagkakataong ito ay naghahanap kayo ng payo kung ano ang tamang gawin. Hindi din kasi madaling manghingi ng payo kung kani-kanino lang dahil ang ganitong bagay ay maselan, mahirap talagang tangapin ang katotohanan ng ganun-ganun nalang, kaya ikaw ay nakikibasa sa mga forum para makahanap ng sa palagay mo ay magandang solusyon, alam ko ang feeling dahil ganyang-ganyan din ako noon. Ngpapasalamat naman ako sa itaas at nagtagpo tayo ng landas kahit sa internet lang, sana ay makatulong ang artikulo na ito at tulad nga ng sinabi ko kung hindi man ako maka-relate sa iyong saktong sitwasyon, isang simpleng mensahe ang nais kung ipaabot sa iyo

Buhayin ang bata…

Matagal ng nakatenga ang artikel na ito sa aking laptap, dahil gusto ko sana na gawing mas-impressive at mas puno ng damdamin pero nag-aalala lang ako dahil ang sabi nila sa survey minu-minuto ay maraming nag-kokomit ng abortion at minu-minuto ay marami rin namang nag-iinternet at ditto gumagawa ng pag-sasaliksik kaya minarapat ko na itoy ipaskil kaagad upang kahit papaano akoy umaasang makatulong upang makapag-padagdag pwersa na hikayatain kayo na nasa ganitong sitwasyon na piliin ang tamang daan.

Huwag po nating hadlangan ang pasibol ng buhay.

Harapin ang ano mang pagsubok ng buong tibay ng loob at tapang.

Huwag po nating kalimutang humingi ng gabay sa itaas.

Hayaan nating mabuhay ang bata…

Anatomy of the Ear

2010-04-29T05:56:00.000-07:00

The anatomy of the ear can be a little confusing, especially since the ear is responsible not only for hearing, but also for balance.
There are three components to the ear: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. All three are involved in hearing but only the inner ear is responsible for balance.

The outer ear is composed of the pinna, or ear lobe, and the external auditory canal. Both structures funnel sound waves towards the ear drum or tympanic membrane allowing it to vibrate. The pinna is also responsible for protecting the ear drum from damage. Modified sweat glands in the ear canal form ear wax.

The middle ear is an air filled space located in the temporal bone of the skull. Air pressure is equalized in this space via the Eustachian tube which drains into the nasopharynx or the back of the throat and nose. There are three small bones, or ossicles, that are located adjacent to the tympanic membrane. The malleus, incus, and stapes are attached like a chain to the tympanic membrane and convert sound waves that vibrate the membrane into mechanical vibrations of the three bones. The stapes fills the oval window which is the connection to the inner ear.

The bony labyrinth itself has three sections. 1) The cochlea is responsible for hearing, 2) the semicircular canals have function associated with balance, and 3) the vestibule which connects the two and contains two more balance and equilibrium related structures, the saccule and utricle.

The final structures of the inner ear are the round window and the eighth cranial nerve (cranial nerve VIII) which is composed of the vestibular nerve (balance) and the cochlear (hearing) nerve.

Hearing
We hear by funneling sound from the environment into the outer ear and causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate. Those sound waves vibrations are transferred into mechanical vibrations of the ossicles. Those mechanical vibrations cause the oval window to move back and forth causing the perilymph of the inner ear to begin wave-like motions. The perilymph fluid motion is transferred to the endolymph and the wave motion is transformed into electrical impulses picked up by the hairy cells of Corti and sent to the brain via the cochlear nerve. The round window is responsible for absorbing the fluid wave vibrations and releasing any increased pressure in the inner ear caused by the wave motion.

Balance
Balance is a choreographed arrangement that takes sensory information from a variety of organs and integrates it to tell the body where it is in related to gravity and the earth.

Information from the vestibular system of the inner ear (semicircular canals, the saccule and the utricle) is sent to the brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Potential balance abnormalities do not require conscious input from the cerebrum of the brain. Abnormal vestibular signals cause the body to try to compensate by making adjustments in posture of the trunk and limbs as well as making changes in eye movement to adjust sight input into the brain.

There are three semicircular canals in the inner ear positioned at right angles to each other like a gyroscope. They are able to sense changes in movement of the body. With such changes, endolymph waves within the canals cause hair cells located within their base to move. Position of the head is sensed by hair cells of the utricle and saccule which is stimulated when the head moves and the relationship to gravity changes.

Ear: Anatomy of Hearing and Balance (cont.)
There is a small dense area of nerve fibers called the macule located in each of the saccule and utricle. The macule of the saccule is oriented vertically while the utricle macule is horizontal. Each macule consists of fine hair bundles which are covered by an otolithic membrane that is jelly-like and covered by a blanket of calcium crystals.

The calcium crystals are the structures that ultimately stimulate the position hairs and provoke nerve impulses created by the position changes and transmit that information to the brain stem and cerebellum.
Abnormalities of the vestibular system may cause:

• vertigo (the sensation that the room is spinning);
• benign paroxysmal positional vertigo;
• labyrinthitis, and
• Meniere's Disease.

Some examples of common diseases and conditions involving the ear include:
• swimmer's ear,
• ear wax
• cauliflower ear,
• Eustachian tube problems,
• otitis media (middle ear infection), and
• tinnitus (ringing in the ear).

Ear
• Overview of the ear
• Anatomy of the ear
o Outer ear
Pinna
Ear canal
o Middle ear
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Auditory ossicles and muscles
Converting sound wave vibrations into inner ear fluid movement
o Inner ear
Cochlear
Chambers of the cochlear
Organ of Corti
• Physiology of the middle ear
o Concentration of energy
o Protection of inner ear
o Coordinating speech with hearing
• Physiology of the inner ear
o Cochlear hair cells
o Role of inner hair cells
o Role of outer hair cells
o Other components of cochlear physiology
o Sound transduction
o Sensory coding
• Equilibrium - Coordination and Balance
o Saccule and Utricle
o The Semicircular Canals - Detecting rotational acceleration
• Dysfunctions of the ear
o Deafness
o Neural prebycusis
o Vertigo
o Meniere's Syndrome
• Treatments for hearing loss
o Hearing aids
o Cochlear implants

Overview of the ear
The ear is the sense organ that enables us to hear. Hearing can be defined as the perception of sound energy via the brain and central nervous system. Hearing consists of two components: identification of sounds (what the sound is) and localisation of those sounds (where the sounds are coming from). The ear is divided into three main parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The inner ear is filled with fluid. The inner ear also contains the receptors for sound which convert fluid motion into electrical signals known as action potentials that are sent to the brain to enable sound perception. The airborne sound waves must therefore be channelled toward and transferred into the inner ear for hearing to occur. The role of the outer and middle ear is to transmit sound to the inner ear. They also help compensate for the loss in sound energy that naturally occurs when the sound waves pass from air into water by amplifying the sound energy during the process of sound transmission. In addition to converting sound waves into nerve action potentials, the inner ear is also responsible for the sense of equilibrium, which relates to our general abilities for balance and coordination.
Anatomy of the ear

Outer ear
The outer ear acts as a funnel to conduct air vibrations through to the eardrum. It also has the function of sound localisation. Sound localisation for sounds approaching from the left or the right is determined in two ways. Firstly, the sound wave reaches the ear closer to the sound slightly earlier than it reaches the other ear. Secondly, the sound is less intense when it reaches the second ear, because the head acts as a sound barrier, partially disrupting the spreading of the sound waves. All these cues are integrated by the brain to determine the location of the source of the sound. It is therefore difficult to localise sound with only one ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal.

Pinna
The pinna is a prominent skin-covered flap located on the side of the head, and is the visible part of the ear externally. It is shaped and supported by cartilage except for the earlobe. It collects sound waves and channels them down the external ear canal through patterns formed on the pinna known as whorls and recesses. Its shape also partially shields sound waves that approach the ear from the rear, therefore enabling a person to tell whether a sound is coming directly from the front or the back.

Ear canal
The ear canal is roughly 3cm long in adults and slightly S-shaped. It is supported by cartilage at its opening, and by bone for the rest of its length. Skin lines the canal, and contains glands that produce secretions that mix with dead skin cells to produce cerumen (earwax). Cerumen, along with the fine hairs that guard the entrance to the ear canal, helps prevent airborne particles from reaching the inner portions of the ear canal, where they could accumulate or injure the eardrum and interfere with hearing. Cerumen usually dries up and falls out of the canal. However, it can sometimes become impact and disrupt hearing.

Middle ear
The middle ear is located between the external and inner ear. It is separated from the ear canal of the outer ear by the tympanic membrane (the eardrum). The middle ear functions to transfer the vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear fluid. This transfer of sound vibrations is possible through a chain of movable small bones, called ossicles, which extend across the middle ear, and their corresponding small muscles.

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
The tympanic membrane is commonly known as the eardrum, and separates the ear canal from the middle ear. It is about 1cm in diameter and slightly concave (curving inward) on its outer surface. It vibrates freely in response to sound. The membrane is highly innervated, making it highly sensitive to pain. For the membrane to move freely when air strikes it, the resting air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane must be equal. The outside of the membrane is exposed to atmospheric pressure (pressure of the environment in which we find ourselves) through the auditory tube, so that the cavity in which it is located, called the tympanic cavity, is continuous with the cells in the jaw and thorat area. Normally, the auditory tube is flattered and closed, but swallowing, yawning and chewing pull the tube open, allowing air to enter or leave the tympanic cavity. This opening of the auditory tube allows air pressure in the middle ear to equilibrate with atmospheric pressure, so that the pressures on both sides of the tympanic membrane become equal to each other. Excessive pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane dampens the sense of the hearing because the tympanic membrane cannot vibrate freely. When external pressure changes rapidly, for example during air flight, the eardrum can bulge painfully because as the pressure outside the ear changes, the pressure in the middle ear remains unchanged. Yawning or swallowing in this instance opens up the auditory tube, allowing the pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane to equalise, relieving the pressure distortion as the eardrum "pops" back into place. Since the auditory tube connects the jaw/throat areas to the ear, it allows throat infections to spread relatively easily to the middle ear. Middle ear infection is common in children because their auditory tubes are relatively short, compared to adults. This leads to fluid accumulation in the middle ear, which is not only painful but also disrupts the transference of sound across the middle ear. If the infection is left untreated, it can spread from the cells near the jaw, causing meningitis (inflammation of the brain lining). Middle ear infection can also cause the fusion of the ear ossicles, resulting in hearing loss.
Auditory ossicles and muscles

The tympanic cavity contains the body's three smallest bones and two smallest muscles. The bones are also referred to as auditory ossicles, and connect the eardrum to the inner ear. From the outermost to innermost, the bones are called the malleus, incus and stapes.
• Malleus
The malleus is attached to the eardrum. It has a handle that attaches to the inner surface of the eardrum, and a head that is suspended from the wall of the tympanic cavity.
• Incus
The incus is connected to the malleus on the side closer to the eardrum, and to the stapes on the side closer to the inner ear.
• Stapes
The stapes has an arch and a footplate. This footplate is held by a ringlike piece of tissue in an opening called the oval window, which is the entrance into the inner ear.
• Stapedius and Tensor tympani
The stapedius is the muscle of the inner ear that inserts on the stapes. The tensor tympani is the inner ear muscle that insert on the malleus.
Converting sound wave vibrations into inner ear fluid movement
As the eardrum vibrates in response to air waves, the chain of inner ear bones are set into motion at the same frequency. The frequency of movement is transmitted across from the eardrum to the oval window (another structure in the ear), resulting in a pressure being exerted on the oval window with each vibration. This produces wavelike movements of the inner ear fluid at the same frequency as the original sound wave. However, in order to set the fluid into motion, greater pressure is required, so that the pressure must be amplified. This amplification of the pressure of the airborne sound wave to set up fluid vibrations in the cochlear is related to two mechanisms. Firstly, the surface area of the tympanic membrane is much large than that of the oval window. In addition, the lever action of the ossicles greatly increases the force exerted on the oval window. The extra pressure generated through these mechanisms is sufficient to set the cochlear fluid in motion.

Inner ear
The inner ear is the deepest part of the whole ear, and is located in a place known as the bony labyrinth, which is a maze of bone passageways lined by a network of fleshy tubes known as the membranous labyrinth. A cushion of fluid, called perilymph, lies between the bony and membranous labyrinth, while a fluid called endolymph is found within the membranous labyrinth itself. Within the inner ear is a chamber called the vestibule, which plays a major role in the sense of balance. Balance is further discussed later in this article. (Equilibrium - Coordination and Balance)

Cochlear
Arising from the vestibule is the cochlear, which is sometimes referred to as the organ of hearing, as it is the part of the whole ear that actually converts sound vibrations to the perception of hearing. The cochlear is in the form of a snail-like spiral, so that a longer cochlear is able to fit inside an enclosed space. It is about 9mm wide at the base and 5mm high, and winds around a section of spongy bone called the modiolus. The modiolus is shaped like a screw whose threads form a spiral platform that support the cochlear, which is fleshy and unable to support itself.

Chambers of the cochlear
The cochlear contains three fluid-filled chambers separated by membranes. The upper chamber, scala vestibule, and the bottom chamber, scala tympani, are filled with perilymph. The scala tympani is covered by a secondary tympanic membrane. The middle chamber is the scala media, or the cochlear duct. It is filled with endolymph, instead of perilymph.

Organ of Corti
The organ of corti is supported by a membrane called the basilar membrane. It about the size of a pea, and acts as a transducer, converting vibration into nerve impulses. It has hair cells and supporting cells. Hair cells have long stiff microvilli called stereocilia on their apical surfaces. Microvilli are fine hair-like structures on cells that help to increase cell surface area. On top of these stereocilia is a jelly-like membrane called the tectorial membrane. Four rows of hair cells spiral along the length of the organ of Corti. Of these, there are about 3500 inner hair cells (IHCs), each with a cluster of 50-60 stereocilia graded from short to tall. There are another 20 000 outer hair cells (OHCs) that are arranged in three rows opposite the IHCs. Each OHC has about 100 stereocilia with their tips embedded in the tectorial membrane above them. These outer hair cells adjust the response of the cochlear to different sound frequencies so as to enable the inner hair cells to function more accurately. The physiological mechanisms, by which hair cells within the cochlear act to produce hearing, are discussed in more detail below. (Physiology of the inner ear)

Physiology of the middle ear
Concentration of energy
The function of the auditory ossicles in the middle ear is to concentrate the energy of the vibrating eardrum so as to create a greater force per unit area at the oval window, as previously described.
Protection of inner ear

In addition to this, the ossicles and their adjacent muscles also serve a protective function. In response to a loud noise, the tensor tympani pulls the eardrum inward and tenses it. At the same time, the stapedius reduces movement of the stapes. These actions of the muscles are known collectively as the tympanic reflex. This reflex muffles the transfer of vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window. It is thought that the tympanic reflex is an evolutionary adaptation for protection against loud but slowly building noises such as thunder. However, because it has a time delay of about 40 ms, it is not quick enough to protect the inner ear from sudden loud noises such as gunshots. It also does not adequately protect the ears from sustained loud noises such as factory noises or loud music. These noises can irreversibly damage the stereocilia of the hair cells in the inner ear, leading to hearing loss.

Coordinating speech with hearing
The muscles of the middle ear also assist in coordinating speech with hearing, so that the sound of our own speech is not so loud as to damage our inner ear and drown out soft or high-pitched sounds from other sources. Just as we are about to speak, the brain signals the middle ear muscles to contract, dampening the sense of hearing in coordination with the sound of our own voice. This makes it possible to hear other people while we are speaking ourselves.

Physiology of the inner ear

Cochlear hair cells
As previously mentioned, the cochlear is the organ that enables sound perception. The physiology of the cochlear revolves around the functioning of the inner and outer cochlear hair cells. In addition to the cells themselves, there are several other components of the cochlear that contribute to the ability to hear.

Role of inner hair cells
The inner hair cells transform the mechanical force of sound (cochlear fluid vibration) into the electrical impulses of hearing (action potentials sending auditory messages to the brain). They communicate with nerve fibres that make up the auditory nerve leading to the brain. When the rate of neurotransmitter (chemicals released by cells in response to stimuli) release from these hair cells is increased, the rate of firing in the nerve fibres is also increased. This occurs when the voltage of the hair cells becomes more positive. Conversely, when the voltage of the hair cells becomes more negative, the hair cells release less neurotransmitter and the firing rate in nerve fibres decreases.

Role of outer hair cells
Unlike the inner hair cells, the outer hair cells do not signal the brain about incoming sounds. They instead actively and rapidly elongate in response to changes in the voltages of the cell membrane. This behaviour is known as electromotility. When the outer hair cells elongate, the motion of the basilar membrane is amplified. This modification of the basilar membrane is believed to improve and tune the stimulation of the inner hair cells. The outer hair cells therefore enhance the receptors of the inner hair cells, increasing their sensitivity to sound intensity and rendering them highly discriminatory between various pitches of sound.

Other components of cochlear physiology
The activity of the inner and outer hair cells is possible through various other components within the cochlear. They key components are listed as follows:

Basilar Membrane
The vibration of the auditory ossicles, as previously described, eventually leads to the vibration of the basilar membrane on which the hair cells rest through sequence of chain reactions. During the vibration of the auditory ossicles, the stapes vibrates rapidly in and out, leading to the basilar membrane vibrating down and up, and the secondary tympanic membrane vibrating out and in. This can occur as often as 20 000 times per second.

Endolymph
In order for inner hair cells to function properly, the tips of their stereocilia must be bathed in endolymph, which has an exceptionally high potassium ion (K+) concentration, creating a strong electrochemical gradient (large difference in voltage) from the tip to base of a hair cell. This electrochemical gradient provides the energy that allows the hair cell to function. The interaction between stereocilia and endolymph is further discussed below. (Stereocilia)

Tectorial membrane
The stereocilia of the outer hair cells have their tips embedded in the tectorial membrane, while the stereocilia of the inner hair cells come very close to the membrane. The tectorial membrane is anchored to a structure called the modiolus, which holds it relatively still as the basilar membrane and hair cells vibrate. Vibration of the basilar membrane therefore causes shearing of the hair cells against the tectorial membrane, bending the hair cell stereocilia back and forth.
Stereocilia

A protein functions as a mechanically gated ion channel on the top of each stereocilia of the inner hair cells. In addition, there is a fine stretchy protein filament known as a tip link that extends like a spring from the ion channel of one stereocilium to the side of the streocilium next to it. On each inner hair cell, the stereocilia progressively increase in height, so that all but the tallest ones have tip links leading to taller stereocilia beside them. When a taller stereocilium bends away from a shorter one, it pulls on the tip link, so that the ion channel of the short stereocilium is opened. The endolymph bathing the stereocilia has a very high concentration of K+ ions, so that when the channel is pulled open, there is a rapid flow of K+ into each hair cell. This makes the voltage of the hair cell become positive when the channel is open. When the stereocilium is bent the other way, the channel closes and the cell voltage becomes negative. When the cell voltage is positive, the inner hair cells release a neurotransmitter that stimulates the sensory nerves at the base of the hair cell. This leads to the generation of action potentials in the cochlear nerve.

Sound transduction
The conversion of sound energy into a neural signal that is interpreted by the brain as sound perception, as described above, is known as sound transduction. The following diagram summarises this process:

Sensory coding
Loud vs Soft sounds
The organ of Corti allows us to discriminate between different sound intensities. Loud sounds produce more vigorous vibrations of the organ of Corti, thereby exciting a greater number of hair cells over a greater area of basilar membrane. This leads to a high frequency of action potentials being initiated in the cochlear nerve. Intense activity in the cochlear nerve fibres from a broad region of the organ of Corti is therefore detected by the brain and interpreted as a loud sound. The reverse applies to detect soft sounds.
High-pitched vs Low-pitched sounds
The basilar membrane enables us to differentiate between high and low pitched sounds. The membrane is spanned by short stiff fibres of various lengths. At its lower end, the basilar membrane is attached, narrow and stiff. At the top end, however, it is unattached, wider and more flexible. The vibration of one region of the basilar membrane causes a wave of vibration to travel down its length and back again. This is referred to as a standing wave, and is akin to plucking a string at one end, causing a wave vibration (like on a guitar). The peak amplitude of the standing wave is near the top end during low-frequency sounds and near the bottom end during higher-frequency sounds. When the brain receives signals mainly from inner hair cells at the top end, it interprets this sound as being low-pitched. Likewise, when the brain receives signals mainly from inner hair cells at the bottom end, the sound is interpreted as being high-pitched. In the reality of everyday life, speech, music and other everyday sounds are not pure tones. Instead, they create complex patterns of vibration in the basilar membrane that have to be decoded and interpreted by the brain.

Equilibrium - Coordination and Balance
Although we think of the ear as the sense organ for hearing, it did not evolve originally for this purpose. It was instead originally an adaptation for coordination and balance, collectively known as the sense of equilibrium. Vertebrates only evolved the cochlear, middle ear structures and consequent auditory function of the ear later on. In humans, the parts of the ear that allow for the sense of equilibrium are the vestibular apparatus (or the vestibule). These consist of the three semicircular canals, and the two chambers - the saccule and the utricle. There are two components of the sense of equilibrium. One is static equilibrium, referring to the ability to detect the direction of the head when the body is not moving. The second is dynamic equilibrium, referring to the perception of motion or acceleration. Acceleration can in turn be divided into linear acceleration, which is a change in velocity (rapidity) in a straight line, and angular acceleration, which is a change in the rate of rotation of the head. The saccule and utricle detect static equilibrium and linear acceleration, while the semicircular canals only detect angular acceleration.

Saccule and Utricle
Both the saccule and the utricle contain a small patch of hair cells and their supporting cells, which collectively are known as a macula. The macula lying vertically on the wall of the saccule is called the macula sacculi, while the macula lying horizontally on the floor of the utricle is called the macula utriculi. Each hair cell of a macula has about 40-70 stereocilia (structures on the hair cells that sense mechanical stimuli), as well as one true cilium (a tail-like cell projection) called a kinocilium. The tips of the stereocilia and the kinocilium are embedded in a jelly-like membrane called the otholithic membrane. This membrane is weighed down by granules which are referred to as otoliths. The otoliths add to the density and inertia of the membrane, aiding in sensing gravity and motion.

Detecting tilt of the head
Horizontal tilt of the head is detected by the macula utriculi, while vertical tilt of the head is detected by the macula sacculi. When the head is upright, the otolithic membrane weighs down directly on the hair cells, keeping stimulation to a minimum. However, when the head is tilted, the weight of the membrane bends the stereocilia, stimulating the hair cells. Any orientation of the head causes a combination of stimulation to the utricles and saccules of both ears. The overall orientation of the head is interpreted by the brain by comparing the inputs from both organs to each other, and to other input from the eyes and stretch receptors in the neck.

Detecting linear acceleration
When we begin to move forward after being stationary, the heavy otolithic membrane of the macula utriculi briefly lags behind the rest of the tissues. When we stops moving, the macula stops as well, but the otolithic membrane keeps moving for a moment, bending the stereocilia forward. The hair cells covert this pattern of stimulation into nerve signals which are relayed to the brain to be interpreted. This results in the brain interpreting changes in linear velocity (ie. detecting linear acceleration). If we begin to move upwards after being stationary (for example, going upwards in an elevator), the otolithic membrane of the vertical macula sacculi lags briefly behind and pulls down on the hair cells. When we stop moving, the otolithic membrane keeps moving for a moment, bending the hair cells upward. The brain therefore receives signals from the macula sacculi, enabling it to interpret vertical acceleration.
The Semicircular Canals - Detecting rotational acceleration
Each of the three semicircular canals houses a semicircular duct. Collectively, they detect rotational acceleration. Two ducts are positioned vertically at right angles to each other. The third duct lies at an angle of approximately 30 degrees from the horizontal plane. The different orientations of the three ducts cause different ducts to be stimulated, depending on what plane the head is rotating in. The head can be turned from side to side (eg. Gesturing "no"), up and down (eg. Gesturing "yes"), or tilted from side to side (eg. Touching to ears to each of your shoulders, one at a time). All the semicircular ducts are filled with a fluid called endolymph. Each duct opens into the utricle and has a dilated sac at one end called an ampulla. Inside the ampulla are hair cells and their supporting cells. These are referred to as the crista ampullaris. A jelly-like membrane called the cupula extends from the crista ampullaris to the roof of the ampulla. The stereocilia of the hair cells are embedded in the cupula. As the head turns, the duct rotates, but the endolymph in it lags behind. The endolymph thus pushes against the cupula, causing the stereocilia to bend, stimulating the hair cells. However, after 25-30 seconds of continual rotation, the endolymph catches up with the movement of the duct and stimulation of the hair cell ceases.

Dysfunctions of the ear

Deafness
Deafness refers to a loss of hearing, which may be temporary or permanent, partial or complete.
Conductive deafness
Conductive deafness occurs when sound waves are not properly conducted through the external and middle portions of the ear to set the fluid in the inner ear in motion. Possible causes include:

• Physical blockage of the ear canal with earwax
• Eardrum rupture
• Middle ear infection with accompanying fluid accumulation
• Restriction of the movement of the ossicles, due to bony adhesions between the stapes and oval window

Sensorineural deafness
In sensorineural deafness, the sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear, but they are not converted into nerve signals that are interpreted by the brain as sounds. The defect can lie in the organ of Corti or the auditory nerves, or rarely, in some pathways and parts of the brain.
Neural prebycusis
Neural prebycusis is one of the most common causes of partial hearing loss. It is a progressive age-related process that occurs over time as the hair cells "wear out" with use. Even exposure to ordinary modern-day sounds can eventually damage hair cells over long periods of time. An adult loses on average more than 40% of their cochlear hair cells by the age of 65. Those hair cells that process high-frequency sounds are the most vulnerable to destruction.
Vertigo
Vertigo refers to the sensation of rotation in the absence of equilibrium - in other words, dizziness. Vertigo can be caused by viral infections, certain drugs, and tumours such as acoustic neuroma. Vertigo can also produced normally in individuals through excessive stimulation of the semicircular ducts. In some individuals, excessive stimulation of the utricle can also produce motion sickness (carsickness, airsickness, seasickness).
Meniere's Syndrome
Meniere's Syndrome is a disease of the internal ear affecting both hearing and equilibrium. Patients initially experience episodes of dizziness and tinnitus (ringing noise in the ears), and later develop a low-frequency hearing loss. The causes relate to the blockage of a duct in the cochlear which drains excess endolymph away. Blockage of the duct causes an increase in endolymphatic pressure and swelling of the membranous labyrinth in which the inner ear hair cells are located.
Treatments for hearing loss
Hearing aids
Hearing aids can be useful in treating conductive deafness but are less beneficial for sensorineural deafness. They increase the intensity of airborne sounds and may modify the sound spectrum to suit the patient's particular pattern of hearing loss at higher or lower frequencies. However, the receptor cell-neural pathway system must still be intact and functioning for the sound to be perceived, so hearing aids are useless in sensorineural deafness.
Cochlear implants
Recently, cochlear implants have become available. The implants are electronic devices which are surgically implanted. They convert sound signals into electrical signals that can directly stimulate the auditory nerve, so as to bypass a defective cochlear system. Cochlear implants cannot restore normal hearing but they permit recipients to recognise sounds. Success can range from an ability to hear a phone ringing, to being able to carry on a conversation over the telephone.

The Ear (Hearing and Balance)

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auditory system, involved in the detection of sound,
the vestibular system, involved with maintaining body balance/ equilibrium.

• In auditory system - perception of sound
• In vestibular system - maintenance of balance.

The external ear (or pinna, the part you can see) serves to protect the tympanic membrane (eardrum), as well to collect and direct sound waves through the ear canal to the eardrum. About 1¼ inches long, the canal contains modified sweat glands that secrete cerumen, or earwax. Too much cerumen can block sound transmission.

AURICLE (PINNA)
Location: oval-shaped appendage on the lateral surface of the head.
Function: sound localization and amplification.
Composition: thin skin with hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands covers supporting structure of elastic cartilage

EXTERAL AUDITORY MEATUS (CANAL)
Location: between the auricle and tympanic membrane
Composition: skin that contains hair follicles, ceruminous - modified sweat glands, and sebaceous glands covers supporting structure of elastic cartilage (lateral one-third) or bone (medial two-thirds)

TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (EARDRUM)
Location: separates the external auditory canal from the middle ear
Function: sound in the form of airwaves causes the membrane to vibrate, and these vibrations are transmitted to the attached auditory ossicles
Composition: the layers from outside to inside

• The epidermis of skin
• Radially and circularly arranged collagen fibers
• Mucous membrane covered by simple squamous epithelium

AUDITORY OSSICLES
Location: cross the space of middle ear in series and connect the tympanic membrane to the oval window
Function: help to convert sound waves (vibrations in air) to mechanical (hydraulic) vibrations in tissues and fluid-filled chambers
Composition: movable joints connect the bones:

• Malleus (hammer), attached to the tympanic membrane
• Stapes (stirrup), whose footplate fits into the oval window
• Incus (anvil), linking the malleus to the stapes

AUDITORY (EUSTACHIAN) TUBE
Location: connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx
Function: allow pressure in the middle ear to equilibrate with atmospheric pressure.
Composition: lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with small mass of lymphatic tissue

CRISTAE AMPULLARIS
Location: three sensory regions of the semicircular ducts in the ampullae of the semicircular canals
Function: sensors of angular movement
Composition: the ridge of epithelium that is oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the semicircular canal
Cells:

• Hair cells - nonneuronal mechnoreceptors with 50-100 stereocilia (sensory hairs) - modified microvilli. They are associated with both afferent and efferent nerve endings

o Type I hair cells - piriform in shape with a rounded base
o Type II hair cells - cylindrical in shape
• Supporting epithelial cells
• Cupula - gelatinous structure projects into the lumen and is surrounded by endolymph.

MACULAE
Location: saccule and utricle of the vestibule
Function: sensors of gravity and liner movement
Composition: the innervated sensory thickenings of the epithelium facing the endolymph
Cells:

• {#hair} Hair cells - nonneuronal mechanoreceptors with 50-100 stereocilia (sensory hairs) - modified microvilli and single true cilium - kinocilium. They are associated with both afferent and efferent nerve endings
o Type I hair cells - piriform in shape with a rounded base
o Type II hair cells - cylindrical in shape
• Supporting epithelial cells
• Otolithic membrane - gelatinous material with otoliths - 3-5mkm crystalline particles of calcium carbonate and protein

SCALA MEDIA (COCHLEA DUCT)
Location: the middle compartment in the cochlear canal
Composition: appears in transverse section as a triangular space.

• The most acute angle is attached to a bony extension of the modiolus
• The upper wall is the vestibular (Reissner's) membrane -two layers of squamous epithelial cells
• The lateral or outer wall is the stria vascularis - thick pseudostratified epithelium rich in blood vessels, the site of synthesis of endolymph
• The lower wall or floor is the basilar membrane - a dense mat of collagenic and some elastic fibers on which organ of Corti rests

ORGAN OF CORTI
Location: on the floor of scala media
Function: sound perception
Composition: complex epithelial layer
Cells:

• Inner (close to the stria vascularis) hair cells with 50-100 stereocilia and outer hair cells with 100-300 stereocilia are arranged in the rows of cells
• Inner (close to the stria vascularis) and outer phalangeal (supporting) cells - completely surround the basal portions of sensory cells, preventing them from touching the basilar membrane
• Pillar cells - form a triangular-shaped tunnel of Corti with cortilymph
• Tectorial membrane extends over the hair cells and attaches to the stereocilia. It consists of ground substance and collagen fibers

eardrum, is an air-filled cavity (tympanic cavity)
carved out of the temporal bone. It connects to the throat/nasopharynx via the Eustachian tube.
This ear-throat connection makes the ear susceptible to infection (otitis media).
The eustachian tube functions to equalize air pressure on both sides of the eardrum.

The inner ear consists of a maze of fluid-filled tubes, running through the temporal bone of the skull. The bony tubes, the bony labyrinth, are filled with a fluid called perilymph. Within this bony labyrinth is a second series of delicate cellular tubes, called the membranous labyrinth, filled with the fluid called endolymph. This membranous labyrinth contains the actual hearing cells, the hair cells of the organ of Corti. There are three major sections of the bony labyrinth:

1. The front portion is the snail-shaped cochlea, which functions in hearing.
2. The rear part, the semicircular canals, helps maintain balance.
3. Interconnecting the cochlea and the semicircular canals is the vestibule, containing the sense organs responsible for balance, the utricle and saccule.

The round window serves as a pressure valve, bulging outward as fluid pressure rises in the inner ear. Nerve impulses generated in the inner ear travel along the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII), which leads to the brain. This is actually two nerves, somewhat joined together, the cochlear nerve for hearing and the vestibular nerve for equilibrium.

The base of the stapes rocks in and out against the oval window - this is the entrance for the vibrations.
The round window dissipates the pressure generated by the fluid vibrations, thus serves as the release valve: It can push out or expand as needed. The nerve impulses travel over the cochlear nerve to the auditory cortex of the brain, which interprets the impulses as sound.

The semicircular canals and vestibule function to sense movement (acceleration and deceleration) and static position.

Hearing
The most basic function of the ear is hearing. The following is the short description of the hearing process:
The first step is when the pinna collects external sounds that enter through the meatus or ear canal as sound waves. The ear drum begins to vibrate as these sound waves strikes. These vibrations pass through to the three ossicles of the middle ear (hammer, anvil and stapes) where they are amplified. As the transmission proceeds, the vibrations first hit the hammer, then the hammer pushes the anvil, and the anvil hits the stapes.
The vibrations are finally interpreted as sound in the brain after being transmitted and transformed into nerve signals by the cochlea (snail shaped component of the inner ear). This is due to the connectivity of the oval window of the inner ear to the edge of the stapes. When the stapes vibrates, they always transmit the sound vibrations to the inner ear.

Balance
The other important function of the ear is to help maintain balance. Oriented at the right angles to each other are three semicircular canals of the inner ear. Whenever the head is turned or change position, the resulting movement of fluids within these canals help the brain to identify or detect the extent of movement and positioning of the head.
In response to gravity, another part of the inner ear sends information to the brain when the head is held still in a stagnant position.

• Otitis media – also known as middle ear infection
• Otitis externa – also known as a swimmer's ear

There are other several ear disorders that we will soon have a look at. These include the following:

• Tinnitus – ringing of ear
• Vertigo – nahihilo
• Meniere's disease – nagkatubig ang tenga
• Hyperacusis – echoing of ear
• neural prebycusis – Alzheimer’s
• otitis - tuga

Enzymes

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Enzymes

Enzyme: A protein (or protein-based molecule) that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living organism. An enzyme acts as catalyst for specific chemical reactions, converting a specific set of reactants (called substrates) into specific products. Without enzymes, life as we know it would not exist.
Enzymes are nonetheless subject to error. In 1902 Sir Archibald Garrod was the first to attribute a disease to an enzyme defect, to what Garrod called an "inborn error of metabolism." Today, newborns are routinely screened for certain enzyme defects such as PKU (phenylketonuria) and galactosemia, an error in the handling (metabolism) of the sugar galactose.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy (the energy required for a reaction to begin). This is accomplished by increasing the local concentration of reactants (the compounds used in the reaction) and bringing the reactants into proper orientation for the reaction to begin. All enzymes are made of protein and their production is controlled by DNA. Enzymes can be reused many times. The standard suffix for enzymes is "ase."
Practically all of the numerous and complex biochemical reactions that take place in animals, plants, and microorganisms are regulated by enzymes. These catalytic proteins are efficient and specific—that is, they accelerate the rate of one kind of chemical reaction of one type of compound, and they do so in a far more efficient manner than man-made catalysts. They are controlled by activators and inhibitors that initiate or block reactions. All cells contain enzymes, which usually vary in number and composition, depending on the cell type; an average mammalian cell,

Classification of enzyme
Enzymes are classified according to the reactions they catalyze. In some cases, the terms used are fairly clear; in others, less so. Examples:

Oxidoreductases:

These are enzymes which catalyze the reduction or oxidation of a molecule. Remember that oxidation is the reverse of reduction and that an enzyme has to catalyze the forward and reverse reactions to the same degree. Any enzyme which catalyzes a reduction has to also catalyze the reverse (oxidation) reaction, thus the double-barreled name "oxidoreductase."
Transferases:

These enzymes catalyze the transfer of a group of atoms from one molecule to another. A common example involves transfer of a phosphate between ATP and a sugar molecule.
Hydrolases:

As the name suggests, these enzymes catalyze hydrolysis reactions (and their reverse reactions). The hydrolysis of an ester would be an example of such a reaction.
Isomerases:

These enzymes catalyze the conversion of a molecule into an isomer. The cis-trans interconversion of maleate and fumarate is an example.
Lyases:

Reactions which add a small molecule such as water or ammonia to a double bond (and the reverse, elimination, reactions) are catalyzed by lyases.
Ligases:

These enzymes catalyze reactions which make bonds to join together (ligate) smaller molecules to make larger ones.

Activity of Enzyme
Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms. They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation, often via kinases and phosphatases.[68] They also generate movement, with myosin hydrolysing ATP to generate muscle contraction and also moving cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton.[69] Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport. Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as luciferase generating light in fireflies.[70] Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase, or for viral release from cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase.
An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules,
Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways.
Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps, nor be fast enough to serve the needs of the cell.

Enzyme activity
Enzyme activity = moles of substrate converted per unit time = rate × reaction volume. Enzyme activity is a measure of the quantity of active enzyme present and is thus dependent on conditions, which should be specified. The SI unit is the katal, 1 katal = 1 mol s-1, but this is an excessively large unit. A more practical and commonly-used value is 1 enzyme unit (U) = 1 μmol min-1. 1 U corresponds to 16.67 nanokatals.[1]

Specific activity
The specific activity of an enzyme is another common unit. This is the activity of an enzyme per milligram of total protein (expressed in μmol min-1mg-1). Specific activity gives a measurement of the purity of the enzyme. It is the amount of product formed by an enzyme in a given amount of time under given conditions per milligram of enzyme. Specific activity is equal to the rate of reaction multiplied by the volume of reaction divided by the mass of enzyme. The SI unit is katal kg-1, but a more practical unit is μmol mg-1 min-1. Specific activity is a measure of enzyme processivity, usually constant for a pure enzyme.

LOGIC abd Critical Thinking

2010-04-29T05:38:00.000-07:00

Proposition - an expression in language or signs of something that can be believed, doubted, or denied or is either true or false
~a proposition is identified ontologically as an idea, concept, or abstraction whose token instances are patterns of symbols, marks, sounds, or strings of words.

Inference - the act of passing from one proposition, statement, or judgment considered as true to another whose truth is believed to follow from that of the former.
~is the process of drawing a conclusion by applying clues (of logic, statistics etc.) to observations or hypotheses; or by interpolating the next logical step in an intuited pattern. The conclusion drawn is also called an inference.

Premise - In logic, an argument is a set of one or more declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the premises along with another declarative sentence (or "proposition") known as the conclusion.

Antecedent is the first half of a hypothetical proposition.
Ex.

• If P, then Q.

This is a nonlogical formulation of a hypothetical proposition. In this case, the antecedent is P, and the consequent is Q.

• If X is a man, then X is mortal.
"X is a man" is the antecedent for this proposition.

• If men have walked on the moon, then I am the king of France.
Here, "men have walked on the moon" is the antecedent.

Consequent is the second half of a hypothetical proposition. In the standard form of such a proposition, it is the part that follows "then".

Ex.
• If P, then Q.
Q is the consequent of this hypothetical proposition.
• If X is a mammal, then X is an animal.

Here, "X is an animal" is the consequent.

• If computers can think, then they are alive.
"They are alive" is the consequent.

The consequent in a hypothetical proposition is not necessarily a consequence of the antecedent.

• If monkeys are purple, then fish speak Klingon.

"Fish speak Klingon" is the consequent here, but clearly is not a consequence of (nor has anything to do with) the claim made in the antecedent that "monkeys are purple".

Inductive reasoning, also known as induction or inductive logic, is a type of reasoning that involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion. It uses premises from objects that have been examined to establish a conclusion about an object that has not been examined. It can also be seen as a form of theory-building, in which specific facts are used to create a theory that explains relationships between the facts and allows prediction of future knowledge. The premises of an inductive logical argument indicate some degree of support (inductive probability) for the conclusion but do not entail it; i.e. they do not ensure its truth. Induction is used to ascribe properties or relations to types based on an observation instance (i.e., on a number of observations or experiences); or to formulate laws based on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. Induction is employed, for example, in using specific propositions such as:

This ice is cold. (Or: All ice I have ever touched has been cold.)
This billiard ball moves when struck with a cue. (Or: Of one hundred billiard balls struck with a cue, all of them moved.)
...to infer general propositions such as:
All ice is cold.
All billiard balls move when struck with a cue.
Another example would be:

3+5=8 and eight is an even number. Therefore, an odd number added to another odd number will result in an even number.

Deductive Inferences
When an argument claims that the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion, it is said to involve a deductive inference. Deductive reasoning holds to a very high standard of correctness. A deductive inference succeeds only if its premises provide such absolute and complete support for its conclusion that it would be utterly inconsistent to suppose that the premises are true but the conclusion false.

Notice that each argument either meets this standard or else it does not; there is no middle ground. Some deductive arguments are perfect, and if their premises are in fact true, then it follows that their conclusions must also be true, no matter what else may happen to be the case. All other deductive arguments are no good at all—their conclusions may be false even if their premises are true, and no amount of additional information can help them in the least.
This is an example of a valid argument. The first premise is false, yet the conclusion is still true.
1. Everyone who eats steak is a quarterback.
2. John eats steak.
3. [Therefore,] John is a quarterback.

Inductive Inferences
When an argument claims merely that the truth of its premises make it likely or probable that its conclusion is also true, it is said to involve an inductive inference. The standard of correctness for inductive reasoning is much more flexible than that for deduction. An inductive argument succeeds whenever its premises provide some legitimate evidence or support for the truth of its conclusion. Although it is therefore reasonable to accept the truth of that conclusion on these grounds, it would not be completely inconsistent to withhold judgment or even to deny it outright.
Inductive arguments, then, may meet their standard to a greater or to a lesser degree, depending upon the amount of support they supply. No inductive argument is either absolutely perfect or entirely useless, although one may be said to be relatively better or worse than another in the sense that it recommends its conclusion with a higher or lower degree of probability. In such cases, relevant additional information often affects the reliability of an inductive argument by providing other evidence that changes our estimation of the likelihood of the conclusion.
It should be possible to differentiate arguments of these two sorts with some accuracy already. Remember that deductive arguments claim to guarantee their conclusions, while inductive arguments merely recommend theirs. Or ask yourself whether the introduction of any additional information—short of changing or denying any of the premises—could make the conclusion seem more or less likely; if so, the pattern of reasoning is inductive.
An inductive inference apparatus comprises an input section for inputting a proposition, conditions for the proposition, and the tendency of each condition, a storage section for storing the proposition, and necessary and sufficient conditions of the proposition, a condition detecting section for forming the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth or falsity of the proposition in accordance with the input proposition, the input conditions, and the input tendency of each condition, a judging section for, with respect to an example in which the truth or falsity of the proposition is unknown, judging the truth or falsity of the proposition using already stored necesary and sufficient conditions, and a control section for, when the truth or falsity of the proposition in a new example input to the input section is known, supplying the conditions of the proposition and the tendency of each condition to the condition detecting section to store the necessary and sufficient conditions formed by the condition detecting section in the storage section, and for, when the truth or falsity of the proposition in the example is unknown, supplying the conditions of the proposition to the judging section.

Truth and Validity
Since deductive reasoning requires such a strong relationship between premises and conclusion, we will spend the majority of this survey studying various patterns of deductive inference. It is therefore worthwhile to consider the standard of correctness for deductive arguments in some detail.
A deductive argument is said to be valid when the inference from premises to conclusion is perfect. Here are two equivalent ways of stating that standard:

• If the premises of a valid argument are true, then its conclusion must also be true.
• It is impossible for the conclusion of a valid argument to be false while its premises are true.

(Considering the premises as a set of propositions, we will say that the premises are true only on those occasions when each and every one of those propositions is true.) Any deductive argument that is not valid is invalid: it is possible for its conclusion to be false while its premises are true, so even if the premises are true, the conclusion may turn out to be either true or false.
Notice that the validity of the inference of a deductive argument is independent of the truth of its premises; both conditions must be met in order to be sure of the truth of the conclusion. Of the eight distinct possible combinations of truth and validity, only one is ruled out completely:

Tagalog Physics Jinggles

2010-04-29T05:33:00.000-07:00

The 12 days of Physics

On the first day of physics
my teacher gave to me
A formula for relativity
(second day) two carts colliding
(third day) three vectors adding
(fourth day) four questions puzzling
(fifth day) five ticker-tapes
(sixth day) six curves a-graphing
(seventh day) seven labs disgusting
(eight day) eight worksheets solving
(ninth day) nine bricks-a-falling
(tenth day) ten books-a-stacking
(eleventh day) eleven tests a-writing
(twelfth day) twelve pendulums swinging

Lab Reports (sung to Jingle Bells)

Dashing through the lab
Streaming ticker tape
Taking all those tests
And laughing all the way
Bells for fire bells ring
Making spirits bright
What fun it is to laugh and sing
A physics song tonight.
Oh lab reports, lab reports
Graphing all the way
Oh what fun it is to study
For a physics test today HEY
Physics test, physics test
Isn’t it a blast!
Oh what fun it is to take
A physics test and pass!

Oh come Albert Einstein

Oh come Albert Einstein
And Sir Isaac Newton
Oh come yea, oh come yea
To our physics class.
Come and help clarify
Help us with your theories
And then we will rejoice here
And then we will rejoice here
And then we will rejoice here
In our physics class

CHALLENGES
Suggested tune: Pagsubok by Orient Pearl

I. Isip mo'y litong-lito
Sa mga equation sa Physics
Kaya naman nahihilo
Dahil sa hirap ng equations
Ang Physics ay sadyang ganyan
Equation ay di maiwasan
Itanim mo lang sa iyong utak
Kaya mo yan....

* Mga equations at questions
Gumugulo sa isipan
Mga pagsubok lamang yan
Huwag mong itigil ang pagsolve
Huwag kang sumuko at pag-aralan....

II. Huwag mong isiping ikaw lamang
Ang nahihirapan sa lessons
Ika'y hindi pababayaan ng ating guro sa Physics
Hindi lang ikaw ang nagdurusa at 'di lang ikaw ang naghihrap
Pasakit mo'y may katapusan kaya mo 'yan...

Repeat *

kami na po Muna!

example of elementary examination

Humanities

Different kind of Microscope

NEUST March

NEUST Mission and Vission

Paintings

Physics

Vitamins and Minerals

Lesson Planning in Teaching

Use of Motivation

Pharmacology

1. Right Patient 2. Right Medication 3. Right Dosage 4. Right Route 5. Right Time 6. Right Documentation 7. Right Client Education 8. Right to Refuse 9. Right Assessment 10. Right Evaluation

Routes of drug administration

Parenteral route

Oral route

Pulmonary route

Nasal route

Cutaneous or transdermal route

Other routes: ocular, ear and vaginal

1. Right Patient 2. Right Medication 3. Right Dosage 4. Right Route 5. Right Time 6. Right Documentation 7. Right Client Education 8. Right to Refuse 9. Right Assessment 10. Right Evaluation

Routes of drug administration

Parenteral route

Oral route

Pulmonary route

Nasal route

Cutaneous or transdermal route

Other routes: ocular, ear and vaginal

Halimbawa ng Isang Tagalog Tisis

Tula (Sa Paghihintay ng Kamatayan)

Tula (Ang Bagong Bayani)

ISANG TULA PARA SA MASA

Paggawa ng Tisis sa Filipino

TULA TUNGKOL SA ABORSIYON

SILANG MGA WALANG DIYOS Anonymous

Tamang Solusyon sa Hindi inaasahang Pagbubuntis (MUST READ!)

Anatomy of the Ear

The Ear (Hearing and Balance)

Enzymes

LOGIC abd Critical Thinking

Tagalog Physics Jinggles

1. Right Patient
2. Right Medication
3. Right Dosage
4. Right Route
5. Right Time
6. Right Documentation
7. Right Client Education
8. Right to Refuse
9. Right Assessment
10. Right Evaluation

1. Right Patient
2. Right Medication
3. Right Dosage
4. Right Route
5. Right Time
6. Right Documentation
7. Right Client Education
8. Right to Refuse
9. Right Assessment
10. Right Evaluation

SILANG MGA WALANG DIYOS
Anonymous