karuvelampatty

THE TEMPLE CITY –MADURAI By MADURAI SUKI

2013-07-10T10:30:00.000-07:00

THE TEMPLE CITY –MADURAI-

MADURAI SUKI

Madurai is an animated city packed with pilgrims, beggars, businesspeople, bullock carts and legions of underemployed rickshaw- wallahs. It is one of southern India’s oldest cities, and has been a centre of learning and pilgrimage for centuries. Madurai’s main attraction is the famous Sri Meenakshi Temple in the heart of the old town, a riotously baroque example of Dravidian architecture with gopurams covered from top to bottom in a breathless profusion of multicoloured images of gods, goddesses, animals and mythical figures. The temple seethes with activity from dawn till dusk, its many shrines attracting pilgrims from every part of India and tourists from all over the world. It’s been estimated that there are 10,000 visitors here on and one day!
Madurai resembles a huge, continuous bazaar crammed with shops, street markets, temples, pilgrims, choultries, hotels, restaurants and small industries. Although one of the liveliest cities in the south, it’s small enough not to be overwhelming and is very popular with travelers.

HISTORY
Madurai’s history can be divided into roughly four periods, beginning over 2000 years ago when it was the capital of the Pandyan kings. Then, in the 4^th century BC, the city was known to the Greeks via Magasthenes, their ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. In the 10^th century AD, Madurai was taken by the Chola emperors. It remained in their hands until the Pandyas briefly regained their independence in the 12^th century, only to lose it again in the 14^th century to Muslim invaders under Malik Kafur, a general in the service of the Delhi Sultanate. Here, Malik Kafure established his own dynasty, which, in turn, was overthrown by the Hindu Vijayanagar kings of Hampi. After the fall of Vijayanagar in 1565, the Nayaks ruled Madurai until 1781 AD. During the reign of Tirumalai Nayak (1623-55), the bulk of the Meenakshi Temple was built, and Madurai became the cultural center of the Tamil people, playing an important role in the development of the Tamil language.
Madurai then passed into the hands of the British East India Company, which took over the revenues of the area after the wars of the Carnatic in 1781. In 1840, the company razed the fort, which had previously surrounded the city, and filled in the moat. Four broad streets- the Veli streets –were constructed on top of this fill and define the limits of the old city to this day.

Sri MEENAKSHI TEMPLE
Every day, the Meenakshi Temple attracts pilgrims in their thousands from all over India. Its enormous gopurams, covered with gaily-coloured statues, dominate the landscape and are visible from many of the rooftops in Madurai. The temple is named after the daughter of a Pandyan king who, according to legend, was born with three breasts. At the time of her birth, the king was told that the extra breast would disappear when she met the man she was to marry, and this duly happened when she met Siva on Mt Kailasa. Siva told her to return to Madurai and, eight days later, arrived there himself in the form of Lord Sundareshwara to marry her.
          Designed in 1560 by Vishwanatha Nayak, the present temple was substantially built during the reign of Tirumalai Nayak (1623-55 AD), but its history goes back 2000 years to the time when Madurai was the capital of the Pandya kings. These are four entrances to the temple, which occupies six hectares. It has 12 towers, ranging in height from 45 to towers, the tallest of which is the 50-metre-high southern tower. The hall of 1000 columns actually has 985.
     Depending on the time of day, you can bargain for bangles, spices or saris in the bazaar between the outer and inner eastern walls of the temple, watch pilgrims bathing in the tanks, listen to temple music in front of the Meenakshi Amman Shrine (the music is relayed through the whole complex on a PA system), or wander through the interesting though decidedly dilapidated museum.
   This museum, known as the Temple Art Museum, is housed in the 1000-pillared hall and contains some beautiful stone and brass images, examples of ancient south Indian scripts, friezes and various attempts to explain the Hindu pantheon and the many legends associated with it, as well as one of the best exhibits on Hindu deities anywhere. Unfortunately, many of the rebels are missing.
   On most evening at 9 pm, temple music –mantras, fiddle, squeeze box, tabla and bells – is played outside the Meenakshi Amman Shrine.

TIRUMALAI NAYAK PALACE
About 1.5km from the Meenakshi Temple, this Indo –Saracenic palace was built in 1636 by the ruler whose name it bears. Much of it has fallen into ruin, and the pleasure gardens and surrounding defensive wall have disappeared. Today, only the entrance gate, main hall and dance hall remain. The palace was partially restored by Lord Napier, the governor of Madras, in 1866-72, and further restoration was carried out several years ago.
There is a sound & light show (son et lumiere) in English, daily at 6:45 pm, telling Madurai’s history using sound and coloured lights and lighting is quite sophisticated.
You can get to the palace on a No 11,11A or 17 bus from the state bus stand, or take the 20 –minute walk from the Meenakshi Temple through an interesting bazaar area.

GANDHI MUSEUM
Housed in the old palace of the Rani Mangammal, this oddly moving museum provides some little-known facts about the Mahatma, although the only real piece of Gandhi memorabilia is the blood-stained dhoti from the assassination, displayed behind a bulletproof screen. The museum also has an excellent History of India display with some fine old photographs.
The local government museum is in the same grounds, as is a small bookshops stocked with plenty of Gandhi reading matter.

MARIAMMAN TEPPAKKULAM TANK
This tank, five km east of the old city, covers and area almost equal to that of the Meenakshi Temple and is the site of the popular Tppam Festival. For most of the year, however, it is empty save for local kids playing cricket in it. The tank was built by Tirumalai Nayak in 1646 and is connected to the Vaigai River by underground channels. The No 4 bus from the state bus stand stops at the tank.

OTHER ATTRACTIONS
A couple of temples outside Madurai may also be worth a visit. The Tiruparankundram rock- cut temple, eight km south of town, is one of the abodes of Sundareshwara and can be reached by bus Nos4A, 5 and 32

Alagarkoil Temple, 21 km north of Madurai, is a hilltop Vaishnavaite temple. During the festival of Chithirai, a gold icon is carried in procession from this temple to Madurai.

TOURIST IMPORTANCE OF ALAGARMALAI

This is one of the ancient temples of South India and has figured in Parilpadal, which is generally accepted to be written about 2000 years ago Once upon a time Yama, the Lord of Death, while going on pilgrimage to all the sacred places on earth, was attracted by the beautiful panoramic view of this place and immediately sat down for meditation.. Sri Narayana was pleased with the prayers of Yama and appeared before him and blessed him with salvation. Yama was not pleased with his getting moksham alone; he wanted that place also to prosper. Hence he requested Narayana to stay there and -to bless the people, to which Narayana agreed. By that time Yama noticed that a halo of the moor was spreading around the place and he ordered Viswakarma, the divine (architect) to construct a Vimanam at that spot in the shape of a moon Viswakarma executed it in no time. The Viswakarma built this beautiful temple with the three tiers “Somachandira Vimanam” which stands for its architectural features. Narayana stayed in that Vimanam, with Sri Devi and Bhoo Devi to bless humanity.. The Sthalapuranam states that King Malayadhwaja built this beautiful temple with lofty gopurams and spacious prakarams and Mantapam. The Alagar temple was renovated by Pandiya Kings during 1200 A.D followed by Naicker rulers . All the twelve Alwars, the Vaishnavite Saints, visited this place have sung in praise of Azhagar and the beautiful hills. All these verses numbering 123 may be seen in the Nalayira Divya Prabandam (4000 holy verses), which is claimed to be the Tamil Veda of the Vaishnavites. The place is also known as South Tirupati.

The Pandya kings and later the Naick kings of Madurai were ardent devotees of Azhagar and spent huge amounts for proper maintenance of the temple and for constructing many gopurams and mandaparms and conducting many festivals. The temple suffered a lot in the middle the 18th century when it was looted and partly demolished by Hyder Ali. It used to be a very sacred place and pilgrim centre in ancient days. It is stated in the Mahabharata that Yudhishthira visited this temple and bathed in the Noopuragangai the holy Teertham, here. Arjuna also is stated to have bathed in this Teertham. There are many shrines at the top of the hill dedicated to Vinayaka, Subrahmanya, Bhairava and Lord Siva and so this mountain is visit by devotees both Vaishnavite and Saivite. This is said to be one of the six places held most dear by Subrahmanya.

Azhagar or Sundararaja is the processional deity and the Moolasthanam is known as
Paramaswami. The paramasmy image is a very beautiful one with Sri Devi and Bhoo Devi on either side. Special mention has to be made about the Chakra in one of the hands of Paramaswami, which is in the Prayoga stage (being released). The image of Azhagar, the processional deity, is made of a special and very cost variety of gold known as Aparanji. It is said that there is a similar image in Aparanji gold in the temple at Trivandrum.

In a corner of the prakaram, Vinayaka under the name Valampiri Vinayaka has been enshrined.The peculiar feature of this Vinayaka that the trunk has been turned towards the right side instead of the left as found in other temples. Vibhooti prasadam is given to that entire worship Valampiri Vinayaka. There is another small shrine dedicate to Bhairava also known as Kshetra Palaka. With trident in his hand he is depicted with long nails and fearful teeth riding on his vehicle, the dog. Shrines dedicated to Bhairava can be seen in almost all Siva temples and he (Bhairava) is said to have been formed out of the blood of Siva. There is a legend stating that Bhairava is none else than Siva in his Ghora Swarupam, i.e., in rage, and it is interesting to see that a shrine is dedicated to Bhairava (one of the other forms of Siva) in this great Vaishnavite temple.

The temple is said to be guarded perpetually by a local Tamil deity known as Karuppanna -swami, and he has no image and two massive wooden doors of entrance to the gopuram at the 18th step are dedicated to him. The doors are worshipped with all veneration. This is the main entrance of temple but will be seen closed always. The entrance is kept open only once a year at the time of Brahma Utsava. It is believed that a man who utters a falsehood here and passes through the gate of eighteen steps will come to a miserable end. The parties agreeing to follow the affirmation made in this manner have settled many a civil suit. A fee of Rs. 5.50 is charged by the temple to record such affirmation made before this deity.The water that is used for conducting abhishekam to Azhagar should be brought first to this doorway and the priest should swear that it is water brought from Noopura Ganga. When Azhagar makes his annual trip to Madurai to attend his sister Meenakshi's marriage, a list showing the ornaments with which Azhagar is adorned and goes out of the temple is read out before Karuppannaswami. When Azhagar returns to the temple, a similar check is conducted. The keys of the treasury of the temple will be entrusted to Karuppanna - swami every day in the night.

There is a story connected with this doorway. Once a king in Malabar wanted to take the idol of Azhagar to his place for worship. He sent 18 people to Azhagarmalai to bring the idol. These people were well - versed in Mantras and other religious rites and made an attempt to remove the idol. But the temple priests who killed them and buried them under this entrance foiled their attempt. Then the god who had come there accompanying them surrendered before the priests and promised to guard the entrance from that day. This god is known as the "God of the gate of eighteen steps". There are many Mantapams and gopurams with images and sculptures of exquisite beauty and grace. The walls of the Vasanta Mandapam inside the temple are blazoned with fine frescoes illustrative of the story of the Ramayana. It has a Holy water point “Noopura Gangai” a four Km walkup the Alagar Hills, believed that drops of Sacred water fell at this place when Brahma was washing Lord Vishnu’s feet after his Trivikrama Avatar and that those drops spread as river Noopura Ganga. The Alagar kovil is also having temple dedicated for “Goddess Rakkayi” at the top of the hill near the spring, who is supposed to be in charge of all the shrines and Teerthams in this mountain. She is said to be the daughter of Angirasa Muni. New-moon days are very auspicious to worship this deity, and thousands of people offer worship to her on these days The Alagar hills have a tropical forest cover which extends from Alagar kovil in the south to Natham in the north. The Tamilnadu forest department has been maintaining a ‘herbal garden’ in the hills. The Garden is irrigated by a natural spring locally known as the Devi theertham. Ismail et.al.(2007) proves by his study that the leaves and seeds of C.bonduc available at Alagar koil hills can be used for the purpose of mosquito control operation which will be economic, non pollutant and eco-friendly.

HISTORY OF ALAGARKOVIL IN TAMIL LITERATURE

Tamil,Telugu,pirami and other ancient inscriptions are found in this temple. The archaeological studies about the Epigraphy found in this area proves that the temple is in existence from B.C.2-3 century (Muthu Pichai 2005).The hill was once a safe refuge for the jain monks in 1 B.C,the presence of pirami script carved on stones proved the presence of jains in this area (Muthukonar.s 1973). Nakkirar, the Tamil poet has composed several popular poems about this diety.As the place itself suggests, the temple is dedicated to alagar who is popularly known as Sundrarajar.It is said that it attracted the pilgrims even in the early days of the Sangam age.(Mohan.R 2004). This is one of the ancient temples of South India and has figured in Parilpadal, which is generally accepted to be written about 2000 years ago(Balasubramanian.P.et al 2004).The Famous Silapadikaram too, that belongs to the 3^rd Century ,points out to this temple as a Vishnu temple.

FESTIVELS OF ALGARKOIL AND COMMUNAL HARMONY

Many festivals takes place in this temple which promotes the communal harmony of the people in and around Madurai. Many festivals is being celebrated during most of the Tamil months. In the month of Chitirai – Chithra festival, Vaikasi – Vasantham festival, Aadi – Car festival, Purattasi – Navaraathiri festival, Iyppasi – Diwali, Kaarthigai – Light festival, Maasi – Gajendra moksham, Panguni – Divine wedding ceremony. Among this Chithra festival and Car festival are important festivals. Chithra festival is lasts for nine days, on the fourth day Alagar is taken to Madurai in human form where he attend his sister Sri Meenakshi Ammans marriage. This is a very joyous occasion for the people at Alagar Malai and Madurai. Lakhs of people come from surrounding Towns and Villages to see the festival. On the ninth day, Alagar returns to his shrine. During this festival Sowndararaja Perumal is renamed as Kallalagar.

During the Aadi festival the near by villagers enjoy the privilege of dragging the temple car on the ninth day ( pournami ) of the ten days program. The car has four ropes, the Villiyankundram Jamin is given respect for pulling the first rope. The second rope is pulled by the west street villages of Narasiingampatti, Vellarippatti, Ramanathapuram. The third rope is pulled by the north street villages of Velkelapatti, Arittapatti, Kallanthiri, Kallampatti, Maankulam, Kidaripatti, Goundankulam. The fourth rope is pulled by the villages of Therkutheru. Before starting the car festival the villagers sit together and settle disputes if any among them every year.

After the car pulling is completed all these villagers are respected by the temple by giving 7 Dosai, 120 Padi Rice, 20 Padi Cooked food and Rs 10000.00 each. Still now these practice is in existence. Also during chithra festival Villiyankundram Jamin is given the first respect for their earnest efforts to protect the belongings of the temple and the people living around. Even now they follow the procession of the presiding deity as guards of the temple jewels.

Traditionally, certain families perform certain works during the chithra festival. The Samanatham kaikkol mudaliyar are responsible for taking the Urchavar ( seer paadam thaangikal ), Jothiyapatti moopar are responsible for Hundials, Sivagangai Aani Kathan family is responsible for lamps (theevatti ), Veeramuthali family is responsible for carrying Umbrellas to the Alagar. Thus, people belonging to various community get together and celebrates the temple festivals.

These festivals promotes the communal harmony of the people and thousands of villagers lives in unity. As many festivals takes place throughout the year and many people assembles throughout the year, this Alagarkoil is spot as a tourist place also this is situated near hills, the climate is so cool that attracts many people to visit this place. At the top of the hill there is Noopuragangai, holy waterfalls ( theertha thotti ). Pazhamuthr cholai, a famous Murugan temple, one of the temples of Arupadaiveedu is situated on the top of hill also attracts many people.

FESTIVALS
Madurai celebrates 11 big annual temple festivals with only the monsoon month, called Ani in Tamil, devoid of festivities. Check with the tourist office for festival dates.
The principal event is Chithirai (late April/early May), which celebrates the marriage of Sri Meenakshi to Sundareshwara (Siva) on the festival’s 10^th day. The next morning, the deities are wheeled around the Masi streets on huge chariots followed by thousands of devotees.
Another festival which attracts pilgrims from all over India is the 12-day Teppam (Float) Festival held in January or early Meenakshi and Sundareshwara are mounted on floats and taken to the Mariamman Teppakkulam Tank. For several days, they are pulled back and forth across the water to the island temple in the tank’s center, before being taken back to Madurai.

PLACES TO STAY
TAJ GARDEN RETREAT, (Government Approved) Heritage
HOTEL MADURAI ASHOK, (Government Approved )3 Star
HOTEL INTERNATIONAL
HOTEL SUPREME

THINGS TO BUY
Madurai has long been a textile centre and the streets around the temple still teem with cloth stalls and tailors’ shops. A great place to buy locally manufactured cottons as well as the batiks loved by many travellers is Puthu Mandapam, an old, stone-pillared hall just along from the eastern entrance to Sri Meenakshi Temple. Here you’ll find lines of textile stalls opposite rows of tailors, each busily treading away and capable of whipping up a good replica of whatever you’re wearing in an hour or two. If you’re buying cloth to get garments made up, it’s wise to know how much material you’ll need as some merchants will talk you into buying way too much only to strike a deal with the tailor who makes your clothes to keep the leftovers. The owner of the Krishnamoorthy Cloth Store (stall No 108) is reliable and gives fair prices for material. In addition, he the many street touts who’ll offer to take you to their ‘brother’s shop’ at Puthu Mandapam

to visit madurai contact maduraisuki@gmail.com 9442882923

Mhttp://karuvelamptty.blogspot.com/GNREGA Marching towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals-an Analysis.S.KRISHNAN*

2013-03-16T04:39:00.000-07:00

MGNREGA Marching towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals-an Analysis.

S.KRISHNAN, RESEARCH SCHOLAR,GRI.6243032.

Absract

The Government of India enacted the National Rural Employment Act in the year 2005,to provide 100 days of emplyment to a registered,demanded household in a year, it came in to forceon february 2,2006 in 200 backward districts and implmented in a phased manner in all Districts.The main and foremost objective of the scheme is to eradicate poverty by providing productive guaranted wage employment and strengthening natural resource manegement.This objectives addresses the first,third and seventh MDGs ,this paper attempts to assess the achivements of the MGNREGA in addressing the MDGs.

Key words: MDGs,MGNREGA, Environmental Sustainabiliy, Gender Equality,Eradication of poverty.

Introduction

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and targets come from the Millennium

Declaration, signed by 189 countries, including 147 heads of State and Government, in September 2000.The eight (8) Goals are : 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education,3:Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women , 4: Reduce Child Mortality, 5: Improve Maternal Health 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and TB, 7:Ensure Environmental Sustainabiliy,8:Develop Global Partnership for Development. Even after the dramatic Economic growth and a food surplus, the country is still suffering from alarming hunger and is 78 out of 81 in a developing countries study (IFPRI,2011).Urgent attention is needed by parlimentarians to drive through reforms which improve and save the lives of millions of people. To reduce poverty and end extreme poverty the symptoms of poverty must be considered and understand and stakeholders must be involved in the dicision making process so that the solutions are practical and can be implemented.The majority of the Indian population are dependent on agriculture and therfore special attention has been placed on increasing the amount of money invested in the sector. However, for poverty eradication to accelerate, a combination of measures including providing employment and giving equal opportunities in employment, wages and decision making, which all need to be improved urgently so that the vicious circle of poverty is broken.To achive this The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was enacted on 5^th September, 2005 and came into force w.e.f. 2nd February, 2006. On 31^st December, 2009, the Act was renamed by an Amendment as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005. The scheme provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage. Thus the Act aims at enhancing the livelihood security of people in rural areas. Thus besides providing employment MGNREGA regenerates the rural sector improving infrastructure and enhancing agricultural productivity.

Poverty Scenario in India:

Poverty in India is widespread, with the nation estimated to have a third of the world's poor. In 2010, World Bank stated, 32.7% of the total Indian people fall below the international poverty line of US$ 1.25 per day (PPP) while 68.7% live on less than US$ 2 per day. According to a new poverty Development Goals Report, as many as 320 million people in India and China are expected to come out of extreme poverty in the next four years, while India's poverty rate is projected to drop to 22% in 2015. The report also indicates that in Southern Asia, however, only India, where the poverty rate is projected to fall from 51% in 1990 to about 22% in 2015, is on track to cut poverty in half by the 2015 target date.
The Arjun Sengupta Report (from National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector), based on data between the period 1993-94 and 2004–05, states that 77% of Indians live on less than 20 a day (about $0.50 per day). The N.C. Saxena Committee report states, on account of calorific intake apart from nominal income, that 50% of Indians live below the poverty line.
A study by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative using a Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI) found that there were 650 million people (53.7% of population) living in poverty in India, of which 340 million people (28.6% of the population) were living in severe poverty, and that a further 198 million people (16.4% of the population) were vulnerable to poverty. 421 million of the poor are concentrated in eight North Indian and East Indian states of Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. This number is higher than the 410 million poor living in the 26 poorest African nations. Estimates by NCAER (National Council of Applied Economic Research) show that 48% of the Indian households earn more than 90,000 (US$1,638) annually (or more than US$ 3 PPP per person). According to NCAER, in 2009, of the 222 million households in India, the absolutely poor households (annual incomes below 45,000) accounted for only 15.6% of them or about 35 million (about 200 million Indians). Another 80 million households are in income levels of 45,000– 90,000 per year. These numbers also are more or less in line with the latest World Bank estimates of the “below-the-poverty-line” households that may total about 100 million (or about 456 million individuals) In its Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997–2002), BPL for rural areas was set at annual family income less than Rs. 20,000, less than two hectares land, and no television or refrigerator. The number of rural BPL families was 650,000 (6.5 lakh) during the 9th Plan. The survey based on this criterion was again carried out in 2002 and the total number of 3,87,000 (3.87 lakh) families were identified. This figure was in force until September 2006. The poverty line was originally fixed in terms of income/food requirements in 1978. It was stipulated that the calorie standard for a typical individual in rural areas was 2400 calorie and was 2100 calorie in urban areas. Then the cost of the grains (about 650 gms) that fulfil this normative standard was calculated. This cost was the poverty line. In 1978, it was Rs. 61.80 per person per month for rural areas and Rs. 71.30 for urban areas. Since then the Planning Commission calculates the poverty line every year adjusting for inflation. The poverty line in recent years is as follows - (Rs.per month per head) 328 rural and 454 urban in 2000-2001 and 368 rural and 560 urban in 2005-06.

MGNREGA OF INDIA

The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA has become a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in rural India through its impact on social protection, livelihood security and democratic governance.

The Act came into force on February 2, 2006 and was implemented in a phased manner. In Phase

I it was introduced in 200 of the most backward districts of the country. It was implemented in an additional 130 districts in Phase II 2007-2008. The Act was notified in the remaining rural districts of India from April 1, 2008 in Phase III. (All rural districts were covered under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA) Mahatma Gandhi NREGA is the first ever law internationally that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment. Its auxiliary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion and so encourage sustainable development. The process outcomes include strengthening grassroot processes of democracy and infusing transparency and accountability in governance.

Salient Features of the Act.

(a) Adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work,may apply for

registration either in writing, or orally to the local Gram Panchayat (GP) (b) The unit for registration is a household, each household is entitled to a 100 days of employment every year. (c) After due verification of place of residence and age of the member/s (only adult members are eligible for employment), the registered household is issued a Job Card (JC) within 15 days of registration. Job Card forms the basis of identification for demanding employment. (d) A written application seeking work is to be made to the GP or Block Office, stating the time and duration for which work is sought. (e) The GP will issue a dated receipt of the written application for employment, against which the guarantee of providing employment within 15 days operates, in case employment is not provided within 15 days, the state (as per the Act) will pay an unemployment allowance to the beneficiary. (f) Work is provided within 5 kilometres (kms) radius of the village, in case, work is provided beyond 5 kms, extra wages of 10 per cent are payable to meet additional transportation and living expenses. (g) Priority is awarded to women, such that at least one-third of the beneficiaries under the Scheme are women. (h) At least 50 per cent of works, in terms of cost, are to be executed by the GPs. (i) The cost of material component of projects including the wages of the skilled and semi-skilled workers taken up under the Scheme shall not exceed 40 percent of the total project costs. (j) Contractors and use of labour displacing machinery are prohibited. (k) Work site facilities such as crèche, drinking water, shade have to be provided. (l) Wages are to be paid as per the State-wise Government of India (GoI) notified MGNREGA wages, Wages are also to be paid according to piece rate, as per the Schedule of Rates (SoRs), payment of wages has to be done on a weekly basis and not beyond a fortnight in any case, payment of wages is mandatorily done through bank/post office beneficiary accounts. (m) Water Conservation and water harvesting including contour trenches, contour bundst, Drought Proofing including plantation and afforestation,Irrigation canals including micro and minor irrigation works, Renovation of traditional water bodies including desilting of tanks, Land Development, Flood control and protection works including drainage in water logged areas construction of storm water drains for coastal protection works were given importance while selecting the works.

Review of releated Literature

Nair K.N et.al(2009) observes that wage rate for women workers in agricultural works has shot up from Rs. 80 to Rs. 110 for a full day’s work. Even though many new workers are coming into the rural labour market as a result of the NREGA, many of them are young workers, who are not willing to work in the agricultural sector.The unwillingness of workers to come for agricultural works is mainly due to low wages with more efforts in agricultural works. Rebecca Holmes( 2010)et .al Survey finds that MGNREGA has improved economic status and decision-making power slightly for some women in some households, mostly in terms of their own decision making on what food items they prefer to be bought for household consumption. Rakesh Tiwari et,al,.(2011) records that desilting has provided several sustained environmental services, including a rise in the groundwater level,an increase in irrigated area and better soil fertility, thereby increasing food production, and contributing to water and food security in the villages of drought-prone Chitradurga district In Chitradurga, about 62% of the total cultivable land is dryland. Only about 9% of cropland (63,631 ha) is irrigated. Further, 79% of the irrigated land is dependent on tube wells, 9% each on tanks and canals and 3% on open wells. Among the 20 sample villages, this activity was studied , the study revealed that the construction of percolation tanks and check dams under the NREGA in Chitradurga district enhanced environmental services through recharging shallow aquifers, increasing the water available for agriculture, and locally reducing soil erosion by trapping soil in check dams. The direct and major benefits of these structures will be arresting run-off rates and improving percolation. The percolation potential of the villages studied improved by 1,000-28,000 cubic meters a year. A.P. Palanichamy (2011) done a case study on 100 respondents and the chi-square value is less than 0.05, and the researcher concluded that there is Relationship between annual income before joining MGNREGP and annul income after joining MGNREGP. Thus it may conclude that the total annual income progressively changes in the family because of MGNREGP. Hence there are significant changes in income before and after implementing MGNREGP .At the same time he further reports that there is a gap in getting job in MGNREGP and says that all the respondents (100) got employment only for 15 days. HARSIMRAN SINGH (2012) Reports that Women’s empowerment was not among the original intentions of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), and is not among its main objectives. However, provisions like priority for women in the ratio of one-third of total workers (Schedule II (6)); equal wages for men and women (Schedule II (34)); and crèches for the children of women workers (Schedule II (28)) were made in the Act, with the view of ensuring that rural women benefit from the scheme in a certain manner. Provisions like work within a radius of five kilometers from the house, absence of supervisor and contractor, and flexibility in terms of choosing period and months of employment were not made exclusively for women, but have been conducive for rural women. Nevertheless, women have availed of the paid employment opportunity under MGNREGA in large numbers.S.Krishnan et.al (2012) finds that 77 percent of the respondents spent more then 50 percent of their MGNREGA earned income for food consumption and also reported that they are in a position to fulfil their basic needs from this income. 80 percent of the respondents reports that they save lessthen 25 percent of their MGNREGA earnings due to their poor economic conditions, he further reports that the water conservation works undertaken under this scheme has directly provided employment and increased area of paddy cultivation from 54 hectares to 71 hectares and pave the way to improve the livilihood and food security of the villagers.

Methodology

The present study follows descriptive and diagnostic method which are sought to examine the current status, interior prospects and performance of MGNREGA scheme in achiving the MDGS. The study is mainly based on secondary data available in the Ministry of Rural Development and www.mgnrega.in.website, by using simple percentage , standard deviation and coefficiant variation .The objective of the study is (1) to analyze the quantum of productive employment generated and their by its contribution towards increasing the income and reducing the poverty in India. (ii) to assess the Gender equality both in wages as well as in provision of employment Women and gross root democracy in deciding the nature of works to be taken under MGNREGA (iii) to analyze the durable assets created for sustainable Environment of the village economy.

MGNREGA and Eradication of Poverty

The mandate of the act is providing one hundred days of guaranteed employment to each household, wage as per minimum wages Act 1976. The MGNREGA has provided employment to 29.95 crore households in the rural areas and generated 1348.15 crore mandays of employment from its inception. So for, 13.66 lakshs Households were provided 100 days of employment that helped these families to come out of poverty. The following table shows the achivements of MGNREGA from 2006-07 to 2012-13.

Performance of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in Providing Employment (2006-07 to 2012-13)

Item	Year 2006-07 (200 Dist.)	Year 2007-08 (330 Dist.)	Year 2008-09 (615 Dist.)	Year 2009-10 (619 Dist.)	Year 2010-11 (626 Dist.)	Year 2011-12 (626 Dist.)	Year 2012-13 (632 Dist.) UP to 31.12.12
Job card issued	3.78	6.48	10.01	11.25	11.98	12.39	12.54
Employment provided to households (in crore)	2.10	3.39	4.51	5.26	5.49	5.04	4.16
Persondays (in crore)
SC	22.95 (26%)	39.36 (27%)	63.36 (29%)	86.45 (30%)	78.76 (31%)	47.70 (22%)	31.42 (22%)
ST	32.98 (36%)	42.07 (29%)	55.02 (25%)	58.74 (21%)	53.62 (21%)	39.59 (18%)	22.14 (16%)
Others	34.56 [38%]	62.16 [43%]	97.95 [45%]	138.40 [49%]	124.78 [48%]	129.06 [60%]	87.10 [62%]
Total	90.5	143.59	216.32	283.59	257.15	216.34	140.66
Women	36.40 [40%]	61.15 [43%]	103.57 [48%]	136.40 [48%]	122.74 [48%]	103.81 [48%]	74.74 [53%]
Persondays per household	43	42	48	54	47	43	34

Source:www.nrega.nic.in

Gender Equality and Empowerment of women

Women Empowerment is not among the orginal intensions of the MGNREGA, and is not among its main objectives. However, provisions like priority for women in the ratio of one-third of total workers

(Schedule II (6)); equal wages for men and women (Schedule II (34)); and crèches for the children of women workers (Schedule II (28)) were made in the Act, with the view of ensuring that rural women benefit from the scheme in a certain manner. Provisions like work within a radius of five kilometers from the house, absence of supervisor and contractor, and flexibility in terms of choosing period and months of employment were not made exclusively for women, but have been conducive for rural women.From the beginning onwards the participation of women in the scheme is more than 30 percent, in 2006-07 it is 40% and raised to 43% in 2007-08, 48% continuously for another four years and 53% during 2012-13.This overwhelming participation of women happened only because of the equal wage. The wage rate notified per year is increased from Rs.47 ( 2006-07 in Maharashtra lowest) to Rs 100 (2011-12 in Maharashtra) and Rs.99 (in Haryana 2006-07 Highest) to Rs 173 (2011-12).This wage induced to raise in the prevailing agricultural wages in the villages and sometimes it has helped to break the monopololistic wage fixation to women in the villages.

Percentage of Participation in MGNREGA(2006-07 to 2012-13)

Year	Average Mandays provided per HH	Average wages paid per persondays	SC (% of mandays)	ST (% of mandays)	Others (% of mandays)	Total	Women (% of mandays)
2006-07	43	65	25	37	38	100	40
2007-08	42	75	28	29	43	100	43
2008-09	48	85	29	26	45	100	48
2009-10	54	90	30	21	49	100	48
2010-11	47	100	31	21	48	100	48
2011-12	43	115	22	18	60	100	48
2012-13	45*	130	22	16	62	100	54
Avrage	46	-----	27	24	49	------	47
Standard Diviation(S.D)**	3.85	-----	3.46	6.72	8.04	-----	4.10
Coefficient of Variation(C.V)	8.36	-----	12.81	28.0	16.0	-----	8.72

*Computed for 12 months, Source:www.nrega.nic.in ** Computed value by the Author.

The above table shows the coefficient variation on SC, ST and others are much higher, it is much lesser (8.72) on women than others elicit clearly that the scheme is more benefitable to women.

Green Jobs of MGNREGA

Greening rural development refers to a variety of activities that regenerate and conserve the natural resource base, innovate and use clean materials, technologies and processes to create environment-friendly products, livelihoods, enterprises and jobs. Soil is a primary resource for generation of most renewable natural raw materials for production systems. Natural resources such as farmlands, pastures, forests and water sources (surface and ground water) are subject to degradation and loss of productivity. Satellite data showed that in 2005-2006 about 15 percent (47.22 mha) of India’s land mass were wasted or under-productive lands.37 Such degradation is an important factor in the loss of livelihood assets and income poverty in rural India. The MGNREG Act therefore proposes large investments in works like soil and water conservation, land development and afforestation that address the causes of chronic rural poverty. It also lays stress on creating durable assets. These key elements of the Act -- productivity enhancement and sustainability of the rural natural resource base - strengthen its potential for green outcomes. In fact, since the initiation of MGNREGA more than 50 percent projects are related to water through implementation of water conservation works, flood control, irrigation, droughtproofing, renovation of traditional water bodies and micro-irrigation. A study of MGNREGA projects in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh reported that 62 percent of the sampled panchayats in Sirsa district (Haryana) and 75 percent panchayats in Sirmour district (H.P.) reported increase in crop productivities.There is also emerging evidence that some MGNREGA projects can have global green impacts. Activities like soil conservation, fodder development, afforestation and drought proofing works help sequester carbon. It has been estimated that tree planting activities over an area of 2,341 ha in Chitradurga district could lead to sequestration of 93 tons of carbon per ha over a 30-year period.48 There are also several innovative MNREGA projects going beyond the routine activities with significant green results in the country.

Total works taken up and completed under MGNREGA (2006-07 to 2011-12)

Sl.No	Type of works	No of Works completed(2006-07 to 2011-12) in Lakh	On going works	% of total works taken up from(06 -07 to 11-12)
1	Water Conservation and Water harvestig	19.5	36.4	25
2	Flood control and production	3.9	5.9	4
3	Drought proofing,Tree plantation,afforestation	5.2	13.0	9
4	Irrigation canals(macro and micro-irrigation)	5.7	9.5	6
5	Renovation of traditional water bodies(desilting of tanks etc.)	6.6	9.8	7
6	Works on lands of SC/ST/BPL/SMF/IAY Beneficiaries	13.0	19.9	14
7	Land Development(contour bunds,Field bunds)	13.9	18.8	13
	Total works on generate Green Jobs	67.8	113.3	79
8	Rural connectivity	16.0	28.3	19
9	Other works (Bharat Nirman kendras)	2.8	4.6	3
	Total	86.6	146.3	100

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

The MGNREGA is the world largest ecological security programme and ensurs the Millennium Development Goal of Environment sustainability.From the above table it becomes clear that the maximum number of works completed is the water conservation (19.5 Lakh) and works on lands Development(13.9 Lakh ).While analysing the on going works 36.4 lakh works on water harvesting, 19.9 lakh works on lands on SC/ST/BPL families. 79 percent of total taken up works were to create green jobs to the rural poor.

Conclusion

MGNREGA is India’s policy and programme commitment to achieve Millennium Development Goals and efforts are on towards total eradication of poverty by 2015.Even though there are some problems, MGNREGA is the most sucessful poverty eradication programme introduced in India.It provides the money in the hands of poor, particularly women directly without any middlemen, even their husbands were not have the rights to receive it.So the visible and invisible effects of MGNREGA on women are high,it facilitated an increase in the levels of savings of women.It alleviated their fear of hunger and poverty, the majority of women workers are now actively participating in the social activities.Their increased credit worthiness and social status facilitated a change in their attitudes towards life,work, frienship,economic independence and political leadership.The acute shortage of farm labourer can be solved by introduction of wage subsidy.

1) Rebecca Holmes, Nidhi Sadana and Saswatee Rath “Gendered risks, poverty and vulnerability in India ,Case study of the Indian Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (Madhya Pradesh) “ October 2010 ,Overseas Development Institute 111 Westminster Bridge Road London SE1 7JD UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7922 0300 Fax: +44 (0)20 7922 0399 www.odi.org.uk.

2) K.N. Nair T.P. Sreedharan M. Anoopkumar. “Thus NREGA has been able to bring some dormant labour force into the labour market:A STUDY OF NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE PROGRAMME IN THREE GRAMA PANCHAYATS OF KASARAGOD DISTRICT ” August 2009 Working Paper 413 (www.cds.edu).

3) A.P. Palanichamy, “A study on Mahatma Gandhi national rural employment guarantee program (MGNREGP) in Thuinjapuram block Thiruvannamalai district in Tamilnadu” International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 2011, 1(3):37-46 ISSN: 2231-6302: http://irjs.info/.

4) HARSIMRAN SINGH, “MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT (MGNREGA): ISSUES AND CHALLENGES” , INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN COMMERCE, ECONOMICS & MANAGEMENT www.ijrcm.org.in VOLUME NO. 2 (2012), ISSUE NO. 1 (JANUARY) pp136-140.

5) S.Krishnan and A.Balakrishnan , “Impact of watershed works of MGNREGA on Poverty Alleviation-A Micro Level Study” Indian Streams Research Journal vol2,issue 7, Aug 2012.

6) Bassi N., Kumar D. M., Niranjan V. & Sivamohan M. (2011): “Employment Guarantee and its Environmental Impact Are the Claims Valid?” EPW,v.66 n. 34.

7) Tiwari et al. (2011): “MGNREGA for Environmental Service Enhancement and Vulnerability Reduction: Rapid Appraisal in Chitradurga District,

Karnataka”, EPW, v.66 n. 20, pp 39-47.

8) Ravi Chopra et.al (2012) “Greening Rural Development in India” Volume-1 UNDP publications,India.

9) MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS INDIA COUNTRY REPORT 2011, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India www.mospi.nic.in.

10) MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005, Report to the People, 2nd February 2013. Ministry of Rural Development Department of Rural Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

11) www.nrega.nic.in

12) Mihir Shah -MGNREGA Sameeksha-2012, An Anthology of Research Studies on the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, 2006–2012 Ministry of Rural Development Government of India.

2013-03-16T04:33:00.000-07:00

MGNREGA Marching towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals-an Analysis.

S.KRISHNAN* Dr.A.BALAKRISHNAN** *

Absract

Key words: MDGs,MGNREGA, Environmental Sustainabiliy, Gender Equality,Eradication of poverty.

Introduction

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and targets come from the Millennium

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research,GRI. Gandhigram. **Professor, Department of Applied Research, GRI,Gandhigram.

Poverty Scenario in India:

MGNREGA OF INDIA

The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA has become a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in rural India through its impact on social protection, livelihood security and democratic governance.

The Act came into force on February 2, 2006 and was implemented in a phased manner. In Phase

Salient Features of the Act.

(a) Adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work,may apply for

Review of releated Literature

Methodology

MGNREGA and Eradication of Poverty

Performance of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in Providing Employment (2006-07 to 2012-13)

Item	Year 2006-07 (200 Dist.)	Year 2007-08 (330 Dist.)	Year 2008-09 (615 Dist.)	Year 2009-10 (619 Dist.)	Year 2010-11 (626 Dist.)	Year 2011-12 (626 Dist.)	Year 2012-13 (632 Dist.) UP to 31.12.12
Job card issued	3.78	6.48	10.01	11.25	11.98	12.39	12.54
Employment provided to households (in crore)	2.10	3.39	4.51	5.26	5.49	5.04	4.16
Persondays (in crore)
SC	22.95 (26%)	39.36 (27%)	63.36 (29%)	86.45 (30%)	78.76 (31%)	47.70 (22%)	31.42 (22%)
ST	32.98 (36%)	42.07 (29%)	55.02 (25%)	58.74 (21%)	53.62 (21%)	39.59 (18%)	22.14 (16%)
Others	34.56 [38%]	62.16 [43%]	97.95 [45%]	138.40 [49%]	124.78 [48%]	129.06 [60%]	87.10 [62%]
Total	90.5	143.59	216.32	283.59	257.15	216.34	140.66
Women	36.40 [40%]	61.15 [43%]	103.57 [48%]	136.40 [48%]	122.74 [48%]	103.81 [48%]	74.74 [53%]
Persondays per household	43	42	48	54	47	43	34

Source:www.nrega.nic.in

Gender Equality and Empowerment of women

Women Empowerment is not among the orginal intensions of the MGNREGA, and is not among its main objectives. However, provisions like priority for women in the ratio of one-third of total workers

Percentage of Participation in MGNREGA(2006-07 to 2012-13)

Year	Average Mandays provided per HH	Average wages paid per persondays	SC (% of mandays)	ST (% of mandays)	Others (% of mandays)	Total	Women (% of mandays)
2006-07	43	65	25	37	38	100	40
2007-08	42	75	28	29	43	100	43
2008-09	48	85	29	26	45	100	48
2009-10	54	90	30	21	49	100	48
2010-11	47	100	31	21	48	100	48
2011-12	43	115	22	18	60	100	48
2012-13	45*	130	22	16	62	100	54
Avrage	46	-----	27	24	49	------	47
Standard Diviation(S.D)**	3.85	-----	3.46	6.72	8.04	-----	4.10
Coefficient of Variation(C.V)	8.36	-----	12.81	28.0	16.0	-----	8.72

*Computed for 12 months, Source:www.nrega.nic.in ** Computed value by the Author.

The above table shows the coefficient variation on SC, ST and others are much higher, it is much lesser (8.72) on women than others elicit clearly that the scheme is more benefitable to women.

Green Jobs of MGNREGA

Total works taken up and completed under MGNREGA (2006-07 to 2011-12)

Sl.No	Type of works	No of Works completed(2006-07 to 2011-12) in Lakh	On going works	% of total works taken up from(06 -07 to 11-12)
1	Water Conservation and Water harvestig	19.5	36.4	25
2	Flood control and production	3.9	5.9	4
3	Drought proofing,Tree plantation,afforestation	5.2	13.0	9
4	Irrigation canals(macro and micro-irrigation)	5.7	9.5	6
5	Renovation of traditional water bodies(desilting of tanks etc.)	6.6	9.8	7
6	Works on lands of SC/ST/BPL/SMF/IAY Beneficiaries	13.0	19.9	14
7	Land Development(contour bunds,Field bunds)	13.9	18.8	13
	Total works on generate Green Jobs	67.8	113.3	79
8	Rural connectivity	16.0	28.3	19
9	Other works (Bharat Nirman kendras)	2.8	4.6	3
	Total	86.6	146.3	100

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

Conclusion

5) S.Krishnan and A.Balakrishnan , “Impact of watershed works of MGNREGA on Poverty Alleviation-A Micro Level Study” Indian Streams Research Journal vol2,issue 7, Aug 2012.

6) Bassi N., Kumar D. M., Niranjan V. & Sivamohan M. (2011): “Employment Guarantee and its Environmental Impact Are the Claims Valid?” EPW,v.66 n. 34.

7) Tiwari et al. (2011): “MGNREGA for Environmental Service Enhancement and Vulnerability Reduction: Rapid Appraisal in Chitradurga District,

Karnataka”, EPW, v.66 n. 20, pp 39-47.

8) Ravi Chopra et.al (2012) “Greening Rural Development in India” Volume-1 UNDP publications,India.

9) MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS INDIA COUNTRY REPORT 2011, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India www.mospi.nic.in.

11) www.nrega.nic.in

2013-03-16T04:31:00.005-07:00

MGNREGA Marching towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals-an Analysis.

S.KRISHNAN* Dr.A.BALAKRISHNAN** *

Absract

Key words: MDGs,MGNREGA, Environmental Sustainabiliy, Gender Equality,Eradication of poverty.

Introduction

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and targets come from the Millennium

Poverty Scenario in India:

MGNREGA OF INDIA

The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA has become a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in rural India through its impact on social protection, livelihood security and democratic governance.

The Act came into force on February 2, 2006 and was implemented in a phased manner. In Phase

Salient Features of the Act.

(a) Adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work,may apply for

Review of releated Literature

Methodology

MGNREGA and Eradication of Poverty

Performance of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in Providing Employment (2006-07 to 2012-13)

Item	Year 2006-07 (200 Dist.)	Year 2007-08 (330 Dist.)	Year 2008-09 (615 Dist.)	Year 2009-10 (619 Dist.)	Year 2010-11 (626 Dist.)	Year 2011-12 (626 Dist.)	Year 2012-13 (632 Dist.) UP to 31.12.12
Job card issued	3.78	6.48	10.01	11.25	11.98	12.39	12.54
Employment provided to households (in crore)	2.10	3.39	4.51	5.26	5.49	5.04	4.16
Persondays (in crore)
SC	22.95 (26%)	39.36 (27%)	63.36 (29%)	86.45 (30%)	78.76 (31%)	47.70 (22%)	31.42 (22%)
ST	32.98 (36%)	42.07 (29%)	55.02 (25%)	58.74 (21%)	53.62 (21%)	39.59 (18%)	22.14 (16%)
Others	34.56 [38%]	62.16 [43%]	97.95 [45%]	138.40 [49%]	124.78 [48%]	129.06 [60%]	87.10 [62%]
Total	90.5	143.59	216.32	283.59	257.15	216.34	140.66
Women	36.40 [40%]	61.15 [43%]	103.57 [48%]	136.40 [48%]	122.74 [48%]	103.81 [48%]	74.74 [53%]
Persondays per household	43	42	48	54	47	43	34

Source:www.nrega.nic.in

Gender Equality and Empowerment of women

Women Empowerment is not among the orginal intensions of the MGNREGA, and is not among its main objectives. However, provisions like priority for women in the ratio of one-third of total workers

Percentage of Participation in MGNREGA(2006-07 to 2012-13)

Year	Average Mandays provided per HH	Average wages paid per persondays	SC (% of mandays)	ST (% of mandays)	Others (% of mandays)	Total	Women (% of mandays)
2006-07	43	65	25	37	38	100	40
2007-08	42	75	28	29	43	100	43
2008-09	48	85	29	26	45	100	48
2009-10	54	90	30	21	49	100	48
2010-11	47	100	31	21	48	100	48
2011-12	43	115	22	18	60	100	48
2012-13	45*	130	22	16	62	100	54
Avrage	46	-----	27	24	49	------	47
Standard Diviation(S.D)**	3.85	-----	3.46	6.72	8.04	-----	4.10
Coefficient of Variation(C.V)	8.36	-----	12.81	28.0	16.0	-----	8.72

*Computed for 12 months, Source:www.nrega.nic.in ** Computed value by the Author.

The above table shows the coefficient variation on SC, ST and others are much higher, it is much lesser (8.72) on women than others elicit clearly that the scheme is more benefitable to women.

Green Jobs of MGNREGA

Total works taken up and completed under MGNREGA (2006-07 to 2011-12)

Sl.No	Type of works	No of Works completed(2006-07 to 2011-12) in Lakh	On going works	% of total works taken up from(06 -07 to 11-12)
1	Water Conservation and Water harvestig	19.5	36.4	25
2	Flood control and production	3.9	5.9	4
3	Drought proofing,Tree plantation,afforestation	5.2	13.0	9
4	Irrigation canals(macro and micro-irrigation)	5.7	9.5	6
5	Renovation of traditional water bodies(desilting of tanks etc.)	6.6	9.8	7
6	Works on lands of SC/ST/BPL/SMF/IAY Beneficiaries	13.0	19.9	14
7	Land Development(contour bunds,Field bunds)	13.9	18.8	13
	Total works on generate Green Jobs	67.8	113.3	79
8	Rural connectivity	16.0	28.3	19
9	Other works (Bharat Nirman kendras)	2.8	4.6	3
	Total	86.6	146.3	100

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

Conclusion

5) S.Krishnan and A.Balakrishnan , “Impact of watershed works of MGNREGA on Poverty Alleviation-A Micro Level Study” Indian Streams Research Journal vol2,issue 7, Aug 2012.

6) Bassi N., Kumar D. M., Niranjan V. & Sivamohan M. (2011): “Employment Guarantee and its Environmental Impact Are the Claims Valid?” EPW,v.66 n. 34.

7) Tiwari et al. (2011): “MGNREGA for Environmental Service Enhancement and Vulnerability Reduction: Rapid Appraisal in Chitradurga District,

Karnataka”, EPW, v.66 n. 20, pp 39-47.

8) Ravi Chopra et.al (2012) “Greening Rural Development in India” Volume-1 UNDP publications,India.

9) MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS INDIA COUNTRY REPORT 2011, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India www.mospi.nic.in.

11) www.nrega.nic.in

MGNREGA Marching towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals-an Analysis. S.KRISHNAN RESEARCH SCHOLAR,GRI,GANDHIGRAM,624302

2013-03-16T04:25:00.000-07:00

Impact of Climate Change in the Area of Cultivation and Cropping Pattern in Tamil Nadu – A Micro Analysis Dr.A.Balakrishnan R. Vettriselvan S.Krishnan

2012-04-16T20:33:00.001-07:00

Impact of Climate Change in the Area of Cultivation and Cropping Pattern in Tamil Nadu – A Micro Analysis

Dr.A.Balakrishnan[1] R. Vettriselvan[2] S.Krishnan[3]

Abstract

India is a developing nation with majority of agricultural population and high cultivation area when compared to the other developing countries. According to 2011 census 71 percent of the Indian people are living in rural areas and mostly they are employed in agriculture and related activities. It is a primary source available for generation of income and employment in rural area. The growth rate of agriculture has come down to 1.1 percent from 4.69 percent in contrast to the 6 percent growth rate of Indian economy for the last ten years. Around 93 percent of the farmers are small farmers having land holdings of less than 4 hectare but the average farm size is only 1.57 hectares and they cultivate nearly 55 percent of the available land and the reasons are as follows, due to Industrial growth in India more number of industrial units was started in the past decades. In recent years, the climate changes have been a complex issue due to foreign climate policy. The climate changes affect the existing cultivating areas due to unscheduled rainfall, high temperature, high tensed cyclones and so on. This micro level study made on attempt to make an assessment about the level of changes occurred in the cultivation area, temperature and rainfall and its effects on the area of cultivation and cropping pattern in study region.

Key Words

Climate Change, Cultivation, Rainfall, Agricultural Production
Author Details.

[1] Professor, Department of Applied Research, GRI drabkgri@gmail.com .

[2] Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI. vettriselvan0541@gmail.com

[3] Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI.maduraisuki@gmail.com

(copy of the paper presented in the international workshopon climate change in agriculture:adaptation and mitigation strategies held at Gandhigram Rural University on March 21-23,2012)

Introduction

Over the last decade, scientists have extensively studied the greenhouse effect, which holds that the accumulation of car-bon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG's) is expected to produce global warming and other significant climatic changes over the next century. Numerous studies indicate major impacts on agriculture especially, if there is significant mid-continental drying and warming in Indian soil. The earth's surface temperature is slowly rising due to human activities, which are releasing heat-trapping gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere. From various studies reports that in 2100 the temperature was expected to raise and reach 2 ±1°C, other climatic influences remaining constant. This will be the fastest rate of climate change the earth has experienced since the start of modern civilization. Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the world in recent scenario. Fossil fuel burning and deforestation have emerged as principal anthropogenic sources of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other green-house gases and consequential global warming. Proxy records of variability in temperature, precipitation, sea level and extreme weather events provide collateral evidence of global climate change. Indeed, there is compelling, comprehensive, consistent, and objective evidence that human beings are altering the climate in ways that threaten our societies and the ecosystems. Scientific understanding is now remarkably coherent on following fundamental conclusions about climate change:

Ø The planet earth is warming due to increased concentrations of heat-trapping gases in atmosphere. Snowy winters in some parts of the world do not alter this fact.

Ø Most of the increase in the concentration of green-house gases over the last century is due to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.

Ø Natural causes always play a role in changing earth's climate, but are now being outcompeted by anthropogenic changes.

Ø Warming of the planet will cause many other climatic patterns to change at speeds unprecedented in modern times, including increasing rates of sea-level rise and alterations in the hydrologic cycle. Rising concentrations of carbon dioxide are making the oceans more acidic.

Ø The combination of these complex climate changes threatens coastal communities, cities and rural systems, our food and water supplies, marine and freshwater ecosystems, forests, high mountain environments, and so on.

Climate change affects all the livelihood in our daily lives, impacts the performance of much of industry, and leads to billions of pounds of damage worldwide each year. In many countries the general public is becoming concerned as press reports, personal experience and anecdotal information all point to an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events linked to climate change. Many opinions have been expressed on the subject from the doom laden to the dismissive. Climate and weather affects us all in our daily lives and at least 70% emissions from industries. Here climate means the average state of the weather over periods ranging from months to centuries. In recent years the phrase climate change has become familiar as environmental extremes regularly hit the headlines. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change uses the term to describe change brought about only by human activities, in particular by those processes that emit the heat-trapping gases carbon dioxide and methane into the air. A more generic usage, common in the scientific community, refers to change brought about by any source, human as well as natural.

Statement of the Problem

Climate has focused largely on changes in atmospheric composition. A large body of work has demonstrated that a change in area of cultivation provides an additional major forcing of climate, through changes in the physical properties of the land surface. Surface albedo change can be compared with greenhouse-gas emissions through the concept of radiative forcing (Betts 2000), but changes in vegetation cover can also modify the surface heat fluxes directly. Long-term weather conditions, regional-scale land-cover change can impact on the global climate system through tele connections (Avissar 1995; Pielke 2001a; Claussen 2002). Atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns and their subsequent involvement within the planets climate are dynamic, variable and difficult to predict. These limit our ability to predict the impact of changes of area in the cultivation and landscape dynamics on climate patterns. A more complete indication of human contributions to climate change will require the climatic influences on the cultivation pattern and other processes to be factored into climate-change-mitigation strategies. Area of cultivation has changes due to global warming; cropping pattern has change highly in the recent decades.

Need and Importance of the Study

India is a large agricultural country with a high population. During the historic development of several thousand years large areas of forest and grassland have been converted into arable lands. At present, a number of bioclimatic models have been used to assess the potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of major ecosystem complexes on a global scale (Holdridge, 1967; Budyko, 1974; Emanuel, Shugart & Stevenson, 1985; Prentice et al., 1992). However, all these global models have significant limitations for recognizing important seasonal and local aspects of vegetation and climate. Changes in temperature and precipitation will alter the hydrological cycle, which influences runoff, moisture availability, sedimentation and erosion and, furthermore, the recycling of organic matter and nutrients of the soil. Thus, it is necessary to develop and then to apply the regional bioclimatic model for investigating and estimating the potential scale, such as in the extent of cropping pattern and cultivation areas in the study area.

Objectives of the Study

To study the climate changes and problems of global warming in the study area.
To analyses the rainfall and cropping pattern in the study area.
To suggest the suitable measures to reduce the global warming and improve the cropping pattern.

Table `1

Climate Change and Rainfall

Year	Changes in Temperature (+increase, -decrease) in °C	Rainfall (+increase, -decrease) in mm
2001-02	0.52	-88.3
2002-03	0.71	-17.7
2003-04	-0.11	129.6
2004-05	-0.68	-6.4
2005-06	0.20	296.8
2006-07	0.21	-112.1
2007-08	-0.95	82.3
2008-09	0.68	-106.2
2009-10	0.76	-385.0
Overall changes	1.34	-207

Source: Computed Data from Assistant Director of Statistics, Madurai

Climatical weather condition is important determinant for the rainfall of the area. Many studies prove that there is a adverse relationship will be there between the changes in temperature condition and rainfall of the study area. Here, we use the computed data set of changes in climate condition (temperature) and rainfall of the Madurai District from Assistant Director of Statistics, Madurai.

The table 1 discuss about the overall changes in temperature and rainfall in the Madurai district. The result reveals that there are a lot of fluctuations in the rainfall and temperature. The results clearly pointed that when are the temperature has increase in the environment there is a gradual decrease of rainfall overall the study period indicates the temperature has increased at 1.34° due to temperature increase the rainfall has reduced to 207mm. This result has proven that the change of temperature in the atmosphere have the inverse relationship in the rainfall of the study area.

Table 2

Changes in Cropping Pattern of the Madurai District

(in Hectares)

S.No	Varity of Crops	2001-02	2010-11	Changes
1	Cereals	81898	80105	-1793
2	Pulses	8578	6076	-2506
3	Oil Seeds	8892	3653	-5239
4	Commercial Crops	19070	12832	-6238
	Total	118438	102666	-15772

Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai

Cropping pattern of the land may depend upon the climate condition and quantum of rainfall in the localities. Here, the table was discussed about the changes in cropping pattern in the Madurai district. The crop cultivation has divided into four major categories namely cereals, pulses, oil seeds and commercial crops. Paddy, cholam, cumbu, ragi, varagu, samai, maize are comes under cereals. Redgram, bengalgram, greengram, blackgram are the crops of pulses. Groundnut and gingelly are the components of oil seeds and remain cotton; sugarcane and banana are the commercial crops of the Madurai district. The grouping of crops is depends on the major cropping pattern of the study area and the availability of data.

The set of data for area of crops cultivation used for the years 2001-02 and 2010-11 are obtained from the official website of the department of economics and statistics, Chennai. During the study period there is a downward trend in the area of cultivation in the study area. The above statistics reports that totally 15772 hectares of cultivatable land were used for other agricultural purposes and left with unused due to lack of irrigation facility in the area of cultivation. During the past decade the temperature was increased in Madurai district and amount of rainfall also reduced in this juncture rainfall and climate condition of the locality has severely affected the cropping pattern and area of cultivation.

Major Findings

· Totally 1.34°C temperature was increased for the last ten year (2001-02 to 2010-11) period.

· Overall change in rainfall level was 207mm in the last ten year period.

· Regarding the crop cultivation overall 15772 hectares of crop cultivation area were reduced in past ten years.

Conclusion

The advance researches are needed to study the extreme events and their consequences of collecting evidence on their effects from long-term observations and experimental studies in various ecosystems. The present study concludes that there is a direct and adverse relationship is there between the climate change and rainfall and these two factors are affecting the cropping pattern of the study area. It is essential to take into account information on historical or projected extremes of simulated events (i.e, relative magnitude compared to mean conditions) though this is lacking in many event-based experiments like climate change and cropping pattern of the different regions. Otherwise, the predictive power of the results will be limited in agricultural sector. Event-based research on weather extremes will contribute substantially to the debate as to whether local weather extremes are relevant to the rainfall and cropping pattern with long-term ecological impacts. Collaborative scientific efforts will contribute to our understanding of the role of climate change and its impacts into the agricultural areas.

Bibliography

Avissar, R. 1995 Recent advances in the representation of land-atmosphere interactions in general circulation models. Rev. Geophys. 33, 1005-1010.

Betts, R. A. 2000 Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo, Nature 408, 187-189.

Budyko, M.I. (1974) Climate and life. Academic Press, New York.

Claussen, M. (ed.) 2002 Does land surface matter in climate and weather? In Vegetation, water, humans and the climate: a new perspective on an interactive system, part A. A synthesis of the IGBP Core Project, Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle. (In the press.)

Emanuel, W.R., Shugart, H.H. & Stevenson, M.P. (1985) Climate change and the broad-scale distribution of terrestrial ecosystem complexes. Climate Change, 7, 29-43.

Holdridge, L.R. (1967) Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Cen- ter, San Jose.

Pielke Sr, R. A. 2001a Influence of the spatial distribution of vegetation and soils on the pre-diction of cumulus convective rainfall, Rev. Geophys. 39, 151-177.

Prentice, C., Cramer, W., Harrison, S.P., Leemans, R., Monserud, R.A. & Solomon, A.M. (1992) A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate, J. Biogeogr. 19, 117-134.

Website

www.madurai.nic

Role of NGOs in Protect Human Rights for Dalits to Remove Social Exclusion- A STUDY Dr. A. Balakrishnan R. Vettriselvan S. Krishnan

2012-04-16T20:30:00.004-07:00

Role of NGOs in Protect Human Rights for Dalits to Remove Social Exclusion- A STUDY

Dr. A. Balakrishnan* R. Vettriselvan** S. Krishnan***

Human security is fundamentally concerned with helping people to deal with unforeseeable threats and sudden downturns, whether environmental disasters or incapacitating illnesses and poor exclusion practices in anywhere in the world. Government alone can not distribute all the welfare schemes and the activities related to manage the disaster situations, in those time government get assistance with the NGOs for providing better services to the affected people. NGOs are the major players which consist identifying the affected people and distributing the necessary help to the violated Dalits people and protect them from the violations. The NGOs, as one of the most visible sets of actors in the related fields of human development and human rights and also playing a significant role in helping to achieve social inclusion. NGOs are especially well suited for human inclusion in the main stream, it is because of their size and reach, closeness to the local population. This study focuses on the involvements of NGOs to remove social exclusion of people belonging to suppressed groups and provide equal status to the dalits people by improving the socio-economic background of the excluded people through creating awareness to offer their rights to create inclusive society. The present study has discuss with some suitable cases in Madurai region and also expose the facts that NGOs play a main role to removal of social exclusion practices to create inclusive society by empowering dalits in the study area.

Key words

Social Exclusion, NGO, Human Right, Inclusive Society
Author details.

* Professor, Department of Applied Research, GRI-DU, drabkgri@gmail.com

** Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI-DU, vettriselvan0541@gmail.com

*** Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI-DU, maduraisuki@gmail.com

Introduction

“On the 26th January, 1950 we are going to enter into life of contradictions. In politics we will have equality and in social & economic life we well have inequality. In politics we will be recognizing the principal of one man, one vote, one value. In our social & economic life we shall by reason of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principal of one man, one value, how long shall we continue to deny it for long we will do so, only by putting our political democracy in peril. We must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible moment”

-Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar….

The constitutional and statutory laws in India establish a comprehensive list of human rights. Many laws have been adopted to remove discriminatory practices towards ex-Untouchables/Dalits. Most of these international human rights documents not only provide a detailed catalogue of human rights to which everyone is entitled to enjoy but also categorically proclaim that the principles of “equality” and “non-discrimination” constitute the dominant themes of the modern international human rights law (Vijapur, 1993). The term “Untouchables” is not an appropriate word recent days, as the practice of Untouchability has been legally restricted. Untouchables are known by different names in India; Mahatma Gandhi called them Harijan, children of god. Religious books of the Hindus called them Sudras, Ambedkar called them “depressed classes”. However since 1970 the term “Dalit” has been widely used. Dalit is a Marathi word, first used by Mahatma Jotiba Phule, a 19th century social reformer who led a movement for the upliftment of Untouchables, which means “broken people.” In official documents they are designated as the Scheduled Castes (SCs). Human rights violation may take place in the every level of the nation for downtrodden people by treating those poor and blocking them to get their basic rights from government. Central government may introduce number of policies, programmes, Acts and schemes to prevent the Dalit people from social exclusion to create a healthy inclusive society. But mostly government has failed to achieve the full aim of the plans implemented for them. Those times government may get the assistance from NGOs for to reach the last citizen of the nation to make the plan effective and create inclusive society. NGOs are the voluntary organization that may come forward and take actions against the social exclusion issues to help the excluded people to get their basic rights and subsidiaries from the government to uplift the socio-economic condition and make the equal society by include all the people.

Statement of the Problem

The caste system was the foundation for the traditional social stratification, the problem of exclusion practices in rural community of India was more complicated as it was not simply a socio-economic phenomenon but, and more importantly. Mostly the way of scriptures, we can trace that; Indian society could be broken into a number of different groups on the basis of varnas. The dalits who constitute one fifth of India’s population had a historically suffered from caste and untouchability based exclusion. There is a number of evidences shown that many cases results that there is a lot of discrimination was practiced with regard to wage, education, employment, property ownership and political partnership etc., Most of the SC and ST communities are still striving to fulfill their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. Besides these, today they require better opportunities to live in dignity and self-respect.

Hence, ample opportunities should be made available to them, which would ensure them a secured and dignified life in this 21st century. After independence, the Constitution of India piloted by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar prescribed certain protection and safeguards for the SCs and STs with the objective of promoting their educational, economic and political interests. The Government has yet so far provided various plans and programmers offering them opportunities to develop. It provided general infrastructure and resource development-like providing educational facilities, health services and building communication networks etc. It is observed that the Government programmes - especially those pertaining to SC and ST welfare are never taken seriously, and there are no effective monitoring systems to pinpoint the failures of the plan objectives. There are diversion of resources and lack of utility of the schemes. Therefore, the condition of these communities is still remained very miserable. Therefore, the present effort suggest suitable remedial measures to ensure the effective implementation laws against human rights violation for the development and inclusion of the depressed excluded sections.

Relevance of the Study

India has a rich and glorious cultural legacy, but it should be noted that nowhere in the world. Caste system is a unique feature of Indian life we find the extent of discrimination that is perpetuated by one group of people against the other, as it is done in case of low caste Untouchables by the high caste Hindus in India. It is believed that originally there were only four broad/main castes the Brahmins (the priestly class), the Kshatriyas (the warrior class), the Vaisyas (the merchant and peasant class), and the Sudras (the Untouchable class). But over the last two thousand years, these four castes have been astronomically sub-divided into thousands of castes and sub-castes. The 2011 census revealed that there were two thousand three hundred and seventy eight “main Castes” and tribes in India. The official list of “scheduled castes” prepared by the then British authorities of the Government of India in 1935 contained four hundred twenty nine Untouchable castes. Thus, traditionally Sudras/Dalits were excluded from engaging themselves in reading and learning profession and participating in Aryan religious customs and ceremonies. In principle, marriage was permitted within one’s own caste. This rule was often broken, but any Brahmin male who took a Sudra to be his wife would become the object of particular scorn. If a Brahmin male had only one wife and she was of Sudra status, he would be considered to be in a state of ritual impurity and would be forbidden to attend family ceremonies like sradha (rites for the dead) ancestor worship. On the other hand, any Sudra male who approached a Brahmin female, behaved like a Brahmin caste, or did any harm to a Brahmin person would be subject to serious punishment, sometimes even death (Yamazaki 1997, 5). Another scholar (Zinkin 1962, 59) cites a rule from scriptures, which stated: If dalit assumes a position of equality with high caste men, either in sitting, or going along the road, they shall receive corporal punishment. A Sudra committing adultery with women of the first three castes shall suffer capital punishment, or shall be burnt alive tied up with straw. If a Sudra intentionally reviles a Brahmin or criminally assaults him; the limb with which he offends shall be cut off.

For centuries, and even now, these Untouchable castes have been subject to various restrictions in their movements or relationships with other people, especially the high caste persons. They still face many social disabilities, like denial or restriction of access to public facilities such as wells, schools, roads, post offices and courts; denial or restriction of access to temples where their presence might pollute the deity as well as the higher caste worshippers; and from rest-houses, tanks and shrines connected to temples. They have been denied access to services such as those provided by barbers, laundrymen, restaurants, shops and theatres, and are required to use separate utensils and facilities within such places. They face a lot of restrictions on style of life, especially in the goods indicating comfort or luxury. Riding on horseback, use of bicycles, umbrellas, footwear, the wearing of gold and silver ornaments (in fact, their abject poverty could never afford them to do so), the use of palanquins to carry bridegrooms were all forbidden for these people. Traditionally, they were required to have their homes/huts constructed outside the village and quite away from the high caste families; this practice is followed even now in almost all villages. This segregation is believed to have a divine sanction. While the touch of an animal was not considered polluting, the very sight of an Untouchable was enough to pollute and called for the performance of special cleansing ceremonies. Domestic and agricultural animals could live and eat in the same house with high caste Hindus but the Untouchables could not even live in the same town. For many orthodox Hindus the cow dung is ritually so “clean”, that a Brahmin priest will use it to wash away his impurities. Even now untouchability continues to be widely prevalent and is practiced in one form or another in most of the villages in India. This fact has been empirically established by a recent study of Action Aid India. (Shah, et al. 2006). Here, the attempt was made to analyze the role of NGOs to remove the social exclusion practices in Tamil Nadu with some recent cases to give a better suggestion to government for using NGOs to create an inclusive society for all the people and protect the Dalit people from human rights violation.

Objectives of the Study

To study the role of NGOs practices adopted for Inclusion practices in Tamil Nadu.
To understand the problems faced by the Dalit people in the process of inclusion by violating human rights.
To analyses the selected cases of the excluded communities with reference to human rights violation.
To suggest the suitable measures to overcome the problems faced by dailt in the inclusion to engage NGOs to protect the Dalits from human rights violations

Non Governmental Organizations in India

In the past decade, India has witnessed the emergence of an enormous organization such as community-based organizations, self help groups, cooperative and trade unions in the various sectors of the economies. These organizations of the poor have developed strategies for addressing poverty at the local level with an objective of improving their living and working conditions and enhancing their bargaining power. These experiences have been restricted to limited areas and have not been replicated on a large scale. Nevertheless, enabling the poor to form their own organizations has, in many cases, proved to be the most successful and sustainable strategy for fighting conditions of deprivation and poverty. Today, a lesser role is being argued for the state and greater role for non-state actors, which include the institutions of the market as well as non-government organizations (NGOs).

Voluntary organization is a group of persons who organize themselves on the basis of voluntary membership with external and State control, for the furtherance of some common interests of members. They can pursue a general interest or interest of the group which formulated the organization. Briefly, the absence of external or state control defines the inherent strengths and weakness of the voluntary organizations at the same time.

NGOs are expected to play a critical role in all conceivable aspects of development. In fact, the role of NGOs itself is changing over the years due to change in the function and philosophy of other development organizations. The role of government has changed from a police state to welfare state and subsequently to a development state. Correspondingly, NGOs had undergone various generations of changed role such as charity, relief, welfare, development and empowerment. The mainstream thinking on the role of government and NGOs in poverty alleviation and social inclusion has changed through the decade at both international and national level. Through a well defined policy towards NGOs rarely existed, NGOs were approached by Central Governments and funding agencies to assist in implementation of the community development and social welfare programmes. In the field of development, NGOs range from large charities to local self-help organizations, coordinating bodies as well as lobby groups (ODI, 1998). During the 20^th century, NGOs have earned for themselves a rich, respected, revered and reliable place in the history of development both in India and globally (Ditcher, 1988., Ramaswamy, 1991 and Fowler, 1992). In India, NGOs are called by different names likely voluntary organizations, non-party processes, social action groups and so on. And it will differed from others by an activity, method of approach, welfare measures and sources for getting funds and so on.

Social Exclusion in India

In India, there is a distinct and all-pervasive system of discrimination based on caste. The United Nations and its agencies refer to it as “discrimination based on work and descent”. What it means is that people who are born into specific groups, trades or castes are unable to escape from the stigma of their background or their origins. Hence those born as leatherworkers, barbers, agricultural workers or manual scavengers (toilet cleaners) will remain in those employment sectors all their lives. Sometimes people escape from the system by moving to the large towns or cities, but overall the system remains heavily in the same position.

"Dalit" is a term which has had increasing currency in recent years. Literally, it means "the oppressed". It encompasses peoples who used to be called "untouchables", or "Harijans"; who are often also referred to as "Scheduled Castes", because the way they are referred to in the constitution of India. "Adivasi" is a term which refers to those who are members of "Scheduled Tribes". That is, individuals who are racially distinct, as indigenous peoples, in contradistinction to the Caucasian peoples who invaded and settled India centuries ago.

Government frame many policies and implements a number of schemes and programmes to empower the ‘dalits’ but still there is a lot of gap between the normal people and oppressed community. Still many Medias were pointed out the lot of issues related to the discrimination every day. Higher education is a dream for lower caste children still now; mostly they are engaged only for the casual employment. The basic rights for the downtrodden people were still denied. They are expecting some support from externally to meet their things and still there are lot of excluded practices was identified in the rural areas in various formats. The local body dalit representatives are having the power only for namesake, but originally the power owned by the upper caste people of that locality (The Hindu., 22-2-2012).

Role of NGOs for Social Inclusion

Many number of issues related to social exclusion were identified only by the NGOs working in those locality. Majority of the NGOs were started with an aim of creating inclusive society and remove the discrimination from the modern world. Traditionally the first effort of every reform activity may take only by the NGOs and then the government come forward and takes action for those problems some of the efforts taken by the NGOs along with the help of the government to bring the suppressed and depressed section to the higher level and thereby involve them in the process of inclusion.

The welfare funds for the socially oppressed people were distributed by NGOs
Identification of local problem for the downtrodden people
Identify the obstacles to meet out their basic rights
Help to reach the government schemes to the appropriate people
Create awareness about the basic education and self empowerment
Planning and implementing the welfare schemes for the development of the socio-economic condition for the oppressed community
Mobilize all the available local resources and take initiative to improve the local standards
Build the self reliant and sustainable self developed community
Mediate the needed people and government or other agencies
Create people participation towards the needed government programmes and policies.
Motivate and articulate priorities to the needed social service action
To strengthen the civil society to provide equal rights to all
To increase the bargaining power to empower the downtrodden people
Arranging micro credit to develop the entrepreneurial skill for the oppressed community people

Dimensions of NGOs Involvement in Social Inclusion Process

Educational Dimension: Exclusion also results from denial of rights to have education and poor access to education and uneconomic employment opportunity are traditional characteristics of Indian society for the socially excluded people. Lack of access to education and occupational structures for various reasons especially the state’s failure to provide free or affordable education and generate adequate employment opportunities in the past. In hill and remote areas were taken care by the NGOs. In order to provide education to the poor they take effort to construct and run the schools for the welfare of the Tribal students to empower them by improving their literacy level. These actions were taken by the many of the NGOs especially religion based missionaries which they all focused for the tribal welfare and tribal development. In Tamil Nadu the Districts namely, Theni, Dindigul, Nilgiri and Coimbatore are the most benefited areas for the welfare activities taken by the NGOs. Especially this effort has helped the excluded people to home better and higher education opportunities to increase the inclusive process among the student community.

Economical Dimension: The main moto of the NGOs is to eradicate the poverty. In almost all the districts the NGOs arrange micro credit for poor which cover a sizable portion of rural dalits. Further to empower them by creating skill among them for taking up of business opportunities in order to improve the economic standard in rural area of their life. Many of the NGOs undertake the economic activity like formation of SHGs providing micro credit for the rural people to reduce the role of money lenders and the poverty. This facilitates to reduce the level of economic backwardness of the oppressed people in the society and to make them following economically equal on par with other communities in the society.

Social Dimensions: The famous issue near Madurai i.e Utthapuram which was published in almost all the daily News papers/Magazines more than a year has explored to the world by the local NGO. Last century the fore fathers were built the discrimination wall in the Utthapuram village near to Madurai. The village was cutted into two parts and one is for upper caste people and another part for dalits. No dalit people was allowed to cross the wall, this was identified by the NGO namely Theendamai Olipu Munnani Madurai Region (Discrimination eradicating Frond) exacted near Madurai has explored it and information disseminated to the world and it helped to remove the discrimination wall and it take effort to get their rights for the local people and for construct the inclusive society.

Fragmented labor: Exclusion may also be the result of the disappearance of well-organized industrial structures. In the process they have fragmented industrial labor and weakened the organizational ability and their bargaining power of the working class from oppressed community. The NGOs related to industrial labourers was involved to create the balanced society by creating awareness about their rights in the working places.

More number of NGOs is run only with the aim to uplift the dalits and protecting the Human Rights among them namely Tamil Nationalist Groups, Dalit Outfits and Human Rights Organization, Council for Professional Social Works, Peoples Watch, Human Rights Watch and so on. were to fight against the social exclusion by protecting the human rights of the excluded downtrodden people to create the inclusive society in Tamil Nadu.

Conclusion

Human Rights are a human dignity to prevent that is very important to take actions without any denies. Exclusion operates at the level of individual, group, institution, locality, and region and so on. It is both cultural and material, and is hierarchical in terms of needs and intensity. Therefore, there is a need for a disaggregated approach in understanding the patterns and processes of exclusion and the nature of the excluded, taking into account historical and contemporary disabilities, and problems of lack of integration of particular groups. Inadequate social and economic infrastructure in areas that have insufficient resources for participation in mainstream development also has been at the root of various “sub-national movements”. People respond to social exclusion in various ways, ranging from passivity to group action. Because of a long history of fatalism, which is embedded in the caste system, it is more often than not the case that the excluded themselves are not aware of their exclusion, and even if they are aware, they do not act. Economic development is a tool for dalit empowerment to reduce the human rights violation against the dalit people. There is a need to raise awareness of exclusion, leading to mobilization and group action. Disadvantages arising out of exclusion in India take multiple forms namely economic, educational, social, political and cultural and are all deeply rooted in traditional society. The group action is only possible with the help of fullest involvement of NGOs. In recent days the exclusion by education, employment, economic status and gender is more popular in society. Government, NGOs and interested people may join together to fight against social exclusion to create an inclusive society. NGOs need to give more attention to implement the economic measures to uplift the vulnerables in the society to protect their human rights. With the words of great social reformer, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkat that, “turn in any direction you like, caste is the monster that crosses your path. You cannot have political reform; you cannot have economic reform, unless you kill this monster”.

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Ditcher, T.W., 1988, The Changing World of Northern NGOs – Problems, Paradoxes and possibilities, Development, Vol.4, pp.36-40

Fowler, S., 1992, New Forests of the Kerandimal Khondha, Melbourne, Community Aid-Abroad, p.186

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Ramaswamy .U., 1991, Non-Governmental Organizations: a Perspective, Friedrich Elbert Stiffing, New Delhi.

Shah, Ghanshyam, et.al., 2006, Untouchability in Rural India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

The Hindu., 2012., Daily News paper, Madurai Edition dated 22-2-2012.

The Laws of Manu. 1997. Translated by Doniger, Wendy and Brian.K.Smith. New Delhi: Penguin Books.

Vijapur, Abdulrahim P. 1993. “The Principle of Non-discrimination in International Human Rights Law: The Meaning and Scope of the Concept”, India Quarterly (New Delhi), 49 (3).

Yamazaki, Gen’ichi. 1997. “Introduction: Social Discrimination in Ancient India and its Transition to the Medieval Period” in Kotani, Hiroyuki, editor. Caste System, Untouchability and the Depressed. New Delhi.

Zinkin, Taya. 1962. Caste Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Impact of MGNREGA on the Area of Irrigated Crops in Madurai District S.Krishnan R. Vettriselvan Dr.A.Balakrishnan

2012-02-29T06:38:00.001-08:00

Impact of MGNREGA on the Area of Irrigated Crops in Madurai District

S.Krishnan[1] R. Vettriselvan[2] Dr.A.Balakrishnan[3]

Abstract

A majority of people in India would continue to live in villages for decades to come. Natural resources of land and water would remain primary rural livelihood anchors as over half the main workers remain agriculture. Enhancing wage income through creation of productive assets, especially in the farm economy, is a hallmark of the employment generation programs in India and elsewhere. It could be postulated that increased wages and capital formation within rural economies may redress poverty and also boost up overall growth in the country. The MGNREGA aims at enhancing the livelihood, security of people in rural areas by providing 100 days of employment by creating durable assets and strengthening resource base of the rural poor. An attempt has been made to analyze the MGNREGA water conservation works, and its effect on area of cultivation of irrigated crops.

Key Words

MGNREGA, Watershed, Cultivation, Crops production, Food security

Copy of the paper Presented on “ONE DAY SEMINAR ON WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN TAMILNADU:EMERGING ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES” held at Madurai Kamaraj university ,Madurai on 28.02.2012

[1] Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI.maduraisuki@gmail.com

[2] Research Scholar, Department of Applied Research, GRI. vettriselvan0541@gmail.com

[3] Professor, Department of Applied Research, GRI drabkgri@gmail.com .

INTRODUCTION

A vast of people in India would continue to live in rural area for past decades to come. The main work is remain agriculture in rural India. Increasing natural resource productivities is thus critical to enhance livelihood and reduce poverty in villages. It is an imperative for our food, water and ecological security .Basic investment in land and water is an essential precondition for enhancing productivity of agriculture besides generation and dissemination of technology across different agro climatic conditions in the country. The proportion of investment in agriculture, with a single exception of irrigation infrastructure , however ,has undergone significant decline owing to a number of reasons emanating mainly from the neo-liberal economic policies adapted since 1990’s. Public investment in land and water resources and other economic infrastructure, ideally, could provide significant boost to the farm economics, particularly, in regions with low-endowment and limited agronomic potential.

About 55% of our agriculture is rain fed where delayed, deficient or erratic rains lead to severe reduction in crop output and even total crop failure and only one is typically cultivated in a fear. In India, rain-fed areas account for 60% of the net sown area and 55% of the gross cropped area. Almost half of our food crop area, over two-thirds of the non-food crop area and over 50% of our horticulture is rain fed. Rain-fed areas produce 40% cereals, 60% cotton, 75% oilseeds, 85% pulses and support 40% human and 60% livestock population. The Commitment to feed the increasing population with diminishing availability of land and water would largely require successful restoration and conservation of these resources. Poverty alleviation with a strong commitment for conservation of natural resources would be the first challenge of the 21^st century. The main aim of the MGNREGA is to strengthen the natural resource base of rural livelihood and create durable assets in rural areas. A rain-fed area of Madurai District is taken to study the effect of the MGNREGA watershed works on the area of cultivation of irrigated crops.

MGNREGA

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 was passed unanimously by the Lok Sabha on August 23, 2005. It came into force in 200 districts on Feb 2, 2006. This act was launched in the form of NREGA which was guided by the success of the Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Act (MEGA). MEGA has been functioning in the state of Maharashtra since 1976. The NREGA provides a legal right for a hundred days of employment to each rural household whose adult members are willing to perform unskilled manual work. In the first phase, 200 of the most backward districts of the country were covered. In the second phase, 130 districts were covered while, in the third phase, the remaining 265 districts were covered. This Scheme has been implemented in 596 districts in the country. The NREGA -2006 was renamed as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in October, 2009. The main objective of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is to enhance livelihood security through generation assets, protecting environment, empowering rural women , reducing migration and fostering social equality.

Promotional Activities implemented by MGNREGA

· Rural connectivity for all – weather access including culverts and drainage facilities wherever necessary.

· Flood control and protection works including drainage in water logged areas.

· Renovation of traditional water bodies including desiliting of tanks .

· Improved states of beneficiaries of land reforms or the beneficiaries of the Rural Housing Scheme namely Indira Awass Yojona.

· Irrigational canals including micro and minor irrigation works.

· Drought proofing including afforestation and tree plantation .

· Water conservation and water harvesting,

· Other works notified by the Central Government after due consultations , that promote employment generation and land development .

MGNREGA and EMPLOYMENT GENERATION:

The MGNREGA with the aim to reduce poverty has generated huge employment opportunities to the rural livelihood. The MGNREGA can target development using huge demand for casual jobs. It has made a dent on poverty, by increasing employment opportunities.

Employment Generated in India during– 06 – 07 to 11 – 12 National Review (Rs.in crores)

Details	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09	2009-10	2010-11	2011-12
Total Job cards issued	3.76	6.48	9.44	10.72	10.24	------
Employment provided to households	2.10	3.39	4.51	5.25	4.425	3.78
Person Days total	90.5	143.59	216.32	165.72	124.98	120.88
SCS	22.95	39.36	62.88	33.54	28.34	27.4
ST’s	32.98	42.07	54.51	27.92	21.33	20.69
Women	36.79	61.15	102.73	77.50	64.68	59.82
Others	34.56	62.16	98.93	104.26	75.31	72.73

Source www.nrega.nic.in

During the first year of implementation (2006-07) in 200 districts, 2.10 crore households were employed and 90.5 crore person days were generated. In 2007-08, 3.39 crore households were provided employment and 143.59 crore person days were generated in 330 districts. In 2008-09, 4.51 crore households have been provided employment and 216.32 crore person days have been generated across the country .In 2009-10, 5.25 crore and in 2010-11, 4.425 crore households have been provided employment. During the current financial year, it has provided employment to 3.78 crore households and generated 120.88 crore person days of employment up to 8^th feb 2012. In total, the MGNREGA was generated 861.99 crore person days of employment from its inception. The Act has inaugurated a remarkable process for the empowerment of the poor. The Act is particularly a tool of empowerment for the most vulnerable sections of the village communities as they are also victims of social exclusion and political marginalization. The downtrodden people of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe live below poverty line were provided an employment of 413.97 person days which constitutes 48 percent to the total employment provided.

Relevance of the Study

Several empirical studies are supports that available on the role of MGNREGA in achieving livelihood security and promoting sustainable development. These studies depicts that MGNREGA programme has shown mixed results so for in rural India. Ratnam. Sudarshan (2010) reports that improved productivity were encounter in the course of the field work, in one panchayat in Kerala, it was reported that a large tank restoration job in 2007 turned single crop rice fields into double crop areas. Harish. et.al (2011) report that the MGNREGA was improved the labour scarcity for agriculture, and labour availability before MGNREGA implementation was 1.9 of person days, with a labour scarcity of 32.14 percent. With the implementation of the programme, the labour availability was of 0.3 person days only, which lead to acute labour scarcity of 89.29 percent. Thus the absolute scarcity due to MGNREGA was of 51.14 percent

Need and Significance of the Study

The study conducted in Nuapada, Orissa and Sidhi, Madhya Pradesh observed the impact of assets by looking mainly at the people’s perceptions about the long-term impacts of the Act on their livelihoods. The study validates that assets created under MGNREGA have been conducive to the geographical-ecological environment, have been useful and have contributed towards natural resource regeneration. There has also been an increase in the net irrigated area in sample districts; around 55 percent of the respondents reported an increase of 371.6 acres (150.4 hectares) under crops. (CSE.,2009)

The study conducted in Karnataka (Bidar and Davangere districts) Kerala (Pallakad and Wayanad districts),in Uttar Pradesh (Mirzapur and Gorakhpur districts) and Jharkhand (Godda and Saraikela Kharsawan districts) suggests that works under MGNREGA have stabilized existing cropping cycles through the timely provision of water as well as increased the gross cropped area by retaining enough soil moisture and irrigation water for a second or even third crop. Mahatma Gandhi NREGA has become a very important instrument for maintaining a large number of public assets wearing off for want of repair. Work on public land foregrounds the question of rights to resources. The labour of the landless poor earns those wages but does it create rights to use the benefits generated from their labour. Mahatma Gandhi NREGA is actually showing a way, providing an opportunity to redeem the tragedy of the commons (ISWSD., 2006)

An ecological act is one of the best features of the MGNREGA as it designates a balance between human action and natural resources creating a sustainable economic security through green jobs. MGNREGA has also been able to contribute to ecological restoration through its design. According to findings of a pilot study conducted by the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (2010) in Chitradurga district of Karnataka, there is an increase in groundwater level, increase in water percolation, and an improvement in soil fertility leading to improved land productivity. In addition to these findings, there has also been a reduction in water vulnerability and livelihood vulnerability in these areas. The study indicates that MGNREGA has some in-built limitations such as only a focus on employment, activities not implemented according to a plan, spatially or time-wise, and disconnected and scattered implementation of activities to name a few. But many of the MGNREGA activities still have the potential to provide environmental services, conserve and enhance natural resources (soil, water, and grass and forest resources).

So there is a need to identify such full-proof activities that improve the soil, water, grass and forest resources, even without micro-plans or watershed plans. Investment in Mahatma Gandhi NREGA activities, given the scale and importance, should lead to sustained flow of benefits such as employment, income, water supply, food and grass production. And suggests the policy makers to improve the MGNREGA works to contribute the sustainable development rural India.

Methodology

The secondary data available in the Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Tamil Nadu and Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation Government of India, web site (www.MGNREGA.nic.in) are used for the purpose of the study .The Block statistical Handbook of Usilampatty and the village “G” returns of the Usilampatty block are also used for analysis. The data related to the financial year 2009-10, 2010-11, 2011-12, and Agricultural Fasali year 1418, 1419, 1420 data are used for the study purpose.

Objectives of the Study

· To explain the Quantum of Employment Generated.

· To measure the participation of Vulnerable group of people in the rural areas in the MGNREGA scheme

· To analyze the effect of watershed works of MGNREGA on Cultivation area of irrigated crops.

· To suggest the policy makers to frame the better polices related to MGNREGA.

Area of the Study

The study was carried out in Usilampatty block of Madurai district , which is a backward area of Madurai district and a Rain–fed block, and which is not covered under system tank irrigation schemes of Periyar –Vaigai river Basin. The block has 20 revenue villages and 131 habitations (block statistical hand book 2009-10). The total geographical area of the block is 25,841 hectare which constitutes 7 % of Madurai district. The total cropped area of the block constitutes 35 % (9170 hectares) of the total geographical area of the block .The major crops cultivated the block is paddy, cholam, cumbu, cotton and sugarcane. The rain-fed crops like cholam, cumbu, pulses and oilseeds are grown in this block. The block has 3 large tanks and 28 small village tanks (kanmai) and 4319 dug wells are the source of irrigation for the agricultural cultivation (2010). The people were unemployed and are migrating to other states for employment during lean season. This block was selected for the purpose to show the impacts of watershed works done by MGNREGA in area of cultivation.

MGNREGA Works in the study area:

According to 2001 population data of the study the women represents only 48 percent but they receives 69 percent of employment says that they are the real beneficiaries of the scheme.

Employment generated under MGNREGA Watershed works in Usilampatty Block.

Year	Household demanded Employment	Household provided Employment	Household completed 100 days of Employment	Employment Generated (in person days)
Year	Household demanded Employment	Household provided Employment	Household completed 100 days of Employment	SC	ST	Others	Total	Women
09-10	14207	14195	1040 (7)*	93439	123	569179	662741	487288
10-11	19169	18590	1075 (6)	113445	415	776914	890801	595934
11-12	16680	16045	27 (2)	54641	45	328276	382962	258573
Total	50056	48830	2142 (4)	261525	583	1674396	1936504	1341795

*Figures with in the parentheses indicate percentage to total

** source www.mgnrega.nic.in

The MGNREGA has generated 19.36 lakhs of person days for the last three years and it has provided 13.42 lakhs of employment to women which represent 69 percent to the total. 2.61 lakhs of employment to schedule caste people which represents 13 percent to the total person days. It is interesting to record that the first foremost aim of providing 100 days employment of the scheme was not fulfilled in the study area. So far the scheme has provided 100 days of employment for only 4 percent of the demanded households. During the current financial year, it is only 2 percent.

Creation of Productive and Durable Assets in Rural Areas:

Land and water bodies centric MGNREGA is a growth engine for sustainable development of an agricultural economy. Through the process of providing employment on works that address causes of chronic poverty such as drought, deforestation and soil erosion, the act seeks to strengthen the natural resource base of rural livelihood and create durable assets in rural areas effectively implemented MGNREGA has the potential to transform the geography of poverty.

PANCHAYAT WISE MGNREGA WORKS AND EXPENDITURE- USILAMPATTY BLOCK 2009-2011

In the three financial year around 244 works were undertaken in the block and an amount of Rs.1404.31 lacs were spent for these works, out of 244 works only five works to the tune of Rs. 12.90 Lacs were spent for rural road connectivity, all the remaining amount were earmarked for watershed works like renovation of traditional water bodies(214), water conservation and water harvesting(23) and micro irrigation(2).

(Rs in lacs)

Sl.No	Name of the Village Panchayats	2009-10			2010-2011			2011-12
Sl.No	Name of the Village Panchayats	No.of works	Labour Expenditure	Material Expenditure	No.of works	Labour Expenditure	Material Expenditure	No.of works	Labour Expenditure	Material Expenditure
1	Alligundam	3	15.09403	0	5	40.4667	0	7	24.798	0
2	Thoddappanaickanur	3	28.16925	0	6	46.1887	0	6	24.534	0
3	Erumarpatty	4	11.25025	0	4	34.3539	0	5	16.865	0
4	Jothilnayakkanur	3	12.31397	0	4	12.5117	0	4	8.5532	0
5	Kalluthu	1	29.2324	0	5	60.1937	0	5	27.454	0
6	Keeripatty	1	7.35005	0	2	19.1476	0	3	14.502	0
7	Manoothu	2	10.57855	0	3	21.0626	0	4	6.2109	0
8	Meikkilarpatty	3	22.72345	0	3	42.619	0	4	29.075	0
9	Naduppatty	3	32.95769	0	4	68.7388	0	6	33.961	0
10	Nakkalapatty	3	20.62895	0	5	44.2622	0	6	17.34	0
11	Nalluthevanpatt	4	15.3363	0	7	19.0214	0	8	11.197	0.006
12	Pothampatty	4	21.04365	0	5	48.4967	0	6	15.925	0
13	Raajakkapatti	6	13.19075	0	7	38.8087	0	8	16.726	0
14	Seemanuthu	4	21.88898	0	4	26.9708	0	5	13.224	0
15	Thimmanatham	3	28.2983	0	5	57.1622	0	6	27.883	0
16	Uthappanaickkanur	2	28.8938	0	3	55.3462	0	5	29.62	0
17	Vadugapatty	3	8.88526	0	5	22.2899	0	5	5.2842	0
18	Vagurani	5	27.2636	0	8	47.4274	0	9	17.992	0
	TOTAL	57	355.0992	0	85	705.07	0	102	341.15	0.006

*sources www.mgnrega.nic.in

In the total expenditure of 1403.31 lacs only Rs.6000 was spent on material, the remaining 1041.25 lacs was spent for labour. The act guideline provides 60% allotment for labour and 40% for material, but in the study area more than 99 percent of the fund was spent to labour as wage. An average each work has taken for more than Rs.5.74 lacs. In all the three years each village panchayat got more than 77.80 lacs under MENRGEA scheme.

Details of the cropped area of the Usilampatty Block

Sl.NO	Fasali year	Cropped area		Total	% of irrigated area to total	Rainfall
Sl.NO	Fasali year	Irrigated	Un irrigated	Total	% of irrigated area to total	Rainfall
1	1418	4221	6116	10337	40.83	880.6
2	1419	4187	3702	7889	53.07	803.1
3	1420	4811	4360	9170	52.46	1204.0

Source, Block Statistical Handbook of Usilampatty, 2009, 2010, 2011.

The share of irrigated area to the total cultivated area during the year 2008-09 was 41 percent; it has increased to 53 percent in the year 2009-10, where the total rainfall decreased to 803.1(-73.5) mm. The overall cultivation area has decreased to 24 percent when compare to previous year, thus the negative effect was not affected the irrigated crops due to the proper storage of the village tanks because of the renovation works of MGNREGA. 620 hectares of irrigated corps has increased due to rainfall as well as the works done by MGNREGA in the year 2010-11.

USILAMPATTY BLOCK VILLAGE WISE IRRIGATED AREAS

Slno	Name of the Revenue Village	2008-09		2009-10		2010-11
	Name of the Revenue Village	AREA (in hectares)	% to Total cropped area	AREA(in hectares)	% to Total cropped area	AREA(in hectares)	% to Total cropped area
1	Alligundam	248.02.0	35	430.18.0	71	236.0605	39
2	Thoddappanaickanur	691.68.5	67	702.17.0	60	815.62.0	65
3	Erumarpatty	89.16.0	19	83.03.5	24	196.51.5	39
4	Jothilnayakkanur	85.34.5	23	94.89.0	24	135.77.0	36
5	Kalluthu	275.21.5	56	265.23.0	70	236.28.5	75
6	Keeripatty	63.88.0	28	71.31.0	48	75.81.0	50
7	Manoothu	101.12.0	21	117.79.5	32	153.75.5	20
8	Meikkilarpatty	52.44.5	19	76.04.5	50	47.96.5	32
9	Naduppatty	316.20.0	57	329.69.0	60	300.65.0	53
10	Nakkalapatty	434.67.0	58	277.26.5	90	425.87.0	85
11	Nalluthevanpatty	147.65.5	35	149.12.0	73	129.17.0	71
12	Pothampatty	484.02.5	38	387.22.5	47	546.01.0	68
13	Usilampatty	263.78.5	44	291.74.0	47	298.18.0	36
14	Seemanuthu	137.11.0	40	177.06.0	51	225.98.5	67
15	Thimmanatham	202.45	47	116.19	42	237.48	58
16	Uthappanaickkanur	287.72.0	55	224.90.0	56	300.97.0	79
17	Vagurani	183.56.5	23	163.88.5	33	295.14.0	49
18	Ayan Mattuppaty	23.12.0	16	66.40.0	69	51.11.5	42
19	Sikkampatty	58.77.0	37	66.23.5	66	47.63.5	48
20	Thummalappaty	75.34.0	41	96.32.5	74	54.66.0	42
	TOTAL	4221.26	---	4186.69	1087	4810.6455	-
	Rainfall	880.6		803.1		1204.0

Source, Village “G” Return.

Irrigated crops area was increases every year in all the tested villages except three villages. In the year 2009 – 10 the area of irrigated crops in eight villages has increased more than 20 percent, five villages increased more than 10 percent when compare to the previous year even the rainfall of the block was less than the previous year. In the year 2010 –11 the area of irrigated crops in ten villages were increased more than 20 percent and in four villages increased more than 10 percent when compared to the year 2008 – 09. More than 70 % of the villages the area of irrigated crops were increased in the study area due to the increase in the storage level of village tanks which was renovated under MGNREGA works.

The four villages namely Alligundam, Meikkilarpatty, Nalluthevarpatty and Ayanmattupatty the irrigation area was doubled during the year 2000–10 when compare to previous year. The investment in village tank renovation in these villages during the year 2009 –10 was 80.40 lac, the work were started during the month of June, July, August and has made the way to store the rainwater of October, November, December of that year, this has made change in the cultivation area of irrigated crops in these villages. This increased area of cultivation has increased the productivity of the village as well as the economic status of these village farmers. So, there is an evidence to proof that the MGNREGA has contributed much for the livelihood security of the village as well as the food security of the Nation.

Findings of the Study:

· MGNREGEA has provided employment to 1936504 person days, and it has provided more employment to the women and Scheduled caste people.

* MGNREGEA has created Durable Natural assets in the study area; this investment on durable assets has increased the area of irrigated crops.

* The area of cultivation has been doubled in some villages and majority of the villages the cultivation area was increased due to MGNREGA works in the study area.

· MGNREGEA has not provided 100 days of employment even those demanded employment. The beneficiaries are employed 100 days are very meager.

· The works taken up in this study area has provided 99 percent labour component which is more than the guidelines of MGNREGA.

Conclusion:

The great significance of MGNREGA comes from its potential in reduction of poverty and its continuous income. As it is an employment guarantee focused on asset creating works that are labour intensive. Thus it can deal with problems of employment, rural development and agricultural growth simultaneously. The Act makes it mandatory that the total cost incurred by a panchayat 60 percent towards wage employment and 40 percent towards material cost, where as in the study area it has contributed near about 100 percent labour component. But at the same time the villagers never got 100 days of employment even they demanded for it. They got only 39 days of work, and they were not at all paid any unemployment allowance too. So rural livelihood security is of the block still is in problem. Much of what needs to be done to develop rain-fed areas is labour intensive and would create large scale employment and reduce poverty in villages on the way to opening the doors to rural prosperity. Introducing the adequately funding and appropriately implementing the systematical revised plans for the MGNREGA works relates to watershed schemes to create and unlearn the requisite productive capacities for advancing agricultural growth to provide employment opportunity and remove the poverty in rural India.

References:

Ambasta,P.,Shah, Mihir., and Vijayasankar.,P.S.2008 “Two years of NREGA:The Road Ahead” Economic and Political Weekly,February23.

Amita Shah and Sunny Jose”Asset creation and local economy under NREGs:Scope and Challengs” Working Paper No.193. April 2009.

An Assessment of the Performance of The National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme in Terms of its Potential for Creation of Natural Wealth in India’s Villages, by Center for Science and Environment, 2009.

Environmental Services, Vulnerability Reduction and Natural Resource Conservation from Mahatma Gandhi NREGA Activities, by Indian Institute of Science Supported by GIZ in 2010.

Harish.B.G., Nagaraj.N., Chandrakanth.M.G,, Srikanth.P.S., Murthy., Chengappa.P.G., and Basvaraj.G (2011) “Impacts and Implications of MGNREGA on labour supply and Income generation for Agriculture in Central Dry Zone of Karnataka” . Agricultural Economics Research Review vol.24.(conference number ) 2011 , pp. 485-494 .

‘Impact Of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme On The Living And Working Conditions Of Women In Rural India’, ISWSD, June 2006.

Prasanta Bauri ”NREGA:Growth of sustainable rural economy and livelihood security-a case study of purulia district” Economic Affairs:vol-55 No.2 june,2010 p 168-179.

Ratna. M..Sudarshan., 2010 . SAP working paper . “Examining the MGNREGA : Women’ s participation and impacts in Himachal Pradesh , Kerala and Rajasthan , India”.

Report of Minor Irrigation and Watershed Management for the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.

Statistical Handbook-Usilampatty Block 2008-09,09-10,10-11.

‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Science, Vol. 162 No. 3859, Hardin, Garett, December 1968. Hardin’s article raised the question of depletion of common resources that seemed inevitable with the exponential growth of population.

Village G Return Usilampatty Block Fasali 1418,1419,1420.

www.nrega.nic.in

Role of “Uzhavar Sandhai” (Farmers Market) in Agricultural Marketing – A study S.Krishnan –Research scholar Dept of Applied Research, GRI. maduraisuki@gmail.com

2011-12-20T17:25:00.000-08:00

Role of “Uzhavar Sandhai” (Farmers Market) in

Agricultural Marketing – A study S.Krishnan –Research scholar Dept of Applied Research, GRI. maduraisuki@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Key words : Uzhavar Sandhai, Farmers market, Basic amenities, Agricultural marketing, Assistant Agricultural officers.

Introduction :

The issue concerning small agricultural producers figures prominently in the global discussions about poverty reduction as the majority of the world’s poor belongs to such households. The opportunity for farmers particularly small and marginal farmers to raise their incomes from agricultural production, natural resource management, and related rural enterprises increasingly depends on their ability to successfully participate in the market place exchanges. Lack of information on prices and technologies high transaction costs, and credit constraints make it difficult for farmers to take advantage of the market. The farmers welfare directly depends up on the income generated from agricultural produce. This income would be high or low depend upon the nature of the price discovered in the market for the produce. The farmers often not participate in determining the price and instead the middlemen and agents do it. This threatens the daily livelihoods of the farmers, they search for better sources of income outside agriculture. This leads to sale of land, which ultimately drives the agricultural labour force out of employment. The other side of the story is that due to the low prices received for their produce, farmers are sometimes compelled to give very low wages to the labourers. So the problems of fair price, better market place, better quality, correct weighment of goods and facility to store and transport goods etc., have to be addressed.

If these problems are solved, then one can be assured that major hurdles in the way of better fortune for the farmers will be removed. To address the above problems, the farmers market (Uzhavar Sandhai) concept is evolved and implemented in Tamilnadu in 1999 at Madurai. This paper attempts to focus on the daily dynamics of first opened” Uzhavar Sandhai” at Madurai to understand how it makes significant changes in farmer’s standard of living.

Origin of the concept of farmers Market (Uzhavar Sandhai) :

Realizing the gravity of the problems in marketing agricultural produce, in 1928 the Royal Commission on Agriculture, emphasized the need for strengthening the agricultural marketing system to safeguard the interest of Indian farmers. The report on National Commission an Agriculture 1976, stated that during the Sale of agricultural produce as much as 50 percent of the consumers share goes to the middle men and less than 70 percent reaches the farmer. Many research studies have also confirmed this and concluded that the “Price spread” is very large, particularly for horticultural crops including vegetables. Many policy decisions such as issue price and minimum support price announced periodically to protect food grain growers. Unfortunately vegetable growers have been left to the wobble of fate and the Uzhavar Sandai’s have been expected to provide relief to the vegetable growers.

Direct marketing is a long felt need of the farmers and consumers of the country as it goes a long way in ensuring higher remuneration to the farmers and meeting the satisfaction level of the consumers through direct sale of the agricultural commodity by the farmers to the consumer at affordable prices. Direct marketing of agricultural produce helps in complete elimination of middlemen and commission agents who charge high level of commission fee from the farmers, coming to the market yards for selling their produce and then artificially inflate the retail prices. Marketing of fruits and vegetables is more complex in nature in comparison with the other crops because of special traits like highly perishable nature, seasonality and bulkiness, which needs special care and immediate disposal. The marketing system for fruits and vegetables is now in the hands of middle men. Middlemen exist at various levels between the farmers and the consumers and exploit through malpractice in weighing, handling and payments. Large number of small farmers are unable to effectively bargain for better prices in the wholesale market. Large number of farmen each handling small quantities, creates high overheads leading to high margin on produce. It is therefore, felt necessary to evolve an alternative marketing strategy where both growers and consumers are benefited through farmers market.

The idea of setting up a farmers market exclusively for selling vegetables grown by the local growers was conceived in the early 1990’s by former Union agricultural Secretary, M.S., Gill. It is reported that Kal ghoj;’ a farmers market, was started way back in 1975 exclusively to sell vegetables and spinach in the former Soviet Union. During the visit to UK, Gill found that farmers were selling fresh and green vegetables on the roadside on a collective basis at a high premium and the market was quiet busy. After a detailed investigation, he found that the farmers directly sold their produce to the consumers without middlemen or commission agents. Immediately on his return to India, he successfully set up “Apna Mandies’ in Punjab and Haryana where the farmers were allowed to sell their produce. Noticing their success the union ministry of agriculture suggested to other states to follow suit. Only Andhra Pradesh took heed and started the “ryothu bazaar. In Tamil Nadu, too the concept of starting farmers market “UZHAVAR SANDAI” was prepared by the agricultural marketing secretary of the state and started at Mdurai in 1999. Now there are 141 Uzhavar Sandaies are functioning in Tamilnadu and everyday an average of the 1010 MT of vegetable and fruits worth Rs.1 crore is being brought and sold by 75,000 farmers, an average benefiting 1,90,000 consumers.

Definition of Farmers Market :

There are many definitions of what constitutes a ‘farmer’ market” However, common characteristics that are generally understood by those developing and promoting these kind of marketing outlets are contained in the following definition, farmers selling agricultural products they raise or create to individual customers at a temporary location on a periodical and / or recurrent basis during the local growing season (Brown, 2001) Farmers markets can range from small markets held once a week with a few vendors to large weekend events with hundreds of vendors and crowds in the thousands” (Hamilton, 2002)

Aim of Uzhavar Sandhai :

· To facilitate direct contact between farmers and public.

· To provide fresh vegetables and fruits at reasonable price daily without any interference of middlemen

· To provide correct measurement to the consumers

· To give full satisfaction to the farmers and public

· To aim for providing higher price than that of wholesale price to the farmers for their vegetable and fruits.

· To provide the fresh fruits and vegetables at the lesser price than that of retail price to consumers.

· The Uzhavar Sandhai also functions as a Technical information centre to the farmers.

· It also acts as a Technical Training Centre to the farmers

· Seeds and other inputs are also provided in some Uzhavar Santhai’s

Administration of farmers market :

The markets are under the administration of the local Agricultural Marketing Committee, and eligible farmers are selected by officials from the departments of agriculture and horticulture in feeder villages located within a 40 – kilometer radius from each market. Officials seconded to the markets are responsible for ensuring that only genuine farmers attended to do so, they issue them with photo- identity cards and cards specifying the produce they are allowed to sell in the market. Both cards are checked daily when farmers arrive at the market. A Committee, which includes officials and farmers representatives, is charged with fixing the maximum prices allowed in the market. These are based on the conventional market system and are 15 to 20 percent above central market prices, which corresponds to about 20 percent less than retail prices. The markets are constantly supervised to ensure that price ceilings are respected, business hours are usually between 6.30 am to 2 pm.

Construction costs for the markets are covered by the local Agricultural Marketing Committee and the District Rural Development agency. Land is provided by local government. Waste Management is provided by voluntary organizations which recover their costs through parking fees, the market’s canteen profits and the recycling of green waste. In addition, transport corporation buses, which were re-routed to provide early morning direct connections between feeder villages and their designated market.

Review of related literature:

Various studies have been made to analyse the functions and impacts of farmers market. Bhale Rao. et. al (1981) reports that paying rent and establishing a shop is generally out of reach of the small farmers, getting place with basic amenities to sell their products without rent is a boon for them, provision of weighing scales by the marketing committee also relieve them from the botheration of bringing their own scales. Salim et. al (2008) revealed that most of the farmer sellers are taking decision regarding marketing their produce after having consultation with their family members accompany and assist the farmer sellers in marketing their products in farmers market and thus marketing the agricultural produce becomes a family venture. It also reports that fruit sellers earn more than vegetable seller in U.S. the vegetable sellers earn Rs.100 per day where as the fruits sellers earn Rs.200 per day as profit.

Rengasay et. al (2003) reports that farmers market provide the opportunity to sell vegetables previously not marketed either because they were considered as “weeds” in the villages, as in the case of greens, or because the production volume was so small that they were used only for household consumption. Hence, even the farmers with little access to resources have been able to increase their incomes.

Rudra Saibaba and Suresh vadde (2009) says that the quality of vegetables as good this is the major influencing factor for purchase at farmers market and also reports that the price vegetables at farmers market are generally cheap. Murali Kallummal and Sakthi Srinivasan.K (2007) observed that the majority of women used to bring in less than 50 kgs daily to the sandhai, when the relationship test is examined it is found that the land size and quantity brought in are significantly related. Lydia oberholizer and shelly grow (2003) reports that Farmers Markets are also a good way for farmers to develop entrepreneurial and business skills, expand their business, and build a customer base.

Area of the Study :

The first Uzhavar Sandhai (U.S) of the State was inaugurated by the former Chief Minister of Tamilnadu, at Madurai as “ANNA NAGAR UZHAVAR SANDHAI” on 14.11.1999. This first started US is taken for the purpose of the study. This U.S. is administrated by an Agricultural Officer with 3 Assistant Agricultural Officers and with 3 securities. It has 478 registered farmers and 130 shopes, 80 Electronic Balance and 14 ordinary weighing stones for farmers usage. It also have two women self help group shops and one aavin stall and one Tantee shop to serve the early morning essential items to the consumers.

Objective of the Study :

1) To study the Socio-Economic conditions, and the land holding size of the farmers who come to U.S.

2) To Analysis the type and quantity of the commodities with distance covered to reach the U.S.

3) To study the amenities provided in the US by Government and the problems encountered by farmers in the U.S.

Methodology :

Data Collection :

This study is based on survey method. Data has been collected from both primary and secondary sources. For collecting primary data, a sample of 62 farmers who participated in the Market activities were selected through convenience sampling method. The primary data was collected from 50 percent of the farmers attended on the Survey data. On the day of survey (6.11.2011) 124 farmers were turned to the market out of which 62 farmers were interviewed. A structured questionnaire was prepared and administered among the farmers to collect the primary data. The data has been collected by interviewing the selected farmers with the help of questionnaires at Madurai Anna Nagar Uzhavar Sandhai. Secondary data is collected from news papers, journals, and magazines and through internal discussion with officials of Agricultural Marketing department of Tamilnadu.

Limitation of the study :

Thus study is restricted to only 62 farmers turned to the market on the date of survey, the sample size is small, the results of the study may not represents those of whole universe. The result of the study is restricted to Anna Nagar Ulavar Sandhai, Madurai.

Amenities available in the Markets :

The market has 130 shops which can be occupied by 360 farmers at a time, each shop will provided one Electronic balance, apart from that, a canteen and one public latrine and enough space to park vehicles are available in the market, one District Central Co-operative Bank is also functioning in the complex for the convenient of the farmers. Seven corporation buses were also covers the feeder the villages by 4.30 am and reaches market by 5.30 am this buses will not charge cost for lagguages of the farmers. Apart from that a voluntary organization named NACKS is taking care of cleaning and maintaining the market, canteen vehicle parking and the public latrine.

The shop will be allotted every day by using lottory method, a box containing the number of the shop will be put in the public place, the farmers can select the shop from the box after the completion of their identity card verification. The Agricultural Marketing officials will visit wholesale Market in the early morning 4.30 am and fix the price every day in consultation with the committee members. The price of the commodity will be displayed in every shop. The Agricultural Marketing officials are responsible for fixing price, allotting shops and displaying the prices and supervising the market.

Analysis of Data and Results :

Table No.1 Arrivals of vegetables, Farmers, consumers from 1999-2011.

S.No	Year	Vegetables and fruits sold (quintal)	Value Rs. In lakh	Average rate per kg column 4/3	Farmers	Consumers
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)		(5)	(6)
1)	1999 (Nov,Dec)	9805.32	63.13	6.43	7142	248172
2)	2000	81477.01	530.17	6.51	61182	1989631
3)	2001	10304.30	605.27	5.87	59133	1846631
4)	2002	60950.27	570.40	9.36	56916	1547072
5)	2003	60020.29	623.99	9.35	57024	589348
6)	2004	86012.39	996.31	11.58	57247	2089803
7)	2005	99985.55	1179.51	11.80	53660	2442633
8)	2006	85571.37	938.64	10.97	51802	1699233
9)	2007	103205.90	1123.79	10.89	55070	1721049
10)	2008	143124.25	1107.30	7.74	52404	2174357
11)	2009	147415.06	2598.21	17.39	53354	2513617
12)	2010	120238.85	3088.30	26.68	4970	2302236
13)	2011 (upto Sep)	100042.05	2048.78	20.47	34346	1670453
14)	Total	1110152.61	15473.80	13.94	648980	22834235

Source : Uzhavar Sandhai – Anna Nagar records.

The table, shows the detail information about the farmers, consumers visited the US and the quantum of vegetables sold in the market and its value. The market has sold around, 11,10,153 quaintals of vegetables to the value of 15,474 lakhs rupes. It has helped to 6,48,980 farmers to market their commodities and served to 2,28,34,235 consumers from its inception. It also shows that the farmers, customers, arrivals were steadily increased from 1999 to 2009, there is a fall in arrivals, farmers and consumers due to the opening of a wholesale and retail market within the radius of 2 km (Mattuthavani) but at the same time the value has not decreased due to price raise in the year 2009.

The prices of all commodities including vegetables were increased two to three times during the year 2009 and 2010 when compare to the previous years. This is due to raise in the prices of all inputs including labour.

Table 2 Agewise and sexwise distribution of farmers

Sl.No	Sex	0-30	31-40	41-50	51-60	61 and above	Total	Percentage
1	Male	2	9	7	6	3	27	44
2	Female	2	13	9	6	5	35	56
3	Total	4(6)	19(31)	16(26)	12(19)	8(13)	62	100

Source : Primary data.

The table 2 shows the age wise and sexwise distribution, 56 percent of the respondents were female and the remaining are male, 57 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 31 – 50 which is the main working force of the village. It is interesting to note that 13 percent of the respondents in the age group of 61 and above are still doing the manual work due to their poor economic conditions, and that 8 percent of the interviewed respondents are women in the age group of 61 and above.

Table 3 Distance trvelled by the farmers to reach the Market (in Km)

Type	0-10 km	11-20 km	21-30 km	31-40 km	41 and arms	Total
Respondents	9	11	33	1	8	62
Percentage	15	18	53	1	13	100

Source : Primary Data

The Table 3 analyse the distance traveled by the respondents to reach the market, 53 percents of the respondents travel 21 – 30 km daily to reach the market. 13 percent of the respondents travel morethan 41 km to reach the market, in this group 50 percent are from Kodaikkanal of Dindigul district and sells English vegetables.

Table 4 Family size of the Respondents

Type	0-2	3-5	6-10	10+	Total
Respondents	4	45	12	1	62
Percentage	6	73	19	2	100

Source : Primary Data

The table 3 shows the family size of the Respondents. Majority of the respondents belongs to the family size of 3 – 5 members which represents the national average family size of 4.5.

Table 5 Land Holdings of the farmers and ownership

Type ownership	Lessthan one acre	1-2 acre	9-5 acres	5 and above	Total	Percentage
Owned	4	9	25	12	50	81
Leased	1	-	1	2	4	6
Owned + leased	-	2	2	3	7	11
Others	-	-	1	-	1	2
Total	5(8)	11(18)	29(47)	17(27)	62	100

Source : Primary Data

The Table 5 shows that 81 percent of the respondents are land owners, only 6 percent are leased, 11 percent are both owned and leased. Majority of the respondents are (holding less than 5 acres) small farmers, 26 percent are marginal farmers, and 17 percent are holding more than 5 acres.

Table No. 6 Availability of Electricity in the respondents village

Type	Lessthan 6 hours	6-10	11-15	15 and above	No idea	Total
Respondents	5	24	20	11	2	62
Percentage	8	39	32	18	3	100

Source : Primary Data

Table No.6 reveals the power supply available in the village. Majority of the respondents reports that the power supply is up to 10 hours per day. 32 percent reports it is upto 15 hours only, 18 percent reports that sufficient power supply is available in the village for their cultivation purpose. 3 percent has no idea because they are not using Electricity for their cultivation.

Table No.7 Vegetables sold by the farmers in the market :

Type	Single	Two	Four	Six	Total
Respondents	11	12	29	10	62
Percentage	18	19	47	16	100

Source : Primary Data

Table 7 shows the number of vegetables sold by the farmers, majority of the farmers sells four types of vegetables every day, 19 percent sells two vegetables, 18 percent sells single vegetables, 16 percent sells up to six vegetables a day.

Table No.8 Awareness about the market

	Agri Dept	News paper	Total
Respondents	60	2	62
Percentage	97	3	100

Source : Primary Data

The Table 8 shows the awareness about the market, this market is started in first time, so the Agricultural Dept., field staff went to the village selected farmers from village. So 97 percent of the farmers are coming to the market in this way, only 3 percent came to the market by knowing from News paper.

Table No. 9 years of Attending the market by farmers

Type	1-4 years	5-8 years	9 and above	Total
Respondents	1	3	58	62
Percentage	2	5	93	100

Service : Primary Data

The Table 9 shows the details about the farmers those who are attending the market, 93 percent of the Farmers were attending the market for 1999 onwards only 7 percent came to the market very late by4 to 8 years.

Table No. 10 Quantity of Vegetables sold by the farmers in the Market every day.

Type	0-50 kg	51-100 kg	101-150 kg	151-200 kg	201 +	Total
Respondents	22	17	18	3	2	62
Percentage	36	27	29	5	3	100

Source : Primary Data

Table No.10, shows the quantity vegetables sold by the farmers everyday in the market, majority of the respondents sells 50 kg per day, 27 percent of respondents sells 100 kg per day, 29 percents sells 150 kg per day, only 3 percent sells more than 200 kg per day.

Table No.11 Profit earned everyday when compare to wholesale market

Type	Rs 0-200	201-400	401-600	601-800	801+	Total
Respondents	5	23	17	13	4	62
Percentage	8	37	27	21	7	100

Source : Primary Data

The table 11 shows the profit earned by the farmers every day, majority of farmers earn Rs.201 to 400 every day as profit, 27 percent earn 401 to 600, 21 percent earn up to 800 per day, very small portion of respondents (5) receives only up to Rs.200 per day, mostly they sells only greens in the market.

Table 12 Impact of Uzhavar Sandhai

Sex	Loan repaid	Savings increased	Education of children	Land, houses purchased	Marriage of children	Over all economic develop ments	More than one benefit listed 2-6	No change	Total
1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Male	3	4	6	4	1	4	3	1	27
Female	1	3	2	6	6	8	7	2	35
Total	4	7	8	10	7	12	10	3	62
Percentage	6	12	13	16	12	20	16	5	100

Source : Primary Data

The Table No.12 shows the impact of Uzhavar Sandhai in the farmers life, 20 percent of the respondents reports that their over all economic condition improved due to marketing their commodity in U.S. 16 percent told that they have benefited more than one benefit listed in the Table, another 16 percent reports that they have purchased new land or constructed a new house, 13 percent reports that they are in a position to Educate their children, 12 percent reports that they were in a position to do marriage to their children, 12 percent reported that they have increased their savings and 6 percent reports that they have repaid their loan. Only 5 percent reported negatively that due to the increasing cost of various input no change has been taken place in their life.

Table No.13 previous working conditions of the farmers

Type	Farmers	Agri coolly	Other coolly works	Construction workers	Others	Total
Respondents	36	12	7	2	5	62
Percentage	58	20	11	3	8	100

Source Primary data

The Table 13 shows the details about the previous working conditions of the farmers, 58 percent of them are still farmers only, 20 percent were previously worked as Agricultural cooly, 11 percent as other cooly, 3 percent are engaged in construction works, 8 percent were others including unemployed and in education, they now engaged in selling their products by way of purchasing / leasing land.

Table No. 14 Suggestions for improvement

Type	Improvement in surroundings	Latrine	Bus facilities	Extension of time limit	Total
Respondents	23	07	20	12	62
Percentage	37	11	32	20	100

Source : Primary data.

Table No.14 shows the suggestions made by the farmers for improvement of the market, 37 percent of the respondents reports that the surrounding of the market needs some improvement so that the market hygiene will be maintained, 32 percent reported that the bus facility arranged in the morning may be extended in the closing hours, 20 percent reported that the time limit of the closing of the market may be extended, 11 percent reported that the latrine needs some maintenance.

Table 15 Daily and monthly Attendance of farmers in the market

Type	MONTHLY				YEARLY
Sex	1-20 days	21-30	Total	Percentage	Less than 6 months	6-9	9-12	Total	Percentage
Male	6	21	27	44	--	1	26	27	44
Female	5	30	35	56	1	1	33	35	56
Total	11	51	62	100	1	2	59	62	100
Percentage	18	82	100	--	2	3	95	100	--

Source : Primary Data

The table 15 shows the details of the farmers regular attendance to the market, 82 percent of the farmers attend regularly to the market except festival days, only 18 percent attended up to 20 days a month due to the availability of the vegetables they grow. 95 percent of the farmers attend the market all the months of the year, few person (5) attend the market for only up to nine months in a year. This table shows that the farmer has planned a cultivation calendar so that they can attend the market regularly without any gap, it is interesting to note that few farmers are attending the market by adopting crop rotation in their field and some farmers are maintained to attended the market by getting vegetables from the other farmers of the village to some extend, they also get it from the wholesale market during cultivation gap, but they are regularly attending the market.

Finding of the study :

· This market is started in 1999, 90 percent of the farmers are attending the market regularly from the date of its inception without any break, this shows that marketing at U.S is profitable to the farmers.

· From observation and discussion it is interesting to note that, among the 62 farmers 50 farmers are marketing only their own produce, by adopting cultivation calendar, crop rotation. Around 22 farmers were attending the market even in cultivation holidays by making their own arrangement of getting from the fellow growers those who are not coming to the market and also from wholesale market. This is the prevailing condition of the U.S of Anna Nagar, Madurai.

· Aged women (above 61) are also regularly attending the market to sell their products.

· Female farmers dominates in the market participation, a lady aged around 65, says that coming to the US helps not only to earn money but also to stop the unwanted expenditure done by their male family members, while attending wholesale markets. She also says that it has given the empowerment to maintain a family with 20 members.

· Farmers from Sivagangai, Dindigul are also participating in the market.

· Farmers opinion is so good about the Agricultural Department staff, as well as consumers cooperation.

· The farmers economic conditions have improved very much, all the interviewed farmers except 3 were reported that they have socially and Economically improved,.

· The farmers earn minimum of Rs.200 to 800 per day from US as profit, 5 persons earn only 200 a day because they sell only greens in the market which needs minimum investment.

· Among the 62 interviewed farmers 26 farmers are previously not farmers, they were engaged in some other activity after the US they purchased or leased land from others and cultivate vegetables and fruits.

· 20 farmers says that the Government should take initiation to extend the bus facility available in the morning to the closing hours.

· 12 farmers reports the time limit is not enough to sell their entire commodity, so time limit have to be relaxed.

Suggesstions

Training on primary processing such as sorting, grading, drying, primary packaging, proper storage, preservation to the farmers is needed .It will lead to the “Value addition to the Agricultural products” which is needed for farm products. Linkage on seeds distribution, financial assistance for cultivation is the need of the hour.

Conclusion :

The Uzhavar Sandhai is a unique farmers market model which is capable of providing answers to several challenges putforth by the globalization of agriculture. One of the positive aspects of the Sandhai is that it does not require much training because all that is required is the introduction of the concept of fair farmers market. Organised innovations and institutional structures do not come that easily within the circle of poor and small and marginal farmers without support from government bodies. Such thought processes may not cross farmers minds as they are for the most part engaged in thinking about their future prospects and family problems created by low income levels and the lack of market for their produce. Thus if they are given the required simple training in marketing techniques, they can decide what to cultivate at what time to sell, at what price and to whom.

Based on the experience gained in running of 7 Uzhavar Sandhais in Madurai District. The District Administration has taken the subject of “Value Addition to the Agriculture products” the Collector Madurai has opened a “Uzhavar Unavagam” farmers hotel where you can get food items prepare from agriculture produce directly by the farmers, the selected farmers are given training to process the agricultural goods in to eatables. Thosai out of Ragi, Cumbu, Maize, Porridge from the small millets,. There is a plan to open few more farmers Hotel in Madurai very soon. Such an innovative initiation in making value addition to the farmers will help not only to the farmers but also to the consumers as well as to the Nation.

(The copy of the paper presented in the National conference on “Rural marketing and Rural Consumerism: Road Map to Build Vibrant Rural India” held at Gandhigram Rural Institute- Gandhigram,Dindugal,Tamilnadu.on 17,18 Dec-2011.and also published as a book on “Rural marketing and Rural Consumerism: Trends and issues” Excel India publishers(www.excelpublish.com) NewDelhi.2011 pp14-19

Reference :

1) Rudra Saibaba and Suresh Vadde (2009) “Consumer Satisfaction and preference towards Rhythu Bazaar : A study in warangal District Andhra Pradesh” Indus journal of Management and Social Science, 3(1):52-63 (Spring 2009)

2) Bhale Rao. M.M., Ansari, S.L and Tyagi, B.P (1981) “Marketing of Vegetables” - A sample study Agricultural Marketing 24(i) PP27-29

3) Salim, M.H, Harisundarn, G., Anoop Das (2008) “Uzhavar Sandais-A Boon or Bane for Rural Empowerment in Tamilnadu – Conference on marketing to rural consumerism – conference proceedings IIMK. PP 341 – 352 wwwdspace-iimk.ac.in

4) Rajendran.S (2001) “Curtain for farmers market?” Economic and political weekly, vol.36, No.29 July 2001 PP2737-2739

5) Lydia oberholtzer and shelly Grow (2003) “Producers – only farmers’ market in the mid-atlantic Region: A survey of market managers” Henry A.Wallace centre for Agricultural and Environment policy at winvock International Publications PP1-40 www.nyfarmersmarket.com

6) Murali Kallummal and Sakthi Srinivasan.K (2007) “Meeting local vegetables and fruits the Dynamics of farmers market : A case Analysis of “Uzhavar Sandhai” of Tamilnadu – New concept information systems pvt. Ltd publications, New Delhi www.centad.org/mtfc7asp.

7) Rengasamy.S, Devavaram J, Marirajan.T, Ramavel.N, Rajadurai.K, Karunanidhi.M, Rajendra Prasad.N, Erskine.A (2003) “Farmers markets in Tamilnadu : Increasing options for rural producers, improving access for Urban consumers” Environment and Urbanization vol. 15 No 1 PP 25 – 34.

8) Murali Kallummal “The organized women farmers and their participation in enhancing the GDP in India” http://www.genderandtrade.org/gtinformation/164143/179758/206744

ALAGAR KOVIL,MADURAI DISTRICT-CULTURAL TOURISM A CASE ANALYSIS'BY S.KRISHNAN

2011-07-29T11:16:00.000-07:00

(A Paper presented by S.KRISHNAN Research Scholar in the Department of Applied Research GRI in a National conference on Tourism,Environment and Sustainable Development Strategies and policies-held at Gandhigram Rural Institute-Tamilnadu on 28.7.11and 29.7.11)

In India tourism has become one of the major sectors of the economy, contributing to a large proportion of the national income and generating huge employment opportunities. India has it’s share of ancient and historical tourists, from Fa-Hien and Hieun-Tsiang in 399A.D and 633 A.D. respectively. It has become the fastest growing service industry in the country with great potentials for its future expansion and diversification. Tourism has emerged as an instrument for employment generation, Poverty alleviation, and sustainable development. Tourism promotes international understanding and gives support to local handicrafts and cultural activities. The first organized efforts to promote tourism in India were made in 1945, by the Government under the chairmanship of Sir John Sargent, the educational advisor to Government of India.

TOURISM AND EMPLOYMENT

Tour represents the act of leaving and then returning to the original starting point. The OECD glossary of statistical terms defined tourism as the activities of person traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. Mathieson and wall(1992) “The temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal place of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations , and the facilities created to cater to their needs”.

The travel and tourism sector creates more jobs per million rupees of investment than any other sector of economy and is capable of providing employment to a wide spectrum of job seekers from the unskilled to the specialized, even in the remote parts of the country. As per the survey report of FICCI A.F.Ferguson and co. 2004, every additional rupees 10.0 lakhs invested can create 47.5 direct jobs and each direct job can create 11 indirect jobs, it also stated that every 30 million additional tourist translate into Rs.4300 crore in revenue. India witnesses’ more than 5 million annual foreign tourist arrivals and 562 million domestic tourist visits. It contributes 6.23 percent to the National GDP and provided 8.78 percent to the total employment. The tourism industry in India generated about US $100 billion in 2008and that is expected to increase to US $275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4 percent annual growth rate.

Tamilnadu has immense potential in tourism, the rich culture and heritage of Tamilnadu is renowned the world over. Foreign tourists from ethnic countries and non-resident Indians are specially attracted by this unique features of Tamilnadu. In the year 2000,The number of foreign tourists who visited Tamilnadu stood at 7.9 lakhs and 229.8 lakhs domestic tourists who visited various places of cultural importance. The study area of Alagar kovil of Madurai is one among the place where there is a great potentiality to develop tourism of Tamilnadu.

CULTURAL TOURISM

Cultural tourism is concerned with a country or region’s culture, especially it’s arts. Cultural tourism includes temples, rural buildings including war remnants, monuments to famous artistic, historic remains, archaeological sites, traditional parkland etc. It generally focuses on traditional communities who have diverse customs, unique form of art and distinct social practices, which basically distinguishes it from other forms of culture. Cultural tourism mainly show-casing the traditions of indigenous cultural communities and their values and lifestyles. Richards.G (2003) The movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with intension to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs. All movements of persons to specific cultural attractions, such as heritagesites,artistic and cultural manifestations, arts and drama outside their normal place of residence.

AREA OF THE STUDY

Alagar Kovil is situated on a hill, and hence, the place is also known as Alagar Malai. The Alagar kovil is situated 900 feet above sea level and 10.051 latitude and 78.042 longitude. It has 26 to 31 sq.miles of area which roughly comes to 16,838.4 acres of land. It is 21km north of madurai city. The Alagar malai is surrounded by many small hills including Aaliyur malai, Kandha malai and Naththa malai. The Alagar is popularly known as Soundara Raja perumal, meaning 'very beautiful king'. The statues of Lord Kallalagar can be found in seated, standing and reclining postures . Alagar temple is one among the vaishnavaite temples, is considered to be the foremost among the eighteen vaishnavaite temples of pandiya kingdom. The sculpture of Urchavar “Sundara raja perumal” made up of “Apparanji gold”.The Alagar visits Madurai every year in the month of April to attend the marriage of his sister Meenakshi and also to give blessings to Mandooka Maharishi who is in vaigai river as a frog. He travels 21 Km from his place to madurai in his Horse in human form for a week and visits around 1000 mandapams and receives the offerings of the various community and gives darshan to lakhs of people during his visit. All the festivals of Alagar is to create commonweal harmony and to establish peace among the people.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are

(i) To trace out the historical background, architectural structures, cultural beliefs of the people about the temple.

(ii) To identify the tourist facilities available in the study area.

(iii) To study the potentialities and to prepare a future plan to promote rural cultural tourism of this temple.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology involved both the desk research and the field research which was widely used to understand the concept of the cultural tourism and the various aspects that are involved in the successful development of cultural tourism. To collect the details about the Alagar kovil and its surroundings, case study method is used to explore the history of the temple for the purpose of the study. Discussion with the people related to the temple and also the public who visits the temple often and taking interest about the development of the temple were also done to explore the information about the temple. Apart from this the researcher has met 50 persons at random and collected information about the temple. The survey was conducted in 6^th and 7^th july 2011.The study is limited to the area of Alagar kovil, Madurai district.

TOURIST IMPORTANCE OF ALAGARMALAI

HISTORY OF ALAGARKOVIL IN TAMIL LITERATURE

FESTIVELS OF ALGARKOIL AND COMMUNAL HARMONY

SURVEY ANALYSIS REPORT

Table1.1Distance traveled by the Respondents

Lessthan 5 Km	6-25 Km	26-50Km	51-100Km	Above 100Km	Total
6	34	3	4	3	50

The table 1.1 reveals that 68 percent of the respondents visited the temple during the survey period was between 6 to 25 km of distance. 6 percent of the respondents were from the distance of above 100 km. Nearly 12 percent of the respondents came from less than 5 km of distance.

Table1.2 Purpose of the visit

worship	To pay offerings	Family function	Kulathivam	Tourism	Other reason(vithaippu)	Total
3	4	6	25	10	2	50

The table 1.2 shows that 50 percent of the respondents visited the temple to perform their kulatheivam venduthal.20 percent visited to spend their leisure time as tourists. Around 26 percent of the respondents came to the temple to worship Lord, to pay offerings and to participate in functions.4 percent of the respondents visited the temple to pay their grains cultivated in their fields. It is a tradition among the villagers to offer their first reaped grain to the god.

Table 1.3 Persons accompanied with the Respondents

Respondent alone	1-5 persons	6-10 persons	11-15 persons	16-20 persons	21-50 persons	51-100 persons	Above 100 persons	Total
3	2	14	10	9	-	-	3	50

The table 1.3 shows that 28 percent of the respondents visited this temple along with 6 to 10 persons. Nearly 20 percent of the respondents have visited as a group between 11 to 25. 18 percent of the respondents came with 16 to 20 people to worship God. Only 6 percent of the respondents visited the temple with a group of 100 and above to take bath in Noopuragangai for starting their village festival. Another 6 percent of respondents came alone to this temple. Only 4 percent of the respondent visited the temple with 1 to 5 persons.

Table 1.4 Number of visits during the year

Once	Twice	Thrice	Above 3 times	Total
15	11	9	15	50

The table 1.4 shows that 30 percent of the respondents visited the temple yearly once and another 30 percent visit more than three times to worship Alagar. 22 percent of the respondents used to visit the temple twice in a year. Nearly 18 percent used to come thrice in a year to Alagar malai.

Table 1.5 Time spent in the Temple

Less than 2 hours	2-4 hours	4-6 hours	6-8 hours	Above 8 hours	Total
8	12	9	11	10	50

The table 1.5 shows that 24 percent of the respondents spent their time at the temple between 2 to 4 hours . 22 percent of the respondents spent 6 to 8 hours . And 18 percent of the respondents spent 4 to 6 hours. The time spent by the respondents above 8 hours was 21 percent.

Table 1.6 Importance of the Alagarmalai

God Alagar	Karuppana samy	Pazhamuthir cholai	Sculpture	Noopura gangai	Climate	Alagar dosai	Total
19	8	5	4	6	5	3	50

The table 1.6 reveals that 38 percent of the respondents felt that God Alagar is important and so they came to worship him.16 percent of the respondents said that Karuppanaswamy is famous here. 20 percent of respondents told that pazhamuthircholai and climate are very famous. 12 percent of the respondents felt that noopuragangai is famous and 8 percentsaid that sculptures are very popular.Nearly 6 percent of the respondents felt that Alagarkovil is famous for its dosai made out of rice and urd dal which is not available elsewhere. .

Table 1.7 Opinion about the facilities

Facilities	Opinion
	Very good		Good	Satisfied	Not Satisfied		Total
Road	42	8		-		-	50
Bus	-	35		12		3	50
Water	-	-		9		41	50
Toilet	-	-		5		45	50
Cleanliness	-	14		20		16	50
Guidance	-	-		35		15	50

Table1.7 reveals that 84 percent of the respondents reports that the road is in very good condition.70 percent of the respondents felt that the bus facilities is so good and 6 percent were not satisfied about it. The water is tasty and good but the availability is not satisfied were reported by 82 percent of the respondents.90 percent of the respondents felt that the toilet facility is not satisfactory in this place.28 percent of the respondents had reported that the cleanliness is good and 40 percent is satisfied, but 32 percent of the respondents were not satisfied.70 percent of the respondents had the opinion of satisfaction about guidance of the temple authority and 30 percent were not satisfied and said that there was no proper guidance.

Table 1.8 Suggestions for Improvement

Suggestions	Opinion
Suggestions	Satisfied Improvement needed Total
Toilets	5	45	50
Bathing rooms	7	43	50
Buses	46	4	50
Environment	3	47	50
Rest rooms	7	43	50
Bus shelter	2	48	50

The table 1.8 shows that 90 percent of the respondents said that more toilet facility is needed.86 percent of the respondents told that bathing facilities is in need. As there is frequent bus facility to Alagarkovil, 92 percent of the respondents are satisfied with it. 94 percent of the respondents suggested that the environment should be cleaned properly. Nearly 86 percent of the respondents were expecting that more rest rooms should be constructed.96 percent of the respondents suggested to construct bus shelters for the public convenience.

ANALYSIS ABOUT THE VISITORS

Alagarkoil is connected by an excellent road from Madurai and Melur.There is mini bus facility is available to Pazhamuthircholai . Frequent buses are available to this place and many people visit by their own vehicles ( Two wheelers, Car, Van etc ). During the first week of July 2011, around 2580 vehicles have reached Alagarkoil ( 23 Buses, 1070 Cars, 213 Vans, 1274 Two wheelers ), an average of 425 Private vehicles, transported 1554 people everyday excluding the Government bus service(source-Devasthanam records). Around 2500 people, per day, have visited this temple to worship Alagar.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

* The Urchavar Alagar is made out of aparanji gold , which is very precious.

* The temple is very ancient made by the famous architect Viswakarma.

* The Alagarmalai hasmore than three important place to visit and spend time.

* The villagers of composite district of Madurai and Ramnad are culturally

Linked with the temple, they celebrate their village temple festivals only after

having bath at noopuragangai and worshiping Lord Alagar.

* The people used to visit Alagarmalai to offer their first produced grains to the

Temple.

* The Alagarmalai has herbel plants near to noopuragangai.

* Many people visits Alagarmalai to fulfil their cultural requests.

* There are certain villages and families are traditionally doing certain services

to Alagar during festivals as their forefathers duties.

BASIC AMENITIES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVMENT

Very few mandapams and rest rooms are available and it is insufficient for the public. So more mandapams and rest rooms are needed. There is no dressing room or bathing room in Alagarkoil and at Nooburagangai, the devotees taking bath at Noopuragangai change their dress in the open. There is only one water tank which is used for both drinking and holy water purposes. There is a need for more toilets, sanitation and more water facilities. It is very necessary to construct bus shelters for the convenience of the public. More lighting facilities are needed for the safety of the people. The Government should take necessary steps to curb the above problems immediately.

COCLUSION

The cultural tourism in rural areas is still in its nascent stage. Alagar kovil has perfect opportunities to enhance its, the place has different climate, natural characteristics and socio-cultural entities. Though there has not been much initiative by the state government for cultural tourism development. Providing basic amenities and park facility and more rest rooms and hotels will attract more tourist, there by the rural folk in the surrounding villages will get employment opportunities.

REFENENCE

1) Gopal R,Shilpa varma and Rashmi gopinathan(2008). “Rural tourism development:constraints and possibilities with a special reference to Agri tourism-A case studyon Agritourism Destination-Malegoan village,taluka Baramathi,district pune, maharashtra”,Conference on tourism in India-Challanches a head, IIMK pp512-523.

2) Staju Jacob(2008) .“Understanding culturally sustainable tourism an observed comparison of the models followed by Kerala and Goa”, Conference on tourism in India-Challanches a head, IIMK pp 75-88.

3) Lalnumawia.H (2007). “Impact of tourism in India” http://www.tourism/impact of tourism in india-printit.htm.

4) Government of India: Tenth five year plan 2002-2007 chepter7.5 tourism pp817-818.

5) Richards.G (2003).What is cultural tourism:Invan maaren A.(ed) Nationaal contact monumenten.www.doctoc.com.

6) Saravanan .K Sundare,Periyanayagam.K,Ismail.M,(2007) “Mosquito larvicidal roperties of various extract of leaves and fixed oil from the seeds ofcaesalpinia bonduc(l)Roxb, j.commun.dis39(3)pp153-157. www.ismocd.org/jcd/39(3)/journal.

8)Muthukonar.S (1973) “Alagarkiol varalaru” Thinamanisudar,Tamildaily dt 11.02.1973.

7) Mohan.R (2004) “sanga Illakkiyam-Pathupattu”New NCBH Publications, Chennai.pp14 -18.

8) Subramanian.P,Balasubramanian.G.V,Thatchinamoorthy.A,(2004) “Paripadal-Moolamum Uraiyum”.New NCBH Publications, Chennai.pp1-124.

9) http://www.stats.oced.org.

10) http://www.madurai.com/azhagar.htm.

ALAGAR KOVIL –MADURAI DISTRICT- CULTURAL TOURISM-A CASE STUDY

2011-06-16T18:56:00.001-07:00

ALAGAR KOVIL –MADURAI DISTRICT- CULTURAL TOURISM-A CASE STUDY(An abstract of a paper submitted to the National Conference on Tourism to be held on 27.7.11-28.7.11 at Gandhigram rural university-Tamilnadu).
In India tourism has become one of the major sectors of the economy, contributing to a large proportion of the national income and generating huge employment opportunities. It has become the fastest growing service industry in the country with great potentials for its future expansion and diversification. Tourism has emerged as an instrument for employment generation, Poverty alleviation, and sustainable development. Tourism promotes international understanding and gives support to local handicrafts and cultural activities.
The first organized efforts to promote tourism in India were made in 1945, by the Government under the chairmanship of Sir John Sargent, the educational advisor to Government of India.The travel and tourism sector creates more jobs per million rupees of investment than any other sector of economy and is capable of providing employment to a wide spectrum of job seekers from the unskilled to the specialized, even in the remote parts of the country. India witnesses’ more than 5 million annual foreign tourist arrivals and 562 million domestic tourist visits. It contributes 6.23 percent to the National GDP and provided 8.78 percent to the total employment.
The tourism industry in India generated about US $100 billion in 2008and that is expected to increase to US $275.5 billion by 2018at a 9.4 percent annual growth rate. The Alagar kovil of Madurai is one among the place where there is a great potentiality to develop tourism of Tamilnadu.
TOURISM
Tour represents the act of leaving and then returning to the original starting point. The OECD glossary of statistical terms defined tourism as the activities of person traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.
CULTURAL TOURISM
Cultural tourism in rural areas comes in wide range of forms most of which are unique to an individual local and valuable component of rural tourism product. Cultural tourism includes temples, rural buildings including war remnants, monuments to famous artistic, historic remains, archaeological sites, traditional parkland etc.
AREA OF THE STUDY
Alagar Kovil is situated on a hill, and hence, the place is also known as Alagar Malai. The statues of Lord Kallalagar can be found in seated, standing and reclining postures . Alagar is popularly known as Soundara Rajan, meaning 'very beautiful king'. It was also said that Alagar come to Madurai to give blessing to Mandooka Maharishi who is in the Vaigai river as a Frog. Alagar visits Madurai every year in the month of April to attend the marriage of his sister Meenakshi. He travels 21 Km from his place to madurai in his Horse in human form for a week and gives darshan to lakhs of people and visits more than 500 mandapams of various community during this time to create commonweal harmony during this time. Alagar temple is one among the vaishnavaite temples, is considered to be the foremost among the eighteen vaishnavaite temples of pandiya kingdom. The sculpture of Urchavar “Sundara raja perumal” made up of “Apparanji gold”. According to Mahabharatha, Alagar kovil was visited by both Yudhistra and Arjuna.
PLACE OF TOURIST IMPORTANCE
The lord Dharma devan built this temple with the help of famous vasthu consultant of the vedic period called “Viswa karma”, on the banks of river “Noopura Gangai”. The Viswa karma built this beautiful temple with the three tiers “Somachandira Vimanam” which stands for its architectural features. The Alagar temple was renovated by Pandiya Kings during 1200 A.D followed by Naicker rulers. Apart from this temple, Alagar malai has so many places of importance for tourist. It has ”pazhamudircholai” a Hindu temple atop a hill covered with dense forests. One of the six abodes Arupadaiveedu of lord Muruga. It has a Holy water point “Noopura Gangai” a four Km walkup the Alagar Hills, believed that drops of Sacred water fell at this place when Brahma was washing Lord Vishnu’s feet after his Trivikrama Avatar and that those drops spread as river Noopura Ganga. The Alagar kovil is also having temple dedicated for “Goddess Rakkayi” at the top of the hill near the spring. The Alagar hills have a tropical forest cover which extends from Alagar kovil in the south to Natham in the north. The Tamilnadu forest department has been maintaining a ‘herbal garden’ in the hills. The “Eighteen steps karuppanasamy” in the Eastern entrance of the temple is the watch god, which watches the entire area of the temple .Still there is a belief among the villages in and around the district that , if anybody tells lie in front of the karuppu they will die within a shorter period. The Alagar malai has the potentialities of cultural, rural as well as Eco-Forest tourism. So there is a need to study the history,and its surroundings and to promote the tourist facilities to attract the tourists of the world.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the study are
(i) To trace out the historical background, architectural structures, cultural beliefs of the people about the temple.
(ii) To identify the tourist facilities available in the study area.
(iii) To study the potentialities and to prepare a future plan to promote rural cultural tourism of this temple.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research methodology involved both the desk research and the field research which was widely used to understand the concept of the cultural tourism and the various aspects that are involved in the successful development of cultural tourism. To collect the details about the Alagar kovil and its surroundings, case study method will be used to explore the history of the temple for the purpose of the study. The study is limited to the area of Alagar kovil, Madurai district.
The study will help to increase the potential for generating employment to the rural folk and to earn large amount of foreign exchange. There is a need to develop the cultural tourism to preserve and sustain the diversity of India’s natural and cultural environments.

KEY WORDS : Cultural Tourism,Alagar Malai , Pazhamudircholai , Noopura Ganga, Eighteen Steps Karuppanasamy.

Performance of MGNREGA and Poverty Reduction – A Micro level study in Madurai Dist. Tamilnadu S.KRISHNAN

2011-03-31T09:53:00.000-07:00

Performance of MGNREGA and Poverty Reduction – A Micro level study

*S.KRISHNAN

Introduction

India suffers from acute economic and social disparities. There is empirical evidence to indicate that during the last two decades all these disparities have been increasing. Rural and urban divide also widened in the wake of reforms. While large and medium cities experience unprecedented economic prosperity, the rural areas experience economic stagnation. As a result, there is a widespread agrarian distress which results in formers suicide and rural unrest.

Socially backward sections, especially Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have faired little from the new prosperity which rewards disproportionately those with assets, skills and higher education. The gender gap in social and economic status, traditionally more in India as compared to other societies, has further been widened by the economic reforms and globalization.

Poverty Scenario in India

India's official poverty measure has long been based on solely upon the ability to purchase a minimum recommended daily diet of 2400 kcl. in rural areas where about 70 percent of people live and 2100 kcl. in urban areas.

The planning commission, which is responsible for the estimate, currently estimates that a monthly income about Rs.356/- per person is needed to provide the required diet in rural areas and Rs.539/- in urban areas. The Dendulkar Committee has (2009) raised the monetary cutoffs to Rs.447/- in rural areas and Rs.579/- for urban areas per month. The commission setup by the Ministry of Rural Development raised the cutoffs to Rs.700/- per month in rural areas and Rs.1000/- per month per person in urban areas.

In the last 12 years, India's economy has grown at an average annual rate of about seven percent, reducing poverty by 10 percent. However, 40 percent of the world's poor still live in India, and 28 percent of the country's population continues to live below the poverty line. More than one-third live on less than a dollar a day and 80 percent live on less than two dollars a day India's recent economic growth has been attributed to the service industry, but 60 percent of the workforce remains in agriculture. A country with such an unequal distribution of opportunities and wealth can never promise long term security and stability. Haves and have-nots would always exist and coexist. Out of the 456 million poor people in the country, 75.0 percent are living in the rural areas. About 25.0 percent rural households have no income generation assets and 80.0 percent of farmers are being small and marginal. The problem of perpetual poverty is seen more particularly in rural areas. Besides, seasonality of poverty is a peculiar feature of India poverty scenario. In other words, in one season people in the rural areas are in extreme poverty situation and in other season, they may be slightly relived from poverty because there is an opportunities to earn better as compared to the previous season.

MGNREGA

Provision of adequate remunerative employment has been a long cherished goal of India's strategy of development planning. However, for a long time the country experimented with adhoc wage and self-employment programmes without any emphasis on the guaranteed work provision. With the economic reforms introduced since 1991, this problem has been exacerbated largely because of the growth of joblessness. High economic growth was accompanied by very little growth in employment along with a growing tendency for formal employment to became informal employment.

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was designed to provide for enhanced livelihood security for households in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in every financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. As a legal right to work, MGNREGS contrast with previous employment- generation schemes in several aspects. First and foremost, it bestows entitlement to work, in the form of providing work, for those who demand it, within 15 days of applying at a guaranteed wage. Second, the universal nature of the programme eliminates targeting errors. Self-selection is intended to ensure that only the most needy come forth and claim employment.

Third, the creation of employment through specified works is expected to improve agricultural productivity. For Instance, the initial estimates by Patnaik (2005) suggested that Rs.1- spent on MGNREGS may generate Rs.1.33 as wage bill in the economy.

The MGNREGA, which came into existence on Feb 2, 2006 was initially implemented in 200 districts of the country in the first phase. In the second phase, it was further extended to 130 districts in 2007-08, it was extended across the country in April 2008.

Table 1.1. Performance of MGNREGA (National Overview)

Items	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09	2009-10	2010-11	Total
Total Jobcards issued (in crores)	3.18	6.48	9.44	10.72	10.24	40.66
Employment provided to households	2.10	3.39	4.50	4.07	4.36	18.42
Person days in crores Total	90.5	143.59	214.56	165.72	158.58	772.95
SC's	22.95	39.36	62.88	33.54	35.54	194.27
ST's	32.98	42.07	54.51	27.92	27.06	184.54
Women	36.79	61.15	102.73	77.50	78.10	356.27
Others	34.56	62.16	97.17	104.26	95.99	394.14

Source : www.nregs.com

The table 1.1 reveals that the MGNREGS has provided employment to 18.42 crores household from its inspection. It has generated 772.95 crores mandays of employment from 2006 onwards 46 percent mandays of employment was provided exclusively to the women those who are identified as socially and economically backward in the rural India. Around 49 percent (378.81 crores) mandays of employment was provided to the downtrodden people i.e SC/ST. There by it has increased the purchasing power of the economically affected.

Review of Related Literature

As the scheme is ongoing from 2006 onwards, various attempt have been made to analysis the performance of MGNREGA. Ramesh ( 2009) observed that the income levels of the workers have increased substantially and all the workers daily wage income was increased to two fold in turn it helped in catering the minimum needs of the MGNREGA workers. The study also reveals that the expenditure level before implementation of this scheme was met by the workers by indulging depts to meet their minimum needs, and it also helped in easing out the dept burden to some extend offer the implementation of the scheme. Pursty et.al (2009) reports that 80 percent of informants agreeing to the fact that the standard of living of the people who have worked in NREGA was improved during the last three years, reconfirms strongly the hypotheses that NREGA has supplemented the income of worker households and 86 percent of the worker feel that they are comfortable in having sufficient food after working in MGNREGA establishes the positive correlation between food security and MGNREGA. Indira Harway et.al (2008) NREGA can reduce poverty at the bottom and empower the poor. If planned well, it can have highly positive output, income and employment multiplier effects on the local economy in the medium and long run. These works can also raise the multiplier co-efficient and accelerate the process of development subsequently. ISWSD (2008) reports that in Utther Pradesh most houses reported increase in expenditure on food items like milk and milk products, pulses, vegetables and fruits, in general there is an improvement in nutrition in terms of frequency, quantity and quality of food. Anandharaja kumar (2010) observes that the income level of the scheme's beneficiaries women has increased after the implementation on MGNREA and the participation of women has increased in the decision making of the family in regard to expenditure and saving Kareemulla.K et.al (2009) reports that the earnings from NREGA wages accounted for 32 percent of the household income for those families who worked in the scheme as labourers, purchase of food followed by expenses related to education of the dependents and health care were the major modes of utilization of the earnings from NREGA. There seems to be a significant contribution towards household assets like fan, television and bicycle mainly attributable to the savings of NREGA wages. Pattanaik (2009) reports that the income earned from MGNREGA has enabled them to purchase additional amount of Pulses, Vegetables and other items for their households.

Study Area

The Madurai District of Tamilnadu has taken for the purpose of this study. The District has 25,62,279 (2001) population of which 44 percent (11,29,028) lives in rural areas and the remaining lives in urban area. The Geographical area of the District is 3741.73 Sq.km. The District has 13 Development blocks and 670 Revenue Villages with 431 village panchayats. This village panchayat is held responsible for the implementation of the MGNREGS. The three tier systems of panchayatraj institution are in existence for planning, implementation and monitoring the MGNREGS. The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) is the nodal agency for the implementation of the scheme in the district level.

Methodology.

The present study follows descriptive and diagnostic method which are sought to examine the current status, interior prospects and performance of MGNREGA scheme. The study is mainly based on secondary data available in the DRDA, Madurai were analyzed using simple percentage. The objective of the study is (1) to analyze the quantum of employment generated and the increased income of the beneficiaries in the study area. (ii) to find out the existence of gross root democracy in deciding the nature of works to be taken under MGNREGA (iii) to analyze the durable assets created by the scheme and its contribution to the village economy.

1.2 Performance of MGNREGA in Madurai District.

Sl. No	Name of the Block	2008-09		2009-10		2010-11
Sl. No	Name of the Block	No. of Bene- ficiers	Expen-diture (Rs. in lakhs)	No. of Bene-ficiers	Expen-diture (Rs. in lakhs)	No. of Bene-ficiers	Expen-diture (Rs. in lakhs)
1.	Madurai East	113658	69.189	418967	277.828	658734	477.688
2.	Madurai West	90323	51.869	484039	302.958	607052	389.629
3.	Thirupparankundram	366786	242.599	810552	565.480	884169	649.992
4.	Melur	134752	69.637	622267	339.221	711242	488.345
5.	Kottampatti	313340	187.484	623742	363.359	793303	525.052
6.	Vadipatti	236152	142.347	468688	281.479	485800	320.702
7.	Alanganallur	182824	127.363	625821	401.521	738549	468.499
8.	Usilampatti	460672	285.217	605829	355.556	884848	633.411
9.	Chellampatti	386608	248.636	978033	591.781	1354991	916.855
10.	Sedapatti	406634	224.279	887789	542.408	1025873	713.834
11.	Thirumangalam	502283	319.676	1022280	697.577	1101495	829.218
12.	T.Kallupatti	762925	448.248	1078342	668.524	1024046	701.047
13.	Kalligudi	303182	193.430	819064	522.090	831781	631.033
	Total	4260139	2609.974	9445413	5909.782	11101883	7745.305

Source : DRDA, Madurai.

The table 1.2 reveals that the generation of employment was doubled during the year 2009-10 when compare to previous year. So for the schemes has generated 2,48,07,435 mandays of employment from its inspection. It has spent Rs.16265.062 lakhs for the implementation of the scheme. The average expenditure per person comes to Rs.66 per day.

Table 1.3 MGNREGA at a Glance – Madurai District (as on Feb- 2011)

i) Employment provided to 2.32543 lakhs Households

ii) Person days of Employment generated in lakhs

Total : 103.28

SC : 23.37 (22.63%)

ST : 0.18 (0.17%)

Women : 82.57 (79.9%)

Others : 79.73 (77.2%)

Total Funds : 114.74 crore

Expenditure : 72.01 crore

Total Works take-up : 2469

Works completed : 1

Households completed 100 days employment : 10894

The scheme has generated 103.28 lakhs man days during the current financial year, out of which 79.9 percent were provided to the women folk, 24 percent were provided to the SC/ST community. The District stands first in providing more employment to women workforce; it has provided 30 percent more than the National Average (49.25) and 3 percent more then the State Average (76.83%). It has provided 22.73 percent of Employment to SC which is equal to the National average of (22.41%). The participation of ST in this scheme is very meager (0.17%) because of the meager availability of ST population in the District.

1.3 Nature of Assets created under MGNREGA in Madurai District 2009-10; 2010-11

(Rs. in Lakhs)

Sl. No	Name of the Work	No. of Works		LabourComponent		Matrial Component
Sl. No	Name of the Work	2009-10	2010-11	2009-10	2010-11	2009-10	2010-11
1.	Rural Connectivity	148	251	462.0744	415.5217	-	-
2.	Water Conservation and Water Harvesting	87	182	443.39996	834.47174	-	-
3.	Renovation of traditional water bodies	1001	1590	4828.61328	5729.10889	-	-
4.	Irrigation Canals	52	79	158.0072	205.01601	-	-
	Total	1288	2102	5892.09531	7184.11792	-	-

Source : www.nrega.nic.in

The table 1.3 reveals that Madurai Districts has taken major works related to water conservation, only 11 percent of works were taken related to road connectivity that to without any material component. The NREGA guidelines instructs to take 40 percent material component work to create more employment, but this district has taken all works related to labour component.

The Elected panchayat and The Grama Sabha are giving more importance for renovating traditional water bodies. Around 78 percent of works are taken up in this category and 81 percent of amount were earmarked for this Category during the year 2009-10. During 2009-10, 1288 works were taken but it has increased to 2102 during 2010-11. The financial allotment to execute this work has increased from 5892 lakhs to 7184 lakhs.

GROSS ROOT LEVEL REALITIES

To achive the full potential of the MGNREGA the structure for its implementation is more adequately strengthened. The scheme has both positive and negative. Some say it a source of corruption, while others say it is the best thing that ahs happened in rural development. There are villages, where it has provided employment to as large number of people leading to creation of public assets, whereas in some parts funds have been siphoned off. The recent social audit of the MGNREGA indicates that the programme can have a positive impact of the socio-economic well being of rural labourers and their families. In particular, it holds the powerful prospect of bringing major changes in the lives of women. This is especially true in the study area where women constitute an overwhelming proportion (80 percent) of the NREGA workers.

It is observed that very few worksites have child care facilities of any sort, even when children are present the site. It is observed that in some places women are discouraged from bringing children to the worksites. It is therefore necessary that NREGA should be children friendly. In some places there is no worksite facilities like water and provision of shadow during lunch hours. This is to be taken care. This may increase the women participation and naturally lead to woman's empowerment. The scheme has not clearly indicates about the upper age limit for participation. So very aged women (65 years) are also participating in the scheme, Aged person will not contribute much in NREGA which needs more physical turnover. So the scheme have to be very clear about the age limitations.

Conclusion.

The scheme will continue to supplement the income of the beneficiaries create durable assets and bring long term tangible benefits in rural India. A committed administrative machine with political support is a precondition for the adoption and building of appropriate institutional structure for socially fruitful implementation of the NREGA. It may seem repetitive, but it is worth concluding that although NREGA enshrines a demand-driven, legally binding right to work of there is not the proactive political and administrative commitment to provide a continuous and adequate supply of productive works, implementation of the scheme may not bring the desired results.

References

1) Mamidipally Rajanna, Gundeti Ramesh "NREGP-Facet of inclusive Growth a study of Karinagar Dist, Andhra Pradesh" Kurukshetra Feb '09 P.33-35.

2) Panda.B, Dutta.A.K and Purusty S. "Appraisal of NREGA in the State of Meghalaya and Sikkim" A project report submitted by Indian Institute of Management, Shillang 2009.

3) Indira Harway, Saluja M.R, Bhupesh Yadav " The Impact of Public Employment Guarantee Strategies on Gender Equality and Pre-poor Economic Development-India" UNDP Research Project No.34, Jan '2008.

4) ISWSD NREGA second draft report "Impact of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme on the living and working conditions of women in Rural India" 2008.

5) Well Haorei and Anandha rajakumar.P "Impact of MGNREGE on Rural women empowerment" Journal of Extension and Research. GRI Volume XII, No.2, January 2010, P.124-130.

6) Kareemulla.K, Srinivas Reddy.K, Ramarao C.A., Sualander kumar and Venkateswarlu.B., "Soil and Water Conservation Works through National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) in Andhra Pradesh. An analysisof livelihood Impact" Agricultural Economics Research Review Vol.22 (Conference Number) 2009, P.P.443-450.

7) Pattanaik "National and Employment Guarantee Scheme: Some Preliminary Findings from Hoshiarpur District" Kurukshetra, April 2009.

8) Pattanaik P.2005, "A Universal Programme is Possible" Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.41, No.2, PP.203-207.

9) Naganagoud S.P., Uliveppa.H.H., "Rural poverty alleviation in India, Contribution of MGREGS" Mainstream July 30-August 5,2010.

10) IDS Publications 2011 "Institution and Innovations in the implementation process of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India" Narasima Reddy.D; Upendranath.C; Rukmini Tankha; Alakh N.Sharma. Institute of Development Studies publications, New Delhi. PP 1-25.

(The copy of the paper presented in the National seminar on Innovative Research for Development held at APPLIED RESEARCH DEPARTMENT,GANDHIGRAM in MARCH 3-4, 2011.

S.Krishnan Research scholar, Dept of Applied Research,GRI.Gandhigram.Tamilnadu.
maduraisuki@gmail.com

Globalisation and land use in maduari distict-Tamilnadu S.Krishnan

2011-03-31T09:22:00.000-07:00

GLOBALISATION AND CHANGES IN LAND UTILISATION AND CROPPING PATTERN – A MICRO LEVEL STUDY IN MADURAI DISTRICT-TAMILNADU

S.KRISHNAN* (Copy of the Paper presented in the seminar held at Gandhigram Rural University on Feb.2011)

Introduction :-

The liberalization was adopted by India in 1991. Due to severe economic crisis, India has approached IMF for a loan and the IMF granted the loan with certain conditions, which made India to have a structural change in the economy. These changes are taken place in the form of liberalization, which sought to gradually phaseout government control of the market (liberalization), privatize public sector organizations (privatization), and to reduce export subsidies and import barriers to enable free trade (globalization). However, reforms in the agricultural sector in particular come under severe criticism in the late 1990's. when formers in the South Indian state of Andra Pradesh committed suicide. The trend was noticed in several other states. and the figure today according to a leading journalist and activist P.Sainath, stands at 1,49,244 across the country (Sainath 2007). The Annual Compound Growth Rate (ACGR) for all suicides in India from 1997 to 2005 was 2.18 percent, but for farm suicides it is much higher at nearly 3 (2.91) percent for the same period. Coupled with this was a sharp drop in agricultural growth from 4.69 percent in 1991 to 2.06 percent in 1997 and to 1.1 percent in 2003 (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2006).

INDIAN AGRICULTURE TODAY : A Snapshot

India is a country of about one billion people. More than 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas where the main occupation is agriculture. Agriculture employs 60 percent of the Indian population today, yet it contributes only 20.6 percent to the GDP. Agricultural production fell by 12.6 percent in 2003. One of the sharpest drop in Independent India's history. The growth rate of agriculture comes down to 1.1 percent from 4.69. This slow down was in contrast to the 6 percent growth rate of Indian Economy for almost the whole of past decade. The average farm size is only 1.57 hectares. Around 93 percent of farmers have land holdings smaller than 4 hectare and they cultivate nearly 55 percent of arable land. On the other hand only 1.6 of the farmers has operational land holdings above 10 ha and they utilize 17.4 percent of the total cultivated land. Agricultural wages even today are $1.5 - $2.0 a day. This is of the lowest wage rate in the world.

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Role of Liberalisation :-

The Diminishing public investment in agriculture, reduction in protection to agriculture in the wake of the new global trade regime without providing a level playing field for the domestic farmers and overall neglect of agriculture in policy planning made the cost of cultivation as risky. A (non-organic) farmer in 1991 could cultivate an acre of cotton in vidharbha to Rs.2500/-. Today that would cost him Rs.13,000/- or more (Sainath 2008). Forcing the farmers into a debt trap are soaring input costs the plummeting price of produce and a lack of proper credit facilities, which makes farmers turn to private money lenders who charge exorbitant rates of interest.

The findings of the 59^th round (2003) of NSSO Survey revealed that 40 percent of the farmers wished to quit farming, if they had a choice to do so. About 27 percent farmers deemed farming as unprofitable occupation and 8 percent found it risky. The survey further reports that only 4 percent of the farmers had ever insured their crops as many as 57 percent did not even know that they could insure their crops. Only 18 of farmers knew about bio-fertilizers and only 8 percent of the farmers had heard of the world trade organization (WTO). Notably, only 30 percent farmers understood that minimum support price meant to them.

Cropping Pattern and Land use :-

Cropping pattern simply means the proportion of area under different crops at a point of time, where us change in cropping pattern refers to the change in proportion of area under different crops at two different points of time. The structural changes have been observed in the land-use pattern for raising different crops due to Globalization. But fragmented small land holding and poverty among the farmers severely limit the cultivation of crops for the market. The infrastructures for storage, transport, processing, grading and rating Quality Standards are under developed. Farmers are ignorant of the sophistication of global markets as their experience is limited to primitive operations. The demand for most of the Indian farm product is very low on account of poor quality. Therefore with the poor prospects the exporters face difficulties both in the domestic and foreign markets. For instance Indian tea is high cost product. When cheaper tea comes in to market, the country's high cost tea producers lose out.

Review of Literature :-

Kalaivani et.al (2010) in their study on selected cereal crops in Tamilnadu recorded decline in area evident from negative rate of growth per annum. The largest decline in area has been recorded by ragi at the rate of -42.45 percent per annum followed by cumbu, cholam and paddy. They also reported that maize has recorded the positive and highest growth rate of 36.45 percent per annum, which was evidently contributed by the high profitability from maize in Tamilnadu. Baskaran et.al (2010) study reveals that the area under paddy decreased from 82.2 percent to 74.6 percent during 1995-96 to 2008-09.

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The pulses area increased from 4.1 percent to 12.9 percent during the same period. Meenakshi and Gayathri (2006) confirm that change in the interaction between change in mean area and yield variance was an important contributor to the cereals production instability in Tamilnadu, it also suggested that efforts should be made to stabilize cereals production in the state. The study also indicates that there is a need for further research on the cereals crops in the state of Tamilnadu. The study of Gyan Prakash et.al(2006) reflects that there was in fact, some deceleration from Pre-Green Revolution period to Green Revolution period in the production of food grains, but further it has deteriorated more in the post-Economic Reforms period and the area shrinks four times from pre-green revolution period to the Green Revolution period.

Area Coverage

Table-1. Land Utilization / Cropping intensity in Tamilnadu (lakhs hectare.)

Sl. No.	Item	1990-91	2000-01	2008-09
1.	Total Area	130.19	129.91	130.26
2.	Cultivable waste	2.90	3.52	3.33
3.	Current follow	12.49	11.34	10.13
4.	Other follow	10.44	12.28	14.97
5.	Net Area Sown	55.78	53.42	50.42
6.	Cultivable Area (2+3+4+5)	81.61	80.17	78.85
7.	Area sown more than once	10.53	10.34	7.81
8.	Gross Cropped Area (5+7)	66.32	63.28	58.23
9.	Cropping intensity	118.9	119.5	115.4
10.	Ratio of net sown area to available area	68.34	66.15	63.94
11.	Land put to non-agriculture use	18.35	19.12	21.72

Source: The season and crop report 1990-91 – 2008-09

The net sown area declined from 55.78 to 50.42 lakhs hectare. The cultivable area also declined from over 81.50 lakhs hectares to 78.85 hectares, the gross cropped area also declined from 66 lakhs hectare to 58.23 lakhs hectare during this period. The total area used for agriculture is decreased from 86.34 percent to 75.85 percent to the geographical area in the year 1990-91 to 2008-09. At the same time the land put to non-agricultural use (i.e. Building, roads, etc) was increased from 18.35 lakhs hectare to 21.72 hectare.

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Methodology

In the present study, compound Annual Growth rate (CAGR) of area, production and yield for the selected major crops in Madurai District of Tamilnadu State were estimated for each period to study the changes in land use, the growth in area, production and yield of these crops. The objective of the study is (i) to analyse the existing cropping pattern and the changes, (ii) to analyse the changes in land use pattern after globalization, (iii) to find out the reason for the changes in the cropping pattern. The present study is restricted for period of 10 years. The data was comprised for the period 1998-99 to 2008-09. The necessary data for the selected crops was purely based on secondary sources and it was collected from various issues of Statistical Hand book of Madurai District, Department of Economics and Statistics.

Study Area

The study area of Madurai district has 25,62,279 population (2001)with 12,95,124 male and 12,67,155 female. There are 1,25,892 cultivators and 3,32,249 agricultural laborers are depending on agriculture for their livelihood, and they constitute 18 percent of the total population. The district has 3741.73 sq km of area, among which gross cropped area in 2001 was 1628.19 sq km and it constitutes 44 percent to the total Geographical area. The main crop of the District is paddy. 68131 hectare (2001) which constitute 46 percent to the total area sown (2001).

Empirical Results and Discussions

The present study Examines the land use pattern, the area of cultivation, production and yield of selected crops in Madurai District. The Table 2 represents the land use pattern and the changes in its usage from 1998-99 to 2008-09. It reveals that the net sown area has decreased from 1,64,389 hectare to 1,39,146 hectare during 1998-99 to 2008-09. The area available for cultivation also decreased from 2,42,596 to 2,34,051 hectares during the same period.

The area available per 1000 population decreased from 101.08 hectares to 90.78 hectares during the same period. It reveals that the rainfall has not made any structural changes in the cropping pattern as well as in land use. The increased rainfall has not increased the area of cultivation, because the farmers who left their land as follow in one season were not returned back again for farming due to the high cost of cultivation and lack of stability in the prices of agricultural products. The cropping intensity has slightly increased from 107.68 to 108.17 during the period of study. The land put to non-agricultural usage (i.e. land under buildings, roads, etc) has increased from 63,999 hectares to 75,290 hectares. The increase constitutes 17.64 percent to the base year. It also increased from 17.10 percent to 20.12 percent to the tot geographical area during the period of study.

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Table 2 - LAND UTILISATION AND CROPPING INTENSITY IN MADURAI DISTRICT

(Area in hectares)

Sl. No.

1998-99

1999-2000

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

Forest

50452

48473

Barran and uncultivable waste.

15783

15799

13201

13200

13154

13160

13031

Land put to non-agricultural uses

63999

64831

65606

69245

69258

69479

69524

74417

74920

75211

75290

Cultivable waste

5275

5387

-5335

5695

5683

7127

6854

6498

6100

Permanent pastures and other Grazing land

210

230

232

233

Land under miscellaneous trees and groves.

1133

1219

1255

2103

2027

4174

4296

4014

4101

3033

3095

Current follows

49810

55079

49547

12954

17009

19466

1519

7356

10338

20573

20304

Other follow land

23122

28384

37905

83291

94400

106562

92686

66317

71741

65167

68501

Net area sown

164389

152792

148047

137000

121897

106891

138560

153082

144359

141825

139146

10.

Gross cropped area

177019

165211

162819

150704

123929

108434

147499

160808

153519

150983

150524

11.

Geographical area

374173

374133

374173

12.

Area sown more than once

12630

12419

14772

13704

2032

1543

8939

7726

9160

9158

11378

13.

Cropping intensity

107.68

108.12

109.61

110.02

101.66

100.30

106.45

105.04

106.34

106.45

108.17

14.

Area available for cultivation

242596

241642

240831

238948

239001

238614

238448

233882

233292

234063

234051

15.

Area available for cultivation for ('000) population

101.08

100.68

100.34

92.68

92.70

92.55

92.49

90.72

90.49

90.79

90.78

16.

Rainfall

638.5

766.50

789.90

736.7

1010.70

1177.8

668.0

988.0

880.1

Source : Statistical Handbook of Madurai District – 1998-99 to 2008-09, Department of Economics and Statistics

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Table-3 AREA UNDER MAJOR CROPS IN MADURAI DISTRICT DURING 1998-99 TO 2008-09

(Area in Hectares)

CROPS	1998-99	1999-2000	2000-01	2001-02	2002-03	2003-04	2004-05	2005-06	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09

PADDY	87230	82325	76905	68131	43959	23934	60368	70996	67231	61864	66699
CHOLAM	9937	8584	13043	10986	9390	11319	10605	12078	10166	9780	12589
CUMBU	1197	1808	1943	2031	2986	3338	5201	5703	5110	4875	5674
RAGI	203	148	197	134	209	178	122	237	164	145	63
VARAGU	990	415	336	278	169	182	295	230	262	255	142
SAMAI	79	27	83	92	84	38	38	7	8	0	1
MAIZE	311	763	393	246	614	794	826	1437	2015	4358	4608
REDGRAM	1863	1472	1785	1855	1160	1420	1025	1117	1158	1954	1345
BENGALGRAM	21	29	25	33	148	82	106	106	64	91	66
GREENGRAM	5913	5443	6538	5231	4596	4644	3955	3943	4298	4190	2939
BLACKGRAM	1177	1331	1458	1469	1798	1391	1563	1873	1575	2071	965
GROUNDNUT	11003	8485	7451	7145	4638	5742	5943	7441	5342	4687	4578
GINGELLY	2642	1728	1886	1747	1048	1666	1004	1267	884	725	905
COTTON	11367	10159	10087	11094	9505	10651	12035	10432	9368	7478	7207
SUGARCANE	10377	7836	6506	6043	5639	4276	3545	4537	6007	5427	5199
BANANA	2065	2036	1780	1933	2136	2436	2733	2831	2766	2792	2680

Source: Statistical Handbook of Madurai District-1998-99 to 2008-09

Dept. of Economics and Statistics

The Table 3 reports the area under major crops for the period of 1998-99 to 2008-09. It reveals that 87230 hectares of land was under paddy cultivation in 1998-99 followed by 9937 hectare under cholam, 1197 hectare under cumbu, 11003 hectare under Groundnut, 11367 hectare under cotton. The table represents that the area under all the selected crops are in declining trend, except cumbu, maize and banana. In case of maize, the table shows the considerable positive trend among other crops over the study period. This has also reflected in cumbu and banana also. The reason for the increased area of cultivation of maize and cumbu is due to the stability of prices of there crops by poultry industry. They encourage the cultivators by giving advance for cultivation and make MoU (Memorandum of Understanding) with farmers to purchase the products during harvest. The area under small millets which has high nutritional values are in declining trend. There is a need to analyse and to take efforts to increase the area under small millets. This happens because the consumption of small millets are completely replaced by fast food and the changes in food consumption at village levels. The table also elicits that the area of cultivation of commercial crops like oil seeds and sugarcane are also declining which is to be analysed. The high cost of cultivation and unstable prices are the reasons for these happenings.

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Table 4- PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS IN MADURAI DISTRICT DURING 1998-99 TO 2008-09

(In Tons)

CROPS	1998-99	1999-2000	2000-01	2001-02	2002-03	2003-04	2004-05	2005-06	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09
PADDY	409870	365050	340996	302097	112171	80586	196583	234492	267518	214880	267228
CHOLAM	9360	8030	12208	10282	9890	13662	10754	13022	10257	10295	5874
CUMBU	1570	2540	2726	2849	4390	5331	6376	6790	6606	6589	9662
RAGI	530	340	445	303	312	381	187	330	229	269	135
VARAGU	1384	580	469	388	129	214	361	360	285	278	210
SAMAI	57	20	61	67	61	32	31	5	8	0	1
MAIZE	624	1531	788	493	1233	1593	1657	1681	5653	11557	15014
REDGRAM	1200	980	1190	1237	633	9145	684	708	547	869	934
BENGALGRAM	10	20	15	20	86	49	65	63	38	55	40
GREENGRAM	3260	1620	1959	1553	1843	2015	1690	2813	1439	581	655
BLACKGRAM	610	520	606	610	1469	700	263	1230	323	539	304
GROUNDNUT	19490	14180	12458	11946	241	9032	10812	11900	11391	8769	9071
GINGELLY	978	639	698	646	140	820	335	387	227	109	355
COTTON	2830	1533	1735	1675	6153	2141	6820	13734	14095	11450	13369
SUGARCANE	1442403	1089204	891322	818585	60107	552	404518	407209	656204	567905	592186
BANANA	123782	122044	106698	115870	76779	129968	116090	139015	148214	133292	134413

Source: Statistical Handbook of Madurai District-1998-99 to 2008-09

Dept. of Economics and Statistics

Table 4 - Reports the total production of selected crops in Madurai district for the years 1998-99 to 2008-09. The result reveals that maize is found have consistent positive trend over the study period. In case of the main crop paddy, the production trend seems to be declined. From 1990 onwards, rice yields remains stagnant and even started declining in Tamilnadu it also reflected in the study area. The cholam and banana production looks upswing and downswings. The production of cumbu seems to be positive. The other small millets Ragi, Varagu, Samai seem to be in negative trend.

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Table 5 - YIELD OF MAJOR CROPS IN MADURAI DISTRICT DURING 1998-99 TO 2008-09 (Kg / Hectare)

CROPS	1998-99	1999-2000	2000-01	2001-02	2002-03	2003-04	2004-05	2005-06	2006-07	2007-08	2008-09
PADDY	4699	4434	4434	4434	2552	3367	3258	3303	4369	3473	4007
CHOLAM	942	935	936	936	1053	1207	1014	1078	1009	1053	467
CUMBU	1312	1405	1402	1403	1470	1597	1226	1191	1293	1352	1703
RAGI	2611	2297	2259	2261	1493	2140	1532	1392	1396	1855	2143
VARAGU	1398	1398	1396	1396	763	1176	1224	1565	1088	1090	1479
SAMAI	722	741	735	728	726	842	816	714	1000	0	1000
MAIZE	2006	2007	2005	2004	2008	2006	2006	1170	2805	2652	3258
REDGRAM	644	666	667	667	546	644	667	634	472	445	694
BENGALGRAM	476	690	600	606	581	598	613	594	594	604	606
GREENGRAM	551	298	297	297	401	434	427	713	335	139	223
BLACKGRAM	518	391	416	415	817	503	168	657	205	260	315
GROUNDNUT	1771	1671	1672	1672	52	1573	1819	1599	2132	1871	1981
GINGELLY	370	370	370	370	134	492	334	305	257	150	392
COTTON	249	151	172	151	647	201	567	1317	1506	1531	1855
SUGARCANE	139000	139000	137000	135460	10659	129	114109	89753	109240	97461	113904
BANANA	59943	59943	59943	59943	35945	53353	42477	49105	53584	47741	50154

Source: Statistical Handbook of Madurai District-1998-99 to 2008-09

Dept. of Economics and Statistics

Table 5 - Reports the yield of selected crops in Madurai district for the years 1998-99 to 2008-09. It reveals that the yield of cumbu per hectare is in increased trend. The yield of Red gram and Bengal gram are looks upswings and downswing during the period of study. The yield of maize during the period of study is in positive trend. The cultivation of maize and cumbu are profitable in the study area.

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Table-6 – Compound Annual Growth rates of Area, Yield and Production of Selected Crops in Madurai District (1998-99 to 2008-09) (Percent)

Crops	Area	Production	Yield
Paddy	-2.65	-4.178	-1.58
Cholam	+2.39	-4.55	-6.77
Cumbu	+16.84	+19.90	+2.64
Ragi	-11.00	-12.78	-1.95
Varagu	+17.65	-17.19	+0.56
Samai	-35.39	-33.25	-3.31
Maize	+32.05	+37.44	+4.96
Redgram	-32.10	-2.47	+0.75
Bengalgram	+12.13	+14.87	+2.44
Greengram	-6.75	-14.82	-8.64
Blackgram	-1.96	-6.72	-4.85
Groundnut	-8.39	-7.36	+1.12
Gingelly	-10.16	-9.63	+0.59
Cotton	-4.45	+16.79	+22.21
Sugarcane	-6.67	-8.51	-1.97
Banana	+2.64	+0.82	-1.76

Source : Based on authors own estimation.

Table 6 - Reveals that in case of paddy, cholam, ragi, samai crops the evidence provide negative growth rate. An interesting point note that, the CAGR for the area of cultivation of cotton is negative, but, at the same time the production (+16.79) and productivity (+22.21) is in positive trend, the increased productivity of cotton has not reflected in the area of cultivation. It also reveals that the cumbu, maize and bengalgram were recorded positive and highest growth rate per annum in terms of area, production and yield in Madurai district.

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Conclusion

The present study examined the performance of area, production and yield of selected crops in Madurai district. Using the data from 1998-99 to 2008-09, the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of area, production and yield for the selected crops in Madurai District. In Madurai district paddy holds major area of cultivation among other crops. But the CAGR reveals that the cumbu and maize was found to be positive and records a higher growth rate among other cereal crops in terms of area of cultivation, production and yield. Despite the fact that maize and cumbu were found to acquire highest in terms of growth performance of area of cultivation production and yield among other crops, it cannot serve the purpose of livelihood for majority of the people in Madurai District. Hence, the importance had given to the paddy cultivation. Besides the study suggests that the farmers can also cultivate maize and cumbu for the money making purpose in Tamilnadu state that suits for the climatic conditions of the District and State as well.

The existing traditional cropping pattern may not be viable in the coming years because of continuous ground water depletion, the deterioration in Soil health, change in rainfall pattern, high cost of cultivation, implications of WTO etc., hence, it is the time to save the farmers from the increasing cultivation cost. Cold storage facilities to the farmers to store the agricultural produce are very much needed. The need of the hour is to encourage the farmers, the cultivation practice by means of uninterrupted power supply, credit facility and stable price, to there produce. The minimum support price should be fixed on the basis of cost of cultivation. The increased productivity of cotton has not reflected in the area of cultivation is to be analysed in detail.

(The copy of the paper presented by me in the Seminar on Globalization and its impact on Agriculture held at GRI on 17,18 feb 2011 is sent for reference and comments)

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