BIOLOGY ARTICLES

ADRENAL GLAND

2012-03-19T10:48:00.000-07:00

T.S OF ADRENAL GLAND

POSITION OF ADRENAL GLAND

ADRENAL GLAND IN SECTION

Histologically adrenal gland is divided into two regions

1. Stroma

2. Parenchyma

T.S OF ADRENAL GLAND

ü Stroma represents the outer most protective capsule. It is actually made of an outer coat of fibrous connective tissue and an inner zone of areolar tissue containing arterioles. Extending from the protective capsule is a number of delicate trabeculae which pass through adrenal cortex.

ü Parenchyma consists of two zones which are different in origin, structure and function. They are called – outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla.

a) Adrenal cortex – Adrenal cortex is derived from mesoderm. It is sub-divided into three zones.

· Zona glomerulosa: it represents 15% of the cortex and lies inner to the protective capsule. It consists of columnar pyramidal cells arranged in the form of rounded masses around an inelastic lumen or arched loops. Glomerulosa cells secrete mineralo-corticoid.

· Zona fasciculate: It is the middle zone of the adrenal cortex and widest of all three zones representing 70-80% of the total adrenal cortex. It consists of columnar or polyhedral or irregular cubical uninucleated or binucleated cells arranged in long straight cords usually 2 cell thick. This zone secretes gluco-corticoids which controls glucose metabolism.

· Zona reticularis: It is the inner most zone of the cortex. It is very thin zone which represents about 5-10% of total adrenal cortex. It consists of branching cords of small cells showing network like arrangements. The cells secrete sex hormones.

b) Adrenal medulla– It represents the central core of the gland. It is derived from ectoderm and is light brown in colour. Medulla consists of chromaffin cells containing chromaffin granules that stain brown with chromic acid or potassium dichromate. These cells are seen around large central vein that drains the capillaries of the adrenal cortex. Adrenal cortex stores and secretes the hormones- adrenalin and non-adrenalin secreted by sympathetic nervous system.

MICROSPORANGIUM

2012-03-10T20:32:00.001-08:00

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSPORANGIUM

In a huge mass of cells, few cells in the hypodermal region become differentiated, by their large size, radial growth and dense cytoplasm and conspicuous nuclei. They make the archisporium. Generally archisporium consists of 2-3 cell wide plate running along the entire length of the lobe.

The micro sporangial initials (archisporial cells) divide periclinally forming a primary parietal layer and primary sporogenous layer. The cells of the primary parietal layer laying immediately beneath the epidermis divide repeatedly both periclinally and anticlinally giving rise to 3-5 concentric layers forming the wall of the young sporangium.

Cells of the epidermis divide anticlinally only. The cells thus formed become greatly stretched and flattened. Sometimes its cells may be generally lignified or cutinized.

The layer next to the epidermis is the endothecium or fibrous layer. As a rule, by the development of fibrous bands of thickening the endothecium is hygroscopic and is therefore mainly responsible for the dehiscence of the mature anther

NOTE: The cells of the endothecium are thin walled along the line of dehiscence of each anther lobe. The opening through which the pollen grains are discharged from pollen sac is called STROMIUM.

The inner most layer of the wall layer develops into a single layered tapetum. The tapetal layer has dense cytoplasm and conspicuous nuclei. Tapetum makes a nutritive layer for the developing microspores.

FORMATION OF ANTHER LOBES FROM UNDIFFERENTIATED MASS OF CELLS

In meantime, the primary sporogenous layer cells give rise to microspore mother cell (mmc) or the pollen mother cells. In the beginning mmc remains closely packed but as anther enlarges in size, the pollen sac also increases in size, the mmc also increases in size and becomes spherical in shape and gets loosely arranged.

MATURED ANTHER

HAUSTORIUM

2012-03-03T21:26:00.000-08:00

It is wondering structure in plant kingdom. From primitive fungi to highly evolved angiosperms we can see this structure. It is a projection originated from normal tissue to get better nourishment from neighboring source.

Haustorium has hypotonic cytoplasm compared to surrounding host tissue. Hence it helps to grab the nourishment by osmosis.

Amazing fact here is, how can Haustorium maintain its hypotonic nature with its own tissue..???

Its size varies, in fungi it is nodule like structure just penetrates into the host tissue and sucks the required nutrition. In fungi, haustoria can be seen at the base of the mycelium where it is in contact with host tissue.

HAUSTORIUM IN HOST TISSUE

In higher plants (Gymnosperm onwards) haustoria are quite rare. In the embryos of Angiosperms we can see haustoria where the requirement of nutrition is more. Endosperm of the Cucumis shows beautiful Haustorium. It grows to a size that it uses to cross out the integument of ovary to grab the nourishment. In advanced plants, in embryogeny the micropylar end shows slightly bulged haustoria.

MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF HAUSTORIUM

(ITS OBSERVED IN ENDOSPERM OF CUCUMIS)

Formation of haustoria is shown in sequence. Brief explanation is given about this in P.MAHESHWARI’S BOOK.

Different views of haustoirum........

Haustoria play an important role for the survival of the plant and some other organisms.

2012-02-29T10:25:00.001-08:00

INTEGUMENT OF BIRDS & ITS DERIVATIVES

The integument of bird is dry, thin, loosely attached to body covered with epidermal derivatives. The main derivatives are feathers. Feathers are unique to all birds which are light, elastic, waterproof and most important for flight. They are differently colored and modified into many types in order to insulate the body (homeothermy).

V.S OF SKIN OF BIRD

Ø The skin of bird like any other vertebrate composed of 2 layers, stratified epithelium and dermis.

Ø The skin is very thin and loosely attached to achieve maximum freedom of movement of feathers during flight.

Ø Epidermis is in turn made up of 2 layers viz., Stratum corneum and stratum germinativum or profoundum.

Ø Stratum corneum is multilayered, outer part of epidermis which is keratinized without any uni or multi cellular gland cell.

Ø Stratum germinativum is unilayered cuboidal or columnar epithelium resting on a basement membrane from which the top layers are constantly replaced.

Ø From the epidermal layer various modifications or derivatives are seen like feather covering the entire body, except hind limbs covered with scales, beak, claws, spurs, web etc., diversified and adapted to different habitats. All the derivatives are thought to evolve from epidermal scales.

Ø The epidermis including both layers evaginates to form feather germs from which calamus the basal part of feathers arising from feather follicles.

Ø The dermis has 2 layers viz., outer stratum laxum corii and inner stratum compactum corii.

Ø Stratum laxum corii , has loose connective tissue, elastic fibers, blood capillaries, smooth muscle fibers without glands or chromatophores but has melanocytes forming a layer beneath the germinativum contain pigments which migrate to feathers and scales imparting varied coloration.

Ø The skin glands are found exceptionally in the tail region called uropygial or preen glands which are very well developed in aquatic birds.

Ø The preen glands secretes oil or waxy secretion which used to coat on feathers and beak during preening.

Ø Stratum compactum is the inner most layer of the dermis which has collagen fibers and smooth muscle fibers arranged horizontally and compactly in between which are found numerous fat cells or adepocytes which function both as storage and insulation an adaptation for homeothermy or warm bloodedness.

DERIVATIVES OF BIRD’S SKIN:

Pterylosis: The arrangement or distribution of feathers on body is known as Pterylosis. The flightless birds (Ratitae) feathers are uniformly distributed, but in Carinatae, feathers are arranged in distinct patches or tracts called Pterylae which are separated by featherless interspaces called Apteria.

ARRANGEMENT OF FEATHER

TYPES:

There are usually 4 types of feathers:

i. Quill or Remex

ii. Contour or Pinnae

iii. Filoplumes or Hair or Pin feathers

iv. Down or Plumules

ü Quill or Remex feathers: are feathers present on tail or wing ( Rectrices & Remiges respectively)

ü A typical quill feather has 2 parts viz., a small proximal Calamus or quill and an upper distal portion the Vane.

ü Calamus is hallowed and its lower end has a small inferior umbilicus at the junction of calamus and rachis.

ü A small tuft of soft feather known as hypo rachis or after shaft arises near the superior umbilicus the upper opening of the calamus.

ü The calamus continues as shaft or rachis a solid opaque forming the longitudinal axis of the vane.

ü T he ventral umbilical groove is a narrow furrow running along the inner surface of the rachis throughout its length.

ü Vane is made of two unequal lateral halves with its distal end narrower than its proximal end.(outer web & inner web respectively)

ü Each lateral half of the vane consists of numerous narrow parallel and closely spaced thread called barbs with interlocking barbules.

ü Quill feather helpful in flight.

QUILL FEATHER

2. Contour or Pinnae: are feathers which form the general covering of the body.

ü It consists of two parts, a) central axis or vane b) calamus.

ü These are small feathers with barbs having poorly developed barbules so that the barbs can be easily isolated.

ü The calamus is hallowed and very a small compared to quill feathers made up of dry dermal pulp.

ü Both the halves of the vane are more or less equal.

ü Contour feathers provide a smooth surfacing to body to resist the friction while moving in air.

ü These feathers overlap completely covering the body and acting as insulator i.e., preventing heat loss, maintain homeothermy.

CONTOUR FEATHER

3. Filoplumes or Hair or Pin feathers:

ü Filoplumes are small delicate and hair like feathers found separately distributed all over the body.

ü It consists of a short calamus with inferior umbilicus at its proximal end.

ü The rachis is and thread like having a few barbs and barbules at its free tip.

ü The actual function of filoplumes is not known.

PIN FEATHER

4. Down feathers or Plumules:

ü Down feathers are very small soft and wooly feathers which differ from contour feathers by the absence of rachis.

ü The barbs are long flexible with small short rudimentary barbules appearing as a fluffy tuft from the top of the calamus.

ü The down feathers are seen covering only the newly hatched birds providing excellent insulation.

ü They are absent in adult birds completely replaced by contour feathers.

DOWN FEATHER

SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE

2011-12-03T10:05:00.001-08:00

SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE

Superoxide dismutase is an ENZYME which plays a very important role in reducing the activity of peroxides and free oxygen molecule formed at the end of of the cellular respiration.

STRUCTURE OF SOD

The last step of cellular respiration takes place in RAKER PARTIALS of MITOCHONDRIA. After series of reactions NAD, NADP molecules are reduced. As a result, 36 ATP's are formed as assimilatory power molecules. O2 and H2O2 are formed as bi-products. Very unfortunately these molecules are not good for normal functioning of the cell. So these molecules must be converted into simple harmless form. For this process, SOD binds to suitable active center and convert them to simpler form.

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

CHEMICAL REACTION

SOD performs it's work accurately without committing any mistake.

WE MUST THANK FULL TO IT, HATS OFF SOD........

LEUKEMIA

2011-11-08T20:07:00.000-08:00

BLOOD CANCER

Blood cancer is NOT vomiting of blood... Unsystematic increase in number of WBC in blood plasma is simply defined as blood cancer. This type of cancer can be seen in child, adult. There is no age limit for this disorder.

Here is the brief note on LEUKEMIA.......

In normal healthy adult the WBC count must be about 4×10⁹ to 1× 10^{10, it's size ranges from 7 to 21 micrometer. Actually increase in number of WBC is good for health, but the thing is many WBCs are cancerous in nature. These cancerous WBCs do not perform their normal function as the healthy WBCs perform. Compare to healthy WBCs, the cancerous WBCs number increases to a larger extent.}

Because of this, body looses it's defensive system. Body immunity collapses extensively. As a result body faces so many difficulties to fight against viruses and bacteria.

In similar way if number of LYMPHOCYTES increased abnormally, it results in LYMPHOMA. Since blood is circulating throughout the body, the symptoms are seen all over the body in different intervals of time. Blood vomiting may be seen in cancer patients, but it's not a notable symptom.

CRUEL EFFECT OF CANCER

We not yet found the medicine to control the number of CANCEROUS WBCs. So it's deadliest disorder. Still lots of opportunities are there to pick up the research in CANCER BIOLOGY.

THE RABIES

2011-10-11T08:37:00.000-07:00

RABIES
(Rabies means madness)

Rabies is a common and deadliest disease caused by rabies virus. This virus usually infects the worm blooded animals. For us it is usually infected though dog bite.

Regarding to this disease there are so many myths. To know about the details of this disease one should know what the root mechanism of the disease.

RABIES INFECTED DOGS

When a person met with dog bite, the saliva of dog containing rabies virus enters the blood stream. The virus starts it's cycle and triggers the out come of symptoms.

By taking the rabies vaccine at the initial stage further infection can be checked.

Usually the dogs vaccinated with the anti-rabies...........!!!

Dogs are vaccinated not get infected by the rabies. The vaccinated dogs are resistive to rabies. It doesn't means that, the dog do not spread the rabies. All should be clear with this, the vaccinated dogs can spread the rabies. We must be in care not to met with the dog bite even though the dog is vaccinated.
The target spot of rabies virus is SALIVARY GLANDS. Hence we can see the over salivation in rabies victims.

There are so many standard vaccines to treat rabies. Since the virus attacks the CNS, the rabies should be treated very soon.

BE AWARE OF DOG BITE, DON'T NEGLECT IT.

GREATNESS OF RABIES

POISON KING, THE CYANIDE

2011-10-04T19:20:00.000-07:00

POISON KING , THE CYANIDE

What are cyanides....? What's the effect of cyanide to our body.......?
What are all the reactions take place when these cyanides mixed up with our body plasma......? Why cyanides are highly poisonous....? Why the death is very instantaneous, when cyanide is inhaled.....?

These are the most common questions regarding cyanides. Here is the answer for all these questions..................................

Cyanide is a compound formed by functional cyanide group, i.e: -CN
means, carbon and nitrogen forms the linkage and become a stable functional group.
This group associates with Hydrogen, potassium, sodium and some other elements and forms respective cyanide.

HYDROGEN CYANIDE

Cyanides are poisonous. The activity of the cyanide turned it into a poisonous substance. To understand the activity of cyanide one should know CELLULAR RESPIRATION.

ATTACKING SPOT OF CYANIDE

Terminal oxidation is a phase in which the cyanide shows it's action. As this phase is the most important phase and life carrying phase, when cyanide restrict this terminal oxidation, at a specific position, the life holding mechanism collapses and body faces severe trouble. Thus forcibly death comes. In T.O cyanide gets perfect and proper active center for it's reaction, in fraction of seconds the parental reaction is checked. Thus it is highly poisonous. It's also called as KING OF POISON.

BE AWARE OF IT

NO ONE CAN KNOW THE TASTE OF IT, HERE DEATH APPROACHES THE SPEED OF LIGHT.

MUCILAGE

2011-09-20T20:57:00.000-07:00

MUCILAGE

OBJECTIVE :

ü Why mucilage is removed..?

ü Where it is reduced..?

ü What are all the advantages or disadvantages of removing the mucilage from plant extract..?

INTRODUCTION : Secretions produced by the plant tissue from the linkage with some bulky complex molecules and forms viscous fluid which is refereed as mucilage.

In general mucilage is produced by the parenchytous tissues. Mucilage is found in different plants in different parts. In root, stem, flower, leaf and also in fruiting bodies we can notice the presence of mucilage.

Composition of mucilage is different in different from one another, but in general mucilage is made up of,

Ø Soluble or insoluble fibers

Ø Polar glycoprotein

Ø Exopolysaccharides

In other words, mucilage are polysaccharide complexes formed from and uronic acid units. Mucilage forms slimy masses in water, are typically heterogeneous in composition.

As mucilage is a complex formed by several chemicals and chemical composition is not properly known, particular chemical structure can not be predicted.

SOME OF THE MUCILAGE YIELDING PLANTS AND IT’S UNIQUE FEATURES

v Lady;s finger

Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculentus

Belongs to a family called MALVACEAE. Mucilage mainly contains soluble fibers. Here mucilage is present to protect the seeds hence mucilage is restricted to fruiting body.

v Aloe vera

Botanical name: Aloe vera

Belongs to a family called LILIACEAE. Aloe vera exclusively contain pectic acid and glucomonnans. In addition to these antiseptic agents like lupeol, natural salicylic acid, urea nitrogen, cinnamic acid, phenol and sulphur. Anti inflammatory β-sitosterol is also present in it.

vHibiscus

Botanical name: Hibiscus rosa-sininsis

Belongs to a family called MALVACEAE. Mucilage restricted to leaves. Leaves, only after came into contact with water mucilage spreads out.

vBasale soppu

Botanical name: Basella alba

Belongs to a family called BASELLACEAE. Twig along with leaves contains mucilage. Starch is present in huge quantity.

Starch, proteins, fibers are essential for our body in small quantity. For better digestion and excretion process mucilage plays a very important role. Thus partial removal of mucilage is better than complete removal.

METHODOLOGY

From hibiscus and aloe vera, the mucilage extracted by CENTRIFUGATION process. Extracted mucilage is exclusively used in cosmetic industries.

Acid hydrolysis, steam treatment, boiling, treating with alkali are some methods to extract the mucilage from plants.

By viscosity method, by varying PH level also mucilage can be separated.

By the carbohydrate test, protein test etc. by using several chemical reagents, on basis of rate reaction the perfect composition of the mucilage of desirable plant can be determined.

CONCLUSION

According to AYURVEDA, people with IBS (Irritable Bowel Syndrome) should avoid mucilage vegetables. This is because, the victim fails to digest the over starch in those vegetables.

Souring agents are used in kitchen is to remove the mucilage and to make it palatable.

Except in few cases, removal of mucilage from vegetable is not necessary. For better health partially mucilage can be removed. As the mucilage contains micronutrients we can make better use of it.

OUR EYES

2011-09-18T11:47:00.000-07:00

One of the NATURE'S best creation is MANKIND. EYES are best examples for the creativity in that creation. Eyes are well protected by eye lid and eye lashes and also eye brows.

All these protective organs perform their functions in an unique way. Caring of eye is a difficult task.there are plenty of methods to maintaining of beautiful eye texture. Instead of caring UNKNOWINGLY we are using some useless acts by which we are loosing the efficiency of our eyes. THIS IS ESPECIALLY FOR MODERN GIRLS.

The aspect of discussion is EYE BROW, THE BEAUTY CARING METHOD. The natural eye brows are curved into desirable shapes and sizes.

By this a major wing of protection will meet destruction. The eyes may look beautiful at that instant, but in reality, eyes looses it's healthy nature and the exposure to the sun light becomes comparatively more.The resent research says that the root cause for EYE CANCER is EYEBROW. So it's very useful to be away from this BEAUTY CARING.

GIRLS FOR BETTER HEALTH OF EYES, PLEASE AVOID EYEBROW METHOD.

DONATE YOUR "GOLDEN EYES" TO EYE BANKS AFTER YOUR DEATH, THE BLINDS CAN SEE THIS GOLDEN WORLD THROUGH YOUR EYES.

NATURAL MEDICINE

2011-09-13T08:42:00.000-07:00

NATURE is treasure for everything. no one cross the NATURE'S RULE.............

now a days we are using so many CHEMICAL MEDICINES manufactured in industries.

Let's take the example of CHICKEN POX,

Signs and tests

Chickenpox is usually diagnosed from the classic rash and the child's medical history. Blood tests, and tests of the pox blisters themselves, can confirm the diagnosis if there is any question.

Treatment

In most cases, it is enough to keep children comfortable while their own bodies fight the illness. Oatmeal baths in lukewarm water provide a crusty, comforting coating on the skin. An oral antihistamine can help to ease the itching, as can topical lotions. Trim the fingernails short to reduce secondary infections and scarring.

Safe antiviral medicines have been developed. To work well, they usually must be started within the first 24 hours of the rash.

For most otherwise healthy children without severe symptoms, antiviral medications are usually not used. Adults and teens, who are at risk for more severe symptoms, may benefit if the case is seen early in its course.
For those with skin conditions (such as eczema or recent sunburn), lung conditions (such as asthma), or those who have recently taken steroids, the antiviral medicines may be very important. The same is also true for adolescents and children who must take aspirin on an ongoing basis.
Some doctors also give antiviral medicines to people in the same household who subsequently come down with chickenpox. Because of their increased exposure, they would normally experience a more severe case of chickenpox.

DO NOT GIVE ASPIRIN to someone who may have chickenpox. Use of aspirin has been associated with a serious condition called Reyes Syndrome. Ibuprofen has been associated with more severe secondary infections. Acetaminophen may be used.

BUT.......

Nobody knows nature had given a great medicine for this disease. That is, HONGE TREE.

Botanical name: Millettia pinnata

The thick waxy cuticle of this tree is collected,the cuticle is squeezed along with water, the cuticle releases a highly BITTER compound. this solution is use to treat the chicken pox. the chemical composition of this solution is completely resembles the composition of medicine manufactured in industry.

We can cultivate this tree very easily. It maintains better environment. So by growing this plant we can get both the benefits.

THINK WELL.............

NATURE IS SUPREME THE POWER.

WITHOUT TELESCOPE

2011-09-12T19:43:00.000-07:00

VARAHA MIHIRA is a great astronomer, astrologer, mathematician of INDIA. he had done some tremendous research and he mentioned them in his book. in his time there was no telescope, still, using the techniques of maths and science he calculated the date and time of ECLIPS for, till 5000A.D....... THIS IS THE GREATNESS OF INDIANS........

Same kind of work is done by ARYABHATA also....... LILAVATHI, SURYA SIDDANTHA are his GREAT WORKS...........

Without OPERATION THEATERS, SUSHRUTHA conducted PLASTIC SURGERY.......... NO ONE can measure the intelligence of INDIANS......... INDIANS can DISCOVER anything without mechanical assistance............ INDIANS ARE BEST........ INDIA IS BEST

CANCER KILLER

2011-09-11T08:49:00.000-07:00

CYBER KNIFE is an advanced instrument to detect and to treat the cancer..........
The cost of this instrument is about 30cr..........!!!
The cost of examination for a patient is about 50lk..............!!!
If the infection of the cancer is less than 50%, CENT PERCENT guaranteed treatment can be given USING THIS INSTRUMENT.............!!!

2011-09-11T04:36:00.000-07:00

LYSOSOMES are defined as suicidal bags of the cell. If the cell performing malfunction, the LYSOSOMES gets activated by releasing it's hydrolytic enzymes and cause the death of the cell...............

BUT BUT BUT BUT.............
WHY A CELL CANNOT NOTICE IT'S MALFUNCTIONING IN CANCER.............???

SIMILAR TERMS BUT ENTIRELY DIFFERENT MEANING

2011-09-10T18:27:00.000-07:00

WHAT ARE BLEBBING AND BLUBBER...............????

ANS: Formation of EPR by the folding phenomenon of nuclear membrane and cell membrane is termed as BLEBBING

The thick layer of fat covering the entire body of aquatic mammals is described as BLUBBER