knockingpoint

banking terms

2021-04-10T13:34:00.000+05:30

✍️ CRR
Cash Reserve Ratio is the minimum fraction of total deposits of a bank’s customers that banks have to hold as reserves with the central bank.

✍️ SLR
Statutory Liquidity Ratio is the ratio of liquid assets to the net demand and time liabilities.

✍️ LAF
Liquid Adjustment Facility is a tool to allow banks to borrow money through repurchase agreements. It consists of repo and reverse repo operations.

✍️ MSF
Marginal Standing Facility allows scheduled banks to borrow funds overnight from RBI against approved government securities.

✍️ MSS
Market Stabilization Scheme is a monetary policy intervention by RBI to withdraw excess liquidity by selling government securities in the economy.

✍️ OMO
Open Market Operations refers to the buying and selling of government securities in the open market so as to expand or contract the amount of money in the banking system.

✍️ REPO
Repo stands for Repurchase agreement where a seller of a security agrees to buy it back from a buyer at a higher price on a specified date.

✍️ CD
A Certificate of Deposit is a promissory note issued by a bank with a maturity date, fixed interest rate and can be issued in any denomination. It restricts holders from withdrawing funds on demand.

✍️ NAV
Net Asset Value is the value per share of a mutual/exchange-traded fund. It is computed once per day based on the closing market price of securities involved.

✍️ ETF
Exchange-Traded Fund is a marketable security tracking an index, a commodity, bonds, or a basket of assets.

✍️ DEMAT
Dematerialization is the movement from physical certificates of stock to their electronic counterparts.

✍️ RD
Recurring Deposit is a special term deposit allowing people with regular income to deposit a fixed income every month and earn interest rates applicable to fixed deposits.

✍️ FDI
Foreign Direct Investment is the investment made by a firm/individual of one country into businesses located in another country.

✍️ FII
A Foreign Institutional Investor is an investor/investment fund registered in a country and investing in another one.

✍️ GAAR
General Anti-Avoidance Rule allows tax officials to deny tax benefits in case a deal is found without any commercial purpose other than tax avoidance.

✍️ P-NOTES
Participatory Notes is a financial instrument required by investors who are not registered with SEBI to invest in India securities.

✍️ NPCI
National Payments Corporation of India is an umbrella organization for operating retail payments and settlement systems in India.

✍️ SWIFT
The Society for Worldwide Interfinancial Telecommunication provides a network that facilitates financial institutions anywhere in the world to send/receive information about financial transactions in a secure, standardized and reliable environment.

✍️ CCIL
The Clearing Corporation of India is set up to provide guaranteed clearing and settlement functions for transactions in money, G-Secs, foreign exchange and derivatives market.

✍️ ECS
Electronic Clearing Service is an electronic mode of transferring funds from one bank account to another.

✍️ EFT
Electronic Funds Transfer is a system of transferring money from one bank account to another without any physical money coming in the picture.

✍️ NEFT
National Electronic Funds Transfer is a system to transfer money via electronic mode from one bank account to another.

✍️ RTGS
Real Time Gross Settlement is an electronic form of funds transfer with the fund transfer happening on a real time basis.

✍️ IBRD
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development is an international financial institution offering loans to middle-income developing countries.

✍️ IMF
The International Monetary Fund is an international organization striving to ensure that the international monetary system remains stable.

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Business Communication – Introduction Notes

Business Communication is the ability of a group of individuals to speak the same language internally and externally towards business promotion. Business communication is one of the most important tool for an organization to succeed in a professional manner. Communication that takes place in an organization between its employees and management team is crucial to business growth and must reflect a common goal towards which every member of the organization is working. This common goal gets permeated into every Employee’s role through set of communication like vision, mission, business objectives, financial Goals etc. Thus, it is of paramount importance to comprehend the real contribution of Business Communication to organizational growth. This understanding will pave way to groom oneself on the various aspects of communication making it an effective one in the longer run.

What is Communication?

The word communication comes from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to ‘share’ or ‘participate’.

Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings, facts, ideas, opinions or emotions with other people. It is the art of exchanging opinions, thoughts, facts and ideas in an emphatic manner so that the person at the other end receives and understands the subject matter involved clearly and perceives it in the same way it was intended by the sender.

According to Peter Little, “Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals and/or organizations, so that it results in an understanding response.”

Business Communication has become an absolute requirement for all organizations for various reasons, such as:

It acts as the basis of organizational growth in terms of human and public relations

It widens the outlook of people making them understand the business scenario from a broader perspective

Business Communication enhances the overall relationship maintenance capabilities of the organization

It empowers the organization to handle public relations in an effective manner

It increases personal productivity and confidence of all in the organization by multi-fold levels

Objectives of Business Communication

To provide the right information to the right person at the right time so business processes are on track at all points of time

To seek as well as offer advice to the needy at the right time in the right manner so business processes continue in a hassle free manner

To counsel people on issues that will enable smooth flow of activities through positive relationships

To issue the right kind of instructions to appropriate levels of management

To emphasize discipline and systematic approach across all levels in the organization

To foster upward communication which contributes in improving the morale levels of Employees, across all levels in the organization.

To keep all concerned parties well informed about the organizational policies and principles. This will motivate every employee to participate in the developmental activities aimed towards achieving business objectives

Importance of Business Communication

Business Communication is an indispensable component of all management functions. Motivating, supervising, directing and planning all require effective communication.

It links superiors to subordinates and fosters mutual understanding among them

It is a two way communication system that stimulates initiative and creativity among subordinates

Effective business communication eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding, thereby leading to job satisfaction and increased morale of employees and results in sound human relations within an organization

Effective communication is necessary to build meaningful relationships between management and workers that aids in growth of manpower and trade unions

Business Communication helps in maintaining public relations by creating and projecting a positive image of the organization to the customers, government, suppliers etc.

It aids in motivating the employees and boosting their morale by fostering a positive attitude and inspiring people in an organization

Business Communication is imperative for effective decision making

Communication Process

Communication is a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. It involves a sender, the transmission of a message through a selected channel/medium and a receiver. It is a two way communication process concerned with sharing and understanding information in an effective manner.

(1) Source/Sender – The Sender/Source is the origin of the idea or message. It may be an individual or a group. The sender conceives the idea, prepares the message, selects the channel and transmits the message to the receiver.

(2) Message – It is any signal that triggers a response from the receiver. It may be a verbal (written or spoken) or nonverbal (body language, silence, appearance, sound, sign etc.).

(3) Encoding – Translation of an idea into a message appropriate for transmission by the source/sender is called encoding. While encoding a message, one must consider –

What contents to include?

How will the receiver interpret it?

How it may affect one`s relationship?

(4) Channel – Channel refers to the means through which the message travels from the sender to the receiver. The channel maybe mass media such as T.V., newspaper, radio or interpersonal channel such as telephone, email, correspondence etc. Selection of a channel depends upon:

The message to be communicated

Importance of the message

Number of receivers

Availability of channel

Cost and effectiveness of channel

(5) Receiver – It may be an individual or a group of individuals for whom the message is intended.

(6) Decoding – It refers to the process through which a receiver translates the encoded message, symbols etc. understands it and interprets it to from certain meaning.

(7) Feedback – It is the reaction or response of the receiver to the message sent by the sender. The response can be based upon a clear interpretation of the message or on a misunderstood or misinterpreted message.

Features of Communication

(1) Communication is a Science

Communication is basically more of a science than just a mere skill set. Effective communication skills involve use of:

Psychology – Deals with personality, attitudes and temperament, perception levels and persuasion skills

Anthropology – This aspect deals with Body language which plays a crucial role in effective communication

Sociology – Deals with larger number of diversified population and their opinions

(2) Communication is a give and take Process

Any communication is effective only when it is understood in the appropriate manner by the receiver as intended by the sender. It can be referred as a two way process in which both the ways namely conveying and receiving is perfect.

(3) Common goal makes communication successful

Communications become highly effective when goals and targets to be achieved are clearly understood by both the communicator and the receiver. Thus communication is termed as a goal oriented process when it comes to organization management.

(4) Communication is a continuous process

Effective communication is an ongoing process of telling, listening and understanding.

(5) Communication is an active process

Communication is an active process that changes with the changing environment and mindset of people.

(6) Communication has no boundaries

In a typical business scenario, Communication does not have any boundaries or limits. Communication prevails at the lower levels in the organizations as much as it is spread across middle and top management levels.

(7) Communication is incomplete without a receiver

Communication requires at least two human beings. The two people involved in communication are the communicator and the receiver. Without a receiver, nothing gets communicated by the communicator.

(8) Communication elicits reactions and responses

Effective communication is one that elicits appropriate reactions and responses in people at the receiving end. When the communicator has effective persuasion skills the receiver gets influenced, eliciting a desired response. A good communicator is one who is able to deliver information sought by the receivers.

(9) Communication has multiple purposes

Different types of communication are carried out for achieving various kinds of purposes. While some communication aim at solving problems, some are carried out to enable uninterrupted workflow. Communication is used as a tool to share information as well as for the purpose of socializing.

(10) Communication happens in multi-fold ways

Communication is that aspect of sharing information which does not depend on any single medium. For instance, communication does not solely depend on expressions through words in oral or written form alone. The gestures we make, the symbols we use to communicate certain ideas and facts and the sign language used to show emotions, all are part of communication. Many a times, signs, symbols and gestures communicate the intended message more clearly than words.

Contribution of Effective Business Communication to Organizational growth

(1) Boosts morale and acts as a Motivator

Strong communication skills act as a morale booster in a typical business environment. Organizations with people who have good communication skills foster the best climate for business achieving business prosperity in every possible manner.

(2) Rapid advancements in terms of technology

Effective communication skills act as direct pointers to technological advancements in organizations. Be it the understanding of the technology or introducing the same for business development, effective communication skills is of paramount importance.

(3) Handling the labour force in an effective manner

When it comes to typical Industrial scenario, handling the laborers in a satisfying manner and conflict management through effective communication skills becomes mandatory. Effective communications skills act as the basis of negotiation skills, convincing skills which in turn help an organization to handle Trade Union demands and conflicts in a professional manner

(4) Handling relationships in a matured manner

Effective communication skills helps in managing relationships in a friendly and successful manner. Be it peer to peer communication or top to bottom interactions, appropriate skill sets related to communication help in fostering relationships in organizations.

(5) Understanding the behavioral and psychological aspects of humans

Effective communication skills help employees as well as the Management teams to understand each other. When people are handled based on their behavioral capabilities and psychological aspects, the interactions and outputs from the same are developmental.

(6) Customer handling and branding activities

In today’s competitive business environment, organization development depends mainly on the effectiveness of Branding and Marketing activities. All organizations with astounding communication skills succeed in reaching to their customers through their marketing communication skills.

(7) Maintaining effective Public Relations

Communication plays a crucial role in maintaining Public relations that encompasses interactions with vendors, Government Agencies, Suppliers and many other groups that are involved in business activities.

Modes of Communication

Communication between people can take place through different means. The basic means of communication are Verbal and Non-verbal.

Verbal Communication can be divided in to two categories

History Of Education In South Asia

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The remnants of the library of Nalanda, built in the 5th century BCE by Gupta kings. It was rebuilt twice after invasion, first after an invasion from the Huns in the 5th century BCE and then after an invasion from the Gaudasin the 7th century CE but abandoned after the third invasion by Turkic invaders in the 12th century.

Takshasila (in modern-day Pakistan) was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from possibly 8th Century BCE, and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not in modern sense, since teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India. Nalanda was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. There all subjects were taught in Ariano -páli Language.^[159]

Secular institutions cropped up along Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE. The important urban centres of learning were Nalanda (in modern-day Bihar) and Manassa in Nagpur, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as Buddhist Páli literature, logic, páli grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.

Sammanas and Brahmin gurus historically offered education by means of donations, rather than charging fees or the procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, stupas, temples also became centres of education; religious education was compulsory, but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacaris or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The priest class, the Sammanas, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages.

complete detail of census 2011

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Census is nothing but a process of collecting, compiling, analyzing, evaluating, publishing and disseminating statistical data regarding the population. It covers demographic, social and economic data and are provided as of a particular date. Census is useful for formulation of development policies and plans and demarcating constituencies for elections. The Census of India has been conducted 15 times, As of 2011. It has been conducted every 10 years, beginning in 1871.

In Exam point of view, Questions related to Census is very common in all kinds of competitive exams. In every exam, we can expect a minimum of one or two questions from Census. Here is the simple and perfectly categorized 2011 Census of India.

Census 2011 were released in New Delhi on 31st March 2011 by Union Home Secretary GK Pillai and RGI C Chandramouli.

Census 2011 was the 15th census of india & 7th census after Independece

The motto of census 2011 was “Our Census, Our future”.

Total estimated cost of the Census was INR2200 crore (US$350 million).

First census in 1872.

Present Registrar General & Census Commissioner – C.Chandra Mouli

Total Population – 1,210,569,573 (1.21 Billion)

India in 2nd rank in population with 17.64%. decadal growth & China is 1st rank with decadal growth 19% (over 1.35 billion)

World Population is 7 Billions

Increase in population during 2001 – 2011 is 181 Million

Population – 1210.19 million [Males – 623.7 million (51.54%) Females – 586.46 million (48.46%)]

Top Populous of the Country

1 Uttar Pradesh19,98,12,341

2 Maharashtra11,23,74,333

3 Bihar10,40,99,452

4 West Bengal9,12,76,115

5 Andhra Pradesh8,45,80,777

Least Populous of the Country

1 Lakshadweep64,473

2 Daman and Diu2,43,247

3 Dadra and Nagar Haveli3,43,709

4 Andaman and Nicobar Islands3,80,581

5 Sikkim6,10,577

Population Highlight

Highest Populous UTDelhi

Least Populous UTLakshadweep

Highest Populous stateUttar Pradesh

Least populous stateSikkim

Highest urban Population in india (state& UT)Maharashtra – 4,11,00,980

Lowest urban Population in india (state& UT)Lakshadweep – 26,967

Highest Rular Population in india (state& UT)Uttar Pradesh – 13,16,58,339

Lowest Rular Population in india (state& UT)Lakshadweep – 33,683

Sex Ratio (Females per 1000 Males)

Sex ratio in India943

Highest sex ratio in state Kerala (1084)

Lowest sex ratio in stateHaryana (879)

Highest sex ratio in UTPondicherry (1037)

Lowest sex ratio in UTDaman and Diu (618)

Child (0-6 years) sex ratio914

Highest child (0-6) sex ratio in stateMizoram (971)

Lowest child (0-6) sex ratio in stateHaryana (830)

Literacy Rate in India

Total Person Literacy Rate74%

Males82.14% Females65.46%

Highest Literacy Rate in StateKerala (94%)

Lowest Literacy Rate in StateBihar (61.8%)

Hightest Literacy Rate in UTLakshadweep (91%)

Lowest Literacy Rate in UTDadra and Nagar Haveli (76.24%)

The Revolt of 1857

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Political Causes

The policy of Doctrine of Lapse

Economic Causes

heavy taxation, evictions, Discriminatory Tariff Policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zimindars.

Military Discrimination as Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, they could not rise above the rank of subedar and were racially insulted.

Grievances of Sepays: The introduction of Enfield rifles, andits cartridge of which was greased with animal fat, provided the spark.

British social reforms ( widow remarriage, abolitionof sati, education for girls, Christan missionaries).

Cause of Failure

The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, Scindia of Gwalior the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the British.

Comparative lack of efficient leadership.

Impact of the Revolt

The control of indian administration was passed on to the British Crown by the Government of India Act, 1858.

Reorgansiation of the army.

After the revolt, the British pursued the Policy of Divide and rule.

Chalukas Dynasty and Pallava Dynasty

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THE CHALUKYAS

History of the Chalukyas, the Karnataka rulers, can be classified into three eras:

1) The early western era (6th -8th century), the Chalukyas of Badami (vatapi);

2) The later western era (7th - 12th century), the Chalukyas of Kalyani;

3) The eastern chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the chalukyas of Vengi.

1) Pulakesin I (543-566) was the first independent ruler of Badami with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital.

2) Kirthivarma I (566-596) succeeded him at the throne. When he died, the heir to the throne, Prince Pulakesin II, was just a baby and so the king‘s brother, Mangalesha (597-610), was crowned the caretaker ruler. Over the years, he made many unsuccessful attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed himself by the prince and his friends.

3) Pulakesin II (610-642), the son of Pulakesin I, was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and the most famous of the Chalukyan kings.His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada.

4) After conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas, and eastern Chalukyan dynasty was inaugurated by his(Pulakeshin II) brother Kubja Vishnuvardana.

5) By 631, the Chalukyan empire extended from sea to sea. However, Pulkeshin II was defeated and probably killed in 642, when the Pallavas under Narsimhavarma I attack on their capital & captured the chalukyan capital at Badami.

6) The Chalukyas rose to power once again under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (655-681), who defeated his contemporary Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to establish the supremacy of the Chalukyan empire in the region.

7) Vikramaditya II (733-745) defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom.

8) Vikramaditya II‘s son, Kirtivarma II (745), was disposed by the Rastrakuta ruler, Dhantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

PALLAVA DYNASTY

1) The Pallava dynasty emerged in South India at a time when the Satavhana dynasty was on the decline.

2) Shivaskandavarman is said to have been the founder of the Pallava dynasty.

3) During their reign, the Pallava rulers made Kanchi their capital.

4) The noteworthy rulers during this period were:

Simhavarama I Sivaskkandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa.

Note: Vishugopa is said to have been defeated in battle by Samudragupta after which the Pallavas become weaker.

5) It was Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhras‘ dominance in 575 AD and re-established his kingdom.

6) In 670, Parameshwaravarma I came to the throne and restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king Vikramaditya I. However, the Chalukyas joined hands with the Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma, another promients enemy of the Pallavas, and defeated Parameshwaravarma I.

7) Parameshwaravarma I died in 695 and was succeeded by Narasimhavarma II, a peace living ruler.He is also remembered for building the famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi. He died grieving his elder son‘s accidental death in 722.

8) His youngest son, Parameshwaravarma II, came to power in 722.He died in 730 with no heirs to the throne, which left the Pallava kingdom in a state of disarray.

9) Nandivarma II came to power after some infighting for the throne among relatives and officials of the kingdom. Nandivarma married the Rashtrakuta princess Reetadevi, and re-established the Pallava kingdom.

10) He was succeeded by Dantivarma (796-846) who ruled for 54 long years. Dantivarma was defeated by the Rastrakuta king, Dantidurga, and subsequently by the Pandyas. He was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846.

Gupta Empire and it's Details

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Gupta Empire

The start of Gupta Empire is considered by many historian from the reign of Maharaja Shrigupta.

Chandragupta-I was the first powerful ruler of Gupta Empire and ascended the throne in 320 AD.

The Gupta Period from 320 AD to 550 AD is also known as the Golden Age of India.

In the Gupta period India attained the peak of glory in every aspects starting from science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy.

Emperors of Gupta Empire

Shrigupta and Ghatotkacha. The reign of Maharaja Shrigupta (240 AD to 280 AD) is considered by many historians to be the starting point of Gupta Empire.

Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Shrigupta and ruled from 280AD to 319 AD.

Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I was the son of Ghatotkacha and succeeded his father. He was the first powerful king of the dynasty. He ruled the Empire from 320 AD to 335 AD.

Chandragupta I adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja: meaning King of Kings.

He married princess Kumaradevi of neighboring kingdom Lichchhavi and gained the control of the territory of north Bihar.

The starting of the reign of Chandragupta-I is considered by many historians as the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta and Chandragupta II

Samudragupta,succeeded his father Chandragupta I and ruled the Gupta dynasty for about 45 years from 335 AD to 380 AD. He is also known as 'Napolean of India'.

Many historians believe that Chandragupta II was nominated by his father Samudragupta as the next heir of Gupta Empire.But Ramagupta,the eldest son of Samudragupta succeeded his father and became the emperor.

Chandragupta II killed him and ascended the throne. He was an extremely powerful emperor. Chandragupta II is most commonly known as Vikramaditya,ruled the Gupta Empire from 380 AD to 413 AD.

Other Emperors

Kumaragupta I,the son of Chandragupta II succeeded his father and ruled the dynasty till 455 AD. After Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta succeeded his father.

He is considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors.

He also adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

After Skandagupta, the Gupta dynasty didn't get any powerful ruler and finally the dynasty was overpowered by the Vardhana ruler Harshavardhana.

Note:Some of the weak rulers who ruled after Skandagupta were, Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

Fa-hien's India Visit

Fa-hien was the first Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

Nine Gems or Navaratnas

At the time of Vikramadityas reign, the glory of Gupta Empire reached its peak.

A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of Vikramaditya.

The group comprised of

Kalidasa

Vetala Bhatta

Varahamihira

Vararuchi

Amarasimha

Dhanvantari

kshapanak

Shanku

Ghatakarpura

Kalidasa

Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays.

Abhijnanasakuntalam : tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala

Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika

Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi

Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems:

Raghuvamsa ("Raghu Dynasty ") and

Kumarasambhava.

Vetala Bhatta

Vetala Bhatta was a Brahmin in the court of Vikramaditya.

He is known for his contribution of "Nitipradipa ".

Varahamihira

Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of Gupta era.

He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika,a book on mathematical astronomy.

His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human interest.

Vararuci

Vararuci was one of the nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II of Gupta era.

Amarasimha

Amarasimha was one of the nine Gems in the court of Vikramaditya of Gupta era.

He is notably known for his famous Sanskrit thesaurus Amarakosha.

It is also known as Namalinganushasana.

Dhanvantari

Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the worlds first surgeons and medical practitioner from Gupta era.

He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda.

He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine.

Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari.

He is also credited for the discovery of the antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt.

Dhanvantri is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.

Dynasties of Ancient India

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Indo Greeks

First to invade India were the Greeks who were called Indo-Greeks.

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menanderwith his Capital at Sakala in Punjab (Modern Sialkot)

The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.

Menander was converted into a Buddhist by Buddhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna)

Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India about 190BC. He is considered as Second Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted the name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani) was Alauddin Khilji) Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military
governorship in India.

Kushan Empire

Kujula Kadphises is considered to be the founder of Kushan Empire. He established the kingdom by unifying the disparate Yuezhi tribes of ancient Bactria in the early 1st century AD and expanded its territory of present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

He established the capital of Kushan Empire near Kabul.

During the period of first to mid-third centuries AD, Kushan expanded rapidly and represented as a major power in Central Asia and northern India.

The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka. He became the ruler in 78 AD and started Saka Era in 78 AD.

The Capital of Kanishka was Peshawar or Purushapura. Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir.

The Gandhara School of Art received royal patronage under the Kushans. Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of Buddhism.

The first month of Saka era is Chaithra and the last month is Phalguna.

Vasudeva was the last great king of Kushana Dynasty.

Kushana school of art is also referred to as the Mathura school.

Sunga Dynasty

Sunga dynasty was established by Pusyamitra Sunga in 185 BC after assassinating the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha.

The capital of Sunga Dynasty was Pataliputra of ancient Magadha.

Kalidasa’s drama Malavikagnimitram is about the love story of Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra and

Last King of sunga dynasty was Devabhuti. he ruled the kingdom from 83 to 73 BC

Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. The ancient Sanskrit grammar, Ashtadayayi by Panini was composed during the period of Sunga Period.

Kanva Dynasty

Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva in 72 BC after defeating the last Sunga ruler Devabhuti.

This dynasty ruled for a period of 45 years.

Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman were the rulers of Kanva dynasty.

Satavahana Dynasty

Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling dynastyafter the Mauryas.

Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.

Satavahanas were the Indian rulers who prefixed their mother’s name along with their names.

Most important Satavahana ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. Satavahanas were Brahmanas.

Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati in Andhrapradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.

The two common structures of Satavahanas were the temple called Chaitya and the monastery called Vihara.

The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit

The Cholas

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola empire. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi.

Raja Raja I (985 - 1014) adopted the titles of Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva, Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc. He built the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur. which is called the RajaRajeswara temple.

Rajendra I led an expedition to North India, defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala I and adtoped the title, Gangaikondachola and established a new Capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram. Cholas maintained a well established local – self government system. Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha - and Nagaram were the assemblies for local administration.

The Uttaramerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava gives details about the local self government.

Dynasties of Ancient India

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Two major dynasties of India, the Maurya Empire (321 BC- 185 BC) and Gupta Empire (240 BC-550 AD), were originated from Magadha.

Apart from Maurya and Gupta dynasties, there were other dynasties which were started from Magadha,

Haryanka dynasty (544-413 BC)

Shishunaga dynasty (413-345 BC)

Nanda dynasty (424-321 BC)

Haryanka dynasty:-

Haryanka is the name of a new dynasty founded in Magadha by Bimbisara.

Bimbisara founded the dynasty by defeating the Brihadrathas.

Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha.

Pataliputra and Rajagriha were the capitals of Magadhan kingdom. Magadha falls in the Patna region of Bihar.

Shishunaga Dynasty:-

Haryankas were overthrown by Sisunaga and he founded the Sisunaga dynasty there.

Kalasoka the son and successor of Sisunaga was succeeded by Mahapadma Nanda and he founded the Nanda dynasty.

Ajatasatru’s successor Udayin was the founder of the city of Pataliputra.

Nanda Dynasty:-

The Nanda Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty originated from Magadha and was established in 424 BC.

Mahapadma Nanda was the founder and the first king of the Nanda dynasty.

He overthrew the Magadha dynasty and established the new Empire.

Initially Nanda Dynast inherited a large kingdom of Magadha and subsequently, the boundaries of Nanda Dynasty were expanded in all directions by its rulers.

Nandas formed a vast army, including 200000 infantry, 20000 cavalry, 2000 war chariots and 3000 war elephants.

At its peak, the Nanda Empire expanded from Bengal in the east to Punjab in the west.

In the southern side it extended to the Vindhya Range.

Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty.

In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and founded the Maurya Empire.

MAURYAN DYNASTY (321 – 185 BC):-

List of Mauryan Emperors:

Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC-298 BC)

Bindusara (298 BC-272 BC)

Ashoka Maurya (269-232 BC)

Dasaratha Maurya

Samprati

Salisuka

Devvarman

Satadhanvan

Brihadratha Maurya

Origin of Mauryan Empire:-

The Mauryan Empire started from Magadha was founded in 321 BC by Chandragupta Maurya.

Pataliputra, the modern day Patna was the capitalcity of Mauryan Empire.

Expansion of Mauryan Empire:-

Mauryan Empire was one of the world's largestempires of that time and expanded to an area of 5,000,000 km2.

Ashoka:-

Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and ruled up to 232 BC. He was known as ‘Devanampriya Priyadarshini the

beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods.

He was known as ‘Devanampriya priyadarsi the beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods.

Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC Kalinga is in modern Orissa. Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Princep.

After the battle of Kalinga Ashoka became a Buddhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war.

Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta or Nigrodha a disciple of Buddha

For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started the institution of Dharmamahamatras.

The IV Major Rock Edict of Ashoka tells about the practice of Dharma

The Major Rock Edict XII of Ashoka deals with the conquest of Kalinga.

Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his capital Pataliputra in 250BC under the presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa.

He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and Sanghamitra)

Ashoka spread Buddhism to SriLanka and Nepal. He is known as the Constantine of Buddhism.

In his Kalinga Edict, he mentions ‘‘All man are as my children’’.

Ceylon ruler Devanmpriya Tissa was Ashoka’s first convert to Buddhism. Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC.

The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the four lion capital of one of Ashoka's pillars which are located in Sarnath.

Rock-cut architecture in India made a beginning during Ashoka’s reign.

Chanakya the architect of Mauryan Empire:-

Chanakya, also known as Kautilya was the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya.

He was originally a teacher of Takshashila University.

He is considered to be the main architect in the establishment of the Maurya Empire by defeating the powerful Nanda Empire.

His original name was Vishnugupta.

Important points about Mauryan Empire:-

Major sources for the study of Mauryan Empire are the Arthasastra of Kautilya and Indika ofMegasthenes.

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan Empire. It is also said that his mother was Mura women of lower birth hence got the name Maurya.

Chandragupta Maurya was converted to Jainism, abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara, passed his last days at Sravanabelagola (Near Mysore) where he died in 298 BC.

Bindusara was a follower of Ajivika sect.

Bindusara was known as Amitragatha.

Megasthenese the first foreign traveller to India mentions the existence of seven castes in India during the Mauryan period. Stanika in Mauryan administration refers to the tax collector.

Viceroys of India

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Lord Canning (AD 1856-62) :

The last Governor General and the first Viceroy. Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.

Revolt of 1857, Mutiny took place. Indian Penal Code 1860 was passed.

Passed the Act, 1858, which ended the rule of the East India Company. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.

Lord Elgin (AD 1862) :

Wahabi Movement

Lord John Lawrence (AD 1864-69) :

Established the High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.

Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe. Created the Indian Forest Department.

Lord Mayo (AD 1869-72) :

Organised the Statistical Survey of India and for the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.

Started the process of financial decentralisation in India. Established the Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

Established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.

He was the only viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrooke (AD 1872-76) :

Kuka Rebellion in Punjab, Famine in Bihar.

Lord Lytton (AD 1872-76) :

Known as the 'Viceroy of Reverse Character'

Royal Titles Act of 1876 and the assumption of the title of 'Empress of India' by Queen Victoria, the Delhi Durbar in January 1877.

Vernacular Press Act (also called the 'Gagging Act' to restrain the circulation of printed matter) and the Arms Act (made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license in arms)of 1878.

Lord Rippon (AD 1880-84) :

First Factory Act of 1881 (prohibited labour). Local Self-Government was introduced in 1882.

Repealed the Vernacular Press Act in 1882. Finances of the centre were divided.

Lord Rippon is regarded as 'the founding father of local self governance' in India.

An Education Commission was appointed under Sir William Hunter in 1882 to improve primary and secondary education.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883) enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals.

Lord Dufferin (AD 1884-88) :

Third Burmese War (AD 1885-86). Establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Lord Lansdown (AD 1888-94) :

Factory Act of 1891 granted weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children.

Civil services were divided into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate Services.

Indian Councils Act of 1892.

The Durand Commission defined the Durand Line between British India and Afghanistan (now between Pakistan and Afghanistan) in 1893.

Lord Elgin II (AD 1894-99) :

Southern uprisings of 1899. Great famine of 1896-1897 and Lyall Commission on famine was established.

Lord Curzon (AD 1899-1905) :

A Commission was appointed under Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902, to suggest reforms regarding universities, the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed on the basis of its recommendations.

Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1994. Thus, Archaeological Survey of India was established.

Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa in Delhi. Partitioned Bengal in 1905.

Lord Minto (AD 1905-10) :

Swadeshi Movement (1905-08); foundation of Muslim League (1906); Surat Session and split in the Congress (1907). Morley-Minto Reforms (1909).

Lord Hardinge (AD 1910-16) :

Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911); Delhi Durbar; Partition of Bengal was cancelled. The Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915 by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya.

Lord Chelmsford (AD 1916-21) :

Gandhi returned to India (1915) and founded the Sabarmati Ashram (1916), Champaran Satyagraha, Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1981), Kheda Satyagraha (1918).

August Declaration (1917) by Montague, the then Secretary of State, and Montford reforms or the Government of India Act of 1919.

Rowlatt Act (March, 1919) and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13^th April, 1919).

Khilafat Committee was formed and Khilafat Movement started (1919-20).

Non-Cooperation Movement started (1920-22). Women's University was founded at Poona (1916).

Lord Reading (AD 1921-26):

Repeal of Rowlatt Act. Chauri-Chaura incident. RSS, founded in 1925. Suppreessed Non-Cooperation Movment. Formation of Swaraj Party.

Moplah Rebellion (1921) took place. Kokori Train Robbery on 1^st August, 1925. Communal Riots of 1923-25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi etc.

Lord Irwin (AD 1926-31) :

Simon Commission visited Indian in 1927. Convress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.

Dandi March (12^th March, 1930). Civil Disobediene Movement (1930).

First Round Table Conference was held in England in 1930. Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

Lahore Session of Congress and Poorna Swaraj Declaration (1925).

Lord Willingdon (AD 1931-36) :

Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931 and third in 1932.

Government of India Act (1935) was passed. Communal Awards (16^th August, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast to protest against this division.

Lord Linlithgow (AD 1936-43) :

Congress Ministries resignation celebrated as 'Deliverance Day' by the Muslim League (1939), the Lahore Resolution (23^rd March, 1940) of the Muslim League demanding separate state for the Muslims. (It was at this session that Jinnah propounded his Two-Nation Theory). Outbreak of World War II in 1939. Cripps Mission in 1942. Quit India Movement (8^th August, 1942).

Lord Wavell (AD 1943-47) :

Cabinet Mission Plan (16^th May, 1946).

First meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9^th December, 1946.

Arranged the Shimla Conference on 25^th June, 1945with the failure of the Indian National Congress and Muslim League.

Election to the Constituent Assembly were held and an interim government was appointed under Nehru.

Lord Mountbatten (March to August, 1947) :

Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor-General of free India.

Partition of India decided by the 3^rd June Plan or Mountbatten Plan.

Retired in June, 1948 and was succeeded by C Rajagopalachari, the first and the last Indian Governor-General of Free India.

Indian Independence Act was passed by the British Parliament on 4^th July, 1947, by which India became independent on 15^th August, 1947.

Mughal Empire

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Jahangir (1605 - 1627)

Jahangir came to the throne in 1605. He issued 12 ordinances. He established Zanjir-il-Adal – Chain of Justice in Agra Fort and was known for his strict administration of Justice.

He married Mehrunnisa, an Afghan widow in 1611 and Later he gave her the titles Noor Mahal (light of the palace), Noor Jahan (light of the world) and Padshah Begum.

In 1606 Jahangir executed fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, because he helped Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel against him.

In 1609, Jahangir received William Hawkins, an envoy of King James I of England, who reached India to obtain trade concession.

In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of Jahangir as the first ambassador of James I of England in the court of Jahangir. As a result of his efforts, first English factory was established at Surat in Gujarat.

Period of Jahangir is considered as the Golden Age of Mughal Painting. Jahangir himself was a painter. Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan and Bishan das were famous painters in the court of Jahangir.

Anarkali was Jahangair’s lover. Mughal-i-Azam directed by K. Asif is a famous film which tells the love story of Jahangir and Anarkali.

Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh-i-Jahangiri in Persian language.

Jahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at Shahdara in Lahore.

Architecture:

Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in Srinagar.

He completed the tomb of Akbar at Sikandara

Jahangir introduced the vigorous use of Marble instead of red sandstone and use of Pietradura for decorative purposes. Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-daula/Mirza Ghiyas Beg’s Marble tomb at Agra

He built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shahdara

Shah Jahan (1628 - 1658)

Shah Jahan was born on 5th January 1592 at Lahore. His childhood name was Khurram. He ascended the throne in 1628.

He married Arjumand Benu Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan, brother of Noor Jahan. She later came to be known as Mumtaz Mahal which means beloved of the Palace.

Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese settlements at Hoogly in 1631-32.

The Gateway of Red Fort is the Lahore Gate. It is here at the Lahore Gate that the Prime Minister of India hoists the National Flag and addresses the nation on the Independence Day.

In 1656 Shahjahan constructed the Jama Masjid in Delhi. It is the biggest masjid in India. The first masjid in India was constructed at Kodungallur in Kerala (Cheraman Palli) in 644 AD by Malik Ibn Dinar.

Shah Jahan’s period is known as the Golden Age of Mughal Empire.

The Portuguese introduced European painting in India during the reign of Shah Jahan

In 1658 Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb and he died in 1666, after eight years. His daughter Jahan Ara was also kept in prison along with him at the Agra Fort.

Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh was a famous scholar. He translated Bhagavat Gita and Sixty Upanishads into Persian. He also wrote a book titled Mujm-ul-Behrain (Mingling of the Oceans) He also translated Atharva Veda into Persian.

Shah Jahan was a famous lyricist who wrote in Hindi. The famous Peacock Throne was built by Shah Jahan. It was abducted from here by Nadir Shah in 1739 during his Indian invasion (Persian conqueror). Now it is kept at the London Tower Museum, Britain.

French travelers Bernier and Tavernier, Italian travelers Nicoli Manucci, Peter Mundi visited India during Shah Jahan’s period.

Architecture:

Shah Jahan’s period is considered as the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture and Shah Jahan is known as the Prince of Builders.

In 1631, he started the construction of Taj Mahal in memory of his wife and completed in 1653. Ustad Iza, a Turkish/ Persian was its architect. British administrator Furguson called it ‘a love in marble’

In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital Shahjahanabad in Delhi and shifted the capital from Agra to there. He also built Takht-i-Taus or Peacock throne.

In 1639, he started the construction of Red Fort in Delhi on the model of Agra fort built by Akbar. The Diwan-i- Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and the Moti Masjid are situated inside the Red fort. The Moti Masjid in Agra was constructed by Shah Jahan.

The Marathas

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Maratha Families Location

Peshwa Pune

Gaekwad Baroda

Bhonsle Nagpur

Holkar Indore

Scindia Gwalior

The first great leader of the Marathas was Chhatrapati Shivaji.

The Marathas became prominent in the later half of the 17th century.

Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of the Marathas.

Shahaji Bhonsle and Jija Bai were the Parents of Shivaji.

He was born in 1627 February 19 at the fort of Shivner near Junnar.

His father was a military commander under the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmednagar and later of Bijapur.

Shivaji’s tutor was Dadaji Kondadev.

1665, Shivaji signed the treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh of Amber, who was deputed by Aurangazeb.

Shivaji Maharaj had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram.

Sambhaji Maharaj was the eldest son of Shivaji Maharaj.

Rajaram was a younger brother of Sambhaji Maharaj and he was the successor of Sambhaji.

Shivaji II was the son of Rajaram Maharaj and Rani Tarabai. After the death of Rajaram Maharaj, Tarabai crowned her son and took control of the Maratha Empire.

Aurangzeb died on March 3, 1707, while Tarabai still in power.

Nearly three months after Aurangazeb’s death, Sambhaji’s son Sahu (born May 18, 1682) who had been in Mughal captivity since November 3, 1689, was liberated on May 8, 1707, by Aurangzeb’s second son Azam Shah who ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I.

Sahu’s release was followed by a civil war between the forces of Tarabai and Sahu.

The support of the Maratha Senapati Dhanaji Jadhav and Diwan Balaji Vishwanath helped Sahu triumph over odds.

In the ensuing battle of Khed (October 12, 1707), between the forces of Sahu and Tarabai, the latter’s forces were defeated and in January 1708, Sahu occupied Satara.

At his coronation in January 1708, Sahu conferred upon Balaji Vishwanath, the title of Sena-Karte (maker of the army) and eventually elevated him to the post of Peshwa in 1713.

With Balaji’s appointment as the Peshwa, the office of the Peshwa became hereditary and Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers of the Maratha kingdom. From now onwards the Chhatrapati became just a figure-head.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)

Balaji Vishwanath is called the second founder of the Maratha state.

Balaji was credited with “a mastery of finance”.

Bajali opened direct negotiations with the Saiyyad brothers and in February 1719 all his demands were accepted.

Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720-40)

After the death of Balaji Vishwanath, his eldest son Baji Rao, a young man of hardly 20, was appointed the Peshwa by Sahu.

He formulated the policy of northward expansion of the Marathas, so that “the Maratha flag shall fly from the Krishna to Attock”.

Baji Rao, after setting his own house in order, finally defeated the Nizam near Bhopal and, by the convention of Durai Sarai (January 1738), compelled the Nizam to agree to surrender to the Peshwa the whole of Palwa, together with the complete sovereignty of the territory between the Narmada and the Chambal rivers and to pay rates 50 lakh as war indemnity.

He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand, Bassein and Gujarat and reached up to Gujarat in 1737

He made Poona the centre of his activities and it soon came to be known as the seat of the Peshwas.

Baji Rao founded the Maratha empire through his conquest, but he didn’t consolidate it through the administrative organisation.

Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)

Peshwa Baji Rao died at the young age of 40 and was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji Rao who, throughout his Peshwaship, remained dependent on the advice and guidance of his cousin Sada Shiva Rao Bhau.

The Third battle of Panipat (1761) was fought between Maratha Empire and Durrani Empire (Afghanistan).

People involved: Sadashivrao Bhau (Commander-in-chief of the Maratha Army), Vishwasrao, Malharrao Holkar, Ahmad Shah Durrani (also called Ahmad Shah Abdali).
When: 14th January 1761.
Result: Victory for the Afghans. Durrani got support from the Rohillas of the Doab and Shuja-Ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Awadh. The Marathas failed to get support from the Rajputs, Jats or the Sikhs.

Peshwa Madhava Rao I (1761-72)

After the death of Balaji Baji Rao, his younger son Madhava Rao was placed on the Peshwa’S throne.

Since the new Peshwa was only 17 years old, his uncle Raghunatha Rao, the eldest surviving member of the Peshwa's family, became his regent and the de facto ruler of the state.

During this period, serious differences broke out between the Peshwa and his uncle, leading to war between two
in 1762, in which the Peshwa's army was defeated.

In January 1771, Mahadaji Sindhia occupied Delhi and succeeded in exacting money from the leading Rajput princes; but the premature death of Madhava Rao in November 1772 placed the Maratha dominion in a deep crisis.

After Madhava Rao's death the fortunes of Maratha kingdom and the prestige of Peshwas under Narayana Rao (1772-74), Madhava Rao Narayan (1774-95), and Baji Rao II (1796-1818) rapidly declined.

The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British East India Company in the Battle of Khadki which was a part of Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).

Anglo Maratha Wars

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82):

The immediate cause for first Anglo Maratha War was English interference in the internal affairs of Marathas.

The then Maratha Peshwa, Narayan Rao died without an heir.

The birth of a posthumous son to Narayan Rao then drove Raghunath Rao to desperation and he eventually signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775 with the Bombay government with hopes to gain the throne with the help of English troops

By the treaty of Surat, Raghunatha Rao had promised to cede Salsette and Bassein, and also refrain from forming an alliance with the Company enemies.

In the First Anglo Maratha war that followed, none of the two parties was gaining ground and finally realized the futility of the struggle.

The treaty of Salbai in 1782 which ended the first Anglo Maratha War.

By the Treaty of Salbai, there was peace between with the Marathas.

In this treaty, the British began exerting pressure on Mysore with help from Marathas for recovering their territories from Haider Ali.

The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1806):

In Poona, with the death of two shrewd statesmen, Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Fadnavis there began a fierce rivalry for power between the successor of Mahadji Sindhia, Daulat Rao Sindhia and Jaswant Rao Holkar.

Both of them tried to secure the throne at Poona.

Thereafter, Baji Rao II fled to Bassein and then signed a subsidiary alliance with the British. Under the treaty of Bassein, the Peshwa surrendered the city of Surat and to give up claims for Chauth on Nizam’s dominions.

He also agreed to not take up arms against the Gaekwar.

With the efforts of Sir George Barlow the Holkar signed the Treaty of Rajpurghat in 1805 under which the Maratha chiefs gave up their claims to areas to the north of river Chambal, over Bundelkhand, and other allies of the Company.

This treaty of Rajpurghat marked the end of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818):

The third and the final battle of the Anglo-Maratha struggle began after coming of Lord Hastings as the Governor-General in the year 1813.

The Peshwa had to sign the Treaty of Poona in 1817, under which he gave up the headship of the Maratha Confederacy and he also had to conduct relations with other states through British Resident.

The Peshwa also ceded the Konkan along with his rights in Malwa and Bundelkhand.

The Treaty of Gwalior (1817) was concluded by Lord Hastings with Daulat Rao Sindhia as part of preparations for the campaign against Pindaris.

Consequently, the Pindari war was merged in the Third Anglo- Maratha War.

All Maratha opposition to the British power ended after yet another attempt by the Confederacy against British. A new settlement was made with the Maratha Chiefs. The Peshwa surrendered his name and authority forever in lieu of eight lakhs rupees as pension and retired to Bithur near Kanpur. A small district Satara was reserved for the descendant of Shivaji as the Raja of Satara. All the remaining Peshwa's territories were annexed to the Presidency of Bombay.

Medieval History Notes: Bengal

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Murshid Kuli Khan:

Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as Bengal’s diwan by Aurangzeb as naib subedar and later as the subedar in 1717 by Farukh Siyar.

He gradually assumed autonomy though he continued to pay tribute to Mughal Emp

He carried out the reorganization of the finances through the transfer of large parts of jagir lands into khalisa lands.

He introduced the system of revenue farming.

He granted Takkavi loans to peasants for personal use, improved agriculture and for paying land revenues in times of famines.

He reorganized administration giving equal opportunities of employment to Muslims and Hindus.

His policy of appointing local Hindu zamindars and moneylenders as revenue farmers led to the rise and growth of a new landed aristocracy in Bengal.

He maintained strict control over the activities of foreign trading companies; preventing the servants of East India Company from abusing the privileges granted to the company by the Mughal farmans of 1691 and 1717. He established law and order in the province by suppressing the rebellious zamindars.

Alivardi Khan:

Alivardi Khan came to the throne after murdering the heir to the throne in 1740.

He legalized his usurpation by receiving a farman from emperor Muhammad Shah after paying him Rs 2 crore.

During his reign there were continuous incursions of the Marathas into Bengal.

He agreed to their demands of revenues from part of Orissa and annual payment of Rs 12 lakh as the chauth of Bengal in exchange for peace. 

He prevented the English form misusing their privileges and prohibited them and French from fortifying their factories at Calcutta and Chandannagore.

Siraj-ud–Daula :

Siraj-ud Daula came to power in 1756.

Calcutta was renamed Alinagar after its capture by Siraj-udDaula.

He tried to control the activities of East India Company.

He wrote letters to the British governor of Calcutta to demolish additional fortifications and also to stop unlawful activities against him.

The British refused to comply with his orders and he seized the English factory at Kasimbazar and then Calcutta.

In 1757, his men were attacked by English army led by Robert Clive. This forced the nawab to come to an understanding and establish peace with the English.

Treaty of Alinagar (1757)

The treaty comprised:

A list of demands made by the Company

An agreement affirming to return to status quo

A number of farmans and dastaks issued by the nawab

As long as nawab shall observe his agreement,English will continue to support him.

All the trade privileges held earlier by the Company stood confirmed.

Additionally, the English were authorized to fortify Calcutta against possible French attack and issue their coins.

Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757)

The treaty was violated by conquest of Chandannagore by the British in 1757.

Siraj ud –Dhaula protested by offering protection to the French.

The British decided to remove him through conspiracy.

The battle of Plassey took place on June 23, 1757.This battle saw the treachery of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh,bravery of small force and desertation of Nawab’s army. Siraj-ud –Dhaula was captured and executed by son of Mir Jafar.

Mir Jafar (1757-60)

Mir Jafar granted the right to free trade in Bengal and Bihar and Orissa and zamindari of the 24 parganas to the British besides paying them a sum of Rs 17.7 million as compensation.

His period saw the beginning of the drain of wealth from India to Britain.

He tried to replace the English with the Dutch but the Dutch were defeated by the English at Bedara in 1759.

Mir Qasim (1760-63)

He introduced several revenue and military reforms to strengthen his position.

His period saw the beginning of the conflict between the Nawab and the British for sovereign power.

He transferred his capital from Murshidabad to Mongher.

He stopped the misuse of the dastaks or free passes allowed to the company and abolished all duties on internal trade against British.

Battle of Buxar (1764)

Mir Qasim fought against the British along with three allies – Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Shah Alam II.This battle led to their defeat by the British forces under Major Hector Munro.

GK Medieval History Notes: Awadh

Shuja-ud-Dhaula :

Shuja-ud-Dhaula ascended the throne of Awadh as well as wazirship of Mughal Empire in 1754.

He had fought against British in Battle of Buxar in 1764 but has to concede Allahabad and Kara. He had to pay huge indemnity to the British.

Under Lord Hastings he was forced to sign Treaty of Benaras in 1773.

In this treaty, British got the right to station their armies in Awadh for his protection.

He defeated Rohillas with the help of British and annexed Rohillakand to Awadh in 1774.

Asaf-ud-Dhaula:

Asaf-ud-Dhaula signed Treaty of Faizabad with British in 1775. Under this treaty,they will not encourage their peasants in committing hostilities.

Nawab would not entertain Mir Qasim.

Nawab gave British authority over all the districts.

Nawab would pay 6 lakh per month for maintaining the British army.

Wajid Ali Shah:

Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 and pensioned off the Nawab to Calcutta.

Mysore War

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Hyder Ali

The state of Mysore rose to prominence in the politics of South India under the leadership of Hyder Ali.

In 1761 he became the de facto ruler of Mysore.

The war of successions in Karnataka and Haiderabad, the conflict of the English and the French in the South and the defeat of the Marathas in the Third battle of Panipat (1761) helped him in attending and consolidating the territory of Mysore.

Hyder Ali was defeated by Maratha Peshwa Madhav Rao in 1764 and forced to sign a treaty in 1765.

He surrendered him a part of his territory and also agreed to pay rupees twenty-eight lakhs per annum.

The Nizam of Haiderabad did not act alone but preferred to act in league with the English which resulted in the first Anglo-Mysore War.

Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan succeeded Hyder Ali in 1785 and fought against British in III and IV Mysore wars.

He brought great changes in the administrative system.

He introduced modern industries by bringing foreign experts and extending state support to many industries.

He sent his ambassadors to many countries for establishing foreign trade links. He introduced new system of coinage, new scales of weight and new calendar.

Tipu Sultan organized the infantry on the European lines and tried to build the modern navy.

Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club

Mysore Wars

The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)-Treaty of Madras

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)-Treaty of Mangalore

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-1792)- Treaty of Srirangapattanam

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69):

The main causes of this war were Haider's ambition to drive the British away from the Carnatic and finally from India and the British realization of the threat posed to them by

A tripartite alliance was formed against Hyderby the British, the Nizam and the Marathas.

Haider's success in breaking the alliance and declaration of war on the British. The war ended with the defeat of British.

The panic-stricken Madras government concluded the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769 on the basis of mutual restitution of each other's territories and a defensive alliance between the two parties committing the English to help Hyder Ali in case he was attacked by another power.

Treaty of Madras: It was signed by Hyder Ali and the allies consisting of the Company, the Raja of Tanjore, and the Malabar ruler.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)

The treaty of 1769 between Hyder Ali and the English company proved more in the nature of a truce and Hyder Ali accused the company of not observing the terms of the defensive treaty by refusing to help him when the Marathas attacked Mysore in 1771.

Hyder found the French more helpful than the English. Further in 1778 English in India seized the French settlements including Mahe a port which was very crucial for Hyder Ali for the entry of supplies.

Hyder Ali tried to take Mahe port but in vain.

He arranged a joint front with the Nizam and the Marathas against the common enemy -the English East India Company. The war lasted from 1780-1784.

But he died in 1782 and was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan.

Tipu continued the war for another year but absolute success eluded both the sides.

Tired of war the two sides concluded peace Treaty of Mangalore.

By this Treaty it was decided that English would return Srirangapatnam to Tipu and Tipu would handover Fort of Badnur to English.

Treaty of Mangalore: Both sides agreed to a mutual restoration of possessions (barring the forts of Amboorgur and Satgur) and Tipu undertook not to make any claims on the Carnatic in future. Tipu agreed to release all prisoners of war and he had to restore the factory and privileges possessed by the Company at Calicut until 1779.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-1792)

War between Tipu Sultan and British began in 1789 and ended in Tipu's defeat in 1792.

Even though Tipu fought with exemplary bravery, Lord Cornwallis the Governor General had succeeded through shrewd diplomacy in isolating him by wining over the Marathas, the Nizam and the rulers of Travancore and Coorg.

This war again revealed that the Indian powers were short-sighted enough to aid the foreigner against another Indian power for the sake of temporary advantages.

The Third Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of Srirangapatnam in March 1792.

Treaty of Srirangapatnam: This treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half of Mysore territory to the British.

Tipu also had to pay a war indemnity of over three crores of rupees.

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

With his defeat in the third Anglo-Mysore war, Tipu was burning with revenge.

He wanted to get back his territory and to achieve that objective he carried on negotiations with the French and Zaman Shah of Kabul.

Tipu wanted his allies to expel the English.

Lord Wellesley after making Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam asked Tipu Sultan to accept the same but he refused.

Mysore was attacked from two sides.

The main army under General Harris supported by Nizam's subsidiary force under Arthur Wellesley attacked Mysore from the east while another army advanced from Bombay.

Tipu was at first defeated by the Bombay army and was later on defeated by the General Harris at Mallavalli. Tipu died fighting bravely.

The members of his family were interned at Vellore.

A boy of the earlier Mysore royal family was installed on the Gaddi of Mysore and a Subsidiary Alliance was imposed.

Thus, the fourth Mysore War destroyed the state of Mysore which was ruled by Hyder Ali 33 years.

Vedic Period and the Aryans

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The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia(Many historians have given various theories regarding their original place). The Central Asian theory is given by Max Muller.

Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass(Hindukush mountain) around 1500 BC.

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period(1500- 1000 BC)

Political Organization

Monarchial form. The tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan.

The family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature.

Economy

Aryans followed a mixed economy i.e pastoral and agricultural in which cattle played a predominant part.

The standard unit of exchange was Cow. At the same time coins were also there.

Religion

The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.

The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of the warlord(breaker of forts-Purandar)

Later Vedic Period(1000- 600 BC) (Painted Gray Ware Phase)

Political Organization

Tiny tribal settlements were placed by strong kingdoms.

Social

The fourfold division of society became clear, initially based on occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins(priests), Kshatriyas(warriors), Vaishyas(agriculturists, cattle- rearers, traders), Shudras(servers of the upper three).

The institution of the gotra appeared for the first time in this age.

Religion

Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati(the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.

The Vedic Literature

The Vedas

The word Veda comes from the root "vidi" signifying knowledge. They are four in all - Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

(1) Rig Veda

Oldest religious text in the world.

Contains 1,028 hymns and is divided into 10 mandalas.

(2) Sama Veda

Derived from the root Saman i.e "melody". It is a collection of melodies.

(3) Yajur Veda

Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.

(4) Atharva Veda

Mostly dealing with magic( along with personal problems of people).

The Upanishads

Called Vedanta

They are the main source of Indian Philosophy, 108 in numbers.

The Brahmins

They explain the meaning of sacrifices and also the methods of performing them.

Shatpath Brahmin on Yajur Veda is the largest among Brahmins.

The Aranyakas

These Granths were studied in the forest.

These are the books of instructions.

Epics

Mahabharata

It was written in Sanskrit by Ved Vyas

It describes a war between Kauravas and Pandavas of 950 BC in Kurukshetra.

Translation of "Mahabharat" in persian is called Rajm nama done by Badauni.

Ramayana

It was written by Valmiki in sanskrit.

It has 24000 Shlokas, also known as Aadi-kavya.

Its persian translation is done by Badauni and Tamil translation by Kamban.

Ramcharitmanas is written by Tulsidas.

Puranas

Puranas are 18 in number.

It was written during Gupta Age in AD 4th Century.

Matsya Purana is the oldest Purana.

Later Vedic Period

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The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of Rig Veda.

1. Later Vedic Texts

a. The Veda Samhitas
i. Sama Veda – The book of chants with hymns taken from Rig Veda. This Veda is important for Indian Music.
ii. Yajur Veda – The book consists of sacrificial rituals and formulae.
iii. Atharva Veda – This book consists of charms and spells to ward of evils and diseases

b. The Brahmanas – Consists of the explanatory part of the Vedas. Sacrifices and rituals have also been discussed in great detail.
i. Rig Veda – Aitreya and Kaushitiki Brahmana
ii. Yajur Veda – Panchvisha, Chandogya, Shadvinsh and Jaiminaya
iii. Sama Veda – Shatapata and Taittariya
iv. Atharva Veda - Gopatha

c. The Aranyakas – Concluding portions of Brahmanas, also called as Forest texts written mainly for the hermits and students living in forests.

d. The Upanishads – Appearing at the end of Vedic period, they criticized the rituals and laid stress on right belief and Knowledge.

2. Vedic literature – Following the Later Vedic age, a lot of Vedic Literature was developed, inspired from the Samhitas which follow the Smriti – Literature which was written in comparison to Shruti – Word of Mouth tradition. Important texts in Smriti tradition are further subdivided into

a. Vedangas
i. Shiksha - Phonetics
ii. KalpaSutras – Rituals

Sulva Sutras

Grihya Sutras

Dharma Sutras

iii. Vyakarna - Grammar
iv. Nirukta - Etymology
v. Chhandha - metrics
vi. Jyotisha - Astronomy

b. Smritis
i. Manu Smriti
ii. Yajnavalkya Smriti
iii. Narada Smriti
iv. Parashara Smriti
v. Brihaspati Smriti
vi. Katyayana Smriti

c. Mahakavyas
i. The Ramayana
ii. The Mahabharata

d. The Puranas
i. 18 Maha Puranas – Dedicated to specific deities such as Brahma, Surya, Agni, Saiva and Vaishnava. They include Bhagavata Purana, Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana etc
ii. 18 Upa Puranas – Lesser known texts

e. The Upvedas
i. Ayurveda - Medicine
ii. Gandharvaveda - Music
iii. Arthaveda - Vishwakarma
iv. Dhanurveda - Archery

f. Shad-Darshanas or Indian Philosophical Schools
i. Samkhya
ii. Yoga
iii. Nyaya
iv. Vaisheshika
v. Mimansa
vi. Vedanta

3. The PGW-Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy

The settlements covered the whole of the North India with Ganges being the center of culture. Appearance of Iron implements in Dharwar, Gandhara and Baluchistan region from 1000 BC. Iron was called as Shyama or Krishna Ayasand was used in hunting, clearing forests etc.

a. Territorial Divisions
i. Aryavarta – North India
ii. Madhya Desa – Central India
iii. Dakshinapah – South India

b. Transition of chief source of livelihood from Pastoralists to well-settled and sedentary Agriculture based economy. Rice (Vrihi), Barley, Wheat and Lentils were chief produce.

c. Arts and Crafts improved with use of Iron and Copper implements. Weaving, leather work, pottery and carpenter’s work also made great progress.

d. Growth of Towns or Nagaras were seldom found. The Later vedic phase didn’t develop into an urban Phase. Kaushambi and Hastinapur are called as Proto-Urban Sites.

e. Seas and Sea Voyages are also mentioned in the Vedic texts.

4. Political Organization

a. Assemblies – Popular assemblies lost their importance. Character of Sabha and Samiti changed while Vidatha disappeared. Rich nobles and chiefs started to dominate these assemblies.
i. Women were no longer allowed in these assemblies. They lost their importance gradually.

b. Formation of bigger kingdoms led to Kings becoming powerful and tribal authority becoming territorial. Rashtraindicates territory appears first in this phase

c. Though Election of the chief appears in the text, the post tends to become hereditary. But the Bharata Battle shows Kingship knows no Kinship.

d. The king performed various rituals to strengthen his powers. Some of them are
i. Ashvamedha – Unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.
ii. Vajapeya- Chariot race
iii. Rajasuya Sacrifice to confer supreme powers
e. Sangrihitri – An officer appointed to collect taxes and tributes
f. Even in this phase the King did not possess a standing army and tribal units were mustered in times of war.

5. Social Organization

a. Chaturvarna System developed gradually due to increasing power of Brahmanas as Sacrifice rituals were becoming more common. But even now the Varna system had not advanced very far.

b. The Vaishyas were the common people who paid tributes while the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas lived on the tributes collected from the Vaishyas. The three Varnas were entitled to Upanayana and the recitation of Gayatri Mantra which was deprived to Shudras.

c. Gotra started to appear with Gotra Exogamy begun to be practiced.

d. Ashramas (Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasin) were not well established.

6. Gods, Rituals and Philosophy

a. The cult of Brahminical Influence developed with growing rituals and sacrifices.

b. Indra and Agni lost their importance while Prajapati acquired the supreme position with Rudra and Vishnu having important positions

c. Signs of idolatry started to appear

d. People worshipped god for material reasons

e. Sacrifices became more important with sacrificial rituals and formulae accompanying sacrifices

f. The guest was called as Goghana or one who was fed on cattle.

g. Brahmans demanded golds, cloth, horses along with territories/lands as part of their sacrificial gifts.

Sangam Age - The Dawn of History in the Deep South

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The Megalithic Background

Megalith graves were encircled by big pieces of stones. They also contained pottery and iron objects buried with the corpse. They are found in the upland regions of Peninsula with concentration in Eastern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

State formation and rise of civilization

The megalithic people started to reclaim the fertile deltaic lands. The route to the south is called as Dakshinapathawhich became economically important.

Megasthenes knew about Pandyas while Ashokan inscriptions mention about Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satyaputras

Flourishing trade with Roman empire led to the formation of these three states i.e., Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas

Sangam Period

Sangam period is the period in the history of ancient Tamil Nadu spanning from c. 3^rd century BC to c. 3^rd century AD. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centred in the city of Madurai.

Three early kingdoms

Kingdom

Capital

Port

Emblem

Famous Ruler

Cheras

Vanji – Modern Kerala

Muzuri and Tondi

Bow

Senguttuvan

Cholas

Uraiyur and Puhar

Kaveripatinam/Puhar. They had an efficient Navy

Tiger

Karikalan

Pandyas

Madurai

Korkai for Pearl Fishing

Fish

Nedunzheriyan

Cheras

They had Palmyra flowers as their Garland

Pugalur inscriptions mention of three generations of Cheras

Senguttuvan introduced Pattni cult or Worship of Kannagi as ideal wife

Cholas

Karikalan built Kallanai (Check dam) against River Kaveri

Pandyas

Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic conditions of the Pandyas

Invasion by Kalbharas led to their decline

These kingdoms had a profitable trade with the Roman empire. They produced Pepper, Ivory, Pearls, Precious stones, Muslin, Silk, Cotton etc. which led to prosperity in their region.

Rise of social classes

Enadi – captains of the army

Vellalas – Rich peasants

Arasar – ruling class

Kadaisiyar – the lowest class

Pariyars – agricultural labourers

Four castes mentioned in Tolkappiyam

Arasar – Ruling class

Anthanar – Brahmanas

Vanigar – People involved in Trade and Commerce

Vellalar – Labourers

Five-fold division of land

Land

Type of land

Chief deity

Chief occupation

Kurunji

Hilly tracts

Murugan

Hunting and honey collection

Mullai

Pastoral

Mayon

Cattle rearing and dealing with dairy products

Marudham

Agricultural

Indira

Agricultural

Neidhal

Coastal

Varunan

Fishing and salt manufacturing

Palai

Desert

Korravai

Robbery

Sangam administration

Avai – the imperial court

Kodimaram – tutelary tree of every ruler

Panchmahasabha

Amaichar – ministers

Senatipathiar – Army chief

Otrar – Spy

Thoodar – Envoy

Purohitar – Priest

Kingdom’s division

Mandalam/Nadu – Province

Ur – town

Perur – Big village

Sitrur – Small village

Sangams

Sangam

Place

Chairman

Surviving texts

1^st

Then-Madurai

Agasthiyar

Nil

2^nd

Kapadapuram

Agasthiyar and Tolkappiyar

Tolkappiyam

3^rd

Madurai

Founder - Mudathirumaran

Nakkirar

Ettutogai, Pattu Pattu (10 idylls)

Tamil language and Sangam literature

Narrative – Ettutogai and Pattupattu which are called Melkankakku – 18 Major works. They are divided into Agam (love) and Puram (Valour)

Didactive – Pathinenkilkanakku – 18 minor works. They deal with Ethics and Morals.

Thirukkural – Written by Thiruvalluvar is a treatise covering various aspects of life.

Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil Grammar but also provides information on Political and Social conditions of Sangam period

Epics

Silapadhikaram by Elango Adigal

Manimegalai by Sitthalai Sathanar

Valayapathi

Kundalagesi

Sivaga Sinthamani

The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

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The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

Background

After the fall of Mauryan empire, the Kushans in the North and Satavahanas in the south had held power. Gupta empire replaced the Kushans in the North with its center of power at Prayag and gave politicial unity for more than a century (335AD-455AD). It was founded by Sri Gupta. Gupta strength laid in the use of horses and material advantage of fertile land and natural resources abundant region.

Chandragupta I (319-334 AD)

He was the first great ruler of Gupta Dynasty. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Married Licchhavi princess

Started the Gupta Era by 319-20 AD

The original type of Gold coins Dinaras was issued.

Samudragupta (335-380 AD)

He followed a policy of violence and conquest which led to enlargement of Gupta empire

Harisena, his court poet, vividly mentions his military exploits in Allahabad inscriptions

He reached Kanchi in the south which was ruled by Pallavas

Meghavarman, the ruler of Srilanka, sent a missionary for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya

Samudragupta is called as Napoleon of India

Chandragupta II (380-412 AD)

He adopted the title Vikramaditya

He conquered Malwa and Gujarat which provided him access to the sea which enabled trade and commerce. Ujjain was made as the second capital

His court was adorned by the Navaratnasincluding Kalidasa and Amarasimha.

His exploits are glorified in Iron Pillar at Qutub Minar

Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien (399-414AD) visited India during his period.

Life in Gupta Age

System of Administration

They adopted Pompous titles such as Paeamabhattaraka and Maharajaadhiraja

The administration was highly decentralizedwith feudal lords ruling over minor provinces

Civil and criminal laws were highly demarcated

Kumaramatyas were the most important officers. But Guptas lacked elaborate bureaucracy like Mauryas. These offices also became hereditary in nature.

Grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests was also in practice. Agrahara grants and Devagraha grants were practiced.

Trends in trade and agrarian economy

Guptas issued a large number of Gold coins which were called as Dinars

There was a decline in the long distance trade with Romans which led to lesser gold content in the Dinars.

Land grants made to the priests brought many virgin lands under cultivation

Social developments

Brahmana supremacy continued during Gupta period

The Huns came to be recognized as one of the 36 clans of the Rajputs

The position of Shudras improved as they were permitted to hear Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas

The number of untouchables, the Chandalas, increased

The position of women improved as they were permitted to hear Ramayana, Mahabharata and worship Krishna. But the first example of Satialso appears in the Gupta period.

State of Buddhism

Buddhism did not receive royal patronage in Gupta Period, still stupas and Viharas were constructed and Nalanda became a center for Buddhist learning

Origin and growth of Bhagavatism

Worship of Vishnu and Narayana merged to form Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism

It was marked by Bhakti (loving devotion) and Ahimsa

Religious teachings were mentioned in Bhagavadgita, Vishnu Purana and Vishnu Smriti

Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism

Gupta rulers followed a principle of tolerance

Art: Gupta period is called Golden age of ancient India. Art was mostly inspired by Religions

Rock cut caves – Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh caves

Structural temples – Dashavatar temple of Deogarh, Laxman temple of Sirpur, Vishnu temple and Varah temple of Eran. The growth of Nagara style also enabled the development of temple architecture in India

Stupas – Dhammek stupa of Sarnath, Ratnagiri stupa of Orissa, Mirpur Khas in Sindh developed in this period.

Paintings – Ajanta paintings and Bagh caves paintings

Sculpture – the Bronze image of Buddha near Sultanganj, Sarnath and Mathura school flourished during this period which supports the growth of Mahayana Buddhism and Idol worship.

Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods were also found.

Literature

Religious – Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vayu Purana etc were re-written. Dignaga and Buddhagosha were certain Buddhist literature written in this period

Secular

Mudrarakshasha by Vishakadatta

Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiyam, AbhijanaShakuntalam – Dramas by Kalidasa

Ritusamhar, Megadoot, Raghuvamsam, Kumarasambhavam – Poetries by Kalidasa

Mricchakatika by Sudraka

Kamasutra by Vatsyayana

Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma

Scientific

Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta by Aryabhatta

Romaka Siddhanta

Mahabhaskarya and Laghubhaskarya by Bhaskara

Pancha Siddhanta, Vrihat Jataka, Vrihat Samhita by Vrahamihira

Fall of the empire

Huns invasion during the reign of Skandagupta and his successors greatly weakened his empire

Rule of Yashodharman dealt a severe blow to Gupta empire.

The rise of feudatories and Governors becoming independent led to the disintegration of Gupta empire. Loss of western India had crippled them economically.

Origin of Mauryan Empire

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The Mauryan Empire started from Magadha was founded in 321 BC by Chandragupta Maurya. Mudrarakshasha written by Vishakadatta beautifully summarizes the rise of Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya. Chandragupta Maurya patronized Jainism.

Pataliputra, modern-day Patna was the capital city of Mauryan Empire.

Expansion of Mauryan Empire:-

Mauryan Empire was one of the world's largest empires of that time and expanded to an area of 5,000,000 km2. Leaving the parts of NE India, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the Mauryans ruled over the rest of Indian Subcontinent.

Imperial Organization

Accounts of Megasthenes in his book Indika and the Arthashastra (written by Kautilya) describe the elaborate arrangements made in the Mauryan administration, society and economy.

The empire was divided into provinces which were under Princes. Along with this, a dozen departments, the armed forces containing six wings were also maintained. Chandragupta established a well-organized administrative system and gave it a sound financial base.

Bindusara (298-273 BC)

He was known to Greeks as Amitrochates and he patronized the Ajivika sect.

Ashoka:

Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and ruled up to 232 BC. He was known as ‘Devanampriya Priyadarsi’ the beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods.

Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC. Kalinga is in modern Orissa.

Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Princep.

After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka became a Buddhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war, he replaced Bherighosha by Dhammaghosha

Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta or Nigrodha, a disciple of Buddha

For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started the institution of Dharmamahamatras.

Ashokan Inscriptions

Ashokan inscriptions carried royal orders through which he was able to speak directly to the people. There were rock edicts and pillar edicts which were again divided into major and minor.

The 14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka tell about the principles of Dharma

The Kalinga rock edict explains the principles of administration after Kalinga war. In his Kalinga edict, he mentions ‘‘All men are my children’’

The Major Rock Edict XII of Ashoka deals with the conquest of Kalinga.

The term ‘Ashoka’ was mentioned only in the Maski Minor rock edict.

Ashoka and Buddhism

Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his capital Pataliputra in 250 BC under the presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa.

He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and Sanghamitra)

Ashoka spread Buddhism to SriLanka and Nepal. He is known as the Constantine of Buddhism.

Ceylon’s ruler Devanmpriya Tissa was Ashoka’s first convert to Buddhism.

The broad objective of Ashoka’s Dhamma policy was to preserve the social order.

Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC.

Mauryan Administration

Highly centralized administrative structure. Chanakya mentions the 7 elements of Saptanga theory in administration. The king is assisted by his Mantri Parishad. Important officials were appointed for various administrative activities.

The administration was divided in four units

The chakra or the province

The Ahar or the district

The Sangrahana or a group of villages

The Gram or village

The municipal administration headed by a Nagarak was also found in Arthashastra.

Mauryan Art

Royal Art – The Royal palaces, pillars, caves, stupas etc.

Popular art – Figure sculptures, Terracotta objects etc.

The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the four-lion capital of one of Ashokan pillars which is located in Sarnath. Another four-lion capital at Sanchi, Single lion capital at Rampurva and Lauria Nandangarh, single bull at Rampurva, carved elephant at Dhauli are found.

The Mauryas introduced Stone Masonry on large scale. They started the process of “hewing out” caves from rocks and construction of stupas to store the relics of Buddha and Bodhisattvas which in later stages were expanded by Guptas.

Reasons for the decline

Highly centralized Mauryan administration

Partition after the death of Ashoka disturbed the unity of the empire

Weak later Mauryan rulers were also a cause of the decline of the empire

Vedas and the Upanishads

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The Vedic literature was composed in Sanskrit. To begin with the Vedas were recited and not written. They were taught by oral method. Hence they were called as Sruti (heard) and Smriti (memorized). But later on they were reduced to writing after the invention of scripts.

The major literary and religious works of Vedic Period are the four Vedas and the Upanishads. These works still continue to hold immense authority in the sphere of spiritual and religious literature. The idea and principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (spiritual liberation) are widely accepted by the people belonging to Hindu faith.

Four Vedas

Veda is a sanskrit word. It means “knowledge“. There were four Vedas :

The Rig Veda

The Sama Veda

The Yajur Veda and

The Atharva Veda.

1. The Rig Veda

Collection of hymns

Oldest of all vedas

Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028

Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.

Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra

II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas

I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.

The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later.

Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.

Mandala II to VII was created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

2. Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

"Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns

3. The Yajur Veda

Book of sacrifical prayers

Rituals of yajnas

Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path"

Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Prose text

4. Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells

Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

Collection of 711/731/760 hymns

Not included in 'Trai'

Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

Provides freedom from evils spirits.

Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

Vedic Literature and its History

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The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts -

Sruti

Smriti

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed

Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed

the Sutra period.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.

Aranyaka:-

Literarily, it means 'Jungle'

Provides the description of Moral Science and Philosophy

Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles

Give stress on meditation

Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples

Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

They are also called "Vedanta"

Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"

Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.

Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.

Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas

Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani

Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:-

(i)Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes,

(ii)Jyotisha or astronomy,

(iii) Siksha or phonetics,

(iv)Chhanda or metre

(v) Nirukta or etymology

(vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)

The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.

Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number

The Eighteen Puranas

Brahma Purana

Vishnu Purana

Shiva Purana

Padma Purana

Shrimad Bhagwat Purana

Agni Purana

Narad Purana

Markandey Purana

Bhavishya Purana

Ling Purana

Varah Purana

Vaman Purana

Brahm Vaivertya Purana

Shanda Purana

Surya Purana

Matsya Purana

Garuda Purana

Brahmand Purana

Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.

Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars

Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.

Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

Epics

Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava.

The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita.

Chalukyas Dynasty and Pallava Dynasty

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THE CHALUKYAS:

Chalukyas were the Karnataka rulers and their History can be classified into three eras:

The early western era (6th - 8th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi);

The later western era (7th - 12th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of Kalyani;

The eastern Chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of Vengi.
Pulakeshin I (543-566) was the first independent ruler of Badami dynasty. The capital of his kingdom was Vatapi in Bijapur .
Pulakeshin I was succeeded by Kirthivarma I (566-596). After his untimely death, his brother Mangalesha (597-610) was made the caretaker ruler as the son of Kirthivarma I - Prince Pulakesin II was a baby. Mangalesha made several failed attempts to kill the prince but was killed himself by the prince and his friends.
The most famous king of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakeshin II (610-642), the son of Pulakeshin I. Pulakeshin II was a contemporary of Harshavardhana. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and his reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka.

The rise of the Eastern Chalukyan Era was started by Pulakeshin II brother Kubja Vishnuvardana after conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas.

By 631, the Chalukyan Empire was at its peak. It extended from sea to sea. Their fall began when Pulkeshin II was defeated and killed by the Pallavas under the able leadership of Narsimhavarma I. The Pallavas attacked on their capital Badami & captured it.

Under the leadership Of Vikramaditya I (655-681) the Chalukyas rose to power once again. Vikramaditya I defeated his contemporaries Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to establish his supremacy over the Chalukyan Empire in the southern region.

Vikramaditya I was succeeded by Vikramaditya II (733-745) who also defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom.

The fall of Chalukyan Empire started with Vikramaditya II‘s son, Kirtivarma II (745), who was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhantidurga, who went on to establish the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

PALLAVA DYNASTY:

After the decline of the Satavahana dynasty, the Pallava dynasty, founded by Shivaskandavarman emerged in South India.

Kanchi was the capital of the Pallava dynasty.

Some of the leaders who are worth mentioning are Simhavarama I Sivaskandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa.

The decline of the Pallavas started after Samudragupta defeated Vishugopa.

The Pallavas kingdom was re-established by Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who ended the Kalabhras‘ dominance in 575 AD and re-established his kingdom.

Vikramaditya I was defeated by Parameshwaravarma I in 670 and restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king. Eventually, Parameshwaravarma I was defeated by the combined armies of the Chalukyas, the Pandyas ( lead by their ruler Arikesari Maravarma) and another prominent enemy of the Pallavas.

Narasimhavarma II, a peace-loving ruler, succeeded Parameshwaravarma I after he died in 695. The famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi is built by Narasimhavarma II. After the accidental death of his elder sons in 722, Narasimhavarma II too died grieving.

Parameshwaravarma II the youngest son of Narasimhavarma II, came to power in 722 after the death of his father. The Pallava kingdom was in a state of disarray after the death of Parameshwaravarma II in 730 as he had no heirs to the throne.

After some brief infighting for the throne among the family, Nandivarma II came to power. Nandivarma then went on to marry the Rashtrakuta princessReeta Devi and re-established the Pallava kingdom.

Dantivarma (796-846) succeeded Nandivarma II who ruled for 54 long years. Rastrakuta king Dantidurga defeated Dantvarma and was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846.

Advent of European in India

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Portuguese

Vasco-da-Gama reached the port of Calicut in 1498 during the reign of king Zamorin (Hindu ruler of Calicut).

Sattlements Daman, Salsette, Chaul and Bombay (West coast), San Thome (near Madras) and at Hooghly.

Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second Governor of India (first being Fransisco de Almeida) arrived in 1509 and captured Goa in AD 1510.

Dutch

Dutch East India Company was formed in AD 1602.

Dutch were defeated by English at the Battle of Bedara in AD 1759 and as per the agreement, the Dutch gained the control over Indonesia and the British over India, Sri Lanka and Malaya.

Settlements They set-up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other factories were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Naga pattanam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal and Kasimbazar.

English

The English East India Company was formed in 1599 under a charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. Jahangir granted a Farman to Captain William Hawkins permitting the English to erect a factory at Surat (1613).

In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe succeeded in getting an imperial farman to trade and establish a factory in all parts of the Mughal Empire by ruler Jahangir.

In 1690, a factory was established at Suttanati by Jab Charnock. In 1698, following the acquisition of zamindari of three villages of Suttanati, Kalikata and Govindpur, the city of Calcutta was founded. Fort William was set-up in 1700.

In 1717, John Surman obtained a farman from Farrukhsiyar, which gave large concessions to the company. This farman has been called the Magna Carta of the Company.

Battle of Plassey (1757) English defeated Sirajuddaula, the Nawab of Bengal.

Battle of Buxar (1764) Captain Munro defeated joint forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shujauddaula (Awadh) and Shah Alam II (Mughal).

Danes

The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.

The Danish colony 'Tranquebar' was established on Southern Coromandel coast of India.

Settlements Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) sold their settlements to the English in 1845.

French

The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664. The First French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668. A factory at Masulipatnam was set-up in 1669.

French were defeated by English in Battle of Wandiwash (1760).

Arabs & Turkish Invasions in India

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Arabs Invasions

During the Khaliphate of Omar, Arab forces made fertile attempts to get Bombay

Arabs captured Sindh in 712 AD.

The Arab conquest of Sindh was led by Muhammed Bin Kassim.

Muhammed Bin Khasim was the nephew of Al- Hajaj, the governor of the Arab province of Basra.

Dahir, a Brahmin was the ruler of Punjab at that time. He was killed by Kassim.

The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.

Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of Islam to North India.

But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.

Turkish Invasions

Ghazni in Afghanistan was ruled by a Turkish family called Gamini of Ghaznavid dynasty.

Muhammed Ghazni was the first Turkish conqueror of North India.

Muhammad Ghazni’s father was Subu ktigin.

He attacked India only for want of wealth.

He attacked India seventeen times between 1000 and 1027 AD. He made all the raids in the guise of Jihad.

First Invasion was in 1001 AD.

He defeated Jaipal and Anandpal of Shahi dynasty in 1001 and 1009 respectively.

The most important raid of Muhammed was the Somanath expedition. It was in 1025. He completely destroyed the temple. Somanath Temple was on the sea coast of Gujarat.

Muhammed Ghazni died in 30th April 1030.

Later his son Masud attacked India and captured Kashmir.

The famous Persian poet Firdausi who wrote

‘Shahnama’ (The Book of Kings) lived in his court.

Alberuni, an Arab Historian, who wrote Tarikhul- Hind (Reality of Hindustan), accompanied Muhammed Ghazni to India.

Al-Firdausi is known as ‘Indian Homer’, ‘Persian Homer’, or ‘The Immortal Homer of the East’. Muhammed of Ghore attacked India betwen 1175 and 1206 AD.

Muhammed Ghori made his first expedition to India and captured multan in 1175 AD.

In the First Battle Tarain in 1191 (near Taneswar) Muhammed Ghori was defeated by the Rajput forces under Prithviraj Chauhan III.

In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD) Muhammed Ghori assisted by Qutub -ud-din Aibek a slave, defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III and killed him.

In 1193 Muhamed Ghori attacked Jaichand, father in law of Prithviraj . III at Kanauj, Jaichand was defeated.

Muhammed Ghori returned from India by intrustinghis territories in India in the hands of Qutub- Uddin Aibak.

After the death of Ghori in 1206 Aibek founded the Slave Dynasty.

Muhammed Ghoris Indian invasion resulted in the foundation of Islamic rule in India.

Northern India – Age of three empires (8th to 10thCentury)

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In this article, we have explained Northern India of 8th - 10th century. Many questions are asked about Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas in SSC Exams

Northern India – Age of three empires (8^th to 10^thCentury)

The struggle for domination – the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas – tripartite struggle

There was a common struggle between these kingdoms over the control of Kannauj which enabled them to control the fertile upper Gangetic plains

The Palas

They dominated Eastern India.

Founded by Gopala in 750 AD and succeeded by Dharam Pala. The Pala rulers were defeated by the Prathiharas and Rashtrakutas in the North.

They were patrons of Buddhism. Dharampala revived the Nalanda University by setting aside 200 villages for its expenses. He also founded Vikramashila University and built many Viharas for Buddhist monks

They had trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia. Sailendra dynasty sent many ambassadors and asked permission to build a monastery near Nalanda

The Pratiharas

They dominated Western India and Upper Gangetic valley

The real founder and major ruler was Bhoja with title Adivaraha

Al-Masudi, a Baghdad traveler, visited India during the times of Pratiharas in 915-16 AD

Rajashekar, a great Sanskrit poet, and dramatist lived at the court of Mahipala

The attacks by Rashtrakuta rulers, Indra III and Krishna III led to faster dissolution of the empire

The Rashtrakutas

They dominated Deccan and certain territories in North and South India. Kingdom was founded by Dandi Durga with capital at Malkhed

Amogavarsha was a great king. He was credited with writing the first poetics book in Kannada. He also built the Capital city, Manyakhet.

They were in constant contest with the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Chalukyas in the South

Krishna I built the rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora

They had a tolerant religious policy which favored their foreign trade

Political ideas and Organizations

The king was the center of administration and his position became hereditary

Royal household = Antahpur

Administration in Palas and Pratiharas

Bhukti – Province under Uparika

Mandala or Visaya – district under Visayapati

Group of Villages – Samanthas or Bhogapatis.

Pattala – smaller unit

Administration in the Rashtrakutas

Rashtra – Province under Rashtrapati

Visaya – district

Bhukti – smaller unit

Grama-Mahajana – Village elder

Kotwal – responsibility to maintain law and order

Nad-Gavundas/Desa-gramakutas – hereditary revenue officers in Deccan

The Chola Empire

The Chola empire, which arose in the 9^th century, brought a large part of Peninsula under their control. With a strong Navy, they conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives and had a strong foreign trade.

The empire was founded by Vijaylala, a feudatory of Pallavas, in 850 AD.

Rajaraja (985-1014) and Rajendra I (1014-1044) were the greatest Chola kings. They followed a policy of annexation which included annexing Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pandyas and Cheras to control the prosperous trade with South-East Asian countries

Rajarajeshwara temple was built in 1010 at Tanjore.

Rajendra I assumed the title Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of Ganga) and instituted a new capital at the banks of Kaveri called “Gangaikondacholapuram”

Rajendra I also undertook a naval expedition against revived Sri Vijaya Empire of Indo-China

The ruler of Sailendra dynasty had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

The strong navy of Chola led to conversion of Bay of Bengal into “Chola lake”

The Cholas encouraged Local Self-Government in the villages under their administration

Chola Government

The King administered his territories with advice from his Council of Ministers

Chola administration

Mandalams – Provinces

Valanadu – minor provinces

Nadu – district

Kurram – a group of villages

Infrastructure: Royal roads were built, irrigation projects were undertaken

Village assemblies: the Ur – general assembly of the village; the Mahasabha – gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages which were called Agraharas

Cultural life

They were great builders of Cities (Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram), large palaces, banquet halls, spacious gardens, and terraces etc.

Dravida style of temple architecture attained its climax. The temple had become so elaborate like a mini city and enjoyed revenue-free grants of lands for its expenses

Kailashnath temple in Kanchi, Brihadeswara temple in Tanjore are examples of Dravidian architecture

After the fall of Cholas, the Hoysalas continued the tradition with building temples in Halebid (Hoysaleshwara temple), an example of Chalukyan architecture.

Sculpture art attained its heights with Gomateshwar statue in Sharvana Belagola and Bronze Nataraja statue

Along with Sanskrit literature, the local language literature also grew in this region

Bhakti movement started with Alvars and Nayanars flourished in 6^th to 9^th Their writings “Tirumurai” is seen as Fifth Veda. Kamban’s Ramayan is also considered as a classic in Tamil literature.

Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are regarded as the three gems of Kannada Poetry

Thus, this period had a flourishing trade and commerce, great temple building activities and promising literary works.