Know To This Aeronautical Airplane Engineering Knowledge

Basic Weight and Balance Equation

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 21 Jan 2015 10:19:00 +0000

This equation can be rearranged to find the distance a weight must be shifted to give a desired change in the CG location:

This equation can also be rearranged to find the amount of weight to shift to move the CG to a desired location:
It can also be rearranged to find the amount the CG is moved when a given amount of weight is shifted:
Finally, this equation can be rearranged to find the total weight that would allow shifting a given amount of weight to move the CG a given distance:
Solution by Formula
This same problem can also be solved by using this basic equation:
Rearrange this formula to determine the distance weight B must be shifted:
The CG of the board in Figure 2-10 was 72 inches from the datum. This CG can be shifted to the center of the board as in Figure 2-13 by moving weight B. If the 200- pound weight B is moved 55 inches to the left, the CG will shift from 72 inches to 50 inches, a distance of 22 inches. The sum of the moments about the new CG will be zero. [Figure 2-14]
When the distance the weight is to be shifted is known, the amount of weight to be shifted to move the CG to any location can be determined by another arrangement of the basic equation. Use the following arrangement of the formula to determine the amount of weight that will have to be shifted from station 80 to station 25, to move the CG from station 72 to station 50.

If the 200-pound weight B is shifted from station 80 to station 25, the CG will move from station 72 to station 50.

A third arrangement of this basic equation may be used to determine the amount the CG is shifted when a given amount of weight is moved for a specified distance (as it was done in Figure 2-10). Use this formula to determine the amount the CG will be shifted when 200-pound weight B is moved from +80 to +25.
Moving weight B from +80 to +25 will move the CG 22 inches, from its original location at +72 to its new location at +50 as seen in Figure 2-13.

Lift-Off - Crosswind Takeoff

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 21 Jan 2015 09:35:00 +0000

As the nosewheel is being raised off the runway, the
holding of aileron control into the wind may result in

the downwind wing rising and the downwind main
wheel lifting off the runway first, with the remainder
of the takeoff roll being made on that one main wheel.
This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.

If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheels
should be held on the ground slightly longer than in a
normal takeoff so that a smooth but very definite liftoff can be made. This procedure will allow the airplane to leave the ground under more positive control
so that it will definitely remain airborne while the
proper amount of wind correction is being established.
More importantly, this procedure will avoid imposing
excessive side-loads on the landing gear and prevent
possible damage that would result from the airplane
settling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway and ground
friction no longer resists drifting, the airplane will be
slowly carried sideways with the wind unless adequate
drift correction is maintained by the pilot. Therefore, it
is important to establish and maintain the proper
amount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off by
applying aileron pressure toward the wind to keep the
upwind wing from rising and applying rudder pressure
as needed to prevent weathervaning.

Structure of the Atmosphere

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Fri, 18 Jul 2014 08:30:00 +0000

The atmosphere in which flight is conducted is an envelope of air that surrounds the earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the earth as the seas or the land. However, air differs from land and water inasmuch as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.

Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.

The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. As some of these elements are heavier than others, there is a natural tendency of these heavier elements, such as oxygen, to settle to the surface of the earth, while the lighter elements are lifted up to the region of higher altitude. This explains why most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.

Because air has mass and weight, it is a body, and as a body, it reacts to the scientific laws of bodies in the same manner as other gaseous bodies. This body of air resting upon the surface of the earth has weight and at sea level develops an average pressure of 14.7 pounds on each square inch of surface, or 29.92 inches of mercury—but as its thickness is limited, the higher the altitude, the less air there is above. For this reason, the weight of the atmosphere at 18,000 feet is only one-half what it is at sea level. [Figure 2-1]

FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam)

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Fri, 18 Jul 2014 07:36:00 +0000

The FAA is dedicated to improving the safety of United States civilian aviation by conveying safety principles and practices through training, outreach, and education. The FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) exemplifies this commitment. The FAASTeam has replaced the Aviation Safety Program (ASP), whose education of airmen on all types of safety subjects successfully reduced accidents. Its success led to its demise because the easy-to-fly accident causes have been addressed. To take aviation safety one step further, Flight Standards Service created the FAASTeam, which is devoted to reducing aircraft accidents by using a coordinated effort to focus resources on elusive accident causes.

Each of the FAA’s nine regions has a Regional FAASTeam Office dedicated to this new safety program and managed by the Regional FAASTeam Manager (RFM). The FAASTeam is “teaming” up with individuals and the aviation industry to create a unified effort against accidents and “tip” the safety culture in the right direction. To learn more about this effort to improve aviation safety, to take a course at their online learning center, or to join the FAASTeam, visit their web site at www.faasafety.gov/default.aspx.

The Student Pilot

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 01 Jun 2014 12:51:00 +0000

The first step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. FAA rules for getting a pilot’s certificate differ depending on the type of aircraft flown. Individuals can choose among airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not need a certificate to fly ultra light vehicles.

Basic Requirements
A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor pilot for his or her first full certificate, and is permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances. Upon request, an FAA-authorized aviation medical examiner (AME) will issue a combined medical certificate and Student Pilot Certificate after completion of a physical examination. Student Pilot Certificates may be issued by an FAA inspector or an FAA-designated pilot examiner. To be eligible for a Student Pilot’s Certificate, an individual must be:
• Be 16 years old (14 years old to pilot a glider or balloon).
• Be able to read, write, speak, and understand English.
• Hold a current Third-Class Medical Certificate (or for glider or balloon, certify no medical defect exists that would prevent piloting a balloon or glider).

Medical Certification Requirements

The second step in becoming a pilot is to obtain a medical certificate and Student Pilot’s Certificate if the choice of aircraft is an airplane, helicopter, gyroplane, or airship. [Figure 1-26] (The FAA suggests the individual get a medical certificate before beginning flight training to avoid the expense of flight training that cannot be continued due to a medical condition.) Balloon or glider pilots do not need a medical certificate, but do need to write a statement certifying that no medical defect exists that would prevent them from piloting a balloon or glider. The new sport pilot category does not require a medical examination; a driver’s license can be used as proof of medical competence. Applicants who fail to meet certain requirements or who have physical disabilities which might limit, but not prevent, their acting as pilots, should contact the nearest FAA office.

A medical certificate is obtained by passing a physical examination administered by a doctor who is an FAA-authorized AME. There are approximately 6,000 FAA-authorized AMEs in the nation. Medical certificates are designated as first class, second class, or third class. Generally, first class is designed for the airline transport pilot; second class for the commercial pilot; and third class for the student, recreational, and private pilot. A Student Pilot Certificate is issued by an AME at the time of the student’s first medical examination. This certificate allows an individual who is being trained by a flight instructor to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances and must be carried with the student pilot while exercising solo flight privileges. The student pilot certificate is only required when exercising solo flight privileges. The student certificate is valid until the last day of the month, 24 months after it was issued.

Student Pilot Solo Requirements
Once a student has accrued sufficient training and experience, a CFI can endorse the student’s certificate to authorize limited solo flight in a specific type (make and model) of aircraft. A student pilot may not carry passengers, fly in furtherance of a business, or operate an aircraft outside of the various endorsements provided by the flight instructor. There is no minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience requirement for the issuance of a student pilot certificate other than the medical requirements for the class of medical certificate the student certificate is based upon. There are, however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience requirements for student pilots to solo.

Attitude Flying

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 01 Jun 2014 12:32:00 +0000

In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually establishing the airplane’s attitude with reference to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the angular difference measured between an airplane’s axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis. Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is termed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath, but not relative to the natural horizon.

In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four components: pitch control, bank control, power control, and trim.

Pitch control is the control of the airplane about the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.
Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.
Power control is used when the flight situation indicates a need for a change in thrust.
Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has been attained.

The primary rule of attitude flying is:

ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE

Continuous-Flow Oxygen System

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 11:30:00 +0000

Continuous-flow oxygen systems are usually provided for passengers. The passenger mask typically has a reservoir bag, which collects oxygen from the continuous-flow oxygen system during the time when the mask user is exhaling. The oxygen collected in the reservoir bag allows a higher aspiratory flow rate during the inhalation cycle, which reduces the amount of air dilution. Ambient air is added to the supplied oxygen during inhalation after the reservoir bag oxygen supply is depleted. The exhaled air is released to the cabin. [Figure 6-45]

Cannula

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 11:00:00 +0000

A cannula is an ergonomic piece of plastic tubing which runs under the nose and is often used to administer oxygen in non-pressurized aircraft. [Figure 6-44] Cannulas are typically more comfortable then masks and can be used up to 18,000 feet. Altitudes greater than 18,000 feet require the use of an oxygen mask. Many cannulas have a flow meter in the line. If equipped, a periodic check of the green flow detector should be part of a pilot’s regular scan.

Oxygen Masks

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 10:30:00 +0000

There are numerous types and designs of oxygen masks in use. The most important factor in oxygen mask use is to insure the masks and oxygen system are compatible. Crew masks are fitted to the user’s face with a minimum of leakage and usually contain a microphone. Most masks are the oronasal type, which covers only the mouth and nose.

A passenger mask may be a simple, cup-shaped rubber molding sufficiently flexible to obviate individual fitting. It may have a simple elastic head strap or the passenger may hold it to his or her face.

All oxygen masks should be kept clean to reduce the danger of infection and prolong the life of the mask. To clean the mask, wash it with a mild soap and water solution and rinse it with clear water. If a microphone is installed, use a clean swab, instead of running water, to wipe off the soapy solution. The mask should also be disinfected. A gauze pad that has been soaked in a water solution of Merthiolate can be used to swab out the mask. This solution used should contain one-fifth teaspoon of Merthiolate per quart of water. Wipe the mask with a clean cloth and air dry.

Brakes

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 10:00:00 +0000

Airplane brakes are located on the main wheels and are applied by either a hand control or by foot pedals (toe or heel). Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential braking. During ground operations, differential braking can supplement nosewheel/tailwheel steering.

Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 09:30:00 +0000

Landing gear can also be classified as either fixed or retractable. A fixed gear always remains extended and has the advantage of simplicity combined with low maintenance. A retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear to be stowed inside the structure during cruising flight. [Figure 6-39]

Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 09:00:00 +0000

Tailwheel landing gear aircraft have two main wheels attached to the airframe ahead of its CG that support most of the weight of the structure. A tailwheel at the very back of the fuselage provides a third point of support. This arrangement allows adequate ground clearance for a larger propeller and is more desirable for operations on unimproved fields. [Figure 6-38]

With the CG located behind the main gear, directional control of this type aircraft becomes more difficult while on the ground. This is the main disadvantage of the tailwheel landing gear. For example, if the pilot allows the aircraft to swerve while rolling on the ground at a low speed, he or she may not have sufficient rudder control and the CG will attempt to get ahead of the main gear which may cause the airplane to ground loop.
Lack of good forward visibility when the tailwheel is on or near the ground is a second disadvantage of tailwheel landing gear aircraft. These inherent problems mean specific training is required in tailwheel aircraft.

Parachute Rigger Regulatory Compliance

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:36:00 +0000

As with other airman certificates, there are additional parts of 14 CFR that are of direct concern to the parachute rigger in addition to those already mentioned. It is important that the parachute rigger have a thorough understanding of these parts in order to avoid any inadvertent non-compliance:

Fuel Gauges

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:30:00 +0000

The fuel quantity gauges indicate the amount of fuel measured by a sensing unit in each fuel tank and is displayed in gallons or pounds. Aircraft certification rules require accuracy in fuel gauges only when they read “empty.” Any reading other than “empty” should be verified. Do not depend solely on the accuracy of the fuel quantity gauges. Always visually check the fuel level in each tank during the preflight inspection, and then compare it with the corresponding fuel quantity indication.
If a fuel pump is installed in the fuel system, a fuel pressure gauge is also included. This gauge indicates the pressure in the fuel lines. The normal operating pressure can be found in the AFM/POH or on the gauge by color coding.

14 CFR PART 105 SUBPART C— PARACHUTE EQUIPMENT AND PACKING

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:26:00 +0000

This part deals with the use of parachutes in the United States. The following areas are of interest to parachute riggers:

Main parachutes used for intentional jumping must be packed by the person jumping or by a U.S. certificated parachute rigger.
The auxiliary parachute must be packed by a certificated and appropriately rated parachute rigger.
If the parachute is made from synthetic materials, it must be packed within 120 days of its use. If it is made from materials subject to mold or mildew, then it must be packed within 60 days of use.
If a main static line is used, it must meet certain requirements as to its use and configuration.
An approved parachute is defined as a parachute manufactured under a type certificate or a Technical Standard Order (C-23 series), or a personnel-carrying U.S. military parachute (other than a high altitude, high speed, or ejection type) identified by a Navy Air Facility, an Army Air Field, and Air Force-Navy drawing number, an Army Air Field order number, or any military designation or specification number.

14 CFR PART 39—AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:23:00 +0000

This part specifically deals with Airworthiness Directives (ADs). An AD is an amendment to the Code of Federal Regulations. An AD must be complied with before using an affected product. In the case of a parachute, when:

an unsafe condition exists in a product.
the condition is likely to exist or develop in other products of the same type or design.

Under 14 CFR part 39, "No person may operate a product to which an airworthiness directive applies except in accordance with the requirements of that airworthiness directive."

In recent years, there have been a number of parachute ADs issued by the Administrator. These ADs prescribe certain actions to be taken by the parachute rigger in order to ensure the safety and function of parachutes that have been found in some manner to be defective. If the parachute rigger does not comply with the AD, the parachute rigger cannot pack, maintain, or alter the affected parachute. ADs are mailed to each certificated parachute rigger on the FAA listing. If the parachute rigger has moved and not complied with the requirements for an address change, the rigger may not receive the AD. This introduces an additional problem. Under 14 CFR part 65, subpart A—General, section 65.21, airmen must register their change of address within 30 days of moving or they are not able to exercise the privileges of their certificate.

14 CFR PART 91—GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:20:00 +0000

Section 91.307 deals with parachutes and parachuting. This section defines an "approved parachute" and states the repack time for parachutes. Both of these are of vital interest to the parachute rigger.

How to Choose a Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI)

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 22 May 2014 08:01:00 +0000

Whether an individual chooses to train under 14 CFR part 141 or part 61, the key to an effective flight program is the quality of the ground and flight training received from the CFI. The flight instructor assumes total responsibility for training an individual to meet the standards required for certification within an ever-changing operating environment.

A CFI should possess an understanding of the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. During the certification process, a flight instructor applicant is tested on the practical application of these skills in specific teaching situations. The flight instructor is crucial to the scenario-based training program endorsed by the FAA. He or she is trained to function in the learning environment as an advisor and guide for the learner. The duties, responsibilities, and authority of the CFI include the following:
• Orient the student to the scenario-based training system.
• Help the student become a confident planner and in-flight manager of each flight and a critical evaluator of their own performance.
• Help the student understand the knowledge requirements present in real world applications.
• Diagnose learning difficulties and helping the student overcome them.
• Evaluate student progress and maintain appropriate records.
• Provide continuous review of student learning.

Should a student pilot find the selected CFI is not training in a manner conducive for learning, or the student and CFI do not have compatible schedules, the student pilot should find another CFI. Choosing the right CFI is important because the quality of instruction and the knowledge and skills acquired from this flight instructor affect a student pilot’s entire flying career.

14 CFR PART 21 SUBPART O—TECHNICAL STANDARD ORDERS (TSO)

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 21 May 2014 20:38:00 +0000

A Technical Standard Order (TSO) is issued by the Administrator and is a minimum performance standard for specified articles, such as parachutes. It is important that the parachute rigger understand the TSO process and the various levels of TSO approval under which parachutes are manufactured. Every parachute rigger should read and become familiar with the technical standard orders for parachutes, the 23 series (C23b, C23c, C23d). This is important to the parachute rigger in determining certification compatibility when he/she is assembling approved components.

Becoming a Pilot - aeronautical airplane engineering

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 14 May 2014 14:57:00 +0000

The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR parts 61. Eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical requirements can be found in 14 CFR parts 61, Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors.

• Recreational Pilot, see subpart D

• Private Pilot, see subpart E

• Sport Pilot, see subpart J

The knowledge-based portion of training is obtained through FAA handbooks such as this one, textbooks, and other sources of training and testing materials which are available in print form from the Superintendent of Documents, GPO, and online at the Regulatory Support Division: www.faa.gov/about/offlce_org/headquarters_offlces/avs/offlces/afs/afs600.

The CFI may also use commercial publications as a source of study materials, especially for aircraft categories where government materials are limited. A student pilot should follow the flight instructor’s advice on what and when to study. Planning a definite study program and following it as closely as possible will help in scoring well on the knowledge test. Haphazard or disorganized study habits usually result in an unsatisfactory score.

In addition to learning aeronautical knowledge, such as the principles of flight, a student pilot is also required to gain skill in flight maneuvers. The selected category and class of aircraft determines the type of flight skills and number of flight hours to be obtained. There are four steps involved in learning a flight maneuver:

• The CFI introduces and demonstrates flight maneuver to the student.

• The CFI talks student pilot through the maneuver.

• The student pilot practices the maneuver under CFI supervision.

• The CFI authorizes the student pilot to practice the maneuver solo.

Once the student pilot has shown proficiency in the required knowledge areas, flight maneuvers, and accrued the required amount of flight hours, the CFI endorses the student pilot logbook, which allows the student pilot to take the written and practical exams for pilot certification.

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How to Find a Reputable Flight Program

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 14 May 2014 06:37:00 +0000

To obtain information about pilot training, contact the local FSDO, which maintains a current file on all schools within its district. The choice of a flight school depends on what type of certificate is sought, whether an individual wishes to fly as a sport pilot or wishes to pursue a career as a professional pilot. Another consideration is the amount of time that can be devoted to training. Ground and flight training should be obtained as regularly and frequently as possible because this assures maximum retention of instruction and the achievement of requisite proficiency.

Do not make the determination based on financial concerns alone, because the quality of training is very important. Prior to making a final decision, visit the schools under consideration and talk with management, instructors, and students.

Be inquisitive and proactive when searching for a flight school, do some homework, and develop a checklist of questions by talking to pilots and reading articles in flight magazines. The checklist should include questions about aircraft reliability and maintenance practices, questions for current students such as whether or not there is a safe, clean aircraft available when they are scheduled to fly.

Questions for the training facility should be aimed at determining if the instruction flits available personal time. What is the school’s operating hours? Does the facility have dedicated classrooms available for ground training required by the FAA? Is there an area available for preflight briefings, post flight debriefings, and critiques? Are these rooms private in nature in order to provide a no threatening environment in which the instructor can explain the content and outcome of the flight without making the student feel self-conscious?

Examine the facility before committing to any flight training. Evaluate the answers on the checklist, and then take time to think things over before making a decision. This proactive approach to choosing a flight school will ensure a student pilot contracts with a flight school or flight instructor best suited to individual needs.

When and Where to Take Pilot Examination

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Tue, 13 May 2014 11:43:00 +0000

When to Take the Examination

The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant and more likely to result in a satisfactory grade if it is taken after beginning the flight portion of the training. Therefore, the FAA recommends the knowledge test be taken after the student pilot has completed a solo cross-country flight.

The operational knowledge gained by this experience can be used to the student’s advantage in the knowledge test. The student pilot’s CFI is the best person to determine when the applicant is ready to take the knowledge exam.

Where to Take the Examination

The FAA has hundreds of designated computer testing centers worldwide that administer FAA knowledge tests. These testing centers offer the full range of airman knowledge tests. Applicants will be charged a fee for the administration of FAA knowledge tests. A complete list of test centers, their locations and phone numbers can be downloaded at “Airmen Certification Frequently Asked Questions” located at www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_questions/ or www.faa.gov/licenses_certiflcates/airmen_certiflcation/airmen_FAQ/.

An applicant can also contact the local FSDO to obtain this information. If the student pilot chooses a 14 CFR part 141 flight schools with test examining authority, the school will administer the knowledge test during the curriculum.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF STABILITY

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Tue, 13 May 2014 11:42:00 +0000

The flightpaths and attitudes in which an airplane can fly are limited only by the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane, its propulsive system, and its structural strength. These limitations indicate the maximum performance and maneuverability of the airplane. If the airplane is to provide maximum utility, it must be safely controllable to the full extent of these limits without exceeding the pilot’s strength or requiring exceptional flying ability.
If an airplane is to fly straight and steady along any arbitrary flightpath, the forces acting on it must be in static equilibrium. The reaction of any body when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as stability. There are two types of stability; static and dynamic. Static will be discussed first, and in this discussion the following definitions will apply:

Equilibrium—All opposing forces acting on the airplane are balanced; (i.e., steady, unaccelerated flight conditions).
Static Stability—The initial tendency that the airplane displays after its equilibrium is disturbed.
Positive Static Stability—The initial tendency of the airplane to return to the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed. [Figure 3-10]
Negative Static Stability—The initial tendency of the airplane to continue away from the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed. [Figure 3-10]
Neutral Static Stability—The initial tendency of the airplane to remain in a new condition after its equilibrium has been disturbed. [Figure 3-10]

Operation Principle of Vertical Speed Indicator

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 11 May 2014 17:01:00 +0000

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) is an instrument that uses static pressure to display a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute. The VSI can also sometimes be called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI).

The vertical speed indicator (VSI), which is sometimes called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), indicates whether the airplane is climbing, descending, or in level flight. The rate of climb or descent is indicated in feet per minute. If properly calibrated, the VSI indicates zero in level flight.

Although the vertical speed indicator operates solely from static pressure, it is a differential pressure instrument. It contains a diaphragm with connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator pointer inside an airtight case. The inside of the diaphragm is connected directly to the static line of the pitot-static system.

The vertical speed indicator is capable of displaying two different types of information:
Trend information shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplane's rate of climb or descent.
Rate information shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude.

For example, if maintaining a steady 500-foot per minute (f.p.m.) climb, and the nose is lowered slightly, the VSI immediately senses this change and indicates a decrease in the rate of climb. This first indication is called the trend. After a short time, the VSI needle stabilizes on the new rate of climb, which in this example, is something less than 500 f.p.m. The time from the initial change in the rate of climb, until the VSI displays an accurate indication of the new rate, is called the lag. Rough control technique and turbulence can extend the lag period and cause erratic and unstable rate indications. Some airplanes are equipped with an instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI), which incorporates accelerometers to compensate for the lag in the typical VSI.

Alternate Means of Qualifying for A Parachute Rigger Certificate

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 11 May 2014 16:09:00 +0000

Active duty military personnel and civilian personnel, who work for the military as parachute riggers, may qualify for a senior parachute rigger certificate under 14 CFR, section 65.117, Special Certification Rule. If they meet the practical requirements, they need only take a special 25-question test.

A senior parachute rigger applying for a master parachute rigger certificate only needs to take the oral and practical test. A person with 3 years’ experience as a parachute rigger, but not holding a senior parachute rigger certificate, must take both the knowledge test and the oral and practical test. Any parachute rigger, senior or master, who wishes to add additional ratings to his/her certificate, needs to take only a practical test for the type rating sought. No additional knowledge test is necessary.

RETESTING

If the applicant fails the knowledge test, he/she may retake the test under the following conditions: An applicant may apply for retesting by presenting his/her failed test report-

(a) 30 days after the date the applicant failed the test;

(b) before 30 days have expired if the applicant presents a signed statement from an airman holding the certificate and rating sought by the applicant, certifying that the airman has given the applicant additional instruction in each of the subjects failed and that the airman considers the applicant ready for retesting.

It is also possible for candidates who pass the test, but receive a marginal score, to retake the test with the anticipation of getting a higher score. In this case, the candidate must wait a minimum of 30 days from the date the last test was taken to retake a passed test. Prior to retesting, the individual must give his/her current airman test report to the proctor. The most recent test taken will reflect the official score.