knowledge; a key to a distingushed life

GET YOUR FULL VERSION OF ALL SOFTWARE FREELY

2012-07-20T13:36:00.000-07:00

GET YOUR FULL VERSION OF ALL PC SOFTWARE.....

This is actually a Guest Tutorial exposing some stuff, Have you ever wonder how some Webmaster and Internet Geeks get their Premium Software without Paying? How do people get No Trial version of any Software Installed, and all Full Version.

Today, While surfing the net, i discovered this important site and i just can wait to share it to you now....
Have you heard about Giveawayoftheday.com? I Guess no, This is now my No 1 website for Free Software, This Site gives out 1 Premium Software everyday, No need to Panic over any Software on your PC from getting expired.
Giveawayoftheday is a widely used Site by Most Nigerians though it is an International website but it uses is wide due to their Niche and for their Free Gift.
So if you're the type that make use of Good Software on your PC, Hit the Website on a daily basis to get the best out of your PC.
don't slow your speed always click on to this blog to get updated......

ADD MORE FONT TO YOUR PC

2012-07-20T13:28:00.000-07:00

ADD MORE FONT TO YOUR PC

Users may find it necessary to install additional fonts onto their computer because of the lack of fancy fonts to choose from. This is a Simple Tutorial to Download cool and wonderful fonts online and Add to the List of fonts on your PC.

The Simple Question is, Why do i need to Install Extra Fonts? Well, If you love cool and good looking fonts on your System like me, You will need toand might even end up installing newer fonts on a daily basis because the step is just too simple.

HOW DO I INSTALL NEW FONT ON MY PC

1. Visit one of the World most visited PC Font website www.1001freefonts.com and click on any Font Category e.g 3D, Animal, Comic, Christmas etc depending on the Category that suit you the most.

2. Now the Name and Preview Image of how the Font looks will appear on the Category Page, Just click on the "Download window " button to download the Zip format of the Font.

3. Unzip the download file and Copy out the File you just Extracted usually ending with TTF or FON, Then go to your Control Panel » Font , You will see many Font file inside, Just Paste the Font you copied inside and close it.

You have Successfully Installed a New font. check the Website above for More Cool Font for your PC.

Now the Font is gonna appear on any Software List of Font Available e.g Image Editing Software, You can now use your Downloaded Fonts to Create New and Professional looking Graphics.

LET ME HEAR YOUR COMMENT PLS,,.,,

TUTORIAL FOR YOU

2012-07-20T13:17:00.002-07:00

MAKE YOUR WHATSAPP ICON TO BBM ICON IN YOUR SYMBIAN PHONE

YOU NEED THIS APPS
graphicscube.sis

BBM icon.mif

Menu editor.sisx

Or

Step
1. Download grahics cube.sis and BBM icon.mif above

step 2. Launch grapcs cube

step 3. Goto options>>tools As in the image below

step4. Click on the last option wch is App. Icon changer

step5. Now scroll down and locate you already installed whatsapp and click on it as if u want to open it

as soon as u click on it, it will ask u to select the mif file

step6. Still using graphic cube, locate whr u saved
ur BBM icon.mif and select

now it will take u back to ur app. List...
Step7. Still locate whatsapp and select

Note: after clicking on the icon it will automatically
take you back to whr ur BBM icon.mif is......just
click on it and u are done.....
Step8. Restar your phone and see the magic....
Now to change the name of your whatsapp to BBM
all u need to do is launch your menu editor and locate whatsapp>>options>>rename.....dats all.

NIGERIA, KENYA AND GHANA.... RECEIVE YOUR MAIL AS SMS WITHOUT INTERNET CONNECTION, AND FOR FREEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE

2012-07-20T13:09:00.000-07:00

A NEW PHONE EMAIL RECEIVER WITH NO INTERNET CONNECTION

Now you can send and receive your Emails via sms without an Internet Connection as Google launches Gmail SMS in Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana.

Google has launched Gmail SMS, a simple service that allows Nigerians, Ghanaians and Kenyans send and receive e-mails as SMS messages using their mobile phone regardless of whether or not their phones are connected to the Internet.
This service will prove to be extremely useful in these three countries given the often spotty state of Internet connectivity in many parts. Gmail SMS works on any phone including basic phones that only support voice and SMS.
The service automatically forwards users e-mails as SMS text messages to their phones. They can respond to the e-mails by responding directly to the SMS.
Receiving Gmail SMS is free of charge. Standard SMS rates apply when replying to messages, creating new messages and sending Gmail SMS commands from your phone.
HOW IT WORKS
“Gmail SMS automatically forwards your emails as SMS text messages to your phone and you can respond by replying directly to the SMS,” says Geva Rechav, Product Manager of Emerging Markets at Google. “You can control the emails received by replying with commands such as MORE, PAUSE and RESUME. Additionally, compose a new email as an SMS and send to any email address recipient – who will find your message in the right email conversation thread.”
So, how do you set yourself up with Gmail SMS?
First of all, you’ll need to log-in to your Gmail account, and click on your profile at the top of the page and then hit Account.
Next, you’ll have to access your settings in the “Phone and SMS” section:

You will then have to link your mobile phone number to your account to be able to send and receive emails from your handset:`

Goodluck. Hit the COMMENT Button now!!!

A MUST READ!!! GET THE EXPERIENCE>>>> I HATE DADDY

2012-07-20T13:01:00.001-07:00

I HATE DADDY!!!

I had just finished high school (here in naija, we call it secondary school) and puberty has had the best of me (asides the usual menstrual cramps, everything else is perfect, lovely set of boobs, nice cute ass to match, pimple free face, and I was the talk of the class) and unlike most of my friends, I was still a virgin. Not like I dint know what sex was (I read lots of mills and boon, seen few porn videos) but I just felt I wasn’t ready yet (partly because my friends were bad at describing their very first time and partly because I dint like the shape God created the penis!) and I planned on keeping it that way for as long as possible (only to find out I’d still lose it to some guy three years later).

I have always been daddy’s girl, I loved him so much and told him almost everything and he would take me out from time to time and even named me princess. My mum would sometimes be jealous of our relationship (really she should have! For the right reasons) and would fight my dad for diverting all the attention to me and neglecting her and my siblings, I didn’t care provided it was all about me (call me selfish huh?!) moreover, I am the first girl in four generations of my family(that explains a lot huh?!).Well it was going rosy until this very day in September.

September it was, I remember it like it just happened, September 3 was a wet day and I had decided to stay indoors, the DSTV (satellite TV) won’t work because of the rain, I ran out of novels, my siblings were off to school, my mum was far away on a conference and I thought I might just be bored to death, then I remembered this porn that my friend Eunice lent me (what? I had to do something!)So I asked the gateman to put on the generator(did I mention that the electricity was off?) and amidst the chattering noise of the generator I inserted the disc into the DVD player(I remember the title was Star Wars: attack of the cocks)and was watching delightfully and next I knew, I got up, went to make sure the main door was locked, headed to the kitchen to get a bottle(I thought it was nothing compared to the light saber look-alike dildos they were using in the film).then I got in a very comfortable position on my dad’s favorite couch and began working on my most precious orifice. It felt too good and I went on for over thirty minutes ignoring everything else, I tilted my head backwards with my eyes closed as I climaxed and on opening my eyes(I wish I didn’t) I saw my dad leaning over the couch with his suit hanging from his left arm and ice cream on his right. OOPS!!!

Watchout for Part 2!!

FREE TORRENT FILES AND USUAGE

2012-07-18T17:46:00.001-07:00

KNOW HOW TO USE AND GET YOUR TORRENT FILES

For sometimes now, People have been asking us to Write about Torrents and How to Download them, Hope its not coming too late? This Tutorial is for the Less Geeky Ones and if you already know about it but still find some useful Tips out of this Write up, Don't Hesitate to Click on the • LIKE • Button and also Post your Comment.

Torrent Files are a peer-to-peer files usually found on Torrent Site or File Sharing Site, If you need some Softwares or Crack or even Keygen to Some Software for PC, You dont need to worry yourself as Such Files will be readily available on Most Torrent Site.
For years now, I have been Downloading Great Softwares, Movies, File from many Torrent Site, Its very easy but Most Internet Users dont understand it but Today, We will try and Make you understand all you need to know about Torrents, You will get Addicted to it once you understand it.
WHAT DO I NEED TO KNOW ALL ABOUT TORRENTS?
1. First, You need a Torrent Client, I Prefer uTorrent Software. You can download uTorrent www.filehippo.com/download_utorrent/ (998KB) to your PC.
2. After Downloading, Install it on your PC and then you're good to Go. We're now Set to Search and Download any Software, Files and Movie we like on any Torrent Site of your Choice.
3. Now, Lets Proceed to a Torrent Site that is well Loaded with Killer Software and Files, I Prefer www.piratebay.org for all my Torrent Files | You can check HERE for Other 15 Great Torrent Site.
4. The Site will Open like a Search Engine, Just Enter the Name of the Software you want e.g Internet Download Manager with Crack, Then Tick the Application Box depending on what you really need then Hit the Pirate Search Button.

5. You should get a whole lot of Result like this, Click on anyone you Like.

6. Now Once you Get to the Torrent Personal View Page, You will see many Comments about the Files, Go through them before downloading to Read other Users View.. If you like it then Click on the Button "GET THIS TORRENT".

NOTE:- Some of the Torrent Site might not use the GET THIS TORRENT Phrase, It might be Download this Torrent... Take Note of this.
7. On clicking the Button, Your uTorrent Client will automatically Open and Start Downloading the Software/Application and you're good to go. The File or Application will be downloaded to your PC, You can Install them or use them depending on what you have Downloaded.
Torrent Site are always Loaded with Great softwares Uploaded up Different people & H*ackers from Around the World for Good Purpose, Thats why they are always Stock.
So have you been Locking for any PC Software or the Full Version / Crack of any Software? Get the Crack or Full Version on Torrent Site now!!!

LATEST DEVELOPMENT

2012-07-18T17:41:00.001-07:00

US approves first-ever pill for HIV prevention

By steve Turner

Published: July 17, 2012

Truvada was previously approved as a treatment for people infected with HIV to be used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs. PHOTO: AFP

WASHINGTON: The first-ever daily pill to help prevent HIV infection was approved Monday by US regulators for use by healthy adults who are at risk for getting the virus that causes AIDS.
Truvada, made by Gilead Sciences in California, has been on the market since 2004 and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration for a new use as a tool to help ward off HIV, in combination with safe sex and regular testing.
The pill as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) has been hailed by some AIDS experts as a potent new tool against human immunodeficiency virus, while other health care providers are concerned it could encourage risky sex behavior.
In addition, the regimen is estimated to cost around $14,000 per year, making it out of reach of many.
“Truvada alone should not be used to prevent HIV infection,” said Debra Birnkrant, director of the division of antiviral products at the FDA.
“Truvada as PrEP represents another effective, evidence-based approach that can be added to other prevention methods to help reduce the spread of HIV.”
The FDA said Truvada should be used as “part of a comprehensive HIV prevention strategy that includes other prevention methods, such as safe sex practices, risk reduction counseling, and regular HIV testing.”
Truvada was previously approved as a treatment for people infected with HIV to be used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs.
The decision by the FDA followed the advice of an independent panel in May that supported Truvada for prevention in uninfected people, after clinical trials showed it could lower the risk of HIV in gay men and heterosexual couples.
One study of men who were sexually active with other men but were not infected with the virus that causes AIDS found 44 percent fewer infections in those taking Truvada versus a placebo.
Those in the study who took the drug regularly had almost 73 percent fewer infections.
A second study on heterosexual couples in which one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not showed that Truvada reduced the risk of becoming infected by 75 percent compared with a placebo.
Common side effects were the same as experienced by people with HIV who were taking Truvada, and included diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, headache, and weight loss.
However, the adherence rate — meaning how often people in the study actually took the drug daily — was low in the study of men who have sex with men, at just 30 percent, Birnkrant said.
In the study of heterosexual partners, adherence was much higher, at between 80 and 90 percent.
Therefore, the drug label must include special instructions for health care providers on how to counsel potential users of the drug.
The drugmaker must also include a warning that Truvada for PrEP “must only be used by individuals who are confirmed to be HIV-negative prior to prescribing the drug and at least every three months during use.”
As to concerns about whether the pill might boost risky sex practices and lead people to abandon condoms as a first line of protection, Birnkrant said the studies have not shown that so far.
“We don’t really have any strong evidence to show that condoms were not used or that there was a decrease in condom use when Truvada was used,” she told reporters.
The goal of the approval is to eventually cut back on the rate of new infections in the United States, which have stayed steady in recent years at about 50,000 annually, she said.
A key goal of the US strategy against HIV/AIDS, set forth in 2010, is to decrease the number of new infections by 25 percent by 2015.
“The hope is that over time it will decrease the rate of new infections or incidence in the United States,” Birnkrant said.
The FDA approval drew the support of amfaR, The Foundation for AIDS Research.
“We know that Truvada, when taken as directed, works. Now we need to figure out how to properly use it to change the course of the epidemic,” said a statement by amfaR chief executive Kevin Robert Frost.
However, the AIDS Healthcare Foundation described the move as “reckless,” largely because the FDA recommends but does not explicitly require a negative HIV test prior to use.
“The FDA’s move today is negligence bordering the equivalence of malpractice which will sadly result in new infections, drug resistance and serious side effects among many, many people,” said AHF president Michael Weinstein.

sometimes great people loses their treasures

2012-07-18T17:36:00.000-07:00

Sylvester Stallone's eldest son, 36-year-old son Sage Stallone was found dead in his Hollywood apartment yesterday Friday July 13th. A rep of the LAPD said that he likely died of an overdose of pills, and that there is no suspicion of foul play or criminal activity.

Sage starred alongside his father in 1990's "Rocky V" when he was 14 years old. (Photo above). May his soul rest in peace...amen.

The highly controversial singer is in the news again as she goes totally naked to promote her new fragrance, “Fame”. As is typical of this artiste, everything about the perfume seems weird – even her own comment on it!

The advertisement (which is in black-and-white as can be seen above) features a naked Lady Gaga lying on her side, holding a bottle of her Fame Fragrance and putting on absolutely nothing, save for a black mask on her face. A group of tiny men wearing thongs can be seen crawling over her body, and have been strategically positioned to cover her sensitive parts.

The description for the new fragrance reads:

“(the fragrance has notes of) tears of belladonna, crushed heart of tiger orchidea with a black veil of incense, pulverized apricot and the combinative essences of saffron and honey drops.”

However, Gaga’s personal explanation of the perfume is even more bizarre; the singer has told an Australian radio station that her Fame Fragrance makes you smell like “an expensive hooker.” She says, “[Blood and semen] is in the perfume but it doesn’t smell like it. You just get sort of the after feeling of sex from the semen and the blood is sort of primal. And the blood was taken from my own blood sample so it’s like a sense of having me on your skin.” A weird lady indeed!!!!

COMPUTER LIKE WHAT?

2012-07-17T04:44:00.005-07:00

A computer is a general purpose device which can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem. The essential point of a computer is to implement an idea, the terms of which are

satisfied by Alan Turing's Universal Turing machine.
Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved.
A computer's processing unit executes a series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.
In order to interact with such a machine, programmers and engineers developed the concept of a user interface in order to accept input from humans and return results for human consumption.
The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and United States. Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).^[1] In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications.
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.^[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

TECHNOLOGY WENT FOR FLYING CARS

2012-07-17T04:41:00.003-07:00

History

Early experiments

Glenn Curtiss, the chief rival of the Wright brothers, was the first to design a flying car. His large, three-wing Curtiss Autoplane was able to hop, not fly.^[2]
In 1926, Henry Ford displayed an experimental single-seat aeroplane that he called the "sky flivver". The project was abandoned two years later when a distance-record attempt flight crashed, killing the pilot.^[3] The Flivver was not a flying car at all, but it did get press attention at the time, exciting the public that they would have a mass produced affordable airplane product that would be made, marketed, sold, and maintained just like an automobile. The airplane was to be as commonplace in the future as the Model T of the time.
The first flying car to actually fly was built by Waldo Waterman. Waterman was associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering naval aviator on North Island on San Diego Bay in the 1910s. On March 21, 1937, Waterman's Arrowbile first took to the air.^[4] The Arrowbile was a development of Waterman's tailless aircraft, the Whatsit.^[5] It had a wingspan of 38 feet (11 m) and a length of 20 feet 6 inches (6.25 m). On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine. It could fly at 112 mph (180 km/h) and drive at 56 mph (90 km/h).

Post-war development

In the 1950s, the western world was recovering from World War II and everything seemed optimistic due to the Western post-war boom.^{[citation needed]} The flying car was a vision of transportation in the 21st century, and a common feature of science fiction futures.
Although several designs (such as the Convair flying car) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success, and those that have flown are not widely known about by the general public. The most successful example, in that several were made and one is still flying, is the 1949 Taylor Aerocar. One notable design, Henry Smolinski's Mizar, made by mating the rear end of a Cessna Skymaster with a Ford Pinto, disintegrated during test flights, killing Smolinski and the pilot.
In the 1950s, Ford Motor Company performed a serious feasibility study for a flying car product. They concluded that such a product was technically feasible, economically manufacturable, and had significant realistic markets. The markets explored included ambulance services, police and emergency services, military uses, and initially, luxury transportation. Some of these markets are now served by light helicopters. However, the flying car explored by Ford was projected to be at least fiftyfold less expensive.^{[citation needed]}
When Ford approached the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) about regulatory issues, the critical problem was that the (then) known forms of air traffic control were inadequate for the volume of traffic Ford proposed. At the time, air traffic control consisted of flight numbers, altitudes and headings written on little slips of paper and placed in a case. Quite possibly computerized traffic control, or some form of directional allocation by altitude could resolve the problems. Other problems would also need to be resolved in some ways, however, including intoxicated pilots or pilots that drive/fly without a license. Standards would have to be agreed upon by the international community, such as air miles being translated to nautical miles and not affecting the reading of the odometer. Furthermore, there would be serious concerns among the public in built up urban areas, that malfunctioning or incorrectly operated flying cars could crash into houses, shopping districts or pedestrian areas, severely damaging buildings or killing civilians.^{[citation needed]}

Historic flying cars and roadable aircraft

Jess Dixon's flying automobile c. 1940

Skroback Roadable Airplane - 1934 Tested only on the ground, this vehicle used 3 pairs of short wings in tandem.
Autogiro Company of America AC-35 – 1936 One example of a roadable autogyro demonstrated for the Bureau of Air Commerce.
Autoplane - 1936
Gwinn Aircar - 1938
Waterman Aerobile – 1937 two examples in museums as of 2004
Airmaster - 1944
BelGeddes - 1945
Fulton Airphibian – 1946, one example in Canada Aviation Museum.
Convair Model 118 – 1947, ConvAirCar, Two prototypes built.
Aerocar – 1949, one example still flying as of 2006; two examples in museums
Aerauto PL.5C – early 1950s
Bryan Autoplane – 1953, a series of folding wing roadable aircraft based on the Erco Ercoupe.
Ford Volante - 1958
Curtiss-Wright VZ-7 – 1958, one example in United States Army Aviation Museum.
Chrysler VZ-6 – 1959
Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep – 1962
Wagner Aerocar – 1965, The Wagner FJ-V3 Aerocar was a prototype 4-place flying automobile. The vehicle used counter-rotating rotor helicopter technology for flight.
AVE Mizar – 1973, Cessna Skymaster/Ford Pinto hybrid. Crashed, killing developer.
AviAuto - 1990's

Modern development

There is an active movement in the search for a practical flying car. Several conventions are held yearly to discuss and review current flying car projects. Two notable events in the United States are the Flying Car forum held at the EAA Airventure at Oshkosh, Wisconsin, and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) conventions held in various cities.
The American Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, has shown an interest in the concept with a sixty five million dollar program called Transformer to develop a four place roadable aircraft by 2015. The vehicle is required to take off vertically, and have a 280 mile range. Terrafugia, AAI Corporation, and other Textron companies have been awarded the contract.^[6]
Flying cars fall into one of two styles; integrated (all the pieces can be carried in the vehicle), or modular (the aeronautical sections are left at the airport when the vehicle is driven).
In April 2012, the International Flying Car Association was established to be the "central resource center for information and communication between the flying car industry, news networks, governments, and those seeking further information worldwide."^[7]

Current development examples

A number of companies are developing vehicles, although few have demonstrated a full-sized vehicle capable of free flight.

Flying

The Parajet Skycar utilises a paramotor for propulsion and a parafoil for lift. The main body consists of a modified dune buggy. It has a top speed of 80 mph (130 km/h) and a maximum range of 180 miles (290 km) in flight. On the ground it has a top speed of 112 mph (180 km/h) and a maximum range of 249 miles (401 km). Parajet flew and drove its prototype from London to Timbuktu in January 2009.
The Terrafugia Transition is under development by a private company founded by MIT graduates.^[8] It is a roadable aircraft that the company describes as a "Personal Air Vehicle". The aircraft can fold its wings in 30 seconds and drive the front wheels, enabling it to operate as a traditional road vehicle and as a general aviation aeroplane. The company planned to release its Transition "Personal Air Vehicle" to customers in late 2011. An operational prototype was displayed at Oshkosh in 2008^[9] and its first flight occurred on 2009-03-05.^[10] Owners will drive the car from their garage to an airport where they will then be able to fly within a range of 100 mi (160 km) to 500 mi (800 km). It will carry two people plus luggage and its Rotax 912S engine operates on a single tank of premium unleaded gas.^[11]
The Super Sky Cycle is a registered motorcycle constructed by Larry Neal.^[12]^[13]
PAL-V ONE is a hybrid of a gyrocopter with a leaning 3-wheel motorcycle. It has two seats and a 160 kW flight certified gasoline engine. It has a top speed of 180 km/h (112 mph) on land and in air, and weighs 910 kg max.^[14]^[15]
The Maverick Flying Dune Buggy was designed by the Indigenous People's Technology and Education Center as an off-road vehicle that could unfurl an advanced parachute and then travel by air over impassable terrain when roadways were no longer usable. Designed by the Indigenous People’s Technology and Education Center (I-TEC) of Florida, a Christian ministry, the 1100-pound 'Maverick' vehicle is powered by a 128 hp (95 kW) engine that can also drive a five-bladed pusher propeller. It was initially conceived of in order to help minister to remote Amazon rainforest communities, but will also be marketed for visual pipeline inspection and other similar activities in desolate areas or difficult terrain.^[16]
The Plane Driven PD-1 Roadable Glastar is a modification to the Glastar Sportsman GS-2 to make a practical roadable aircraft. The approach is novel in that it uses a mostly stock aircraft with a modified landing gear "pod" that carries the engine for road propulsion. The wings fold along the side, and the main landing gear and engine pod slide aft in driving configuration to compensate for the rearward center of gravity with the wings folded, and provide additional stability for road travel.^[17]^[18]

Partially flying

Urban Aeronautics' X-Hawk^[19] is a VTOL aircraft which operates much like a tandem rotor helicopter, however it doesn't have the exposed rotors which make helicopters dangerous for personal use. This is accomplished by containing the rotors in large 'ducts' which make up most of the body of the craft; the requisite decrease in rotor size also decreases fuel efficiency. The X-Hawk is being promoted for rescue and utility functions. It is scheduled to be available for about $3 million around 2010.
The Scaled Composites Model 367 BiPod is a developmental hybrid using joined fuselages, and twin combustion engines powering four 15 kW electric propellers.

Moller Skycar M400 to the right, next to older Moller models

The Moller Skycar M400^[20] is a prototype personal VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) aircraft that some refer to as a flying car, although it cannot be driven as an automobile. However, the Skycar is a good demonstration of the technological barriers to developing the VTOL flying car. Moller International continues to develop the Skycar M400, which is powered by four pairs of in-tandem Wankel rotary engines, and is approaching the problems of satellite-navigation, incorporated in the proposed Small Aircraft Transportation System. Moller also advises that, currently, the Skycar would only be allowed to fly from airports & heliports. Moller has been developing VTOL craft since the late 1960s, but no Moller vehicle has ever achieved free flight out of ground effect. The proposed Autovolantor model has an all-electric version powered by Altairnano batteries.^[21]

Road functional, or scale models flying

LaBiche Aerospace's LaBiche FSC-1^[22] is a developmental prototype Flying Car and is an example of a practical flying car capable of utilizing today's automotive and aviation infrastructure to provide true "door-to-door" travel^{[citation needed]}. The vehicle can be parked in any garage or parking space available for cars. The FSC-1 is the first known vehicle capable of automatic conversion from aircraft to car at the touch of a button. LaBiche has flown a 1/10 scale model, tested a ¼-scale model and is currently finishing the FSC-1 prototype for road and air testing, as of 2006. Currently, the FSC-1 requires a pilot and driver's license to operate. However, upon approval from the FAA, development is underway for utilizing a new satellite-navigation "hands free" flight system to travel from airport to airport that will eliminate the need for a pilot's license^{[citation needed]}. Numerous safety systems and fail safes are also employed on the FSC-1, such as a recovery parachute. No news has been added to the website since September, 2007.
The Haynes Aero Skyblazer^[23] is a development stage vehicle that uses a single turbofan engine to provide thrust in the air and to generate electricity to power electric motors for ground travel. In "car mode", a patented mechanism allows the wings to fold into the body of the vehicle, which is designed to fit into a single car garage and regular parking space. In "aircraft mode" the vehicle will have STOL capabilities and be able to use almost any public use airfield. It is expected to have a top speed of 400 mph (640 km/h) and a range of 830 miles (1,340 km). The skyblazer team has completed wind tunnel, stability and control testing and flown a 1/6 scale model.

Concepts

The Aerocar 2000 is a modular design currently in development by Ed Sweeney, owner of one of Moulton Taylor's Aerocars.
The Switchblade,^[24] by SAMSON MOTORWORKS LLC is a three-wheel concept with scissor wings. First introduced at AirVenture 2008, the Switchblade is to utilize a single Wankel rotary engine and ducted fan to keep the propeller out of harm's way on the ground. The wheels and propeller are to be powered by the same engine, but wheel-power only to be utilized on the ground. Development is ongoing at DAR Corp of Lawrence, Kansas, with flying prototype targeted for 2010. A predicted top speed of 110 mph (180 km/h) on the ground is nearly as fast as the anticipated 150 mph (240 km/h) in the air. No parts are left at the airport after conversion from aircraft to ground vehicle, as the main wing and tail retract into the vehicle body. The vehicle leans into the turns on the ground, to impart the feeling of being 'flown' on the ground as well.
The Milner AirCar^[25] is an advanced composite four-door, four-passenger roadable aircraft (flying car) with foldable main wing at the rear and foldable canard in the front. The AirCar has a wingspan of 28 ft (8.5 m), maximum gross weight of 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) and a total of 300 hp (220 kW) from dual ducted fans. Cruise airspeed and range are expected to be 200 mph (322 km/h) for 1,000 miles (1,600 km). After landing the wings fold to a width of 7 ft (2.1 m) so the vehicle can drive on public roads. A drive-able, but non-flyable prototype is complete.
The Wernicke SkyCar The Wernicke four seat AirCar was designed during the 1990s and involves narrow wing technology to enable it to transition between flying and highway use without any alterations whatsoever. Motive power on the ground and in the air is by hydraulic drive and therefore no added gearbox is required. Prototype one-third scale models were extensively wind tunnel and flight tested.^{[citation needed]}
The iCar 101 has extensible cylindrical wings which spin to provide lift due to the Magnus effect.^[26]
MotoPOD LLC,^[27] advocates the combined use of airplanes and motorcycles to achieve door-to-door transportation. The company has developed a Motorcycle Pod that allows pilots to carry a street-legal motorcycle beneath their airplane. After landing, it takes only a few minutes to remove the motorcycle, unfold the handlebars and ride away. The company believes this modular solution will appeal to pilots who currently enjoy airplanes and motorcycles separately.
The Volante Aircraft.^[28] This is a modular design, in development. The flying module attaches to the driving module for flight, while when detached, the driving module is roadable.
The Wolff AeroCycle.^[29] is a motorcycle that can have the airplane parts attached in order to fly, and then detached to drive on the road.
MACRO Industries – SkyRider^[30] is a prototype of a flying car developed by MACRO Industries, Inc. Lighter than the Moller Skycar.
The Carplane® Road/Air Vehicle ^[31] is a bimodal vehicle for individual road and air transport. It uses electric drive in road-mode and a piston engine for both range extension and air-mode. It converts between modes in 15 seconds. It is currently being developed with Government support at the Research Airport in Brunswick, Lower Saxony, Germany.
StrongMobile's Magic Dragon Aircar^[32] has been developed by retired Air Force pilot-engineer Rich Strong over a 50-year period. The design uses an automobile-type lifting body fuselage and automotive suspension. Flight propulsion uses a front-mounted ducted fan with side outlets. Automatic conversion uses a combination of folding and swinging to stow the wings into the body. The current design envisions a core market of frequent regional business travellers whose time savings make using the StrongMobile virtually revenue neutral.

Gallery

Taylor Aerocar III
Fulton Airphibian FA-3-101
Terrafugia Transition
Maverick Flying car
Plane Driven PD-1

KNOWING YOUR SPEED ON INTERNET

2012-07-17T04:37:00.000-07:00

The Internet began as a network funded by the U.S. government to support projects within the government and at universities and research laboratories in the US - but grew over time to include most of the world's large universities and the research arms of many technology companies.^[3]^[4]^[5] Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted.^[6]
In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from personal computers and workstations directly connected to local area networks or from dial-up connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s and grew to support 100 and 1000 Mbit/s, while modem data rates grew from 1200 and 2400 bit/s in the 1980s, to 28 and 56 kbit/s by the mid to late 1990s. Initially dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support end-to-end use of the Internet protocols and only provided terminal to host connections. The introduction of network access servers (NASs) supporting the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and later the Point-to-point protocol (PPP) extended the Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial-up users, subject only to limitations imposed by the lower data rates available using dial-up.
Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband and also known as high-speed Internet access, are services that provide bit-rates considerably higher than that available using a 56 kbit/s modem. In the U.S. National Broadband Plan of 2009, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined broadband access as "Internet access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial-up access",^[7] although the FCC has defined it differently through the years.^[8] The term broadband was originally a reference to multi-frequency communication, as opposed to narrowband or baseband. Broadband is now a marketing term that telephone, cable, and other companies use to sell their more expensive higher data rate products.^[9]
Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process required, and it does not “hog” phone lines.^[10] Broadband provides improved access to Internet services such as:

Faster world wide web browsing
Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files
Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing
Virtual private networks and remote system administration
Online gaming, especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are interaction-intensive

In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet access a public policy issue.^[11] In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses and schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries^[12] and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD countries, over 90% of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than 300 million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million.^[13]
The broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable plants. Fibre-optic communication, while only recently being used in premises and to the curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling broadband Internet access by making transmission of information at very high data rates over longer distances much more cost-effective than copper wire technology.
In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations and local governments are installing Wi-Fi networks. Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available.
Newer technologies being deployed for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, and fixed wireless, e.g., Motorola Canopy.
Starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using "3G" and "4G" technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE.

Availability

In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace Internet access may be available from public places such as libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide stations for connecting users' laptops to local area networks (LANs).
Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin operated computers. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based.
Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.
And Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital devices to connect to the Internet from any location from which a mobile phone call can be made.

Data rates

Data rate units (SI)
Unit		Symbol	Bits	Bytes
Kilobit per second	(10³)	kbit/s	1,000 bit/s	125 bytes/s
Megabit/s	(10⁶)	Mbit/s	1,000 kbit/s	125 kB/s
Gigabit/s	(10⁹)	Gbit/s	1,000 Mbit/s	125 MB/s
Terabit/s	(10¹²)	Tbit/s	1,000 Gbit/s	125 GB/s
Petabit/s	(10¹⁵)	Pbit/s	1,000 Tbit/s	125 TB/s

Unit		Symbol	Bits	Bytes
Kilobyte per second	(10³)	kB/s	8,000 bit/s	1,000 bytes/s
Megabyte/s	(10⁶)	MB/s	8,000 kbit/s	1,000 kB/s
Gigabyte/s	(10⁹)	GB/s	8,000 Mbit/s	1,000 MB/s
Terabyte/s	(10¹²)	TB/s	8,000 Gbit/s	1,000 GB/s
Petabyte/s	(10¹⁵)	PB/s	8,000 Tbit/s	1,000 TB/s

Main articles: Data rates , Bit rates , Bandwidth (computing) , and Device data rates

Information signals generally travel at nearly the speed of light in the transmission medium (wire, fiber optic glass, air, ...) no matter what the bit rate, so individual bits all travel at roughly the same speed. Nonetheless, higher bit rate services are often marketed as "faster" or "higher speed".^[14] Data is transmitted more quickly over these higher speed connections in the sense that the number of bits transmitted per second is higher. Bit rate is a measure of throughput, rather than speed. End-to-end latency and jitter are also network performance considerations.
The bit rates for dial-up modems range from as little as 110 bit/s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of from 33 to 64 kbit/s (V.90 and V.92) in the late 1990s. Dial-up connections generally require the dedicated use of a telephone line. Data compression can boost the effective bit rate for a dial-up modem connection to from 220 (V.42bis) to 320 (V.44) kbit/s.^[15] However, the effectiveness of data compression is quite variable, depending on the type of data being sent, the condition of the telephone line, and a number of other factors. In reality, the overall data rate rarely exceeds 150 kbit/s.^[16]
Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial-up, generally without disrupting regular telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been used in definitions of broadband, ranging from 64 kbit/s up to 4.0 Mbit/s.^[17] In 1988 the CCITT standards body defined "broadband service" as requiring transmission channels capable of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s.^[18] A 2006 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s.^[1] And in 2010 the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined "Basic Broadband" as data transmission speeds of at least 4 Mbit/s downstream (from the Internet to the user’s computer) and 1 Mbit/s upstream (from the user’s computer to the Internet).^[19] The trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as higher data rate services become available.^[20]
The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are "asymmetric"—supporting much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).
Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer.^[21] Actual end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors.^[22] Physical link quality can vary with distance and for wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio sources. Network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or service being used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end-user.
Users may share access over a common network infrastructure. Since most users do not use their full connection capacity all of the time, this aggregation strategy (known as contended service) usually works well and users can burst to their full data rate at least for brief periods. However, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing and high quality streaming video can require high data rates for extended periods, which violates these assumptions and can cause a service to become oversubscribed, resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes flow-control mechanisms that automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live video–effectively making the service unavailable.
When traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can ensure a better quality of service for time critical services even on extremely busy networks. However, overuse can lead to concerns about fairness and network neutrality or even charges of censorship, when some types of traffic are severely or completely blocked.

Technologies

Access technologies generally use a modem, which converts digital data to analog for transmission over analog networks such as the telephone and cable networks.^[10]

Local Area Networks

Main articles: Local Area Network and Point-to-point protocol over Ethernet

Local area networks (LANs) provide Internet access to computers and other devices in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building, usually at relatively high data rates that typically range from 10 to 1000 Mbit/s.^[23] There are wired and wireless LANs. Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies used to build LANs today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other technologies were used in the past.
Most Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with just one or two devices attached. And while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this begs the question of how and at what data rate the LAN itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The technologies described below are used to make these connections.

Dial-up access

	"Dial up modem noises" Typical noises of a dial-up modem while establishing connection with a local ISP in order to get access to the Internet.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Main article: Dial-up Internet access

Dial-up access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer's digital signal into an analog signal that travels over a phone line's local loop until it reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO) where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection.^[24]
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access available in rural areas as it requires no new infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone network, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up connections do not exceed a speed of 56 kbit/s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum data rate of 56 kbit/s downstream (towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream (toward the global Internet).^[10]

Broadband access

The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate access to the Internet. These technologies use wires or fiber optic cables in contrast to wireless broadband described later.

Multilink dial-up

Main article: Channel bonding

Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by bonding two or more dial-up connections together and treating them as a single data channel.^[25] It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and dial-up accounts, as well as an ISP that supports multilinking - and of course any line and data charges are also doubled. This inverse multiplexing option was briefly popular with some high-end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available. Diamond and other vendors created special modems to support multilinking.^[26]

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Main article: Integrated Services Digital Network

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), a switched telephone service capable of transporting voice and digital data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband data applications. ISDN was very popular in Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late 1990s before the availability of DSL and cable modem technologies.^[27]
Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "bearer" or "B" channels. These channels can be used separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit/s service. Multiple ISDN-BRI lines can be bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s. Primary rate ISDN, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 bearer channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined data rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard) line has 30 bearer channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.

Leased lines

Main article: Leased line

Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to connect LANs and campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public telephone network or other providers. Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are used to provide Internet access directly as well as the building blocks from which several other forms of Internet access are created.^[28]
T-carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0) to 1.5 Mbit/s (DS1 or T1), to 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels (24 DS0s), so customers may use some channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24 channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28 DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1 lines are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and 1,500 kbit/s. T-carrier lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a router or switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP.^[29] In Japan the equivalent standard is J1/J3. In Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels (64 kbit/s) on an E1 (2.0 Mbit/s) and 512 user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit/s).
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, in the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry high data rate digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The basic unit of framing is an OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c (electrical) which carries 155.520 Mbit/s. Thus an OC-3c will carry three OC-1 (51.84 Mbit/s) payloads each of which has enough capacity to include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC-3c multiples of four providing OC-12c (622.080 Mbit/s), OC-48c (2.488 Gbit/s), OC-192c (9.953 Gbit/s), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s). The "c" at the end of the OC labels stands for "concatenated" and indicates a single data stream rather than several multiplexed data streams.^[28]
The 1, 10, 40, and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10GbE, 40GbE, and 100GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km.^[30]

Cable Internet access

Main article: Cable Internet access

Cable Internet or cable modem access provides Internet access via Hybrid Fiber Coaxial wiring originally developed to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a neighborhood connect to a cable company's central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then connects to the Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave transmissions.^[31] Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business connections, and 100 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business customers because existing television cable networks tend to service residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial cable networks.^[32] In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line, communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted.^[31]

Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)

DSL technologies
	Standard
ADSL	ANSI T1.413 Issue 2 ITU G.992.1 (G.DMT) ITU G.992.2 (G.Lite)
ADSL2	ITU G.992.3 ITU G.992.4 ITU G.992.3 Annex J ITU G.992.3 Annex L
ADSL2+	ITU G.992.5 ITU G.992.5 Annex M
HDSL	ITU G.991.1
HDSL2
IDSL
MSDSL
PDSL
RADSL
SDSL
SHDSL	ITU G.991.2
UDSL
VDSL	ITU G.993.1
VDSL2	ITU G.993.2

Main article: Digital subscriber line

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible) frequencies of the line are left free for regular telephone communication.^[10] These frequency bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital subscriber line is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed variety of DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower than that in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric.^[33] With a symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.^[34]
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)^[35] is a digital subscriber line (DSL) standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s upstream over copper wires^[36] and up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream on coaxial cable.^[37] VDSL is capable of supporting applications such as high-definition television, as well as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single physical connection.
VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second-generation version and an enhancement of VDSL.^[38] Approved in February 2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s simultaneously in both the upstream and downstream directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of about 300 meters and performance degrades as distance and loop attenuation increases.

DSL Rings

Main article: DSL Rings

DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing copper telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.^[39]

Fiber to the home

Main articles: Fiber to the x and Fiber in the loop

Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-to-the-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN).^[40] These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers. The differences between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.
The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances - up to 150 Mbit/s downstream (toward the end user) and up to several kilometers. Most high-capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.^[41]
Australia has already begun rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using fiber-optic cables to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses.^[42] Similar efforts are underway in Italy, Canada, India, and many other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country).,^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]

Power-line Internet

Main article: Power-line Internet

Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a conductor that is also used for electric power transmission. Because of the extensive power line infrastructure already in place, this technology can provide people in rural and low population areas access the Internet with little cost in terms of new transmission equipment, cables, or wires. Data rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit/s to 2.7 Mbit/s.^[47]
Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the-air communication services, interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction of power-line Internet systems. The IEEE P1901 standard specifies that all powerline protocols must detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it.^[47]
Power-line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference in power system design philosophies. Data signals cannot pass through the step-down transformers used and so a repeater must be installed on each transformer.^[47] In the U.S. a transformer serves a small clusters of from one to a few houses. In Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses. Thus a typical U.S. city requires an order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city.^[48]

ATM and Frame Relay

Main articles: Asynchronous Transfer Mode and Frame Relay

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide area networking standards that can be used to provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For example many DSL implementations use an ATM layer over the low-level bitstream layer to enable a number of different technologies over the same link. Customer LANs are typically connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased lines at a wide range of data rates.^[49]^[50]
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and broadband services such as cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did.

Wireless broadband access

Main article: Wireless broadband

Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi logo

Main articles: Wi-Fi , Wireless LAN , and 802.11

Wi-Fi is the popular name for a "wireless local area network" that uses one of the IEEE 802.11 standards. It is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Individual homes and businesses often use Wi-Fi to connect laptops and smart phones to the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found in coffee shops and various other public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create campus-wide and city-wide wireless networks.^[51]^[52]^[53]
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called Access Points. "Ad hoc" computer to computer Wi-Fi" networks are also possible. The Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet using DSL, cable modem, and other Internet access technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600 Mbit/s. Wi-Fi service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 meters or from 65 to 820 feet. Both data rate and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol, location, frequency, building construction, and interference from other devices.^[54] Using directional antennas and with careful engineering Wi-Fi can be extended to operate over distances of up to several kilometers, see Wireless ISP below.

Wireless ISP

Main articles: Wireless Internet service provider and Long-range Wi-Fi

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WiMAX Forum logo

Main articles: WiMAX and IEEE 802.16

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a set of interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".^[57] The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and provided 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates.^[58] Mobility support was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls much more effectively than Wi-Fi.

Satellite broadband

Satellite Internet access via VSAT in Ghana

Main article: Satellite Internet

Satellites can provide fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. It is among the most expensive forms of broadband Internet access, but may be the only choice available in remote areas.^[59] Data rates range from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s upstream. Satellite communication typically requires a clear line of sight, will not work well through trees and other vegetation, is adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade), and may require a fairly large, carefully aimed, directional antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above the earth's equator. Even at the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second), it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel from the earth to the satellite and back. When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are doubled to allow for a full round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long latencies can make some applications, such as video conferencing, voice over IP, multiplayer games, and remote control of equipment, that require a real-time response impracticable via satellite. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the earth's polar regions.^[60] HughesNet and ViaSat are GEO systems.
Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies and make real-time interactive Internet applications feasible. LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation™ is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is expected to have a latency of just 7 ms.

Mobile broadband

Service mark for GSMA

Main article: Mobile broadband

Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and other digital devices using portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or separate wireless modems can be used.^[61]
Roughly every ten years new mobile phone technology and infrastructure involving a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations:

Second generation (2G) from 1991:

first mobile data services
GSM CSD (2G): 9.6 kbit/s
GSM GPRS (2.5G): 56 to 115 kbit/s
GSM EDGE (2.75G): up to 237 kbit/s

Third generation (3G) from 2001:

UMTS W-CDMA: 0.4 Mbit/s down and up
UMTS HSPA: 14.4 Mbit/s down; 5.8 Mbit/s up
UMTS TDD: 16 Mbit/s down and up
CDMA2000 1xRTT: 0.3 Mbit/s down; 0.15 Mbit/s up
CDMA2000 EV-DO: 2.5 to 4.9 Mbit/s down; 0.15 to 1.8 up
GSM EDGE-Evolution: 1.6 Mbit/s down; 0.5 Mbit/s up

Fourth generation (4G) from 2006:

HSPA+: 21 to 672 Mbit/s down; 5.8 to 168 Mbit/s up
Mobile WiMAX (802.16): 37 to 365 Mbit/s down; 17 to 376 Mbit/s up
LTE: 100 to 300 Mbit/s down; 50 to 75 Mbit/s up
LTE-Advanced: 100 Mbit/s moving at higher speeds to 1 Gbit/s not moving or moving at low speeds
MBWA: (802.20): 80 Mbit/s

The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or maximum rates and end users will typically experience lower data rates.
WiMAX (described in more detail above) was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added in 2005. CDMA2000 EV-DO and MBWA (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access) are no longer being actively developed.
In 2011, 90% of the world's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% lived in areas with 2G and 3G coverage.^[62]

Local Multipoint Distribution Service

Main article: Local Multipoint Distribution Service

Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz.^[63] Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it is conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from 64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s.^[64] Distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station are possible in some circumstances.^[65]
LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and WiMAX standards.

Pricing

Dial-up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly subscription fee, and may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect time limits by their ISP. Though less common today than in the past, some dial-up access is offered for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of the dial-up service. NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free-nets are examples of services providing free access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet access.
Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited" or flat rate pricing model, with price determined by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or traffic based charge. Per minute and traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile broadband Internet access.
With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing, demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing model may become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80-90% of the cost of providing broadband service, the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about $0.03.^[66]
Some ISPs estimate that about 5% of their users consume about 50% of the total bandwidth.^[67] To ensure these high-bandwidth users do not slow down the network for everyone, some ISPs are considering, are experimenting with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or "peak" and "off peak" pricing, and bandwidth or traffic caps.^[68]^[69]
In Canada, Rogers Hi-Speed Internet and Bell Canada have imposed bandwidth caps.^[67] Time Warner experimented with usage-based pricing in Beaumont, Texas.^[70] An effort by Time Warner to expand usage-based pricing into the Rochester, New York area met with public resistance, however, and was abandoned.^[71]

Growth in number of users

**Worldwide Internet users**
	2006	2011^a
World population	6.5 billion	7 billion
Not using the Internet^b	82%	65%
Using the Internet^b	18%	35%
Users in the developing world^b	8%	22%
Users in the developed world^b	10%	13%
Users in China^b	2%	8%
^a Estimate. ^b Share of world population. Source: International Telecommunications Union.^[62]

**Internet users by region**
	2006^b	2011^a,b
Africa	3%	13%
Americas	39%	56%
Arab States	11%	29%
Asia and Pacific	11%	27%
Commonwealth of Independent States	13%	48%
Europe	50%	74%
^a Estimate. ^b Share of regional population. Source: International Telecommunications Union.^[72]

Main article: Global Internet usage

Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in 1995, to 670 million in 2002, and to 2.45 billion in 2011.^[62] With market saturation, growth in the number of Internet users is slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia,^[73] Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East.
There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in 2011.^[74] In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing countries mobile broadband is often the only access method available.^[62]

Digital Divide

Internet users in 2010 as a percentage of a country's population Source: International Telecommunications Union.^[75]

Main articles: Digital divide and Global digital divide

Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed equally within or between countries.^[72]^[76]
The digital divide refers to “the gap between people with effective access to information and communications technology (ICT), and those with very limited or no access”. The gap between people with Internet access and those without is one of many aspects of the digital divide.^[77] Whether someone has access to the Internet can depend greatly on financial status, geographical location as well as government policies. “Low-income, rural, and minority populations have received special scrutiny as the technological "have-nots."^[78]
Government policies play a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access for underserved groups, regions, and countries. For example in Pakistan, which is pursuing an aggressive IT policy aimed at boosting its drive for economic modernization, the number of Internet users grew from 133,900 (0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31 million (17.6% of the population) in 2011.^[79] In countries such as North Korea and Cuba there is relatively little access to the Internet due to the governments' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access to the global Internet.^[80] The U.S. trade embargo is another barrier limiting Internet access in Cuba.^[81]
In the United States, billions of dollars has been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and bring Internet access to more people in low-income and rural areas of the United States. The Obama administration has continued this commitment to narrowing the digital divide through the use of stimulus funding.^[78] The National Center for Education Statistics reported that 98% of all U.S. classroom computers had Internet access in 2008 with roughly one computer with Internet access available for every three students. The percentage and ratio of students to computers was the same for rural schools (98% and 1 computer for every 2.9 students).^[82]
Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in developed countries the figures were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet access.^[62] When buying computers was legalized in Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, a 23% increase over 2007).^[83]^[84]
Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of peoples economic, political, and social lives. Providing Internet access to more people in the world allow will them to take advantage of the “political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities” available over the Internet.^[76] Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society convened by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide.^[85] To promote economic development and a reduction of the digital divide, national broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the availability of affordable high-speed Internet access throughout the world.

Rural access

Main article: Broadband universal service

One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide service to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for a service provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural customer may require expensive equipment to get connected. While 66% of Americans had an Internet connection in 2010, that figure was only 50% in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.^[86] Virgin Media advertised over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from Cwmbran to Clydebank" that have access to their 100 Mbit/s service.^[21]
Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for rural areas.^[87] The technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas with hilly and heavily foliated terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a viable option.^[88]
The Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative is the first program in North America to guarantee access to "100% of civic addresses" in a region. It is based on Motorola Canopy technology. As of November 2011, under 1000 households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell network by one Canopy provider (Eastlink) was expected to provide the alternative of 3G/4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to serve by Canopy.^[89]

Access as a human right

Further information: Digital rights and Right to Internet access

In several countries, including Estonia,^[90] France,^[91] Spain,^[92] Finland,^[93] and Greece,^[94] Internet access is already a human right.
In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened under the auspice of the United Nations. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil society representatives the WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance of the Information Society to maintaining and strengthening human rights:^[85] ^[95]

1. We, the representatives of the peoples of the world, assembled in Geneva from 10–12 December 2003 for the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, declare our common desire and commitment to build a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life, premised on the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and respecting fully and upholding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, as enshrined in the Vienna Declaration. We also reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further resolve to strengthen the rule of law in international as in national affairs.

The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression in the "Information Society" in stating:

4. We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information Society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers."^[95]

A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,^[96] conducted for the BBC World Service between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right.^[97] 50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion.^[98]
The 88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly include several that bear on the question of the right to Internet access:^[99]

67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an “enabler” of other human rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.

78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur considers cutting off users from Internet access, regardless of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating intellectual property rights law, to be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

79. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times, including during times of political unrest.

85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.

These statements, opinions, and recommendations have led to the suggestion that Internet access itself is or should become a fundamental human right.^[100]^[101]

LUST IN THE CITY OF RED ROOFS

2012-07-17T04:26:00.003-07:00

When posted to Oyo state for your NYSC, you wish is to be posted to the largest city in West Africa, the city of red roofs: IBADAN, a city of the perverted, a city where being a celibate deems you sane and where promiscuity denotes normalcy. From the dirty canals and the pot-holed roads comes the finest women the west of Nigeria has to offer dressed in the brightest of colours God has to offer, colours that are a risk to combine and the tightly clad jeans encompassing the very (and I insist...very) heavy behind and like our brothers in America would say “lotta junk in tha trunk”.

Against the stereotype that Ibadan girls are cheap and easy to lay, I found out that was concluded based on the fact that Ibadan people (not just the girls) live for the moment and go for what they want irrespective of the cost or risk involved. They might not be the best project managers but they make the best entrepreneurs. Ibadan people are rich on the extreme and contented on the average, they might not be as “do or die” enterprising as their Lagos counterparts but make do with what they have and has a way of giving back to the society!

You can’t attempt to talk Ibadan and not make remarks to their loud mouth, from the small boys I see running in panties around my house yelling “iya baba e” to the students I teach in class saying “corper fiyen le, mawo oju e....ooloogun gan o”(corper, leave it be, don’t interrogate.....he’s fetish) to the bike man cursing everybody on the way to the park touts popularly coined “agbero” taunting themselves all day (and they would never fight, but at the tones of their voice, you’d think they would devour each other) to the women at gbagi market (who are either making passes at you cos you are a handsome young man or cursing you for negotiations) to the pot bellied men at bars in company of a much younger girl making promises and yelling how much they made that day or how much they bought their latest cars or how much tuition in their sons’ private university has soared in recent years.

In the one year I used, I became a celibate, alcohol addict, a playboy, a better lover, a DJ, a project manager, salesman, teacher, poet, and so many things I dare not try to describe. I learnt from my friends in Ibadan that “Reality is an illusion created by lack of alcohol.”a lot can happen when you have a little alcohol in the system and to make it more fun, most people around you are just as alcohol imbibed as you are. Even girls offer you drinks as a gesture of good faith (faith that you’d make them a happier person) and a party in Ibadan is like a beer fest, unlike lagosians that opt out for spirits and beers like star lager beer, Ibadan has a thing for beers I never knew existed till I got to Ibadan(turns out their ex governor was also a fan), beers like “33”, “trophy”, “wilfort”, “kronenburg”, “satzenbraun” became names I quickly reckoned with as they were always out of the regular brands I was used to

After I suffered a severe heartbreak, I thought I would never get on my feet again, it turns out in Ibadan, I never needed my legs because I was taught to fly and soar in heights never imagines before, out of these heights I have a lot of memoirs worth sharing, lots of tales worth telling, lots of pictures worth showing and lots of gals worth....

VULNERABLE GROUPS AND CAUSES

2012-07-16T08:38:00.000-07:00

. The Concept of Vulnerable Groups, Evaluation Criteria and Causes of their Formation

Although the existence of vulnerable groups has a history almost as old as human history
and the protection of their rights also has a long history, the concept of vulnerable groups only
emerged in modern times. Zhu Rongji mentioned the concept of vulnerable groups for the first
time in the Government Work Report passed at the Fifth Session of The National People's
Congress on 5 March, 2002. Currently, academia has no agreed interpretation of the concept of
vulnerable groups. Vulnerable groups are relatively defined as the groups who find it hard to
survive and who lack development opportunities due to being at a relative disadvantage in the
economic, cultural, physical, intellectual, and other situations.
The key to the understanding of vulnerable groups lies in determining the evaluation
criteria and based on this certain evaluation criteria determining the relevant groups. Currently,
the evaluation criteria are limited to the economical aspects. In other words, it is assumed that
living with hardship results from a low level of income which is below the average. However, it
is too limited if we rely solely on the economic criteria to determine vulnerable groups.
Therefore, in order to define vulnerable groups in a systematic and scientific way, we need to
include the following criteria:
1. Evaluation criterion: attitudes held by the general population towards a particular social
group regarding its reputation and status. According to this criterion, vulnerable groups fall
under the scope of negative social evaluation. People feel differences in social identity and
sense of belonging due to the differences in social evaluations. Because of a lack of social
recognition, vulnerable groups are not accepted by the society. In other words, they are deemed
to be outsiders and are rejected by the society.
2. Criterion based on resource consumption such as economic resources and rights
enjoyed. Vulnerable groups are those whose resource consumption is lower than the average. In
the background of a market economy, the level of income often determines a person’s position
in society. However, we also need to consider the amount of rights enjoyed.
3. Criterion based on health condition: including both the physical and mental health.
Physical health refers to the maturation and normal functioning of human organs, which means
immaturity and abnormal functioning should belong to the scope of vulnerable groups. In
addition, those who are of unsound mind and who cannot make logical decisions also belong to
vulnerable groups.
Various factors contribute to the formation of vulnerable groups. The main source of the
formation can be summarised as: first, physical and natural causes such as minors and the
elderly, disabilities including congenital physical disability and those caused by acquired
diseases, as well as orphans and widowed, old people who are living alone; and second, social
or political or systematic causes, mainly including political and systematic bias, as well as
unfair distribution of social benefits, resulting in the emergence of terms such as off-farm
workers, landless peasants and so on.
II. The Range of Vulnerable Groups and Their Basic Rights
In reality, the typical vulnerable groups include city workers from rural areas, rural
workers engaged in agriculture, the unemployed, the disabled, women, minors and the elderly.
Among them, farmers account for the largest vulnerable group in China. They have consistently
suffered from differentiated urban and rural policies on the political rights, educational rights,
labour and employment, public services, and so on. These differentiated policies resulted in the
formation of the urban-rural binary system and also continuously resulted in farmers becoming
part of vulnerable groups. Urban citizens can enjoy government-provided subsidies such as
housing, education and medical care subsidies, as well as many benefits related to employment
and arrangements for veterans while rural people are excluded from these benefits.
Off-farm workers constitute another large vulnerable group, raising widespread concern
from government and the community. Despite the fact that off-farm workers make tremendous
contributions to the city construction, their status in the city is extremely low. What these
workers do are the dirtiest and the most physically demanding work. On top of this, they even
have to put up with the city people’s coldness and discrimination against them. Policies to
protect rights of off-farm workers have only recently been introduced. Recent years have
witnessed an emergence of a new vulnerable group. They are the victims of the urbanisation
process: problematic policies in the process of urbanisation and the comparatively low land
compensation have led to a large number of farmers being left with no land and consequently
no assurance in life.
Minors and the elderly also account for an extremely vulnerable group, especially
widowed, old people who live alone as well as street children. Minors are hard to resist
temptation: they are prone to indulging in Internet cafes or even taking the path of crime. They
urgently need help from the state and society. The elderly have difficulty living independently,
often feeling loneliness. They also need urgent help.
Based on the current basic national conditions of China, at least the following basic rights
of vulnerable groups should be guaranteed: right to life, right to work, right to education, right
to information, right to participation in political affairs and right to legal advice. Till now, many
problems still exist in the protection of these basic rights of vulnerable groups.
Many city people attribute urban problems such as environmental problems to rural people
in the city: they think that rural people make cities more dirty, messy and disorderly. Many
cities even make policy decisions to restrict rural people from settling down. City people can
enjoy a great number of preferential policies on graduate placements or civil service
examination while those from rural areas are totally excluded from these preferential policies.
Many employers do not sign labour contracts with rural people or buy any insurance for them,
nor do they pay rural people on time. Children of off-farm workers who have already reached
school age play around construction sites instead of studying at school. It is worrying to know
that problems such as unevenly distributed educational resources, teacher shortage in most of
the rural primary and secondary schools, and lack of facilities have been threatening children’s
growth and development. Moreover, the basic rights of vulnerable groups have been being
violated but they have no way to seek help. Their voice seems to be neglected whether it is in
the area of legislation, administration or public opinion.
III. Aid Policy for Vulnerable Groups and Government Responsibility
The emergence of vulnerable groups results from various factors including those related to
politics, economy, culture and society. Therefore, the relevant relief measures should involve
efforts in areas such as politics, economy, culture and society. Currently, China has five
principles regarding the assistance to vulnerable groups.
1. Legislative Protection
The first thing to do is to ensure legislative protection for vulnerable groups. Only in this
way, can measures to protect rights of vulnerable groups have a legal basis and accordingly
have enforcement powers. It is important to legally determine the scope of protection for
vulnerable groups, protection mechanisms, and responsible parties. Without mandatory
measures and regulations protected by law, the claim to protect vulnerable groups is no more
than words.
2. Judicial Relief
Judicial relief is the last resort for protecting rights. It is a process of remediation and
restoration after rights have been violated, during which violations are corrected and punished.
Without judicial justice, it is impossible to protect any rights. The research on judicial relief for
vulnerable groups started relatively late in China. The research results and their applications
still need to be improved. The implementation of judicial relief is not standardised or regulated,
and this needs to be improved on urgently.
3. Social Support
Government efforts alone are far from enough to protect rights of vulnerable groups. The
phenomenon of vulnerable groups is a derivative of social development. Biased social
evaluation, discrimination and rejection from the general population all contribute to the
existence of vulnerable groups. The community should make great efforts to improve the living
conditions of vulnerable groups. We should develop community services, build social support
networks, develop grassroots democracy, alleviate social problems and conflicts, and maintain
social stability. To meet the new international and domestic environment, we should encourage
the establishment of various forms of civil society and NGOs. We should also establish civil
society organisations aimed at providing vulnerable groups services and support related to law,
education, mental health, medical care and the media while fully encouraging voluntary
support.
4. Self-help
Social support is important, but it should be dependent on the members of vulnerable
groups themselves to fundamentally solve the problems of vulnerable groups. Justice never
comes without efforts or struggles. Sole dependence on external support from the community
and government can only solve short-term problems but not the fundamental problems. We need
to improve the overall quality of vulnerable groups. As the saying goes, “A country’s long-term
strategy should be based on education.” We need to develop education and consequently
develop the overall quality of vulnerable groups.
5. Government Responsibility
Why do we stress government responsibility for the protection of vulnerable groups?
Vulnerable groups are mainly resulted from a country’s social, political and institutional factors.
The government should take the main responsibility for the protection of vulnerable groups.
The government is also responsible for vulnerable groups caused by congenital defects and
other irresistible forces. Main responsibilities of governments for the protection of vulnerable
groups include the following:
(1) The government should strengthen and improve the political and legal protection for
vulnerable groups. The formation of vulnerable groups mainly resulted from unjust policies. We
need to improve the relevant political and legal systems in order to make vulnerable groups to
enjoy equal opportunities and civil rights. China has been implementing differentiated urban
and rural policies for a long time, which caused a serious and widening gap between the level of
urban and rural developments. Developments of vulnerable groups are possible only if their
political and legal rights are fully protected.
(2) The government should build social assistance systems, ensuring a basic level of social
security and protection for vulnerable groups. Because vulnerable groups are at a
disadvantageous position in both employment and income, they usually cannot afford social
security and high medical expenses and even cannot afford to send their children to school. This
situation should be changed by the establishment of a relatively complete social assistance
system, particularly by coordinating the relationship between social security, social support and
social welfare. Generally, the core of a relatively complete social assistance system includes:
pension, living allowance, disability living allowance, and a variety of temporary relief
measures.
Problems related to vulnerable groups cannot be solved overnight, but we firmly believe
that under the joint effort of the government and the community, basic rights of vulnerable
groups can be ensured. A harmonious society is definitely to be achieved.

REFERENCES
[1] Wang Bing, An Analysis of Legal Protection for Vulnerable Groups: From the angle of
China’s legal aid system, Journal of Socialist Theory Guide, 2009 (9)
[2]Chen Yanlin, The Cause and Countermeasure of Current Psychological Problems of
China’s Vulnerable Groups, Science & Technology Economy Market, 2007 (3)
[3] Liu Xin, Education Policy should further Enhance Compensation Capacity for
Vulnerable Groups, Journal of Central China Normal University, 2008 (6)
[4] Liu Meiying, An Analysis of the Protection of the Rights of China’s Vulnerable
Groups, Economic Research Guide, 2009 (16)
[5]Li Quansheng, Government Responsibility for the Protection of Vulnerable Groups,
Journal of Jiangxi Administration Institute, 2007 (3)
[6] Wang Feng, Government Liability to Protect Vulnerable Groups, Journal of Shandong
Institute of Business and Technology, 2005 (2)
[7] Fu Xiangjing, An Analysis of the Absence of Voice of Vulnerable Groups in the Media,
Contemporary Communications, 2006 (6)
[8] Wang Ke, An Analysis of Equality in Education for Children from Vulnerable Groups,
Journal of Chongqing University of Post and Telecommunication, 2006 (4)
[9] Zheng Jun and Chen Xiyong, The Cause and Countermeasure of China’s Vulnerable
Groups in Rural Areas, Statistics and Decision, 2007 (5)
[10] Tian Shengbin and Liu Hongbing, Supporting Strategy for China’s Vulnerable
Groups, Journal of Railway Police College, 2006 (4)

MASTER YOUR KEYBOARD SHORTCUT

2012-07-16T08:33:00.003-07:00

MASTERING YOUR KEYBOARD KEY

Ctrl + E - It centralizes the selected text, or the current line.
Ctrl + R - It justifies to the right the selected text, or the current line.
Ctrl + L - It justifies to the left the selected text, or the current line.
Ctrl + I - The same thing does that Tab.
Tab - It is giving the area to each of the windows opened by Google
Talk.
Ctrl + Tab - The same thing does that Shift + Tab.
Shift + Tab - The same thing does that Tab but in reverse.
Ctrl + Shift + L -Switch between points, numbers, letters, capital
letters, roman numbers
Ctrl + 1 (KeyPad) - It does a simple space between the lines.
Ctrl + 2 (KeyPad) - It does a double space between the lines.
Ctrl + 5 (KeyPad) - A space does 1.5 between the lines.
Ctrl + 1 (NumPad) - It goes at the end of the last line.
Ctrl + 7 (NumPad) - It goes at the begin of the last line.
Ctrl + F4 - It closes the current window.
Alt + F4 - It closes the current window.
Alt + Esc - It Minimize all the windows.
Windows + ESC - Open Google Talk (if it's minimized, or in the
tray)
F9 - Open Gmail to send an email to the current contact.
F11 - It initiates a telephonic call with your friend.
F12 - It cancels a telephonic call.
Esc - It closes the current window.

BY STEVE T.

2012-07-16T08:29:00.005-07:00

PREVALENCE OF DIARRHOEA AND VOMITING AMONG CHILDREN BETWEEN THE AGE OFN 5-10 MONTHS IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA.

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is to show the importance of been well hygiene or taken appropriate care over our infant and children about diarrhoea and vomiting that are still associated with each other factors in our society. Is well known that bacteria, viruses, poor hygiene practice, contaminated food or water is the agent of diarrhoea and vomiting (HOW 2004). Diarrhoea is one of the major causes of infant and young children mortality and morbidity in developing countries (WHO, 2000). About 4 million cases of diarrhoea are recorded every year with 2.2 million of the deaths mostly among children under the age of 5 in developing countries and it is a significant factor within the malnutrition complex (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). The effect and result from acute diarrhea diseases of ten depend on the nutritional status of the individual of the diet adopted during the attack of the illness (WHO, 2004)
In African society, the beginning of weaning period is often associated with an increase in diarrhea and vomiting episodic. In this communities, personal hygiene and sanitary condition is very poor (kungu et al, 2002). Research have shown that indigenous weaning food have significantly been associated with diarrhoea,post cooking contamination and the use of contaminated water in the preparation of infants food (motarjemmi et al,1993). Diarrhoea has been found to worsen the nutritional status of the individual due to vomiting, restricted diet and reduce food intake (WHO, 2004). Worldwide interest in the proper management of diarrhoea disease in infants has led to the provision the WHO/UNICEF glucose based oral rehydration solution. This has help to reduce the number of death in 1970’s from 5 million children worldwide each year to just over I million by the beginning of the 21st century (WHO, 2004). However, this solution is only available in hospital and health centre which are sparsely located in most rural areas of the developing countries.
The objective of this research is to assess the factor that may have been responsible for the change of diarrhoea and vomiting.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
In this study, diarrhoea and vomiting in infant and children are very large due to their poor hygienic practice, sanitary and contaminated water and food diseases in the community.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The aim of this research is to assess or evaluate the factors that may have responsible for the changes of diarrhoea and vomiting g in infant and children in our community.

1.3 RESEACH QUESTIONS
This is to know the rate of hygiene and sanitary in the rural and urban communities about the protective of infant and children life pattern. Example of the question is as follows:
Do you wash your hand before and after feeding your child?
Do you clean your child after passing stool or faeces? e.t.c

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This is to kwon the prevalence of hygiene and sanitation over our children in order to protect their healthy weight in the community and their life durability for the betterment of tomorrow in our society.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
The prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting among children that are often suffering from diarrhoea which is also combine with other factors like viruses, bacterial, contaminated water and foods. The alternative sugar salt oral rehydration therapy (ORT) has considerably reduced d the morbidity and mortality in diarrhoea diseases (Onyechi, U.A. et al, 2008). Environmental factors that influence this diarrhoea and vomiting in sanitation and hygiene practice from the family by improving more enhancements to the effort.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample population/ study area
This study was conducted in Igbo-Etiti local government area, Enugu state. A total of 120 mothers with children 5- 10 months of age were randomly select for the study. Five villages were also randomly selected from the ten autonomous communities.

3.1 DATA COLLECTION METHOD/ SAMPLE SELECTION
A validated structured questionnaire and interview was used. A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed and completed forms were collected. The information elicited were background information, economic and demographic information, hygiene practice and sanitary conditions, diarrhoea and vomiting prevalence. This study lasted from a period of two weeks.

3.2 DATA ANALYSIS
Statistical package of social science (SPSS) was used for the data analysis. The frequency distribution and the percentages of the variables were calculated.

3.3 DATA PROCESSING
The data was well process with the help of Onyechi study find out, the results of the structured questionnaire was required to complete the processes of the study. Also the statistical analysis, and percentages to show the mean value of the children which had been suffering vomiting and diarrhoea using Onyechi finding and (WHO, 2000).

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS/ FINDING
This show that 45.5% of the family that were within poor socio-economic status had more effective on the diseases compared to those that had episode of diarrhoea and vomiting in 28.6%, 22.2% from medium and high social economic.
The table below also analyzed the statistical results that also help to explain better findings.
Table 1
It show s that 70.8% has some form of toilet facilities, 37.5% has water closet,29.2% has no form of toilet facilities, 33.3% of the family has no source of water and they depended on rain water and stream as their only source of water. This is shown below:

Table 2: it shows that hygiene practices 30% of the mother wash their hand with water and soap after using the toilet, 26.7% remove their children stool from the ground by covering with sand/leaves/ash.
Table 2: Environmental sanitation and hygiene practice of the family that participated in the study (n=120)

Table 3: shows that the lower the socio-economic level of the families the higher the prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting and verse-visa in relation to socio-econmic status and education. 50% of the children had mother without any formal education, 13.0% and 37.0% of them had diarrhoea and vomiting respectively.
Table 3: personal data to show the socio-classes of the children that has vomiting and diarrhoea.

Table 4:shows that the lower the socio-economic level, the more the frequent vomiting. 31.1% vomiting and 41.0% of diarrhoea compared to the medium and high socio-economic families who had 28.1% and 28.6% of vomiting and diarrhoea respectively.
Table 4: frequency distribution showing the prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting in relationship to socio-economic status in percentages
Socio-economic status    freq. dist. of vomiting (%)        freq. dist. of diarrhoea (%)
Low socio-economic status        31.1                    41.0
Medium socio-economic status    28.1                    28.6
High socio-economic status        25.9                    22.2

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
The analysis of these research shows that, there are many factors that are led to the prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting in children 5-10 months of age in Igbo-Etiti local Govt Area, Enugu state. That factor includes;
Availabilities of toilet facilities
Source of water supply
Environmental cleanliness
Feeding pattern and hygiene practices
Socio- economic status and maternal education.
Household socio-economic variable and education of the mother bears significant impart on the prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting among children between the ages of 5-10 months in Igbo-Etiti Local Govt. Area, Enugu State. Children living in a poor household have higher prevalence rates of diarrhoea and vomiting than those in high socio-economic background. This case is due to poor hygiene practice and poor sanitary control. The relationship between childhood diarrhoea and household socio-economic characters associated with vomiting has been demonstrated in the literature review (Kung et al, 2002, Daniel et al, 1990). Lower level of maternal education has also been associated with high prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting. Studies have analyzed the lower prevalence rate of childhood diarrhoea and vomiting in mothers with formal education than the non-formal educated mothers (Zeller and Sharma, 1998). These authors indicated the importance of empowering woman education which will help them to take care of their children.
Education enhances the opportunity for a better wage employment and income. It increase assess to household amenities and facilities including those related to better hygiene and environmental health (Ehiri et al, 2001).
The unavailability of safe drinking water significantly affects the prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting in the five villages studied. Low prevalence rate is associated with private water pipe but the rate of diarrhoea and vomiting increases with the use of stream/rain/ spring water sources and lack of access to safe water sources and lack of access to safe water. (WHO Report, 2000) revealed that over a third of the population in developing countries do not have access to safe water. Water from many of the tube wells which have been dug contaminated with fluoride, arsenic or salt (WHO, 2000). Access to safe water, reduce the burden of diarrhoea and vomiting which also causes a lack of appetite, substantial losses of micro nutrient and may be contributing factors to chronic energy deficiency (WHO 2000). Lack of sanitary condition is another that had led to the high prevalence diarrhoea and vomiting. For about 60% of population in developing country does not have assessed to safe water (WHO, 2000).
This survey has show that increased water availability and quantity are associated with improved hygiene practices, proper cleaning of utensils, food and home environment that will reduce faecal contamination and low prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting (Esrey et al,, 1991). Children whose mother fails to wash their hand with soap after going to the toilet are at high risk of having diarrhoea (Han et al 1986). Above all, the availability of water makes things easier to escape from all prevalence of diarrhoea and vomiting in our society and also make hand washing easier (Favin et al 1999).

5.2 CONCLUSION
Larger prevention strategies are needed to lower the prevalence of diarrhoea in children. The strategies are as follows, promotion of good hygiene practice, improved sanitation, availability of safe water, and improved socio-economic status and education level of maternal. The well understood of this risky factors is when it is well treated, which will enhance in reduction of prevalence of diarrhhoea and vomiting among children n our society both rural and urban communities. It will also enhance guidance for policy makers in formulating strategies to improve child health in Igbo Etiti local Govt Area and in our country Nigeria.

5.3 RECOMMEDATION
In this area of study, it had been focus on the poor sanitation of maternal, poor hygiene practices, poor water availabilities and poor educational level.
As a nutritionist, I will enact some problems on the head of our government in other to provide enough safety drinking water and lower the educational expenditure for it to reach the poor maternal, which will enable to know the prevalence of their children for sanitary and hygiene I will make sure to handle those one if Government does not compile by visiting them household to household and organizing meeting at village square or any collective centre teaching them the way to achieve good heath.

5.4 REFRENCES
Daniel, D.L., Couseens, S.N. and Makoae,L.N.(1990)
A case control study of the impart improve sanitation on diarrhoea morbidity in Lesotho WHO bulletin, 68; 455-63

Esrey,S.A.potash,J.B.Robert,L.and shiff,C.(1991)Effect of improved water supply and sanitation on cariasis,diarrhoea,dracunuculiasis,hookworm infection,schistosomiasis and trachoma.WHO Bulletin 69:609-621
Ehiri,J.E.Azubuike,M.C.,ubaonu,C.N.,anyanwu,E.C.,ibe K.M.and ogbonna,m.O(2001)critical control points of complementary food preparation and handling in eastern Nigeria WHO Bulletin,79:423-435.
Favin,M.Yacoob, M. and Benahame, D. (1999) Behaviour first: A minimum package of environmental health behaviours to improve child health. Environmental health project applied study no. 10 Washington DC USA.
Han A.M.Aye, T.A, and Hleing, T (1986) personal toilet after defecation and degree of hand contamination accordion to different methods used. Journal tropical medical hygiene 89:237-241.
Kungu, W.N. Musau P.M Ochieng, A.Wachira, E.G. Omol, R.T.A. Rikwar, J. (2002) diarrhoea prevalence and risk factor. Journal of national institute of public health 51:73-76.
Motarjemn, Y. Kafersterin,F.Moy, G. Queredo, F. (1993) contaminated weaning food :Major risky factor for dia rrhoea and associated malnutrition.
WHO Bulletin 71:79-92.WHO (2004) diarrhea what every family and community has a right to know about diarrhea facts for life. WHO document. Geneva.
WHO/UNICEF (2000) Gobal water supply. Sanitation assessement. Report
WHO/UNICEF Geneva.
WHO(1998) management of patient s with diarrhoea. A programme for control of diseases. WHO series98 No.2 Geneva.
Zeller, M. and Sharma.M.(1998) rural finance and poverty allevation.

H

PROBLEM WITH ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASURES

2012-07-16T08:24:00.003-07:00

Assessing Child Nutrition: Problems with Anthropometric
Measures as a Proxy for Child Health in Malnourished children in imo state

CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To improve the health condition of children in Imo State
To educate the children on the effect of under and over nutrition.
To ascertain the academic performance of students
1.2 SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY
1     This study will help the student, lecturers, parents/ guardians, government and others to identify the significant of nutrient requirements, such as vitamins and minerals, for the optimum growth of health status of children in undernourished population
2 This study will contribute towards the academic performance of the students and enhance the students effectiveness toward the right choice of food selection that contains the basic micro nutrients.
3 It will also help the policy planners in getting nutritional intervention programme for students.
4 It also help nutrition education to know where and how to channel his/her education programme

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Assessing the health of children in developing countries is an imperative goal of national and international organizations, both because of the need to appropriately structure interventions (Becker and Black 1996; United Nations 1998), and because the health of children is a mirror on the health, social standing, and economic resources of their parents (DeRose, Das and Millman 2000; Kahn 2002; Winikoff 1988).
Studies have established the relationship between malnutrition and death in Matlab (Bhuiya et al. 1989), and poor nutrition in the past was a leading cause of increased overall mortality (Fauveau and Briend in Fauveau 1994). However, declines in child mortality in the region mean that measures of morbidity are more appropriate to understand the health of the population. As morbidity declined, differentials in health were documented and attributed to differential treatment of children in the home and selective access to health care, which are controlled by parents (Amin 1990, Chen, Huq, & D’Souza 1981, Coale & Banister 1994, Hill & Upchurch 1995, Johansson & Nygren 1991, Muhuri & Menken 1997, Muhuri and Preston 1991). While health disadvantage for girls has been documented based on gender preferences for sons and low maternal autonomy in the home, the results of recent studies are mixed as to whether selective neglect remains problematic, or whether sex bias favoring boys largely is fading.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 STUDY AREA:
The population under study comes from imo state, a society where environmental hazards are high and community health and educational infrastructure is poorly developed. The overwhelming majority of older individuals live with adult children (mostly sons) and alternative sources of support--financial and otherwise--outside the family are scarce. The predominant occupations for rural males are agricultural, with labor force participation rates remaining very high even for older males. Women are largely restricted by convention to activities within the home with relatively little opportunity to venture outside the homestead, although these restrictions are diminishing. Given the high level of poverty and the scarcity of health providers, contact with the formal health care system is thought to be relatively infrequent. It is a multistage,
3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION:
The sample that i use collected information from over 11,000 individuals aged 15 and over and nearly 5,000 children aged 1-14 in 4,538 households.
3.2.1 SURVEY DESIGN:
    Random sampling were used in the selection of the target group, from imo state, owerri. up to two households were selected for detailed interviews. Within each selected household, two children were selected at random for further data collection.

3.2.2 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION:
    In determining the sample size to be used in the study work, I applied the formula of sample size determination in other to get maximum accuracy of the study work, the formula is shown below:
n =      to determine the number of people that I want to work with.
n= sample size
N= population size
1 = constant
℮ = margin of error test of significance.
    I assume that the total population in faculty of agriculture is and the level of significance is 0.05

n =      to determine the number of people that I want to work with.
n= sample size
N= population size
1 = constant
℮ = margin of error test of significance.
I assume that the total population in imo state university is 11000 and the level of significance is 0.05
n =
n =
n = 392.2
n≈ 392
Therefore, I decided to work with 5000 students.
3.3 VALIDATION OF METHOD OF STUDY
A questionnaire was personally administered to the children in the sampled community in form of face to face, and information about their dietary intake, were collected. For communities with two or fewer households, all households were chosen. For baris with more than two households, the first household was chosen at random; the second household was selected from the bari in order of preference as follows: (i) the household of the father and/or mother of the head of the first sampled household, (ii) a household containing a son of the head of the first sampled household (chosen at random if there are multiple sons in separate households in the bari), (iii) a household containing a brother of the head of the first sampled household (chosen at random if there are multiple brothers in separate households in the bari) and (iv) a second randomly selected household. Probability weights are available for each individual included in the bari sample. The validated questionnaire was pretest to the children in imo state, owerri to ensure its reliability.Therefore, I decided to work with 5000 children
3.3.1 LIMITATION
This study lasted for two weeks
3.4 DATA COLLECTION
    A structured and validated questionnaire was used to collect data. The children were visited in their homes and data was collected through the use of questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on the Assessing Child Nutrition: Problems with Anthropometric Measures as a Proxy for Child Health in Malnourished children in imo state.Responses on the questionnaire were analyse using computer package programme statistical package for social sciences (spss). Frequency distribution and percentage of the of the variables were calculated and tabulated.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT/FINDINGS
Malnourishment—low-weight-for-age—based on the current WHO standard is more prevalent in this population than stunting—low-height-for-age. The proportion of children who are stunted increases with age, and most stunted children also are malnourished (see Table 3). Girls and boys aged 1-4 experience good nutrition (normal on both height- and weight-for-age) in roughly equal proportions, confirming earlier work documenting disappearing sex-bias in nutrition (Trapp et. al 2004). At older ages, somewhat fewer girls are in the normal range and slightly higher proportions of girls have low weight-for-age. (Table 3 about here) Whereas young children experience the highest rates of acute sickness, chronic sickness increases with age, at least for boys (see Table 4). Table 4 gives the proportion of children with acute and chronic sickness by nutritional status. The rates of illness are quite high. Interestingly, children who are stunted (either low height-for-age only or both low height- and weight-for age)have lower rates of acute illness. (Tables 4 & 5 about here) Malnutrition does not correspond with reported illness as expected (see Table 5). In fact, children who are stunted, whether or not they also have low weight-for-age, actually have lower rates of acute sickness than those who have normal weight-for-age. It is possible that this finding is related to parental education or economic status differences in reporting; it is, however, more likely that it is an effect of age, in that older children have much higher rates of stunting and also lower rates of acute illness (as seen in Tables 3 and 4). In children below ten years old, low weight-for-age and height-for-age are related only to chronic illness, a relationship that does not hold for older children. Further, no relationship is found between illness of any type and low BMI.
Acute Sickness
BMI proves a poor measure of health in this population, which is undernourished by United States standards. Table 6 demonstrates that, because such a high proportion of children have both low weight- and height-for-age (68%), only just over a one third of these children are identified as having low BMI-for-age. Therefore, children with “normal” BMI-for-age may be thought of as composed of two subgroups: those with both normal height-for-age and weight-forage and those who are low on both in a way that balances out, so that their BMI is not unusually low. (Table 6 about here) None of the three measures predicted acute illness in any significant manner. Because the results are similar for BMI, weight-for-age, and height-for-age, we show only those for BMI in Table 7. Model 1 has controls for age and sex, and age operates in the expected direction with a coefficient of -0.08, which translates into an odds ratio of .917, indicating that the odds of acute illness decline 8% for each year of age. We next add the number of children in the household to the model, followed by parental education, household income, and MCH-FP program area residence. None of these controls improved the predictive power of the anthropometric measures, however age and MCH-FP area residence operate in the expected direction in relation to acute illness, providing some confirmation of the validity of the morbidity measures. However, in the final model, the odds of acute illness for those with low BMI differs from those without low BMI by only 13% (based on a coefficient of -135.) If BMI truly were an accurate predictor of poor health, we might expect an odds ratio of 60% or higher. (Note: Identical models were run using low weight-, height-for-age as a dependent variable, with identical relationships to those displayed for BMI). In addition to the models shown, we tested various family structure characteristics listed in Table 5, none of which were significant.
Chronic Illness
Similar analyses attempted to predict chronic illness from the three proxy health measures. Interestingly, only low weight-for-age predicts chronic illness, rather than low height- or BMI-for-age as expected (these models are not shown, but demonstrate no significant relationships). Contrary to expectations, underweight appears to predict chronic illnesses in this population, a relationship that persists with controls for age, sex, parental education, income, and MCH-FP program area residence, none of which are significant (see Table 8). However, because of the strong increase in low weight, height, and BMI with age, we did not end the investigation with these models. (Table 8 about here) We next tested the relationship between health proxies and health separately for children over and under the age of 10. When children under age 10 are considered separate from adolescents, both low height-for-age and low weight-for-age are significant predictors of increased chronic illness (see Table 9). BMI still is not a predictor of chronic illness for young children. Nor are any of the three measures predictive for children 10-14. (Table 9 about here) Because the results shown in Table 9 indicate that weight- or height-for-age are predictors of chronic illness in younger children while BMI was not, we examined the relationship further. As mentioned earlier, BMI can be in the normal range in two ways: both weight and height are in the normal range for age or both weight and height are low for age but, balancing one another, lead to normal BMI for age. This is borne out in Table 10, which shows that, of the children in this study who have normal BMI (<2SD below the median-for-age), over 40% are both stunted and wasted, as compared to 48% of the children who are assessed as having low BMI. (Table 10 about here) Table 11 shows models in which first height-for-age or weight-for-age was included, along with age and sex for controls (Models 1 and 3). Then an indicator of whether a child was both low weight and low height was added (Models 2 and 4). In each model, only the latter variable was significant predictor. Finally, Model 5 shows that the model in which only “both” is entered fits as well as the models with either low height or low weight added.
Table 1: Proportion of wasted and stunted children by age in 1978 and 1996 (Using Previous
Standard)

CHAPTER 5
5.0 DISCUSSION
This analysis contributes to our understanding of child health in developing countries in three significant ways. First, we demonstrate that in undernourished populations, BMI is not necessarily a reliable measure of poor health in children. Under those circumstances, children whose BMI is in the normal range may be both stunted and malnourished as measured by low weight-for age. In the current study, BMI predicts neither acute nor chronic illness in children under 15. For children under 10, it appears that those who are both low weight- and low height for age have the highest rates of chronic illness. These are the very measures that go into BMI, but combining them as a ratio removes their predictive power. Thus, whereas we find support for the work of Pande (2003) and others who find waning sex-bias in children’s health based on anthropometry, we remain concerned that in Bangladesh these “objective” measures fail to capture a child’s underlying nutritional status. Further, caution must be used because these proxies fail to correspond with poor health in some cases, they also fail to predict the expected relationship in terms of current or past morbidity. Second, this analysis demonstrates clearly the need for better health measures in adolescents, for whom puberty and biological differences in growth by sex confound easy assessment. We note that as children age in this generally malnourished population, they diverge from the reference population to such a degree that the usual cutoff for ill effects fails to provide sufficient distinction between children who suffer the effects of malnutrition, and those who merely are small and light.

5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The implications of these findings speak to how health is measured in undernourished populations such as those in imo state. First, anthropometric measures that are used as a proxy for health may be an unreliable yardstick for child wellness. While collecting actual data on food intake and allocation in the household can be difficult and expensive, and retrospective reports of morbidity can be unreliable, such measures may be necessary to more accurately gauge the health of populations of children, particularly in settings like Bangladesh where common measures of poor health (such as BMI) may not produce expected results. Biomarkers or other objective measures of health may be essential. The problem is complicated for adolescents, whose growth rates are known to diverge more widely than younger children, and for whom biological differences in growth rates by sex may confound any health proxy. Third, the reference population may provide a poor comparison by failing to provide adequate distinction between ill children and those who merely are small.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
This study recommended that a better threshold would allow more accurate identification of children at risk using proxy measures, however, until a better reference is found and tested, proxies appear to be an unreliable tool. Given the link between malnourishment and death cited earlier (Bhuiya et al. 1989; Fauveau and Briend in Fauveau 1994), it is crucial to find a means of accurately separating children who are at risk of health problems from those who are small but otherwise healthy. Measurement problems continue to confound our understanding of child morbidity in developing countries, particularly those older than nine years.

5.3 REFERENCES
Amin, S. 1990. “The Effect of Women’s Status on Sex Differentials in Infant and Child Mortality in South Asia.” Genus 46:55-69.
Aziz, K. 1979. "Kinship in Bangladesh." Dacca: International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research.
Bairagi, R. 1986. “Food Crisis, Nutrition, and Female Children in Rural Bangladesh.”Population and Development Review. 12:307.
Becker, S. & R. Black. 1996. “A Model of Child Morbidity, Mortality, and HealthInterventions.” Population and Development Review. 22: 431.
Behrman, J., A. Foster, M. Rosenzweig & P. Vashishtha. 1996. “Women’s Schooling, Home Teaching, and Economic Growth.” The Journal of Political Economy 107: 682.
Bhuiya, A., B. Wohtyniak, & R. Karim. 1989, “Mother’s Education and Survival of Female Children in a Rural Area of Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review. 7:55-70.
Chen, L., E. Huq, & S. D’Souza. 1981. “Sex Bias in the Family Allocation of Food and Health Care in Rural Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review. 7:55.
Cole, T., M. Bellizzi, K. Flegal, & W. Dietz. 2000. “Establishing a Standard Definition for Child Overweight and Obesity Worldwide.” British Medical Journal 320:1-6.
D’Souza S. & L. Chen. 1980. “Sex Differentials in Mortality in Rural Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review 6:257-270.
DeRose, L., M. Das & S. Millman. 2000 “Does Female Disadvantage Mean Lower Access to Food?” Population and Development Review 26: 517-547.
Desai, S. 1992. “Children at Risk: The Role of Family Structure in Latin America and West Africa.” Population and Development Review 689:717.Fauveau, V. 1994. Matlab: Women, Children and Health. ICDDR Special Publication. July. 35.
Hill, K. & D. Upchurch. 1995. “Gender Differences in Child Health: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys.” Population and Development Review 21:127-151.
Kahn, N. 2002. Health Care and Family Support for the Elderly in Aging Developing Countries:
An International Review and a Case Study of Health Care Allocation in Rural Bangladesh. Unpublished dissertation.
Kuhn, R., O. Rahman, & J. Menken. 2004. “Relating Self-Reported and Objective HealthIndicators to Adult Mortality in Bangladesh.” Population Aging Center Working Paper
2004-0004. University of Colorado Institute of Behavioral Science.Legrand, T. & J. Phillips. 1996. “The Effect of Fertility Reduction on Infant and Child Mortality:
Evidence from Matlab in Rural Bangladesh.” Population Studies. 50:51.Madise, N., Z. Matthews, & B. Margetts. 1999. “Heterogeneity of Child Nutritional Status Between Households: A Comparison of Six Sub-Saharan African Countries.” Population Studies 53:331-343.
Menken, J., & J. Phillips. 1990. “Population Change in a Rural Area of Bangladesh, 1967-87”.
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 510: 87-101.
Menken, J., L. Duffy, & R. Kuhn. 2003. “Childbearing and Women’s Survival in rural Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review 29: 405-426.
Menken, J. & E. Trapp. 2004.”Differential Treatment of Children by Sex.” (forthcoming) In Encyclopedia of Sociology. George Ritzer (ed.)
Mosley, W. & L. Chen. 1984. “An Analytical Framework for the Study of Child Survival in Developing Countries.” Population and Development Review 10S: 25-45.
Mostafa, G., M.A.K. Shaikh, J. van Ginneken & A. M. Sardar. 1998. “Demographic Surveillance System—Matlab. Scientific Report No. 82.” ICDDR,B: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Muhuri, P. 1995. “Health Programs, Maternal Education, and Differential Child Mortality in Matlab, Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review. 21: 813-834.
     Muhuri, P. & J. Menken. 1997. “Adverse Effects of Next Birth, Gender, and FamilyComposition on Child Survival in Rural Bangladesh.” Population Studies. 51:279.
Muhuri, P. & S. Preston. 1991. “Effects of Family Composition on Mortality Differentials by Sex Among Children in Matlab, Bangladesh.” Population and Development Review 17:415-434.
Pande, R. 2003. “Selective Gender Differences in Childhood Nutrition and Immunization in Rural India: The Role of Siblings.” Demography 40: 395-418.
Pelletier, D. 1998. “Malnutrition, Morbidity and Child Mortality in Developing Countries.” In Too Young to Die: Genes or Gender? New York: United Nations.
Pelletier, D, E. Frongillo Jr., J. Habicht. 1993. “Epidemiologic Evidence for a Potentiating Effect of Malnutrition on Child Mortality.” American Journal of Public Health 83:1130-1133.
Rahman, M.O., J. Menken, A. Foster, C. Peterson, M.N. Khan, R. Kuhn, & P. Gertler. 1999.The Matlab Health and Socioeconomic Survey: Overview and User’s Guide, DRU-2018/1. Santa Monica: RAND.
Shaikh, K., G. Mostafa, A. Bhuiya, A. M. Sardar, I. Molla, & B. Wojtyniak. 1985. “Demographic Surveillance System—Matlab. Scientific Report No. 64.” ICDDR,B: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Thomas, D., E. Frankenberg, K. Beegle, & G. Teruel. 1999. Household budgets, householdconsumption and the crisis in Indonesia: Evidence from longitudinal household surveydata. Los Angeles, CA: RAND. United Nations. 1998. Too Young to Die: Genes or Gender? New York: United Nations
van Ginneken, J., R. Bairagi, A. Francisco, A Sarder, & P. Vaughan. 1998. Health and Demographic Surveillance in Matlab: Past, Present and Future. Dhaka: ICDDR.
Waterlow, J.C. 1972. “Classification and Definition of Protein-Calorie Malnutrition.” British Medical Journal. 3: 566.
Winikoff, B. 1988. “Women’s Health: An Alternative Perspective for Choosing Interventions.” Studies in Family Planning 19:197-214.
World Health Organization. 1997. “Who Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition.” Document WHO/NUT/97.4.

SOCIAL SERVICE IN GROUPS

2012-07-16T08:17:00.000-07:00

DEVELOP A SOCIAL SERVICE FOR THE VULNERABLE GROUPS

INTRODUCTION
Assessing the health of vulnerable children in developing countries is an imperative goal of national
and international organizations, both because of the need to appropriately structure interventions
and because the health of children is a mirror on the health, social standing, and economic resources of their parents. Studies have established the relationship between malnutrition and death in Nigeria, and poor nutrition in the past was a leading cause of increased overall mortality. However, declines in child mortality in the region mean that measures of morbidity are more appropriate to understand the health of the population.

Morbidity measures: The mothers of these children were asked about chronic and acute
conditions suffered by their offspring during the past year and the past three months,
respectively. Chronic conditions surveyed were anemia, arthritis/rheumatism, broken bones,
cataracts, eye disease, asthma, other breathing problems, diabetes, urination pain, paralysis,
tuberculosis, gastric ulcer, edema, and “other” chronic illness. Mother’s reports of chronic
conditions included whether the condition caused difficulty in daily life, whether the child
received medicine for the condition, and whether the child saw a health care provider or stayed
in a hospital as a result. Acute conditions surveyed were headache, eye infection, toothache,
cough/fever/cold, vomiting/stomachache, fever with chills, watery diarrhea, loose stool with
mucus or blood, skin problems, accidents, excessive bleeding (girls), and “other” acute illnesses.
Mother’s reports of acute conditions included the number of days the child was sick and unable
to perform daily activities (school and work), the number and length of episodes, the date of the
last episode, and whether the child saw a health care provider.
For the purpose of this analysis, two dependent variables were constructed, one
classifying a child who experienced any acute symptoms during the past three months, and one
classifying a child who experienced any chronic symptoms during the past year. In addition,
acute diarrhea and dysentery were examined separately, given their prevalence in the region; the
results were identical to those obtained using “all acute illness,” and thus are not reported.

MEANIING OF VULNERABLE GROUPS
Vulnerable groups are relatively defined as the groups who find it hard to survive and who lack development opportunities due to being at a relative disadvantage in the economic, cultural, physical, intellectual, and other situations. The key to the understanding of vulnerable groups lies in determining the evaluation criteria and based on this certain evaluation criteria determining the relevant groups. Currently, the evaluation criteria are limited to the economical aspects. In other words, it is assumed that living with hardship results from a low level of income which is below the average. However, it is too limited if we rely solely on the economic criteria to determine vulnerable groups. Therefore, in order to define vulnerable groups in a systematic and scientific way, we need to include the following criteria:

m
Chronic Illness
Similar analyses attempted to predict chronic illness from the three proxy health
measures. Interestingly, only low weight-for-age predicts chronic illness, rather than low height-
or BMI-for-age as expected (these models are not shown, but demonstrate no significant
relationships). Contrary to expectations, underweight appears to predict chronic illnesses in this
population, a relationship that persists with controls for age, sex, parental education, income, and
MCH-FP program area residence, none of which are significant (see Table 8). However,
because of the strong increase in low weight, height, and BMI with age, we did not end the
investigation with these models.

Situational analysis
More than 10.6 million children under five years of age died in year 2000 IN South-East Asia,
over half of them caused by only five preventable communicable diseases. With 28% of all child
deaths annually occurring in South-East Asia, it is well known that 54% of diseases are linked to the
underlying factor of malnutrition (2). Two thirds of all malnutrition cases are associated with
inappropriate feeding practices in the first year of life; only 35% infants 0-4 months old are
exclusively breastfed while complementary feeding is inadequate and in most cases wrongly timed,
and not prepared safely. (3).
Though some improvement has been noted in the South-East Asia Region, almost half the
world’s 140 million underweight children – 65 million – live in South Asia alone (4). Prevalence of
xerophthalmia among children under-five is 0.53%, which is above the public health cut-off point.
Total Goitre Rate (TGR) and Urine Iodine Excretion (UIE) rates among the people indicate that
Iodine Deficiency Disorder (IDD) is still a big problem for countries in this Region and required a
strong commitment to realize the achievement of Universal Salt Iodization. Household consumption
of adequately iodized salt have to increase from the existing level of 67% to 90% to eliminate the
disorders cause by iodine deficiency.
Chronic energy malnutrition occurs among 38% of women of reproductive age and more than
50% of pregnant women are iron deficient. This risk factor makes not only the mother, but also the
neonates prone to increased morbidity and mortality during delivery and postpartum.
As a consequence of unhealthy diet and physical inactivity, 22 million children under five years
of age and 1 billion adults are overweight, leading to the prospect of 17 million people dying
prematurely each year from chronic diseases. Chronic diseases are responsible for 60% of all deaths
worldwide and 80% of these deaths occur in low and middle-income countries. In the SEA Region
alone, elimination of major risk factors could save over 8 million lives and result in an economic gain
of US$ 15 billion over the next 10 years (5 & 6). Though the evidence of overnutrition as a major risk
for serious diet related noncommunicable diseases is compelling, this remains a neglected public
health problem.
In ageing populations, both undernutrition and overnutrition are problems that need to be
tackled. Chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCD), and presence of high blood pressure, high blood
lipids and glucose intolerance have emerged in as many as 40% of the elderly who are from lowincome
groups. The number of instances of NCDs among the elderly in the SEA Region is expected
to double by 2025.
Ill health, either due to undernutrition or overnutrition in all age groups should be eliminated by
addressing determinants of malnutrition, which result in morbidity, intellectual productivity,
decreased life expectancy, and death of the population. Manifestations of nutritional disorders are
varied and seen in the lifecycle span of human beings. In order to design a or strengthen the nutrition
programme for a country, the magnitude of the problem in every phase of life from before birth to an
advanced age has to be taken into account. This is listed in Annex 1.
The two facets of nutrition-related problems – undernutrition and overnutrition –need to be
brought together under the spectrum of malnutrition. Nutritional deficiencies or overnutrition always
manifest themselves after a long time. Socio-economic determinants such as poverty, social exclusion,
low levels of education, behaviour and culture, political instability and continuing conflict
significantly contribute to malnutrition and related disorders.
The potential for synergies to achieve the MDGs for nutrition (reduce hunger and improve
nutrition status) incorporates multisectoral inputs such as improved agricultural practices, tariffs and
trade, reduction of women’s workload, better gender relations and intra-household decision-making.
The targets are to regulate food prices, raise family income and promote dietary diversity and food
security at the household level. Although effective interventions to prevent malnutrition (both
undernutrition and overnutrition) are known, appropriate counselling and nutrition care remain
unavailable, unused, inaccessible or of poor quality for many marginalized groups of the population.
The vision to achieve better nutrition for health and development, where people everywhere at
every age enjoy a high level of nutritional well-being free from all forms of hunger and malnutrition,
needs to be translated into action by involving all stakeholders, including family, community and their
broader social networks.

Strategic directions
Improve management in nutrition programme
Nutrition is a public health issue that has a strong correlation with related health programmes
which are maternal and newborn health, child and adolescent health, communicable and noncommunicable
diseases, environmental and occupational health, psychosocial development and
mental health. But nutrition is also a cross-sectored programme and involves, other than the health
sector, Planning (human development), Agriculture (food security), Industry and Trade (food
availability), Economy (purchasing power), Woman and Child Development (family empowerment),
Education (knowledge and skill), Manpower/Workforce (productivity) and Socio-culture (nutritional
behaviour). Nutrition programmes need to look beyond the health sector and must be taken as an
integrated approach for successful implementation.
As cross-disciplinary global commitments are involved, countries need to take responsibility for
translating their international commitments into national and local reality. This includes adopting
policies to create a socio-political environment suitable for the health system to respond to the
demands of the target population. A strong political will, adequate investment in the nutrition
programme and consistencies in implementing the strategies for the health system are indicators of
success in achieving the MDGs related to halving the number of underweight children and proportion
of population placed below the minimum level of dietary energy consumption.

Access to a well-functioning health care system is necessary to include nutrition interventions in
every lifecycle through a continuum of quality care starting from before pregnancy to an advanced
age of the population. In many countries, national capacity and resources (human, financial and
material) are still inadequate to ensure availability of and access to essential health services
particularly to those who are most vulnerable.
The following aspects need to be addressed in improving nutrition programme management:
Improve access to nutrition services
Though the technology for combating malnutrition is available, and effective interventions exist,
these are being resorted to rarely. Since the Alma Alta Declaration in 1978, nutrition services have
been made part of primary health care. The movement to conduct applied growth monitoring and
promotion of nutrition at the village level is worldwide. The GOBI-FF Movement (growth monitoring
and promotion, oral rehydration therapy, breastfeeding, immunization, family planning and female

participation) is an example. Some of the current trends in the progress of countries towards achieving
better nutritional status are encouraging while others seem to indicate that it will be difficult to meet
expected targets. Reduction of malnutrition rate could be achieved by scaling up coverage rates of key
nutrition services. The nutrition programme managers in the countries should review and assess
nutritional problems in their areas and their major causes. This can be used as a basis to design
effective programmes and include new services in order to extend interventions to those most difficult
to reach, not only geographically but more importantly, due to socio-economic and financial
constraints.
The essential package of nutrition services include growth monitoring and counselling on
growth faltering, promoting infant and young child feeding (breast-feeding and complementary
feeding), eliminating micronutrient malnutrition, home-based feeding practices, and
overweight/obesity prevention. The nutrition service package could be disaggregated by the target
group according to the lifecycle approach. Interventions for maternal and neonatal health before, and
at birth, includes women of reproductive age for targeting dietary advice, nutrition promotion for
adolescent eating patterns and sedentary lifestyle behaviour, and health promotion for improving
knowledge, attitudes and practices of mothers-to-be. Improving the nutritional status of teenagers
while delaying pregnancy could reduce risk factors that affect the health and survival chances of both
mother and child.

The nutrition programme, however, neglects large sections of the adult population, especially
males. In fact, male health should be prioritized since being breadwinners their nutritional and health
status will have an impact on productivity and family incomes. The need to adopt a healthy diet and
reduce consumption of tobacco and alcohol among adults should be featured in a national campaign.
Proposed nutrition programmes during the lifecycle that will fill the gaps in the existing programmes
are listed in Annex 2.

Developing community-based family nutrition improvement activities by empowering nonformal
village leaders is an effective way to bring the benefits of an applied programme to the needy.
Every village has to be served by trained health volunteers under regular supervision of nutrition
providers from the sub-district health centre.

Ensure the quality of nutrition care and improve logistics management
All populations in need of nutrition services should benefit from efficacious and cost-effective
interventions with quality facilities and timely and adequate provision of logistics being an essential
component. The government needs to ensure that affordable micronutrient supplements and logistics
reach the people who need them most.
Increasing the efficiency and responsiveness of the health system for providing adequate quality
services will automatically improve both coverage and compliance. This includes, for example,
effective nutrition management of health facilities, wider use of standardized guidelines, improved
supervision of nutrition and counselling services, a bigger role given to industrial government
companies in providing essential micronutrient supplements and other supplies on time (e.g., growth
charts, weighing scales, nutrition promotion packages, etc).

Strengthen assessment, monitoring and evaluation
Decision-makers and planners need reliable information on the cost-effectiveness and efficiency
of interventions. This information comes from recording and reporting of nutrition services which
need to be integrated into the existing health information system. To serve accurate information,
periodical monitoring of the coverage and quality of services has to be conducted and supervised by
the higher health authority.

Nutrition surveillance should be initiated to provide a system of targeting intervention to the
disadvantaged in a timely and usable fashion. All information has to feed into the policy debate which
decides on capacity to meet health and nutrition programme needs, select correct strategies, monitor
performance and manage change. Feedback on the results, of monitoring and evaluation are necessary
to ensure that this information contributes towards identifying specific nutrition requirements and
provision of direct services to the areas of greatest need.
Extra government health spending and improved health care financing system
Poverty is always associated with inequitable access to health services. Though facilities are
built to extend to the remote sub-districts, transportation costs from the village to health facilities pose
a major problem. The government, therefore, has to ensure that the social safety net for the poor is
firmly in place.
A minimum of US$30-40 per capita is needed annually to finance an essential health services
package (7). Increased government spending on health is only a part of the answer to reach the MDGs
since it also needs to be targeted geographically with specific programmes for specific population
groups to remove bottlenecks (8, 9). To reach the MDGs target, a minimum of five percentage points
would need to be added to the rate of growth of the government health share of GDP. That would take
the projected share of GDP spending on government health programmes to 3.7% in 2015 (10).
The development of various types of health care financing mechanisms is likely to help achieve
the goal of equity, better health and responsiveness and fair financing. Many other forms of risk
pooling schemes such as community-based trust funds could be introduced so that health risks of the
poor are adequately protected (11). To improve coverage of nutrition care and counselling, severely
malnourished children and pregnant mothers with complications have to be brought under the cover
of financing schemes. Social health care financing systems should mainly provide health and nutrition
services free of charge, and a subsidy for transporting the needy from remote areas to the nearest
health facility.

YOU CAN'T MISS THE HISTORY.... IT'S ALL ABOUT YOUR MOBILE

2012-07-16T07:31:00.002-07:00

history of apple inc

On April 1, 1976, the Apple computer was born. Steven Wozniak, a high school drop-out who worked for Hewlett-Packard, dabbled in computer-design and created what would become the Apple I. His high school buddy Steven Jobs, also a drop-out, worked for Atari and convinced him that the two should form a company to market the new computer, which eventually took off in 1977 with the Apple II. By 1980, the Apple III was released and their company employed several thousand workers.

So begins the rocky, but enormously successful, story of the most revolutionary computer in history. The early Mac’s user-friendly interface, with such features as the trash can, windows, drag-and-drop file moveability, and plug-in-and-play compatibility, predated by far the efforts of those developing the PC. Bill Gates’ admonitions to his R&D people to “Make it like the Mac!”* can only be construed as the highest compliment. Even today’s Mac G4, with its velocity engine and 128-bit-wide architecture, smokes the fastest PC, as proven in side-by-side tests performing complex processing operations in Photoshop with enormous files. In addition, the Mac has been determined to be a more productive and economical platform in all aspects of the computing world.**

* Barbarians Led by Bill Gates, by Jennifer Edstrom and Marlin Eller; Henry Holt and Company, Inc., New York, NY 1998.
** Norris and Wong is a San Francisco based technology consulting firm specializing in personal computer productivity enhancement. They develop custom applications on both Macs and PCs for an exclusive clientele. Their very detailed study compared Macs and Windows in regards to: 1) Adding and removing applications, 2) Reorganizing the desktop for convenience, 3) Hard disk space management, 4) Adding and upgrading hardware components, 5) Backing up files, 6) Troubleshooting system conflicts and other problems, and 7) Recovery from system failures. In EVERY CASE, the Macintosh had MAJOR advantages. They conclude "These differences will translate into significant FINANCIAL SAVINGS and PRODUCTIVITY benefits for Macintosh users."

This article by no means attempts to relate the lengthy history of Apple’s development. For that, please visit Glenn Sanford’s wonderful and encyclopedic Apple History site [click to see a sample page from his website]. What you will find here are computer models that have been some of the more revolutionary highlights of Apple’s output.

	1976 • Apple I Based on the MOStek 6502 chip, the Apple I included only the circuit board. A tape-interface was sold separately, but you had to build the case. Initial cost: $666.66.
	1983 • Lisa The first personal computer to use a GUI (Graphical User Interface). It contained a Motorola 68000 Processor running at 5 Mhz, 1 MB of RAM, two 5.25" 871k floppy drives, an external 5 MB hard drive, and a built-in 12" 720 x 360 monochrome monitor. Initial cost: $9,995.
	1983 • Apple //e One of the most successful Apple computers ever. It used the 65C02 processor, running at 1.02 Mhz, and came with 64K of RAM, 32K ROM, BASIC (an assembly language interface), and several other hard-coded options. Initial cost: $1,395.
	1984 • Mac 128k The first affordable computer to include a GUI, and using the new 8 MHz Motorola 68000 chip. It came in a small beige case with a built-in black and white monitor, a keyboard, mouse, and a floppy drive that took 400k 3.5" disks—the first personal computer to do so. Initial cost: $2,495.
	1989 • Portable Apple's first attempt at a more easily portable Macintosh. It had a bay for a 3.5" half-height drive, and could support up to two Super Drives. Its active matrix screen (later backlit) made it incredibly expensive. Initial cost: $6,500.
	1993 • Color Classic Identical to the Classic II, except for a color screen, a larger ROM, and a restyled case. Also released as the Performa 250. Initial cost: $1,390.
	1997 • Power Mac 9600 The 9600 was built to make its insides more easily accessable. It ran on 233, 200, or dual 200 Mhz 604e's. Initial cost: $4,700 for the dual 200Mhz configuration, $4,200 for the single 233Mhz, and $3,700 for the single 200 Mhz.
	1998 • Power Book G3 The G3 Series was available with a variety of built-to-order options including a 233, 250, or 292 Mhz PPC750 processor and either a 12" passive-matrix screen, a 13.3" TFT Active Matrix screen, or an incredible 14.1" TFT Active Matrix Screen. All models included two RAM slots which used industry standard RAM modules (the same used in most IBM Thinkpads), hardware 2D and 3D Graphics acceleration, a VGA port, 4Mbps IrDA, 2 PC-card slots (CardBus compliant—a powerbook first), and the 13.3" and 14.1" models included an S-Video output. The G3 Series had two drive bays, either of which could hold a battery or a wide array of 3.5" expansion devices, such as floppy or zip modules. The right drive bay could also accommodate larger 5.25" devices. Initial cost: $2,299 for 233 Mhz with no floppy drive and a 12" screen, and $7,000, fully loaded.
	1999 • G4 Based on the Unified Motherboard Architecture, the G4 AGP used the MPC 7400 chip, AGP-based graphics, AirPort compatibility, a faster memory bus, DVD-ROM or RAM standard, an internal FireWire port, 2 separate USB buses for a combined 24 Mbs, a 2X (133 Mhz) AGP slot, and up to 1.5 GB of RAM. The G4 AGP also introduced the new professional color, "graphite." Initial cost: $2499 for the 450 Mhz with a 20GB hard drive and 128 MB of RAM, and $3499 for the 500 Mhz configuration with a 27 GB hard drive and 256 MB of RAM (both included internal Zip drives).
	2000 • G4 Cube Housed in an 8x8x8 cube, the G4 Cube combined elegance and power, trading expandability for its diminutive size. There were no PCI slots, and while the Graphics was fit into an 2x AGP slot, there wasn't room for full-length AGP cards. It contained three RAM slots, an AirPort slot, two USB and FireWire ports, a 450Mhz G4 processor, a 20 GB hard drive, a 56k modem, 64 MB of RAM, Apple's Pro Mouse, and came with an external USB amplifier and a set of Harman Kardon speakers. Initial cost: $1799, and $2299 for the 500 Mhz G4 with a 30 GB hard drive and 128 MB of RAM.
	2001 • Titanium G4 Powerbook Based on a new low-power G4 chip, the PPC 7410, the PowerBook G4 sported a stylish new Titanium enclosure, which was only 1" thick (.7" thinner than its predecessor, the PowerBook G3 with FireWire). The PB G4 had a fixed, 6x slot-load DVD-ROM drive instead of a removable drive bay, a single battery bay, a wide-aspect 15.2" screen with a native resolution of 1152x768. Initial cost: $2,599 for the 400 Mhz model w/128 MB of RAM and a 10GB hard drive, and $3,499 for the 500 Mhz model w/256 MB of RAM and a 20GB hard drive.
	2002 • Flat-panel iMac Using a 15- or 17-inch LCD screen, G4 processor, and the CD-RW/DVD-R Super Drive, the iMac's Flat Panel screen easily rotates and changes angles. The 10.6" semi-spherical base houses the rest of the computer. Initial cost: $1299 for a 700Mhz G4 Processor, 128 MB of RAM, a 40 GB ATA-66 hard drive with CD-RW; $1499 for the 700 Mhz model, with 256 MB of RAM, a 40 GB hard drive, and a CD-RW/DVD-ROM Combo Drive; and $1799 for the 800 Mhz model, with 256 MB of RAM, a 60 GB hard drive, and the CD-RW/DVD-R SuperDrive. Gateway is already copying this model.
	UPDATES: 2003 • G5 The PowerMac G5 was Apple's long-awaited fifth generation PowerPC-based machine. In an important move, Apple decided to break with Motorola, and used an IBM-designed processor. Motorola had been chronically delayed for both processor design and shipment, and was at least a year away from its fifth-generation PowerPC CPU. Apple and IBM had worked closely together for nearly a year of the PowerPC 970 Processor (publicly referred to as the G5), and the 64-bit PowerMac G5 represented a huge leap forward in both processor and machine design. Housed in an innovative new Aluminum enclosure, the PowerMac G5 was the first 64-bit consumer-level desktop computer ever sold. It featured either a single 1.6 or 1.8 Ghz processor, or dual 2.0 Ghz processors. It included a variety of motherboard enhancements, including PCI-X slots, and 8X AGP slot, a Serial-ATA bus, and up to 8 GB of RAM. Most impressive of all was the front-side bus speed, which was increased to half of the processor speed-up to 1.0 Ghz. This represented a more than six-fold improvement over the previous PowerMac G4 model.
	2004 • Xserve G5 The Xserve G5 brought the architectural improvements of the PowerMac G5 to the Xserve line. In addition to adding single or dual 2.0 GHz PowerPC 970FX processors, the Xserve G5 included dramatically faster data and memory buses, more and faster RAM, FireWire 800 and USB 2.0, Serial ATA and PCI-X support. Perhaps the most obvious change to the Xserve G5 was the incorporation of the PowerMac G5's cooling system, which resulted in one less drive bay, removed for ventilation. The Xserve G5 was available in two configurations: a single 2.0 GHz processor model with 512 MB of RAM for $2,999 and a dual 2.0 GHz processor model with 1 GB of RAM for $3,999. A Cluster Node configuration of the Xserve G5 was also available. In January 2005, the high-end model was speed-bumped to dual 2.3 GHz processors, and the low-end model was upgraded to 1 GB of RAM. Both models now shipped with Combo CD-RW/DVD-ROM drives, with a SuperDrive available BTO. The Xserve RAID also received an upgrade: it now had support for up to 14 250 GB drive modules, each on a separate ATA-100 bus, for a total of 3.5 terrabytes of possible storage.
	2004 • iMac G5 The iMac G5 brought G5 muscle to Apple's consumer desktop line. Housed in a completely new enclosure reminiscent of Apple's Cinema Display line, the iMac G5 was a marvel of miniaturization. The case was only two inches thick, yet housed a machine considerably faster and more advanced than its G4-based predecessor. In addition to a 64-bit G5 processor, the iMac G5 also included a much faster memory bus, better graphics for the low-end model, twice the hard drive space for the high-end model, and a new audio port which doubled as an optical digital audio output. The iMac G5 was initially available in three configurations: 17" LCD/1.6 Mhz/80 GB hard drive/256 MB of RAM/Combo drive/$1299, 17" LCD/1.8 Mhz/80 GB hard drive/256 MB of RAM/SuperDrive/$1499, and 20" LCD/1.8 Mhz/160 GB hard drive/256 MB of RAM/SuperDrive/$1899.
	2004 • Flat-panel iMac The Mac mini represented Apple's first real foray into the low-end consumer market, and Apple's first monitor-less consumer Mac in more than six years. Based around the basic motherboard design of the eMac (USB 2.0), the Mac mini packed an impressive feature set into a very small package, just two inches tall and 6.5 inches wide and deep. The rectangular case was reminiscent of the failed G4 Cube, the mistakes of which Apple seemed determined not to repeat with the mini. The basic idea was simple: let current PC owners spend $500 to replace their PC, while continuing to use their existing monitor and USB peripherals. While Airport Extreme and Bluetooth were available as BTO options, they were not included in either stock configuration, nor were a keyboard or mouse. The mini also lacked a sound-input jack, a feature present in Apple's entire lineup at the time. To keep the size small, Apple used a 2.5" laptop hard drive, and included a single RAM slot. The Mac mini shipped in two configurations. The low-end 1.25 GHz model, with a 40 GB hard drive, was $499, while the high-end 1.42 GHz model, with an 80 GB hard drive, was $599. Both models shipped with 256 MB of RAM.

PRESENTED BY
STEVE TURNER IGHODARO	08067446810

Blogging and its taste

2012-07-15T06:43:00.002-07:00

What is Google Blogger? What is Blogger? blogger definitions of google terms creating a blog google reviews Visit Their Website Blogger is Google’s free tool for creating blogs. It can be found on the web at http://www.blogger.com. Blogs, short for web-logs, are a form of online journal. Getting Started With Blogger You can use blogs for everything from updating your friends and family about your life, giving your own advice column, discussing your political views, or relating your experience in a topic of interest. You can host blogs with multiple contributors, or you can run your own solo show. You can even use Blogger to make your own podcast feeds. Although there are fancier blog tools out there, the mixture of cost (free) and flexibility makes Blogger one of the best deals around. Setting Up Your Blog Setting up a Blogger account takes three easy steps. Create an account, name your blog, and choose a template. You can host multiple blogs with the same account name, so you only need to do that part once. This way you could separate your professional blog about your business from your personal blog about dogs, for instance. Hosting Your Blog Blogger will host your blog for free on blogspot.com. You can also use Blogger to automatically ftp your blog posts to your own web space. Make sure you have the correct server settings from your internet service provider, otherwise you may have unpredictable results. Posting Once your blog is set up, Blogger has a basic WYSIWYG editor. (What you see is what you get) This is not necessarily a bad thing. Most blogging tools do not have robust html editors, and the ones that do often require java or other plug-ins. If you need more formatting options and a larger window, you can use Google Docs to post to your Blogger blog. You could also do advanced editing with HTML. Blogger has an HTML tab to let you do this directly, although it does not allow JavaScript. Email Your Posts You can optionally configure Blogger with a secret email address, so you can email your posts to your blog. This is handy for making updates on the fly or updating from your cell phone or other mobile device. Pictures Blogger will let you upload pictures from your desktop and post them to your blog. You can choose the basic layout and size of your images, and they’ll be uploaded to Bloggers’s server space, so you don’t have to host the pictures on a different website. That doesn't mean you can't post with pictures that you've hosted elsewhere on the Web. You can also use Picasa Web Albums to post pictures to your blog. Google Video and YouTube videos can similarly be directly linked into your blog posts. Visit Their Website Previous 1 2 Next How to Upload a Movie to Google Video User Reviews Be the first to write a review

Blogging and its taste

2012-07-15T06:42:00.005-07:00

Blogging and its taste

2012-07-15T06:42:00.003-07:00

Blogging and its taste

2012-07-15T06:42:00.001-07:00

Gaussian EliminationTo Solve Three Simultaneous Equations . By sherlock

2012-04-16T14:05:00.001-07:00

This tutorial will explain how to apply the Gaussian Elimination Method to solving three simultaneous equations. Gaussian Elimination is a process of steps used to solve simultaneous equations. As the name suggests it uses specific methods to eliminate variables in the equations until a single variable is left. To start this tutorial we need first three simultaneous equations; 2X+3Y-4Z=20 5X-6Y+7Z=30 8X+9Y+10Z=100 We now have our three equations. We now need to turn these into a matrix. A matrix basically means a table. For Gaussian Elimination we use the following format for the matrix; X1 | Y1 | Z1 | A1 X2 | Y2 | Z2 | A2 X3 | Y3 | Z3 | A3 Where X1 means the multiplier of X in the first equation and A1 means the answer, or equal to value of equation one. Using this, our starting matrix will look like this; 2 | 3 | -4 | 20 5 | -6 | 7 | 30 8 | 9 | 10 | 100 Note that if the variable is deducted in the equation we take the negativeinto the table, e.g. the first equation has 4Z deducted, so in our matrix table we have negative four. The aim of Gaussian Elimination is to turn this matrix into this; 1 | 0 | 0 | A Value 0 | 1 | 0 | A Value 0 | 0 | 1 | A Value I will explain how we use this matrix later on, when we reach that stage. How do we get our matrix table to this I hear you asking? To do this we can do specific operations to the rows in the matrix to work our way towards the goal matrix. These operations are; 1. We can multiply or divide an entire row by any number. 2. We can add or deduct any row to another. 3. We can also substitute rows from earlier calculations back in. 4. To simplify the matrix we can also swap any row with another. On a side note if your starting matrix contains any zeros you may need to either modify the following steps or ignore them all together. For this tutorial I will focus on the above matrix. To start with we will focus on making any row be the following; 1 | 0 | 0 | A Value To do this we can start of by making the second column, the 'Y' column have the same value for both rows one and two. The easiest way to reach this is to multiply the first row by the second row's 'Y' value; (2x-6) | (3x-6) | (-4x-6) | (20x-6) 5 | -6 | 7 | 30 8 | 9 | 10 | 100 Now we do the same to make row two's 'Y' value be equal to the value we just calculated for row one. We do this by multiplying the entire row by row one's original 'Y' value. -12 | -18 | 24 | -120 (5x3) | (-6x3) | (7x3) | (30x3) 8 | 9 | 10 | 100 Now we have rows one and two which both have the same value in the 'Y' column, we deduct row two from row one, which gives us this new matrix; -27 | 0 | 3 | -210 15 | -18 | 21 | 90 8 | 9 | 10 | 100 We now have eliminated our first variable. Now we need to eliminate the 'Z' variable in the first row, but we cannot simply just repeat the process exactly because the other two rows have 'Y' values, if we do any deductions into row one we will get a 'Y' value again. To combat this we need to eliminate the 'Y' variable from either the second or third row. To do this we use the same method as we did to remove the 'Y' variable from the first row, multiply the second row by the value of the third row's 'Y' variable and multiply the third row by the second row's 'Y' value; -27 | 0 | 3 | -210 (15x9) | (-18x9) | (21x9) | (90x9) (8x-18) | (9x-18) | (10x-18) | (100x-18) To eliminate the 'Y' variable from row two simply deduct row three from row two. This gives us this matrix; -27 | 0 | 3 | -210 279 | 0 | 369 | 2610 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 Now we have eliminated the 'Y' variable from the second row we cannow use this row to eliminate the 'Z' variable from the first row. You may see a pattern emerging here because we now use the same method as we have been; we need to make the 'Z' variable in rows one and two to have the same value. Likewe have been doing, to do this we need to multiply the first row by the 'Z' value of the second row and multiply the second row by the 'Z' value from the first row; (-27x369) | 0 | (3x369) | (-210x369) (279x3) | 0 | (369x3) | (2610x3) -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 Now, like we have done before, deduct row two from row one, leaving us with the following matrix; 10800 | 0 | 0 | 85320 837 | 0 | 1107 | 7830 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 The final step we need to take on getting our first final row is to divide row one by its own 'X' value to leave us with the following matrix; 1 | 0 | 0 | 7.9 837 | 0 | 1107 | 7830 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 We now have our first final row! We now have two paths which we must choose from. These are; 1. Go Back to the original matrix and use the same methods focusing on getting a row with the 'X' and 'Z' eliminated, leaving only the 'Y' variable. 2. Continue using the matrix above. If you started out with a matrix that contained some zeros I would recommend that you take the first path, as I have done when I worked on the Simultaneous Equation Solver Program (free download). For this tutorial we will be following the second path, as the first would only be a repeat of everything we have already done. Looking at our latest matrix it is clearto me where I will be taking this tutorial next. In the interest of doing the least possible steps we will now move on to making a row be this; 0 | 0 | 1 | A Value We will come back to this row later on; 0 | 1 | 0 | A Value This can be done in three simple steps. Looking at row two all we need to do is eliminate the 'X' value, as we have already eliminated the 'Y' value. As row one only has a 'X' value logic dictates we use this row. For this step simply multiply row one by row two's 'X' value; (1x837) | 0 | 0 | (7.9x837) 837 | 0 | 1107 | 7830 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 This gives us a new matrix which is this; 837 | 0 | 0 | 6612.3 837 | 0 | 1107 | 7830 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 Now like we have done before, we deduct row one from row two which will give us the following matrix; 837 | 0 | 0 | 6612.3 0 | 0 | 1107 | 1217.7 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 Now we have eliminated the 'X' value from the second row we now only have a 'Z' value. To finish this row off we simply divide row two by its 'Z' value, which leaves us with thismatrix; 1 | 0 | 0 | 7.9 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 To simplify this matrix I have substituted the final values for row one back into our matrix, as well as this I have swapped over rows two and rows there. We are now two-thirds complete, leaving just one row to go! The final row is the easiest because we can use rows one and three to eliminate the 'X' and 'Z' values from row two. To start this let's multiply row one by row two's 'X' value, leaving use this matrix; -144 | 0 | 0 | -1137.6 -144 | -162 | -180 | -1800 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 Repeating a familiar step that we have done before, deduct row one from row two. This gives us the following matrix; -144 | 0 | 0 | -1137.6 0 | -162 | -180 | -662.4 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 We now do the same again to remove the 'Z' value, so our matrix now looks like this; 1 | 0 | 0 | 7.9 0 | -162 | -180 | -662.4 0 | 0 | -180 | -198 I have substitute row ones final values back into the matrix to simplify the matrix. For the final time we now deduct row three from row two, leaving use with this matrix; 1 | 0 | 0 | 7.9 0 | -162 | 0 | -464.4 0 | 0 | -180 | -198 The final step is to divide the second row by its 'Y' value. To give the final matrix of; 1 | 0 | 0 | 7.9 0 | 1 | 0 | 2.867 0 | 0 | 1 | 1.1 So now we have our final matrix, how do we use this? Well taking the first row, it simply means this; 1X + 0Y + 0Z = 7.9 Which when simplified means this; X=7.9 So from our final matrix table we candetermine that; X=7.9 Y=2.867 Z=1.1 The final thing we need to do is plug these values back into our original equations to check they are correct. Equation one; (2x7.9) + (3x2.867) - (4x1.1) = 20 15.8 + 8.6 - 4.4 = 20 24.4 - 4.4 = 20 This equation is correct. Equation two; (5x7.9) - (6x2.867) + (7x1.1) = 30 39.5 - 17.2 + 7.7 = 30 22.3 + 7.7 = 30 This equation is correct. Equation 3; (8x7.9) + (9x2.867) + (10x1.1) = 100 63.2 + 25.8 + 11 = 100 89 + 11 = 100 This equation is correct. So that's how to use Gaussian Elimination to resolve three simultaneous equations