Koshi Darpan

BJP slams Jagannath Mishra

2009-04-16T00:59:00.000-07:00

BJP leader and party’s state spokesman Vinod Narayan Jha lambasted former JD(U) leader and Bihar CM Jagannath Mishra for claiming that the Brahmins will not go with the NDA this time.Dubbing Mishra as a “self-proclaimed leader” of Brahmins, he called Mishra Lalu’s “guru” and an accomplice in the multi-millionaire Fodder Scam.“Not only the Brahmins, but all other sections are solidly behind NDA,” Vinod Narayan Jha said.

“Brahmins, in particular, constitute the intelligentsia. They have always longed for development and law and order, which the state NDA government has given in the last three and half years,” he added.

Mitihila region accounts for three parliamentary constituencies - Darbhanga, Madhubani and Jhanjharpur. The BJP is contesting Madhubani and Darbhanga seats, the Jhanjharpur seat has gone to JD(U). Jagannath Mishra had unsuccessfully contested the Jhanjharpur seat last time. He and his son Nitish Mishra left the JD(U) after refused ticket and joined hands with Lalu Prasad.

KOSI RIVER

2008-10-26T23:40:00.001-07:00

Tectonic Zonation using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) Techniques: A case study of Kosi Fan, India Ajay Srivastava Lecturer Department of Remote Sensing Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi, India Email: ajaybit@yahoo.com Introduction River Kosi once called the “Sorrow of Bihar” exhibits unique character. During the past few hundred years (since 1731) Kosi has shifted its course from east to west to a distance of 210 miles (Gole and Chitale, 1966), leaving behind vast tracts of uncultivable land. The magnitude of the shifting of Kosi river is comparable to only Yellow river also known as “Sorrow of China”, which shifted 375 miles north from its 1852 position. Kosi is an antecedent river older than the mighty Himalayas and finds place in many Hindu mythological texts as a very agile river called “Kausiki”. Kausiki was a mermaid goddess worshiped by the citizens of “Matsya Pradesh” as described in the “Vishnu Purana”. Kosi and its tributaries originating in the northern Tethyan Himalayan zone cut across the Great Himalayan and Lesser Himalayan Ranges in a number of deep gorges and ultimately flow into the great alluvial flood plains of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a deep crustal trough filled with Quaternary sediments. Its origin and structure are closely related with the rise of the Himalayas. Changes are still taking place at the bottom of this trough giving rise to occasional earthquakes in the north Indian plains. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into four shelf areas separated from one another by three major transverse ‘highs’ in the basement. The highs are known from west to east, as Delhi- Hardwar Ridge, Faizabad Ridge and Monghyr-Saharsa Ridge. Many smaller sub-swells and sub- depressions namely: Sarda depression, Gandak depression, Muzaffarpur uplift, Sitamarhi ridge, Madhubani depression, Purnea depression have been recorded during geophysical surveys conducted for petroleum explorations in the last few decades. These high or basement upwarps can act as water divide or in other words, the basement depressions can act as centre of attraction for the rivers and ground water. Neotectonic movements affect regional slope by sinking or uplifting a particular block of the crust. A change of gradient, even if very slow, affects the direction and rapidity of surface run-off and river discharge. Kosi and its Himalayan tributaries Kosi river originates in Tibetan Himalayas at a height of 18,000 feet and drains a catchment of 22988 sq. miles in mountainous terrain with a length of only 450 miles. While Ganga, the longest river of India has a length of 1600 miles with its source at Gangotri glacier situated at a height of 13,000 feet. Size of
catchment area (7,330 sq miles) makes it only third biggest Himalayan river in India after Indus and Brahmaputra rivers. It has seven tributaries: Arun Kosi, Sun Kosi, Tamur, Indrawati, Bhotia, Doodhi and Tamba (Figure 1). Its three major tributaries, Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi and Tamur join at Tribeni (Nepal) to form Saptkosi. Saptkosi cuts it path through a 6 miles long deep gorge in the Central Himalayan range and debauches into the plains near Chatra in Bihar where it is called Kosi. Lower down the Chatra, Kosi travels for about 198 miles in an alluvial plain to meet the river Ganges near Kursela, Bihar. During April and May sporadic thunderstorms start in the hills. The bulk of the rain, about 75-80 percent of the total fall occurs during the south-west monsoon period. The maximum rainfall occurs during monsoon in July and August. The highest discharge in the Saptkosi River, so far observed is 8,55,237 cusecs in the August 1954 whereas 1948 recorded the lowest discharge of 9,106 cusecs. The average annual runoff of Saptkosi is 40.4 million-acre feet and approximately half of which is contributed by Sunkosi. The normal flood discharge of Kosi usually remains from 1.5 to 2.0 lakh cusecs. About 75 to 84 percent of the total run-off occurs in the monsoon months of June to October. The annual run-off of Saptkosi has ranged from 34,32 to 49,24 million-acre feet. The annual total sediment load in the Kosi has varied from 47.9 thousand-acre feet (1961) to 229.8 thousand-acre feet (1954). The average annual sediment load for 1948 to 1964 comes to about 80 thousand-acre feet. The average concentration of coarse, medium and fine grained sediments during a year are 15.96, 28.22 and 55.80 percent respectively, and on an average total sediments are 0.20 percent of the total run-off. About 95 percent silt load comes down the river during the monsoon floods and only 05 percent of the sediments come down in the remaining non- monsoon months. The total run-off during the non-monsoon months, however is on an average about 19 percent of the total annual run-off. Figure 1 Tectonic map of Malda-Purnea graben (agrawal and Bhoj, 1992) Basement Structures Kosi flood plain overlies a highly uneven basement formed by the major tectonic features such as Purnea depression, Monghyr-Saharasa (M-S) ridge and Madhubani depression. Two basement ridges, namely the Bansihan uplift and Mongher-Saharsa ridge are present in the east and west of the graben respectively (Figure 2). Monghyr-Saharasa ridge is a prominent basement high overlain by a thin layer of sediments. This basement swell in the Eastern Gangetic Plain is also considered an extension of the Lesser Himalayas. M-S ridge is traversed by the basement faults such as NNW-SSE trending Kishanganj and Malda basement faults in the east and the Bhawanipur fault in the west (Rao, 1973). All these faults follow straight line with the NNE-SSW direction except Malda-Kishanganj fault. The arcuate shaped Malda-Kishanganj shows a westward bending near M-S ridge. East Patna basement fault forms a graben like structure (Dasgupta et al., 1987) and extends into the Madhubani depression. Madhubani depression has a thick accumulation of sediments with a maximum thickness of 6 km while Purnea depression is situated further east of the M-S ridge but at a shallower depth. Eastern Gangetic Plain is neotectonically active as evidenced by occurrence of several major (1883, 1934 and 1988) and minor earthquakes in this region. The great earthquake of 1934 (intensity 8.4 Richter scale) had its epicenter in the Madhubani area and is thought to have occurred due to movements along a fracture zone between Motihari and Purnea (Dunn et al., 1939). The maximum intensity reached in 1988 Bihar-Nepal earthquake was IX in Modified Meracalli (MM) scale over an area northeast of Madhubani, Bihar (G.S.I.,
1933). The river basin in the region is subsiding at a rate of 1 m per 1000 years (Agarwal and Bhoj, 1992). The entire north Indian plate is subjected to NNE-SSW directed (approximately N-S) compression that resulted from post-collisional northward underthrusting of the Indian plate (Bilham, R. 1995). Figure 2 Shifting courses of Kosi river (Gole and Chitale, 1966) Kosi Megafan Kosi megafan has a spatial extent of 180 km long and 150 km wide. The area comprises of Gangetic alluvial in the center bounded by Himalayas in the north. Gondwana sediments and Rajmahal traps occur in the west whereas the Archaen rocks of Peninsular India define southern margin. The synoptic view offered by satellite images at almost any scale helped in identifying the various regional features on the image. Kosi megafan area is marked in the landscape by a series abandoned channels aligned lakes and offset stream channels. Positions of the palaeochannels of Kosi river can be easily identified on these images. At small scale enough to display the entire megafan an interesting network of interlocking channels is the principal feature to notice. The whole area can be broadly divided into piedmont zone, alluvial fan zone, alluvial plain and flood plain of Kosi river. A combination of factors is influencing the complex behaviour of Kosi. These are hydrological factors, sedimentological factors, tectonic factors related to Himalaya as well as response of basement structures to plate movement, regional slope and geomorphology etc.. Alluvial fan morphology is an indicator of active tectonics because the fan form reflects varying rates of tectonic processes such as uplift of the catchment on mountains along a fault or tilting of the fan surface. The fanhead deposition associated with the Kosi megafan suggest that the rate of uplift of the mountain front is higher relative to rate of stream-channel downcutting in the mountain. The westward skewed shape of Kosi megafan suggests that alluvial fan area is being tilted westward due to subsidence in Madhubani depression and uplift of Himalayas. Saptkosi and other small streams in the Lesser Himalayas are offset several kilometers along the thrust. The directional relationship between Kosi river and Saptkosi gorge has been modified due to uplift and subsidence related to neotectonic movement in this belt. The arcuate geometry of Malda-Kishanganj fault bears the testimony of such tectonic deformations and consequent modification in the spatial relationship of Kosi floodPlain and upper reaches. It appears that direction of the Saptkosi gorge in Himalayas has been changed from NNW-SSE to N-S and finally NNE-SSW with the continued northward movement of the Indian plate. Huge amount of discharge running down to Kosi alluvial plain is significantly affected by the spatial position of the channel in the Himalayas. In fact, it follows the direction of Saptkosi river. As the direction of the Saptkosi channel in Himalayas gradually changed so the flow direction of water in the active channel of Kosi river also changed. The migration of Kosi took place in three major steps. In the first episode, it was under the influence of Malda-Kishanganj fault and Purnea depression. It was a tributary of Mahananda river with its confluence near Lava. A tectonic disturbance caused movement along M-S pair fault and upliftment of the block on the eastern margin of the M-S ridge with consequent change in the direction of Kosi channel. Kosi shifted its channel to attain a preferred N-S direction in this stage. Similarly, next tectonic disturbance changed its hydrologic preferences by modifying the regional slope and channel morphology and thus helped it to move in western direction. Its westward migration was further supported by E-W regional slope and presence of many Quaternary surface faults forming diversion point and flood breaches. It has maximum shifting tendency during this phase that took place in the twentieth century. One possible mechanism of Kosi shifting may be by sequential discharge diversion in various channels of Kosi group of rivers during its early phases of tectonic instability. The amount of discharge in its earlier active channel was reduced gradually due to shifting of the diversion points or river course in response to the uplift of M-S ridge. Later, its migration was supported by the hydrological factors, further shifting of the diversion points, topography and basement tectonics. Thus, it can be concluded that Kosi shifted its channel in much different way than the previously suggested mechanisms where whole Kosi river shifted its position from the very beginning due to silting and braiding. Tectonic Control on Kosi River A Quaternary fault system has been identified in the region. This is an echelon pattern of surface faults associated with Begusarai fault. Within this fault zone, various geomorphic features are found which have their origin in both the lateral and vertical movement of fault-bounded slices, as well as in the persistent strike-slip. These features include sag depressions and sag ponds, offset and deflected stream channels, flood breaches, linear ridges, scarps, fault-controlled drainage. Along its entire course, the fault zone exhibits peculiar, anomalous drainage patterns. In regions where tectonic activity is less pronounced, streams generally flow more or less perpendiculr to the adjacent highlands. Movement within the network of branching and anostomosing fault blocks controls the lateral movement of river course. The dominantly lateral slip across the fault zone and rate of slip, from 1 cm to a few centimetres per year, compel stream channels to offset right laterally. River course is offset along the trend of the smaller faults while maintaing the continuity of flow along Begusarai fault. In addition to the effect of lateral slip, streams are extremely sensitive to vertical slip on fault and warping of the land surface. Only a small vertical movement of a block or a change in the slope and aspect of the land surface on the downstream side of a fault crossing a stream may divert the stream either to the left or right of the main stream. Many diversion point and flood breaches all along its middle course have been mapped. All the diversion points and flood breaches occur on the intersection point of Begusarai fault with other echelon faults in its vicinity. Earliest diversion point possibly formed during the Late Pleistocene is located at the Himalayan foothills where channels present a radial pattern. This diversion point represents the intersection of Nahan, Malda, Bhawanipur and the Begusarai faults at the foothills of Himalayas. Kosi group of rivers includes many relatively smaller tributaries or its abandoned channels originating from the first diversion point. One of the branches of Kosi (on the eastern margin of the megafan) confluence with Ganga River near Manihari, 15 km south-west of Lava and probably has been influenced by Kishanganj fault. While other two located in the central and western part of the Kosi megafan meet present channel of Kosi River. These two rivers flow in a direction close to the trend of Bhawanipur and Begusarai fault respectively. These smaller rivers show characters similar to the present active channel of Kosi river but with a gradual decrease of discharge form east to west. Convergence point is fixed at a location near Kursela, which is close to the intersection of Bhagalpur and Bhawanipur faults. The rate of movement of Kosi river is highly variable irrespective of the discharge and sediment load indicating an obvious control of tectonics. There was a high rate (0.7 miles/yr, 1770-1825) when several earthquakes have occurred in adjacent Nepal Himalayas in 1720, 1764 and 1826. The rate of movement of Kosi River was relatively less when it was flowing in Purnea graben (prior to 1956 position). Its movement was further slowed by Bhawanipur fault marking the boundary between M-S ridge and the Purnea graben. Once Kosi river crossed this region its rate of movement gradually increased again. Kosi river behaviour has been different on either side of the north-south line (Chatra-Kursela) which is collinear with the Bhawanipur fault and the eastern margin of M-S ridge. Gole and Chitale (1966) have explained this change of behavior in terms of river’s preference for shortest route in the eastern side and the most favourable slope on the west of the megafan. There was sudden increase in the rate of movement (1.6 mile/yr) when it encountered few cross faults over the Begusarai fault. This stage (1922- 1933) coincided with the phase of intense tectonic disturbances going on within Madhubani depression related to pre and post seismic movements of 1933 earthquake. This region is tectonically active and experienced many strong ground motions in the past. Such earthquakes and associated seismic motions resulted in the lowering of the basin in Madhubani depression and relative upliftment of M-S ridge area due to reactivation of pair faults forming M-S ridge. This relatively lowered surface in the west attracted Kosi river to deposit its sediments. Presence of surface faults and an arcuate shape of Malda-Kishanganj fault support this mechanism. The present rate of shifting has been calculated with the help of satellite images of year 1991 and 1998. Principal component 2 image has been found to enhance active channels very effectively. Principal component images have been used to classify the water bodies and then change detection of the active channel has been performed. River shifted around 1 mile in this period and 24 miles since 1950 position. Direct geologic evidence of Quaternary faulting and land subsidence has been observed at various places in Saharasa and Begusarai districts. These observations support the view that the faults/lineaments mapped in the region are tectonic in origin and form part of a Late Quaternary fault system located in an area showing active seismicity. These features indicate that the neotectonic movement of mountain uplift and basement tectonics have influenced the diversion point and flood breaches. A belt of small and moderate magnitude earthquakes occur along a narrow belt referred as the Himalayan Seismic Belt (Gahalaut, 2000). It coincides with the topographic front between Lesser and Higher Himalayas and zone of increased gradient of Himalayan rivers (Seeber, 1983). The palaeochannel development is characterized by a gradual westward shift of the diversion points along some preferred lines following the trend of echelon faults mapped in the region. The structural map, contour map of the basement and cross-sections showing Neogene- Quaternary formations suggest a regional tilt from east to west along the Malda-Kishanganj fault, which got accentuated in the recent past due to reactivation along the faults /lineaments resulting in westward migration of the river. Alluvial fans of different ages have developed sequentially. During the Late Pleistocene, the Kosi river has developed an alluvial fan radiating from the diversion point located near Tribeni. In the early Holocene, its diversion point moved downstream and at present it is located further downstream near Birpur, Bihar. As the rigid landmass was uplifted, the diversion point moved in northeastern direction relative to the foreland basin, flow of the discharge was redirected and diverged in other rivers of the Kosi group. Thus, older mountain front fan moved westward in response to Indian plate movement as evidenced from a general skewness in the shape of the fans. The great earthquake of 1934 (intensity 8.3, epicentre: Madhubani) was the manifestation of this ongoing activity in this region. The shifting rates are highest in period before and after the 1933 earthquakes. Similarly, other diversion points on the margin of the fan moved westwards in response to accelerated erosion due to increased sediment load and discharge. Reactivation of fault was accentuated by the increased tectonic activity within the Madhubani depression. The downstream movement of diversion point and flood breaches in response to neotectonic movement is the main cause behind the westwards shifting of Kosi river. All the rivers in the area including Kosi, Baghmati, Kamla-Balan and their numerous small tributaries are migrating westwards towards the most effective centre of the subsidence associated with the subsiding Madhubani depression on the west. Baghmati is also migrating westward, as the palaeochannels are mostly concentrated on its eastern side of the present channel. Basement topography favours separation of Baghmati river from Kosi and Kamal-Balan rivers in the form of Sitamarhi ridge in the north. Although, Baghmati is moving westwards but towards Gandak depression. Kamla-Balan river has least shifting tendency among the above mentioned rivers as evidenced by very few palaeochannels around them. This migration of rivers in this area will remain continue until they reach their centre of subsidence located near Darbhanga. These rivers will finally form convergence point over a suitable point or line near their center of subsidence. Once the Kosi river approaches this position, its westward shifting rate will decrease. There is a need to include the basement tectonics and buried sand body geometry in formulating the flood management plan for this region. It seems Kamla- Balan river system is nearest to this center of subsidence, although, detailed high resolution geophysical surveys are required to know its exact three-dimensional subsurface geometry and to resolve lateral and vertical changes in subsurface structure and stratigraphy on a scale comparable to the variations in structures observed at the surface. Conclusions The integrated study using Remote sensing, Geological/Geophysical data and GIS has revealed that the subsurface structures have played a significant role in shaping the contemporary surface of the Kosi megafan. Direction of faults and lineaments in this region follow the trend of discontinuities in the basement as revealed by the gravity and seismic data. These weaker zones of basement have suffered periodic reactivation. Some of these phases were manifested as the strong earthquakes of 1883, 1934 and 1988 and hotsprings of Monghyr, Bihar. Many smaller earthquakes (less than 5 intensity on Richter scale) have also been recorded in the foothill region. The discharge of the Saptkosi was diverted sequentially in steps into other rivers of Kosi group covering a stretch of around 250 km between Mahanada and present Kosi river. Quaternary faults associated with Begusarai faults, regional E-W tilt of the basement towards the Madhubani depression and subsidence due to the basement faults on their peripheral region helped Kosi river in maintaining its continuous westward migration. Due to continued subsidence of the fault-bounded Madhubani depression in the NW, faults have been rejuvenated and their spatial positions were modified. Misalignment of single and paired channels directly related to amount of fault displacement. Kosi river’s tendency to migrate westward was intensified by the presence of the echelon faults on the various diversion points and flood breaches (figure 3). Figure 3 Geomorphological map showing shifting courses of Kosi river Kosi flood plain overlies a highly uneven basement formed by the major tectonic features such as Purnea depression, Monghyr-Saharasa (M-S) ridge and Madhubani depression. M-S ridge is traversed by the basement faults such as NNW-SSE trending Kishanganj and Malda basement faults in the east and the Bhawanipur fault in the west. These basement faults such as Motihari, Begusarai, Malda are associated with intricate pattern of Quaternary fault systems that affect the rivers course wherever topographic conditions become favourable. Such channel entrenchment, diversion and shifting have been observed all over the Gangetic Plain. Catchment of Kosi river is covered by metamorphic rocks. Phyllites and schists are present throughout the entire stretch of seismically active Central and Higher Himalayas. Thus, physiography and climatic conditions make phyllites and schists unstable at the higher elevations in Kosi catchment and contribute a lot of sediments. Silt and clay finally choke the Kosi channels in the alluvial plain. The water in these channels tend to avoid the existing arrangement and new passageways are found or created in the form of flood breaches, diversion points and channel spills at suitable locations in its middle course where slope and gradient is sufficiently reduced. These locations are generally found in the areas where fault intersections occur along the Kosi course. Direction of faults and lineaments in this region follow the trend of discontinuities in the basement as revealed by the gravity and seismic data. These weaker zones of basement have suffered periodic reactivation. The discharge of the Saptkosi was diverted sequentially in steps into other rivers of Kosi group covering a stretch of around 250 km between Mahanada and present Kosi river. A Quaternary fault system has been identified in the region. This is an echelon pattern of surface faults associated with Begusarai fault. Within this fault zone, various geomorphic features are found which have their origin in both the lateral and vertical movement of fault-bounded slices, as well as in the persistent strike-slip. In regions where tectonic activity is less pronounced, streams generally flow more or less perpendicular to the adjacent highlands (Figure 4). Figure 4 Map showing different levels of tectonic influence and shifting of Kosi river Acknowledgements Author is thankful to Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, Vice-Chancellor, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi for providing facilities to carry out the study. He would also like to thank Dr. H.C.. Pandey, VC Emeritus, BIT, Mesra for his constant encouragement. References Agarwal, R.P. & BHOJ, R., (1986), “Geomorphological and structural analysis of Malda-Purnea graben based on remote sensing data”, unpublished report of ONGC, Dehradun, India. In: “Evolution of Kosi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1992, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1891-1901. Agarwal, R.P. & Bhoj, R.., (1992), “Evolution of Kosi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1992, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1891-1901. Bilham, R. (1995). Current Science, vol. 69, pp. 101-127. in “Recent Indian Earthquakes”, by P. Mandal, Rastogi, B.K. and Gupta, G.K., Current Science, 2000, vol. 79, no.9, pp. 1334-1346. Chitale, S.V. (1970). “River channel patterns”, Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 96 (HY1), pp. 201-222. Dasgupta, S. (1993). “Tectono-Geological framework of the eastern Gangetic Foredeep”, Geological Survey of India, Special publication, vol. 31, pp.. 59-69. Dunn, J.A., Auden, J.B. & Ghosh, A.M.N. (1939), “Earthquake effects”, Memoir of Geological Survey of India, vol. 73, pp. 27-48. Gahalaut, V.K. & Kalpna, (2000), “On the occurrence of small and moderate earthquakes of the Himalayan Seismic belt”, Current Science, vol. 79, no. 7, pp. 1004-1007. Geddes, A.. (1960). “The alluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Its mapping and geographic significance”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, vol. 28, pp. 253-276. Gole, C.V. & Chitale, S.V., (1996), “Inland delta building activity of Kosi river”, Journal of the Hydraulic Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 92, pp. 111-126. Rao, M.B.R. (1973). “The subsurface Geology of the Indo-Gangetic Plains”, Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 14, pp. 217-242. Raval, U. (2000), “Laterally homogeneous seismic vulnerability of the Himalayan arc: A consequence of cratonic and mobile nature of under thrusting Indian crust”, Current Science, vol. 78, no.5, pp. 546-549. Sabeer, L. & Armbruster, J.G. (1984). “Great detachment earthquakes along the Himalayan arc and long- term forecasting”, Tectonophysics, vol. 92, pp. 335-367. Sastri, V.V., Bhandari, L.L., RAJU, A.T.R.. & Datta, A.N. (1971). “Tectonic framework and subsurface stratigraphy of the Ganga basin”, Journal of Geological society of India, vol.12, pp. 222-233.

KOSI RIVER

2008-10-26T23:40:00.000-07:00

Tectonic Zonation using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) Techniques: A case study of Kosi Fan, India-- Ajay Srivastava Lecturer Department of Remote Sensing Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi, India .
River Kosi once called the “Sorrow of Bihar” exhibits unique character. During the past few hundred years (since 1731) Kosi has shifted its course from east to west to a distance of 210 miles (Gole and Chitale, 1966), leaving behind vast tracts of uncultivable land. The magnitude of the shifting of Kosi river is comparable to only Yellow river also known as “Sorrow of China”, which shifted 375 miles north from its 1852 position. Kosi is an antecedent river older than the mighty Himalayas and finds place in many Hindu mythological texts as a very agile river called “Kausiki”. Kausiki was a mermaid goddess worshiped by the citizens of “Matsya Pradesh” as described in the “Vishnu Purana”. Kosi and its tributaries originating in the northern Tethyan Himalayan zone cut across the Great Himalayan and Lesser Himalayan Ranges in a number of deep gorges and ultimately flow into the great alluvial flood plains of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a deep crustal trough filled with Quaternary sediments. Its origin and structure are closely related with the rise of the Himalayas. Changes are still taking place at the bottom of this trough giving rise to occasional earthquakes in the north Indian plains. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into four shelf areas separated from one another by three major transverse ‘highs’ in the basement. The highs are known from west to east, as Delhi- Hardwar Ridge, Faizabad Ridge and Monghyr-Saharsa Ridge. Many smaller sub-swells and sub- depressions namely: Sarda depression, Gandak depression, Muzaffarpur uplift, Sitamarhi ridge, Madhubani depression, Purnea depression have been recorded during geophysical surveys conducted for petroleum explorations in the last few decades. These high or basement upwarps can act as water divide or in other words, the basement depressions can act as centre of attraction for the rivers and ground water. Neotectonic movements affect regional slope by sinking or uplifting a particular block of the crust. A change of gradient, even if very slow, affects the direction and rapidity of surface run-off and river discharge. Kosi and its Himalayan tributaries Kosi river originates in Tibetan Himalayas at a height of 18,000 feet and drains a catchment of 22988 sq. miles in mountainous terrain with a length of only 450 miles. While Ganga, the longest river of India has a length of 1600 miles with its source at Gangotri glacier situated at a height of 13,000 feet. Size of
catchment area (7,330 sq miles) makes it only third biggest Himalayan river in India after Indus and Brahmaputra rivers. It has seven tributaries: Arun Kosi, Sun Kosi, Tamur, Indrawati, Bhotia, Doodhi and Tamba (Figure 1). Its three major tributaries, Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi and Tamur join at Tribeni (Nepal) to form Saptkosi. Saptkosi cuts it path through a 6 miles long deep gorge in the Central Himalayan range and debauches into the plains near Chatra in Bihar where it is called Kosi. Lower down the Chatra, Kosi travels for about 198 miles in an alluvial plain to meet the river Ganges near Kursela, Bihar. During April and May sporadic thunderstorms start in the hills. The bulk of the rain, about 75-80 percent of the total fall occurs during the south-west monsoon period. The maximum rainfall occurs during monsoon in July and August. The highest discharge in the Saptkosi River, so far observed is 8,55,237 cusecs in the August 1954 whereas 1948 recorded the lowest discharge of 9,106 cusecs. The average annual runoff of Saptkosi is 40.4 million-acre feet and approximately half of which is contributed by Sunkosi. The normal flood discharge of Kosi usually remains from 1.5 to 2.0 lakh cusecs. About 75 to 84 percent of the total run-off occurs in the monsoon months of June to October. The annual run-off of Saptkosi has ranged from 34,32 to 49,24 million-acre feet. The annual total sediment load in the Kosi has varied from 47.9 thousand-acre feet (1961) to 229.8 thousand-acre feet (1954). The average annual sediment load for 1948 to 1964 comes to about 80 thousand-acre feet. The average concentration of coarse, medium and fine grained sediments during a year are 15.96, 28.22 and 55.80 percent respectively, and on an average total sediments are 0.20 percent of the total run-off. About 95 percent silt load comes down the river during the monsoon floods and only 05 percent of the sediments come down in the remaining non- monsoon months. The total run-off during the non-monsoon months, however is on an average about 19 percent of the total annual run-off. Figure 1 Tectonic map of Malda-Purnea graben (agrawal and Bhoj, 1992) Basement Structures Kosi flood plain overlies a highly uneven basement formed by the major tectonic features such as Purnea depression, Monghyr-Saharasa (M-S) ridge and Madhubani depression. Two basement ridges, namely the Bansihan uplift and Mongher-Saharsa ridge are present in the east and west of the graben respectively (Figure 2). Monghyr-Saharasa ridge is a prominent basement high overlain by a thin layer of sediments. This basement swell in the Eastern Gangetic Plain is also considered an extension of the Lesser Himalayas. M-S ridge is traversed by the basement faults such as NNW-SSE trending Kishanganj and Malda basement faults in the east and the Bhawanipur fault in the west (Rao, 1973). All these faults follow straight line with the NNE-SSW direction except Malda-Kishanganj fault. The arcuate shaped Malda-Kishanganj shows a westward bending near M-S ridge. East Patna basement fault forms a graben like structure (Dasgupta et al., 1987) and extends into the Madhubani depression. Madhubani depression has a thick accumulation of sediments with a maximum thickness of 6 km while Purnea depression is situated further east of the M-S ridge but at a shallower depth. Eastern Gangetic Plain is neotectonically active as evidenced by occurrence of several major (1883, 1934 and 1988) and minor earthquakes in this region. The great earthquake of 1934 (intensity 8.4 Richter scale) had its epicenter in the Madhubani area and is thought to have occurred due to movements along a fracture zone between Motihari and Purnea (Dunn et al., 1939). The maximum intensity reached in 1988 Bihar-Nepal earthquake was IX in Modified Meracalli (MM) scale over an area northeast of Madhubani, Bihar (G.S.I.,
1933). The river basin in the region is subsiding at a rate of 1 m per 1000 years (Agarwal and Bhoj, 1992). The entire north Indian plate is subjected to NNE-SSW directed (approximately N-S) compression that resulted from post-collisional northward underthrusting of the Indian plate (Bilham, R. 1995). Figure 2 Shifting courses of Kosi river (Gole and Chitale, 1966) Kosi Megafan Kosi megafan has a spatial extent of 180 km long and 150 km wide. The area comprises of Gangetic alluvial in the center bounded by Himalayas in the north. Gondwana sediments and Rajmahal traps occur in the west whereas the Archaen rocks of Peninsular India define southern margin. The synoptic view offered by satellite images at almost any scale helped in identifying the various regional features on the image. Kosi megafan area is marked in the landscape by a series abandoned channels aligned lakes and offset stream channels. Positions of the palaeochannels of Kosi river can be easily identified on these images. At small scale enough to display the entire megafan an interesting network of interlocking channels is the principal feature to notice. The whole area can be broadly divided into piedmont zone, alluvial fan zone, alluvial plain and flood plain of Kosi river. A combination of factors is influencing the complex behaviour of Kosi. These are hydrological factors, sedimentological factors, tectonic factors related to Himalaya as well as response of basement structures to plate movement, regional slope and geomorphology etc.. Alluvial fan morphology is an indicator of active tectonics because the fan form reflects varying rates of tectonic processes such as uplift of the catchment on mountains along a fault or tilting of the fan surface. The fanhead deposition associated with the Kosi megafan suggest that the rate of uplift of the mountain front is higher relative to rate of stream-channel downcutting in the mountain. The westward skewed shape of Kosi megafan suggests that alluvial fan area is being tilted westward due to subsidence in Madhubani depression and uplift of Himalayas. Saptkosi and other small streams in the Lesser Himalayas are offset several kilometers along the thrust. The directional relationship between Kosi river and Saptkosi gorge has been modified due to uplift and subsidence related to neotectonic movement in this belt. The arcuate geometry of Malda-Kishanganj fault bears the testimony of such tectonic deformations and consequent modification in the spatial relationship of Kosi floodPlain and upper reaches. It appears that direction of the Saptkosi gorge in Himalayas has been changed from NNW-SSE to N-S and finally NNE-SSW with the continued northward movement of the Indian plate. Huge amount of discharge running down to Kosi alluvial plain is significantly affected by the spatial position of the channel in the Himalayas. In fact, it follows the direction of Saptkosi river. As the direction of the Saptkosi channel in Himalayas gradually changed so the flow direction of water in the active channel of Kosi river also changed. The migration of Kosi took place in three major steps. In the first episode, it was under the influence of Malda-Kishanganj fault and Purnea depression. It was a tributary of Mahananda river with its confluence near Lava. A tectonic disturbance caused movement along M-S pair fault and upliftment of the block on the eastern margin of the M-S ridge with consequent change in the direction of Kosi channel. Kosi shifted its channel to attain a preferred N-S direction in this stage. Similarly, next tectonic disturbance changed its hydrologic preferences by modifying the regional slope and channel morphology and thus helped it to move in western direction. Its westward migration was further supported by E-W regional slope and presence of many Quaternary surface faults forming diversion point and flood breaches. It has maximum shifting tendency during this phase that took place in the twentieth century. One possible mechanism of Kosi shifting may be by sequential discharge diversion in various channels of Kosi group of rivers during its early phases of tectonic instability. The amount of discharge in its earlier active channel was reduced gradually due to shifting of the diversion points or river course in response to the uplift of M-S ridge. Later, its migration was supported by the hydrological factors, further shifting of the diversion points, topography and basement tectonics. Thus, it can be concluded that Kosi shifted its channel in much different way than the previously suggested mechanisms where whole Kosi river shifted its position from the very beginning due to silting and braiding. Tectonic Control on Kosi River A Quaternary fault system has been identified in the region. This is an echelon pattern of surface faults associated with Begusarai fault. Within this fault zone, various geomorphic features are found which have their origin in both the lateral and vertical movement of fault-bounded slices, as well as in the persistent strike-slip. These features include sag depressions and sag ponds, offset and deflected stream channels, flood breaches, linear ridges, scarps, fault-controlled drainage. Along its entire course, the fault zone exhibits peculiar, anomalous drainage patterns. In regions where tectonic activity is less pronounced, streams generally flow more or less perpendiculr to the adjacent highlands. Movement within the network of branching and anostomosing fault blocks controls the lateral movement of river course. The dominantly lateral slip across the fault zone and rate of slip, from 1 cm to a few centimetres per year, compel stream channels to offset right laterally. River course is offset along the trend of the smaller faults while maintaing the continuity of flow along Begusarai fault. In addition to the effect of lateral slip, streams are extremely sensitive to vertical slip on fault and warping of the land surface. Only a small vertical movement of a block or a change in the slope and aspect of the land surface on the downstream side of a fault crossing a stream may divert the stream either to the left or right of the main stream. Many diversion point and flood breaches all along its middle course have been mapped. All the diversion points and flood breaches occur on the intersection point of Begusarai fault with other echelon faults in its vicinity. Earliest diversion point possibly formed during the Late Pleistocene is located at the Himalayan foothills where channels present a radial pattern. This diversion point represents the intersection of Nahan, Malda, Bhawanipur and the Begusarai faults at the foothills of Himalayas. Kosi group of rivers includes many relatively smaller tributaries or its abandoned channels originating from the first diversion point. One of the branches of Kosi (on the eastern margin of the megafan) confluence with Ganga River near Manihari, 15 km south-west of Lava and probably has been influenced by Kishanganj fault. While other two located in the central and western part of the Kosi megafan meet present channel of Kosi River. These two rivers flow in a direction close to the trend of Bhawanipur and Begusarai fault respectively. These smaller rivers show characters similar to the present active channel of Kosi river but with a gradual decrease of discharge form east to west. Convergence point is fixed at a location near Kursela, which is close to the intersection of Bhagalpur and Bhawanipur faults. The rate of movement of Kosi river is highly variable irrespective of the discharge and sediment load indicating an obvious control of tectonics. There was a high rate (0.7 miles/yr, 1770-1825) when several earthquakes have occurred in adjacent Nepal Himalayas in 1720, 1764 and 1826. The rate of movement of Kosi River was relatively less when it was flowing in Purnea graben (prior to 1956 position). Its movement was further slowed by Bhawanipur fault marking the boundary between M-S ridge and the Purnea graben. Once Kosi river crossed this region its rate of movement gradually increased again. Kosi river behaviour has been different on either side of the north-south line (Chatra-Kursela) which is collinear with the Bhawanipur fault and the eastern margin of M-S ridge. Gole and Chitale (1966) have explained this change of behavior in terms of river’s preference for shortest route in the eastern side and the most favourable slope on the west of the megafan. There was sudden increase in the rate of movement (1.6 mile/yr) when it encountered few cross faults over the Begusarai fault. This stage (1922- 1933) coincided with the phase of intense tectonic disturbances going on within Madhubani depression related to pre and post seismic movements of 1933 earthquake. This region is tectonically active and experienced many strong ground motions in the past. Such earthquakes and associated seismic motions resulted in the lowering of the basin in Madhubani depression and relative upliftment of M-S ridge area due to reactivation of pair faults forming M-S ridge. This relatively lowered surface in the west attracted Kosi river to deposit its sediments. Presence of surface faults and an arcuate shape of Malda-Kishanganj fault support this mechanism. The present rate of shifting has been calculated with the help of satellite images of year 1991 and 1998. Principal component 2 image has been found to enhance active channels very effectively. Principal component images have been used to classify the water bodies and then change detection of the active channel has been performed. River shifted around 1 mile in this period and 24 miles since 1950 position. Direct geologic evidence of Quaternary faulting and land subsidence has been observed at various places in Saharasa and Begusarai districts. These observations support the view that the faults/lineaments mapped in the region are tectonic in origin and form part of a Late Quaternary fault system located in an area showing active seismicity. These features indicate that the neotectonic movement of mountain uplift and basement tectonics have influenced the diversion point and flood breaches. A belt of small and moderate magnitude earthquakes occur along a narrow belt referred as the Himalayan Seismic Belt (Gahalaut, 2000). It coincides with the topographic front between Lesser and Higher Himalayas and zone of increased gradient of Himalayan rivers (Seeber, 1983). The palaeochannel development is characterized by a gradual westward shift of the diversion points along some preferred lines following the trend of echelon faults mapped in the region. The structural map, contour map of the basement and cross-sections showing Neogene- Quaternary formations suggest a regional tilt from east to west along the Malda-Kishanganj fault, which got accentuated in the recent past due to reactivation along the faults /lineaments resulting in westward migration of the river. Alluvial fans of different ages have developed sequentially. During the Late Pleistocene, the Kosi river has developed an alluvial fan radiating from the diversion point located near Tribeni. In the early Holocene, its diversion point moved downstream and at present it is located further downstream near Birpur, Bihar. As the rigid landmass was uplifted, the diversion point moved in northeastern direction relative to the foreland basin, flow of the discharge was redirected and diverged in other rivers of the Kosi group. Thus, older mountain front fan moved westward in response to Indian plate movement as evidenced from a general skewness in the shape of the fans. The great earthquake of 1934 (intensity 8.3, epicentre: Madhubani) was the manifestation of this ongoing activity in this region. The shifting rates are highest in period before and after the 1933 earthquakes. Similarly, other diversion points on the margin of the fan moved westwards in response to accelerated erosion due to increased sediment load and discharge. Reactivation of fault was accentuated by the increased tectonic activity within the Madhubani depression. The downstream movement of diversion point and flood breaches in response to neotectonic movement is the main cause behind the westwards shifting of Kosi river. All the rivers in the area including Kosi, Baghmati, Kamla-Balan and their numerous small tributaries are migrating westwards towards the most effective centre of the subsidence associated with the subsiding Madhubani depression on the west. Baghmati is also migrating westward, as the palaeochannels are mostly concentrated on its eastern side of the present channel. Basement topography favours separation of Baghmati river from Kosi and Kamal-Balan rivers in the form of Sitamarhi ridge in the north. Although, Baghmati is moving westwards but towards Gandak depression. Kamla-Balan river has least shifting tendency among the above mentioned rivers as evidenced by very few palaeochannels around them. This migration of rivers in this area will remain continue until they reach their centre of subsidence located near Darbhanga. These rivers will finally form convergence point over a suitable point or line near their center of subsidence. Once the Kosi river approaches this position, its westward shifting rate will decrease. There is a need to include the basement tectonics and buried sand body geometry in formulating the flood management plan for this region. It seems Kamla- Balan river system is nearest to this center of subsidence, although, detailed high resolution geophysical surveys are required to know its exact three-dimensional subsurface geometry and to resolve lateral and vertical changes in subsurface structure and stratigraphy on a scale comparable to the variations in structures observed at the surface. Conclusions The integrated study using Remote sensing, Geological/Geophysical data and GIS has revealed that the subsurface structures have played a significant role in shaping the contemporary surface of the Kosi megafan. Direction of faults and lineaments in this region follow the trend of discontinuities in the basement as revealed by the gravity and seismic data. These weaker zones of basement have suffered periodic reactivation. Some of these phases were manifested as the strong earthquakes of 1883, 1934 and 1988 and hotsprings of Monghyr, Bihar. Many smaller earthquakes (less than 5 intensity on Richter scale) have also been recorded in the foothill region. The discharge of the Saptkosi was diverted sequentially in steps into other rivers of Kosi group covering a stretch of around 250 km between Mahanada and present Kosi river. Quaternary faults associated with Begusarai faults, regional E-W tilt of the basement towards the Madhubani depression and subsidence due to the basement faults on their peripheral region helped Kosi river in maintaining its continuous westward migration. Due to continued subsidence of the fault-bounded Madhubani depression in the NW, faults have been rejuvenated and their spatial positions were modified. Misalignment of single and paired channels directly related to amount of fault displacement. Kosi river’s tendency to migrate westward was intensified by the presence of the echelon faults on the various diversion points and flood breaches (figure 3). Figure 3 Geomorphological map showing shifting courses of Kosi river Kosi flood plain overlies a highly uneven basement formed by the major tectonic features such as Purnea depression, Monghyr-Saharasa (M-S) ridge and Madhubani depression. M-S ridge is traversed by the basement faults such as NNW-SSE trending Kishanganj and Malda basement faults in the east and the Bhawanipur fault in the west. These basement faults such as Motihari, Begusarai, Malda are associated with intricate pattern of Quaternary fault systems that affect the rivers course wherever topographic conditions become favourable. Such channel entrenchment, diversion and shifting have been observed all over the Gangetic Plain. Catchment of Kosi river is covered by metamorphic rocks. Phyllites and schists are present throughout the entire stretch of seismically active Central and Higher Himalayas. Thus, physiography and climatic conditions make phyllites and schists unstable at the higher elevations in Kosi catchment and contribute a lot of sediments. Silt and clay finally choke the Kosi channels in the alluvial plain. The water in these channels tend to avoid the existing arrangement and new passageways are found or created in the form of flood breaches, diversion points and channel spills at suitable locations in its middle course where slope and gradient is sufficiently reduced. These locations are generally found in the areas where fault intersections occur along the Kosi course. Direction of faults and lineaments in this region follow the trend of discontinuities in the basement as revealed by the gravity and seismic data. These weaker zones of basement have suffered periodic reactivation. The discharge of the Saptkosi was diverted sequentially in steps into other rivers of Kosi group covering a stretch of around 250 km between Mahanada and present Kosi river. A Quaternary fault system has been identified in the region. This is an echelon pattern of surface faults associated with Begusarai fault. Within this fault zone, various geomorphic features are found which have their origin in both the lateral and vertical movement of fault-bounded slices, as well as in the persistent strike-slip. In regions where tectonic activity is less pronounced, streams generally flow more or less perpendicular to the adjacent highlands (Figure 4). Figure 4 Map showing different levels of tectonic influence and shifting of Kosi river Acknowledgements Author is thankful to Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, Vice-Chancellor, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi for providing facilities to carry out the study. He would also like to thank Dr. H.C.. Pandey, VC Emeritus, BIT, Mesra for his constant encouragement. References Agarwal, R.P. & BHOJ, R., (1986), “Geomorphological and structural analysis of Malda-Purnea graben based on remote sensing data”, unpublished report of ONGC, Dehradun, India. In: “Evolution of Kosi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1992, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1891-1901. Agarwal, R.P. & Bhoj, R.., (1992), “Evolution of Kosi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance”, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1992, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1891-1901. Bilham, R. (1995). Current Science, vol. 69, pp. 101-127. in “Recent Indian Earthquakes”, by P. Mandal, Rastogi, B.K. and Gupta, G.K., Current Science, 2000, vol. 79, no.9, pp. 1334-1346. Chitale, S.V. (1970). “River channel patterns”, Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 96 (HY1), pp. 201-222. Dasgupta, S. (1993). “Tectono-Geological framework of the eastern Gangetic Foredeep”, Geological Survey of India, Special publication, vol. 31, pp.. 59-69. Dunn, J.A., Auden, J.B. & Ghosh, A.M.N. (1939), “Earthquake effects”, Memoir of Geological Survey of India, vol. 73, pp. 27-48. Gahalaut, V.K. & Kalpna, (2000), “On the occurrence of small and moderate earthquakes of the Himalayan Seismic belt”, Current Science, vol. 79, no. 7, pp. 1004-1007. Geddes, A.. (1960). “The alluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Its mapping and geographic significance”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, vol. 28, pp. 253-276. Gole, C.V. & Chitale, S.V., (1996), “Inland delta building activity of Kosi river”, Journal of the Hydraulic Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 92, pp. 111-126. Rao, M.B.R. (1973). “The subsurface Geology of the Indo-Gangetic Plains”, Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 14, pp. 217-242. Raval, U. (2000), “Laterally homogeneous seismic vulnerability of the Himalayan arc: A consequence of cratonic and mobile nature of under thrusting Indian crust”, Current Science, vol. 78, no.5, pp. 546-549. Sabeer, L. & Armbruster, J.G. (1984). “Great detachment earthquakes along the Himalayan arc and long- term forecasting”, Tectonophysics, vol. 92, pp. 335-367. Sastri, V.V., Bhandari, L.L., RAJU, A.T.R.. & Datta, A.N. (1971). “Tectonic framework and subsurface stratigraphy of the Ganga basin”, Journal of Geological society of India, vol.12, pp. 222-233.

2008-09-25T05:36:00.000-07:00

BIHAR FLOOD

2008-09-25T05:33:00.000-07:00

Nepal blames India for fresh flooding

Baba Karu Khirhar

2008-07-28T01:45:00.000-07:00

Situated at Mahpura village in the Mahisi Block, Baba Karu Khirhar Temple, named after a great Saint, is a renowned pilgrim center where people come on pilgrimage also from Assam, Bengal and Uttar Pradesh besides the neighbouring districts of Bihar.

Biratpur

2008-07-28T01:44:00.000-07:00

This village is at about 9-kms from Sonbarsa railway station and is famous for a temple of Goddess Chandika. Tradition associates this temple with stories of the Mahabharata. It is said that this temple was situated at the main gate of the palace of King Virat of Mahabharat. There is an inscription on a stone-pillar lying outside the temple suggesting that King Kumudanand Chandra remodeled the temple in the 11th century. There is no doubt about antiquity of this place. Also, there are two stupas supposed to be Buddhistic. The present temple is said to be about 300 years old that attracts many pilgrims. There is also a hillock about half a kilometer west to the temple and people believe that Kunti and her five sons, the Pandavas, used to reside at this place.

Basantpur

2008-07-28T01:43:00.000-07:00

This is a village in the Sonbarsa police station at a distance of about 24-kms from Madhepura to the south. There are ruins of a fort. According to legends, it was the residence of King Virat of Mahabharat fame. Kichak, the brother-in-law of King Birat wanted to entice away Draupadi, the wife of the Pandavas and for that Bhim killed him at this village.

Ramnagar

2008-07-28T01:42:00.000-07:00

This is a village in Kumarkhand block situated 16-kms from Murliganj railway station. It is known for the temple of Goddess Kali. A large fair is held on the occasion of Kali-puja every year.

Srinagar

2008-07-28T01:40:00.000-07:00

This village is in Singheshwar at a distance of about 9-kms to the northwest of Madhepura town. There are the remains of two forts in the village. The legend is that one Raja Sri Deva used to live in the village. There are two large tanks on the west and southwest of the fort ruins at Srinagar, one of them is called Harsar and the other is called Gupa. The temple has a Shiva Lingam and stone pillars with an inscription.

Singheshwar Asthan

2008-07-28T01:35:00.001-07:00

Singheshwar Asthan has been the abode of Lord Shiva from the ancient times. Though there are various stories about the establishment of the Singheswar temple, the one that is widely and popular accepted, relates to Rishya Shring. In ancient time Singheshwar was situated on the bank of the river Kosi and was surrounded by dense and lush green forest. It was ideally situated for ‘Tapasya’ and it is here that Vibhandak Rishi along with his son Rishya Shring devoted all his time in deep meditation the son, Rishya Shring knew none except his father Rishi Vibhandak. The pleasure girls sent by king Rompada as the legend goes took Rishya Shring to ‘Malini’, the capital town of the kingdom of Anga. The kingdom and its subjects were in distress due to draught and the king was advised by the great scholars of the Vedas to bring Rishya Shring to Maline. The king was also advised to give his daughter Shanta in marriage to Rishya Shring. Rishya Shring is also credited to performing in Ayodhya, on the Bank of the river Saryu, first the Ashwamedh and then Putrayeshthi Yajna. The latter gave the four sons to king Dashrath of Ayodhya. It may also be mentioned that the Rishi had deep knowledge of medicines and some scholars suggest that the Rishi prepared effective medicines to be taken by the three Queens of King Dashrath. The results are well known. The present name of Singheshwar is therefore derived from the name of Rishya Shring who had his ashram on the bank of the Kosi and the place was known as ‘Shringeswar’ the corrupted form of which was latter known as Singheshwar. Rishya Shring (or Shringi Rishi) was a great devotee of Lord Shiva and he worshipped the Lord in his ashram. As the legend goes, the Shivalinga was excavated at the place where at present the magnificent temple is situated. It is said that a merchant, whose name was Hari Charan Choudhury, constructed this temple about 200 years ago. In fact, as established by experts, the Shivalinga is on a massive rock Fifteen- Sixteen feet deep. On the day of Shivaratri lakhs of pilgrim’s congregate here to offer Puja to Lord Shiva. In the common language of the area this is called ‘Jaldhari’. All the marriage rites for four days are performed according to the traditions prevalent in Mithila. The Singheshwar temple from the point of view of its religious importance is second only to Baidyanath Dham, which after the bifurcation of Bihar, went to enjoy the first position. Pilgrims from far and wide, from various neighbouring countries including Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet etc. reach here on this occasion of Mahashivratri. A fair next only to Biggest Cattle fair of Asia Sonepur is held on this occasion in which shopkeepers hailing from different states of the country and metropolitan cities come with their merchandise and earn huge profits. The pilgrims too enjoy their shopping, he biggest attraction being cattle such as elephants, horses, cows etc. The fair is managed for a fortnight by the State Government, which set up Attractive Industrial stalls and arranges entertainment show such as Theatres, Circus, Cinemas, roundabouts etc. Singheshwar Asthan, is situated at a distance of Eight kilometers from Dauram Madhepura (N.E Railway) which headquarters of the block of same name. The village, situated about 7-kms north, is famous for an ancient Shiva temple. According to the legend, Sringa Rishi established the Shiva lingam at the Singheshwar Asthan temple. It was Shring Rishi who had performed the Putrayeshti Yajna for King Dasharath and later was blessed with four sons. The impact of this legend is seen in a regular visit of a large number of barren women for offering puja here. A month-long fair is held on the occasion of ‘’Shivaratri” which is one of the largest in the state.

Chandi Asthan

2008-07-28T01:32:00.000-07:00

It is a religious place situated 8-kms north of Murliganj railway station. The village is famous throughout the district for its temple of Goddess Chandika, which draws a large number of devotees.

Saharsa

2008-07-28T01:18:00.000-07:00

Saharsa is the chief town and headquarters of the district of same name. It is also headquarters of the Kosi Division. The District formed a part of Mithila in ancient times. According to traditional account the ancient province of Tirabhukti included the old districts of Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Saharsa, Purnea, North Munger, North Bhagalpur and a large portion of the plains of Nepal (terai).

The Epic Mahabharata contains a story relating to the visit of Bhima, one of the five brothers of Pandavas, to a place called Biratpur; a village of that name still exists in the district of Saharsa. In the age of the Buddha, the district of Saharsa was included in the Anguttarap region. There was a famous Janapad of Apana in the Anguttarap region where Buddha stayed for about a month and delivered some of his important sermons. Mithila, capital of the Videha, lay in the east. Mithila also stood for the kingdom of Videha.

In the Puranas there are mythological explanations about the name of Mithila. It may be mentioned that it was named after Mithi, son of the founder of the Videhas, Nimi, also known as Videha. Mithila has been identified with this small town of Janakpur within the Nepal border. Tirabhukti and Videhas are synonymous terms. It was during the time of the Imperial Guptas that the whole region came to be known as Tirabhukti; Mithila has been a holy land because of its association with Sita.

In the some historians’ opinion the Angas might have also occupied a portion of the district. With the establishment of the Mauryan rule, we stand on a secure footing of history in so far as this district is concerned. It was in the first decade of the 20th century that a heard of punch marked coins was discovered from Gorhoghat. The hoard contained a good number of varieties. These coins were discovered in the wake of the construction of a new macadamized road running from Saharsa to Madhepura and date back to the Mauryan period. Some villages and places of Saharsa are associated with Pauranic legends and stories and in the absence of concrete historical evidences; it is not possible to accept all of them in to-to.

The Sungas supplanted the Mauryans and the Kanvas and their doest not seem to have been any major political change in this district. The Anga and the Mithila were under Magadha. Pundravardhana seems to have been the seat of heretic, which was the co-terminus of the Anguttarap. Mauryan rule in this area stands firmly confirmed by a Mauryan pillar, on the Banmankhi-Forbesganj Road at Sikligarh. The Sungas and the Kanvas passed off peacefully without marking any major change but the fact remains that the old central authority of the Nandas and the Mauryas was now a thing of the past. The Guptas also ruled on this district but they had to face the shattering blow of the Hunas. It is said that Mihirkula killed Vara, son of Baladitya, the valiant hero of Magadha and extinguished the vice regal families of the Dattas of Pundravardhanbhukti. The vacuum created by the disappearance of the mighty Guptas, came to be utilized by all contemporary powers and there was good deal of diplomatic maneuver on all fronts. Taking advantage of the situation, the Varmans of Kamrupa (Assam) extended their authority up to the confines of the Kosi. Bhaskarvarman of Assam was very powerful ruler among them. Sasanka of Bengal also succeeded in extending his authority over the whole of North Bihar and it was possibly after his death that Harsha could acquire sovereignty over Magadha and Mithila. The decline of the Gupta seems to have given support of fissiparous tendencies in North Bihar and Governors in their respective areas seen to have raised the banner of authority though under the cloak of subordination to the vanishing imperial authority. It fell to the lot of Harsha to subdue all of them and to bind them together for a very short time. The rule of Purnavarman over North Bihar included the present district of Saharsa. He is said to have preceded Harsha and succeeded Sasanka. The death of Harsha in 647 A.D. once again let loose the forces of disintegration. The decline of the Pala authorities in Bihar and Bengal was followed by the establishment of the Karnata dynasty in Mithila and Sena dynasty in Bengal. These two dynasties played a very predominant part in the history of Eastern India. Both the Karnatas and the Senas claimed suzerainty over the portions of the present district of Saharsa.

Nanyadeva, the founder of the Karnata dynasty extended his sway from Champaran to Purnea and after stabilizing his position in North Bihar he turned his attention towards Gauda. The Senas also coveted the same portion of North Bengal. The downfall of the Karnatas and the disappearance of the Oinwaras paved the way for the expansion of Muslim power in the district afterwards. The British also later displaced Muslim rulers and this district slipped into the hands of English rulers from whom it was freed on 15th August 1947 with the rest of the country.

Ugratara Asthan

2008-07-27T21:29:00.000-07:00

Ugratara Asthan in Mahishi (or mahishmati named after mahish mardini bhagvati) is considered as gosauni (kuldevi) of mandan mishra.Towards the end of 14th century the elder rani of raja shiv singh ,rani padmavati constructed a devi temple here.

2008-02-26T03:40:00.000-08:00

Consisting of more than 100 settlements spread over 20 square kilometers and of around 1900 residents from some 40 nations live together as one community in Auroville. Auroville was founded by the ‘Mother’, a disciple of Sri Aurobindo, in February 1968 as an international cultural township on the outskirts of Puducherry where the present community people of different nationalities, from different ethnic, religious and cultural backgrounds, could live and work together in a spirit of mutual respect and collaboration.
The true purpose of Auroville is a place for the realization of international understanding, peace and human unity in diversity based upon an inner discovery and transformation of consciousness the way as shown by Sri Aurobindo and The Mother.
Matrimandir
For many Aurovilians, this sense of stability at the center is represented by the Matrimandir. The Matrimandir, a huge sphere which contains a white chamber in which sunlight pours down upon a glass globe, is both the geographical and spiritual center of Auroville. It is a place as The Mother described it, for individual concentration, for finding one’s true self. She called it “the soul of Auroville”.
Environmental Sustainability
Sustainability of the environment is an important term today. Restoration of the environment was taken up at Auroville by planting something like two million trees and shrubs where by an environmental consciousness developed.
Each major area of work in Auroville –education, afforestation, farming, village development, health care, town planning, business, arts and culture etc. - is organized by a group involved in that work. Auroville is a model of sustainable development which has evolved a way of living that sustains that which sustains us. Consequently water the first priority was fulfilled with wells dug by hand and fitted with primitive windmills to pump up water, a biological waste – water treatment plant and food produced at the township is pesticide free. Till today the things are simple and environmentally friendly. The Quiet community on the beach is a natural healing center.
Auroville is also home to the largest concentration of renewable energy technologies in India. A fifteen metre diameter solar bowl – one of the biggest in the world - provides steam for cooking in a community kitchen. Similarly a AV55 windmill and ferrocement biogas systems manufactured in Auroville workshops represent improvements upon existing designs. Yet others, like the wind generators or the ubiquitous solar panel –which is used for everything from pumping water, to charging electric vehicles provides domestic power.
The Township is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Human Resource Development since 1980 and is administered as per the provisions of the Auroville Foundation Act, 1988 passed by the Parliament of India.
As per the Auroville Foundation Act, the Foundation consists of a Governing Board, Residents Assembly and Auroville International Advisory Council.
According to the provisions of the Auroville Foundation Act, the Central Government provides grants to the Foundation for meeting the expenditure on the establishment, maintenance and development of Auroville under Plan & Non-Plan grants.
The Budget provision for the Foundation for the year 2006-07 is Rs. 327.00 lakh under Plan and Rs. 75.00 lakh under Non Plan. An expenditure of Rs. 200.75 lakh under Plan and Rs. 30.00 lakh under Non-Plan has been incurred so far during 2006-07.
A major boost to the development of the city is proposed during the Eleventh Five Year Plan, through proper housing and infrastructure facilities in an environmentally friendly atmosphere.
“Auroville belongs to nobody in particular, Auroville belongs to humanity as a whole….”runs the first line of the Auroville Charter.

WHY NOT BE AN ENTREPRENEUR?

2008-02-26T03:39:00.000-08:00

Looking for a job? Why not be an entrepreneur instead? The Small Scale Industries in India have a tremendous potential for turning our teeming millions into entrepreneurs. The small scale sector has a long history of promoting inclusive employment-oriented economic growth. The Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises are contributing significantly to employment generation and poverty alleviation. The micro and small enterprises constitute an important segment of Indian economy in terms of their contribution to country’s industrial production, exports, employment and creation of entrepreneurial base. The Central and State Governments have been implementing several schemes and programmes for promotion and development of these enterprises.
Training
Entrepreneurship development or training is one of the key elements for development and promotion of micro and small enterprises, particularly, for the new or first generation entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Development Programmes (EDPs) of various durations are being organized on a regular basis by a number of organizations e.g. national and state level Entrepreneurship Development Institutes (EDIs), Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Institutes (MSMEDIs) [earlier known as Small Industries Service Institutes (SISIs)], national and state level Industrial Development Corporations, Banks and other training institutions/agencies in private and public sector etc., to create new entrepreneurs by cultivating their latent qualities of entrepreneurship and enlightening them on various aspects necessary for setting up micro and small enterprises. Besides, various Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and private training institutions are also organising vocational training (VT) programmes, skill development programmes (SDPs) and entrepreneurship-cum-skill development programmes (ESDPs).
After Training, What?
There are wide spread variations in the success rate, in terms of actual setting up and successful running of enterprises, by the EDP/SDP/ESDP/VT trained entrepreneurs. It has been observed that new entrepreneurs generally face difficulties in availing full benefits under available schemes of the Government/financial institutions, completing and complying with various formalities and legal requirements under various laws/regulations, in selection of appropriate technology, tie-up with buyers and sellers etc. In order to bridge the gap between the aspirations of the potential entrepreneurs and the ground realties, there is a need to support and nurture the potential first generation entrepreneurs by giving them handholding support during the initial stages of setting up and managing their enterprises.
A Handholding Scheme
Shri Mahabir Prasad, Minister of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises launched a new handholding scheme for the prospective first generation entrepreneurs called ‘Rajiv Gandhi Udyami Mitra Yojana’ (RGUMY) in New Delhi on 7th February 2008. The scheme aims to provide handholding assistance to first generation or new entrepreneurs through lead agencies or Udyami Mitra, who shall provide guidance to the potential entrepreneurs and help them in completion of various tasks and formalities necessary for the establishment of the enterprise.
Objective
The objective of Rajiv Gandhi Udyami Mitra Yojana is to provide handholding support and assistance to the potential first generation entrepreneurs, who have already successfully completed EDP/SDP/ESDP/VT programmes, through the selected lead agencies i.e. 'Udyami Mitras', in the establishment and management of the new enterprise, in dealing with various procedural and legal hurdles and in completion of various formalities required for setting up and running of the enterprise.
Target Group
The scheme is targeted to assist potential first-generation entrepreneurs, who have already successfully completed entrepreneurship/skill development training of at least two weeks’ duration, or have undergone vocational training from ITIs.
Eligibility For Udyami Mitras
Under RGUMY, financial assistance would be provided to the selected lead agencies i.e. Udyami Mitras for rendering assistance and handholding support to the potential first generation entrepreneurs. Following agencies/ organizations can be appointed as the lead agency i.e.Udyami Mitra:
v Existing national level Entrepreneurship Development Institutions (EDIs);
v Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Institutes (MSMEDIs)/Branch MSMEDIs.
v Central/ State Government Public Sector Enterprises (PSEs) involved in promotion and development of MSEs e.g. National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC) and State Industrial Development Corporations etc.
v Selected State level EDIs and Entrepreneurship Development Centers (EDCs) in public or private sectors;
v Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
v Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) set up for cluster development involved in entrepreneurship development;
v Capable associations of MSEs/SSIs;
Role And Responsibilities Of Udyami Mitras
The selected lead agencies i.e. Udyami Mitras would be expected to render following services:
Networking, coordinating and follow up with various Government departments/agencies/ organizations and regulatory agencies on the one hand and with support agencies like Banks/financial institutions, District Industries Centers (DICs), technology providers, infrastructure providers on the other hand, to help the first generation entrepreneurs in setting up their enterprise. Udyami Mitras are expected to help the first generation entrepreneurs in:
Identification of suitable project/product/enterprise and preparation of bankable project report for the same; creation of the proprietorship firm/ partnership firm/ Company/ Society/ Self Help Group (SHG) etc.; filing of Memorandum (as prescribed under MSMED Act 2006); accessing bank loans, admissible capital subsidy/ assistance under various schemes of the Central /State Government and other agencies/organizations/financial institutions/ Banks etc. by networking with respective agencies; assistance and support in establishment of work shed/office; sanction of Power load/Electricity connection; selection of appropriate technology and installation of plant and machinery/office equipment etc.; obtaining various registrations/ licences/ clearances / No Objection Certificates (NOCs) etc. from the concerned regulatory agencies/ Government departments/ local bodies/ Municipal authorities etc.; allotment of Income Tax Permanent Account Number (PAN) and Service Tax/Sales Tax/ VAT registration etc.; sanction of working capital loan from the banks; arranging tie up with raw material suppliers; preparation and implementation of marketing strategy for the product/ service and market development; establishing linkage with a mentor for providing guidance in future and creation of web page and email address.
Once the enterprise has been successfully set up, the Udyami Mitras would also monitor and follow up on the functioning of the enterprise for a further period of minimum 6 months and provide help in overcoming various managerial, financial and operational problems.
Handholding Charges
Would you mind paying a small service charge for all the help rendered by the Udyami Mitras? Udyami Mitras would be provided handholding charges with nominal contribution from the entrepreneurs as under:
Category of enterprise
Handholding Charges (Rs.)

Govt. grant
Beneficiary’s Contribution
Total
(i) Service Enterprises
3000
1000*
4000
(ii)Manufacturing enterprises
(Micro i.e. Rs.25,00,000/-)
5000
1000*
6000
(iii)Manufacturing enterprises
(Small i.e. Rs.25,00,000/-)
5000
1000*+’X’
6000*+’X’

‘X’ = additional contribution to be paid @0.1 per cent of the project cost in excess of Rs.25,00,000/-, subject to a ceiling of Rs.10,000/-.
*For the beneficiaries from special categories i.e. SC/ST/physically handicapped/women/beneficiaries from North-Easter Region, the beneficiary’s contribution of Rs. 1,000/- shall also be provided as government grant.
The handholding charges shall be released to the Udyami Mitra in three instalments on achievement of various milestones/activities.
Monitoring And Evaluation
The progress of the scheme will be reviewed and monitored on a regular basis by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises as well as by the Commissioner/ Director of Industries of the concerned States/ UTs. The scheme will also be evaluated by an independent agency to assess its success/impact and to ascertain constraints/shortcomings, if any.

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