Law Enforcement and Forensics

2013-01-16T10:40:00.000-08:00

Analysis of Bloodstain Patterns

In order to be an efficient bloodstain pattern expert (BPE), a tremendous amount of education in this field is necessary, as well as a lot of experience. Many times bloodstain patterns overlap, the ability to determine this comes from the education and experience. There are also a tremendous number of various bloodstain patterns at a single crime scene. A BPE is crucial to this type of investigation but, it is important to weigh in all the evidence at the scene. This includes firearms analysis, if present, bullet trajectories, DNA, and all crime scene photos. (Young, 2011, pp. 287-289)

As previously mentioned, there are a tremendous number of bloodstain patterns. One of which consists of blood drops. When a blood drop falls from the force of gravity alone; it can make many different size drops when striking a surface. It is difficult to determine the length of the fall because you do not know what size the blood drop started with. Another variation is the angle of the surface in which it strikes, the texture of the surface, such as, the absorbency of the surface and its ability to distort the drop. When a blood drop is affected by a force other than gravity, it may change the characteristics of the blood drop as it strikes a surface. (Young, 2011, p. 289)

A blood drop in flight has slightly different characteristics than when affected by gravity alone. Blood in flight is caused by a force other than gravity, but is also affected by gravity as all things are. The velocity of the weapon directly affects the characteristics of the blood drops. The direction the instrument was traveling to the point of impact. A heavy blunt instrument can make blood spatters that are comparable to those of a bullet. (Young, 2011, pp. 289-292)

Now I will analyze the Molly Wright case. David Hill claimed that he had found Ms. Wright’s body in the kitchen. Mr. Hill had her blood on him which could be explained because he claimed that he had tried to revive her. This could have been evidence that exonerated him. The BPE in this case testified that he had blood spatters on him that could not possibly been made by the actions that he claimed that he had performed. Therefore, without Samantha Warna’s testimony, justice may not have been served. In my opinion, her testimony was extremely important in this case. When a person bludgeons another person, blood spatters may be deposited on the perpetrator in the form of fine mist. This depends on the weapon used and the force of the weapon at impact. There could also be large deposits of blood, again, depending on the weapon and the force used. (Young, 2011, pp. 297-298)

References

Young, T. (2011). Crime Scene Investigation: The forensic Technician's Field Manual. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

2013-01-12T23:11:00.001-08:00

Firearms Processing

January 12

2013

This paper concerns some of the safety practices of processing firearms.

Safety During Firearms Processing

Firearms Processing

If you are not familiar with a weapon that you discovered at a crime scene, you should consult somebody that is familiar with it. When rendering a firearm safe, you need to take special care not to point the weapon at anyone. While pointing the muzzle down and away from everyone, unload the weapon to render it safe. While doing this, you need to prevent making contact with any part of the weapon which may contain latent fingerprints. After safely unloading the weapon, place a zip tie through the magazine port and the action to prevent the weapon from functioning. On a revolver, place a zip tie through the cylinder after safely unloading it. (Young, 2011, p. 263)

When processing firearms evidence we need not forget about ammunition. On a semi-automatic firearm, after removing the magazine and placing in a paper bag, we need to eject the round from the chamber and place in a separate container. It is important to keep separate because the chamber may have inflicted certain marks which can possibly be used as evidence. On a revolver, the round directly in front of the chamber is labeled as number 1; the rounds then are removed in a clockwise pattern, with each sequential cartridge numbered accordingly. Long guns such as rifles and shotguns are no exception to the firearms safety rule. (Young, 2011, pp. 263-267)

Rifles like pistols make striations on the projectile caused by the lands and grooves in the barrel as well as any imperfections in the barrel. Shotguns are a little different in that they do not contain rifling in the barrel. Here we concentrate more on the casings to give us information about the firearm. We look for a firing pin indention in the base of the shell; this can be a signature of the weapon. (Young, 2011, pp. 267-271)

As far as collecting firearms evidence; any particle left by the firearm is to be collected and labeled separately. It is important for measurements and photographs be taken of all evidence. If a bullet is lodged in a surface, the entire surrounding surface should be removed and transported as evidence. When collection and processing of the evidence is done properly; it can help us link an expended projectile to a specific firearm. This in turn allows us to connect the firearm to an individual. It may also allow us to connect a specific firearm to an unrelated shooting. The way this is done is to make a control shot with the firearm, then with a comparison microscope, make comparisons between the evidence projectile and the control projectile. No two firearms make the exact striations on a projectile; therefore an expended projectile can be linked to a specific firearm. (Young, 2011, p. 271)

Not only do we compare projectiles, but spent cartridges can be compared and analyzed also. The extractor or ejector can make identifying markings on the casings as well as the impression made by the firing pin. (Young, 2011, p. 274)

Other evidence we can collect from firearms is residue left on surrounding areas from unburned powder. We can also find latent prints and DNA left on the firearm from the user. (Young, 2011, pp. 274-277)

References

Young, T. &. (2011). Crime Scene Investigations: The forensic technician's field manual. Boston: Prentice Hall.

2012-10-05T11:01:00.003-07:00

The Role of Forensic Photography

The main goal of forensic photography is to accurately depict and document a crime scene. This helps eliminate errors made by faulty drawings and/or memory or inadequate hand written notes. When photographing a crime scene, it should be done prior to disturbing the scene, or moving any items of evidence. (Young, 2011, p. 18)

During the processing of a vehicle related to a crime scene, the forensic technician should process it before it is removed from the crime scene. Overall photographs should be taken in a manner, which accurately depicts the location of the vehicle in relation to the crime scene. Close-up photos of the vehicle should include the VIN number and the license plate. In order to process the inside of the vehicle, it is best to have it moved to where it can be done in a lab. (Young, 2011, pp. 206-209)

When investigating impression evidence, the photographs should show as much depth as possible. They should be taken from all angles to compensate for the two-dimensional characteristics of photography.

References

Young, T. &. (2011). Crime Scene Investigations: The forensic technician's field manual.

Boston: Prentice Hall.

2012-10-05T09:22:00.002-07:00

Affirmative Action

As far as affirmative action goes, I believe it is necessary to an extent. It would be nice if we could leave it up to the universities and employers to be fair in the process of admitting and/or employing, but apparently, there has to be a certain amount of intervention by the government to minimize discrimination in these processes. Of course, if we could trust everyone to do what is right, we would not need laws and rules to start with. Therefore, I believe the passing of legislation concerning discrimination is needed, however, when it is carried too far, or allowed to run amuck, it is as bad as not having any laws governing such. When proper control is insufficient, it may prevent discrimination against a certain group, but it ends up discriminating against a different group.

You cannot eradicate discrimination no matter what you do. I believe it will always be present in our society, in one form or another, and to a certain degree, which may vary somewhat, but it will always be there. As long as there is a group that is different from other groups, there will be prejudices.

2012-09-26T12:42:00.002-07:00

State vs. Federal Rights

1. Delegated powers are the powers that the Constitution grants to the federal government. Most of the powers go to the legislative branch of the federal government while fewer powers are granted to the judicial branch. Raising funding is one example of legislative power. Implied powers are those powers not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, but are interpreted as such from the ones that are. An example of this would be taxes. This was made possible through legislation in the form of an Amendment to the Constitution, which, legislation, is a delegated power.

2. The U. S. Supreme Court usually resolves conflicts between states and the federal government, so I suppose this implies that the federal government takes precedence over the individual state governments. However, the federal government cannot force state governments to implement their regulatory laws.

3. In the case of McCullough v. Maryland (1819), the Court ruled that, as long as the federal government is within the limits of the Constitution, the state governments have no right to intervene. This case is extremely important to us because without it the states could bankrupt the federal government. Without the federal government, the states would likely strengthen their own governments and that would involve numerous inconsistencies resulting in possibly another civil war.

References

Tannahill, N. (2011). Think: American Government. Prentice Hill, NJ: Pearson

Education.

James Mcculloch v. The State of Maryland, John James 17 U. S. 316, 17 U. S. (4

Wheat) 316, 4 L. Ed 579, 1819 U. S. LEXIS 310, 4 A.F.T.R. (PH) 4491, 4

Wheat 316, 42 Cont. Cas. Fed. (CCH) 077,296

2012-09-25T11:11:00.002-07:00

Medical Marijuana

There exists a huge controversy over the medicinal use of marijuana. Should it be legalized? Some states have legalized it, although, the federal government says otherwise. One of the largest medical groups in the country endorsed the medicinal use of marijuana and is trying to elicit a favorable response from the federal government. The American College of Physicians claims that marijuana is useful in treating symptoms of weight loss due to the AIDS virus and to help negate certain side effects of some applications of chemotherapy. (NA, 2008)

I have nothing against the medicinal use of marijuana, but the federal government says it is illegal and until the law is revised to make it legal I will treat it as such. I do believe, however, that individual states should have jurisdiction over their own territory for legalization of its use.

References

NA. (2008). MD"s back use of medicinal marijuana. The Ottawa Citizen (Final Edition),

A10.

2012-09-23T09:41:00.001-07:00

The Future of Forensic Technology

The forensic technician must be concerned with factual evidence and refrain from expressing his or her personal opinions unless asked to do so. A forensic technician must also do everything in their power to locate, collect, and maintain the integrity of forensic evidence. They often respond to a crime scene to do just that. They are also responsible for photographing the crime scene and usually report all findings of fact to the investigator responsible for investigating that particular case... (Young, 2011, pp. 1-5)

The forensic technician is responsible for a number of different types of evidence. One such type is documentary evidence. This includes evidence such as pictures, documents, papers, and anything else associated with this type of evidence. Physical evidence is another type; this includes anything that can be touched, such as a firearm, knife, pry-bar, hammer, anything physical that is used to perpetrate a crime. This also includes anything illegal that the perpetrator possess. (Young, 2011, pp. 7-8)

The forensic technician is also quite often called into court to testify involving the facts that were found concerning forensic evidence of that particular case. The Daubert Trilogy is a collection of cases involving the admissibility of certain evidence. General acceptance is the prerequisite that determines the admissibility of such evidence and expert witness testimony. (Young, 2011, p. 8)

Forensic technology has advanced incredibly over the past few decades and hopefully it will continue to advance at the present rate, or perhaps at an accelerated rate. Forensic technology has come a long way, but apparently, it has not progressed to the point, which was desperately needed after the 911 attacks on the World Trade Center. There remain over 1,000 victims, from the attack, which have not been identified at the time of this writing. Families of those victims are hopeful for future advancements, in the technology adequate to identify loved ones, who remain unaccounted for. (Kugler, 2005)

One setback in the advancement in the field of forensic technology, at least in Australia, seems to be lack of organization, as well as lack of funding and nonspecific laws governing issues concerning the legal aspect of this field. (Robertson, 1993) From experience in our own country, especially the state of California, organization is a key factor to the efficient operation and advancement of forensic facilities and techniques.

References

Kugler, S. (2005, Feb 24). DNA test fail to find 1,161 victims of sept 11, families told limits of

forensics technology now reached 10,000 pieces of bodies sealed in hopes of future

advances. Toronto Star , 20-1-20.

Robertson, J. J. (1993). Future of Forensic Science. Police Technology: Asia Pacific Police

Technology Conference, (pp. 107-112). Australia.

Young, T. &. (2011). Crime Scene Investigations: The forensic technician's field manual

. Boston: Prentice Hall.

2012-09-20T21:28:00.001-07:00

The Court’s Ruling on Arizona Immigration Law

Illegal Immigration is an extremely important issue, especially in Arizona; this among other reasons is why I chose this particular issue. People who are not from, or never visited Arizona, sometimes fail to appreciate the necessity of such laws governing immigration. I will show its importance, as well as point out opposing views, to better equip those particular people with knowledge to better make an educated decision on the matter.

B’nai B’rith is in favor of the U. S. Supreme Court ruling that struck down three of the four provisions in the proposed 2010 Arizona Immigration Law. The organization fears wide spread racial profiling as a result of the passing of the fourth provision that requires officers to inquire about the immigration status of any individual detained whom they suspect to be here illegally. This helps support the issue of immigration from the law enforcement’s point of view because it makes provisions for officers to determine who is legal and who is not. (NA, 2012). I believe this organization is more in favor of the Court striking down three of the provisions rather than being in favor of the passing of one provision. The reason that I chose this particular reference is to help show an opposing viewpoint to my argument. I would show them all if I had the space and time because I feel I could successfully defend my beliefs against such arguments if given the opportunity. (B’nai B’rith, 2012)

A large group of protestors congregated at Independence Mall on June 27 to protest the passing of one of four provisions in the Arizona Immigration Law. They too feared widespread racial profiling because of the U. S. Supreme Court ruling on the law. State Representative Daryl Metcalfe made a statement concerning the ruling, he stated, “The only discrimination that is going to occur is between those who are legal and those who are not.” He also accused the speakers at the protest of using “straw man” arguments to support their claims. This is one more that is on the side of supporting the Arizona Immigration Law and is in favor of officers having the discretion of verifying the status of those who may be here illegally and one-step closer to remedying this situation of illegal immigrants. (Matza, 2012)

It seems that the state of New Mexico agrees in part with the views Arizona has on certain aspects of immigration, although the governor of New Mexico said that she did not agree with an Arizona type immigration law in New Mexico. Governor Martinez is attempting to repeal the law that allows illegal immigrants to possess a state issued driver’s license. She is also in favor of officers checking the immigration status of suspected criminals. This is one tactic, which will help officers in determining the status of illegal immigrants, before if they had a driver’s license there may not be a reasonable suspicion to check the immigration status of a person that they had detained for a minor traffic offense, or maybe just questioned regarding another offense committed. (The Deming Headlight, 2012)

One source reinforces the idea of the need for individual states to have more authority to integrate laws in immigration in respect to their respective state. This source helps reinforce my opinion on the need for tougher immigration laws that are governed by each individual state depending on their respective situation. The author of this article espouses a similar philosophy to that of my own concerning the Arizona Immigration Law. This source is a reference that will help strengthen my own opinions of this law. (Fuelner, 2012)

Salvador Valencia-Galvin, 44 of Washington was deported in 1996 for a narcotics charge from 1995. This man returned to the United States as an illegal alien and was once again, in 2012, charged with a drug charge. This time he was in possession of 50 grams of a substance which contained methamphetamine. (n/a, 2012)

The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) “requires the Attorney General to detain any removable alien who has committed a crime…relating to a controlled substance pending the conclusion of removal proceedings”. (Harvard Law Review, 2012)

Illegal immigration is a very serious matter here in Arizona. Human smuggling by “coyotes” is a big problem here. Coyotes not only smuggle illegal aliens into this country, but they also force them to carry their illegal drugs with them. There is a lot of violence and sexual abuse related to this matter and it needs to be dealt with. Officers in this area encounter such problems on a daily basis. There is a lot of biased publicity from activists who paint a picture of racial profiling which makes this fight against crime even more difficult. Sheriff Joe Arapaio, of Maricopa County, is dedicated in his attempt to eradicate the violence and sexual abuse resulting from the smuggling of illegal aliens. Identity theft and forgery are other crimes which are related to the smuggling of illegal aliens. (Allen, 2011)

The Christian Science Monitor published an article, which stresses the fact that a family of illegal aliens had the misfortune of having to return home after 20 years of working in this country illegally. They have four children, all born in the United States, ages 5, 7, 9, and 11; so things could not have been too bad for them. These children were attending school and their parents were working here illegally. All this article talks about is the hardships this family faced. What about the children that did not get assistance because their children were reaping the benefits? How did they pay for medical treatment? We all know that children of these ages usually need a number of shots and check-ups. This was all paid for by U. S. Citizens tax dollars. This article stated that in 2010 illegal immigrants sent $21.27 billion home to Mexico. I am not an expert in economics, but I am almost certain that this affected our economy. This article mentioned how it has helped the Mexican communities, how about how it affected children here. This is one aspect of illegal immigration which needs addressed. The fact that illegal immigrants are illegally obtaining our jobs as well as our tax dollars. (Llana, 2012)

A new rule in the state of Florida is aimed at restricting the amount of payments made by Medicare to recipients who are illegal immigrants. Although Medicare will continue to pay for emergency services to those individuals, once their condition is stable, Medicare will stop footing the bill. This will effect payments made from 2005 through the present and HMO’s will be required to pay back any payments made after the stabilization of those patients. This was said to save taxpayers billions of dollars. (Caputo, 2012) I believe that this is a step in the right direction. I believe that anyone is entitled to emergency care, but I do not believe that illegal immigrants should be allowed the provisions set aside for citizens who cannot afford health insurance. This puts too much of a burden on taxpayers and limits funding for those who are legally entitled to it.

Nearly two-thirds of the registered voters in Virginia, who were surveyed by Quinnipiac University Polling Institute, voted in favor of an Arizona type Immigration Law, particularly the portion allowing law enforcement officials the right to check the immigration status of any individual entering the criminal justice system. (Lewis, 2012)

With the Presidential election just around the corner, it seems that this issue is not only growing even more controversial, but it seems to be weighing in heavier on election criteria. I do not think that this one issue will decide the election, but I am sure that it will contribute substantially to the outcome.

References

Allen, L. &. (2011). Sheriff. Retrieved Aug 24, 2012, from ITT-Tech Virtual Library:

http://search.proquest.com/docview/ 862093984?accountid=27655

B'nai B'rith welcomes supreme court ruling on several arizona immigration law provisions, but concerns

about profiling remain. (2012, Jun 28). Retrieved July 6, 2012, from Targeted News Service:

http://search.proquest.com/docview/1022575625?accountid=27655

Caputo, M. O. (2012, Aug 18). "MEDICAID RULING DECRIED; Florida hospitals protest a decision limiting

payments to treat illegal immigrants.". Tampa Bay Times , 1A.

Fuelner, E. (2012, July 19). States do have a say; in immigration policy. Washington Times , B. 4.

Lewis, B. (2012, Jul 23). Virginia wants arizona-style immigration law. Daily Press , 6.

Llana, S. &. (2012, April 8). Home again in Mexico: Illegal immigration hits net zero. Christian Science

Monitor , p. N.PAG.

Matza, M. (2012, Jun 28). Demonstrators fill Independence Mall to protest Arizona's immigration law.

Retrieved July 7, 2012, from McClatchhy-Tribune Business News: http://proxy.itt

-tech.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.proxy.itt

-tech.edu/docview/1022368957?accountid=27655

n/a. (2012, Apr 1). Due Process-Immigration Detention. Harvard Law Review , 125 (6), pp. 1522-1529.

n/a. (2012, Aug 16). Illegal alien charged with drug trafficking and immigration offenses. Targeted News

Service .

Regarding Arizona Law: NM Gov. firm on suspect's immigration status. (2012, Jun 26). The Deming

Headlight .

2012-09-18T08:11:00.001-07:00

Political Beliefs

I have chosen the 2^nd Amendment to the U. S. Constitution to discuss in this assignment.

“A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed”

I think this Amendment to the Constitution means that a law-abiding citizen has the right to bear arms for their own protection as well as family and our nation in time of need. This Amendment protects the right of the people to keep this right and never lose it. This Amendment also ensures the means of the people to keep this country a free country.

This Amendment is important to me for several reasons. The first being I enjoy shooting, hunting, and target practice. I also enjoy the peace of mind that allows me to keep weapons on hand in case enemies that would do great harm to the American People invade this country. It also tells me that the government is willing to compromise when it comes to the will of the people and their respective rights and freedoms. This Amendment affects me daily in that I can carry a gun everyday for the protection of myself and the people around me.

As far as this Amendment’s role in my interactions with the government and my participation in the U. S. political process would be, I need to have a background check administered on myself by the government in order to keep my good standing and my right to keep my guns. I will vote for the candidate who supports the 2^nd Amendment to the Constitution as opposed to a candidate who believes no person should have the right to own any type of gun. I have no references to display; this was of my own thinking alone.

2012-09-13T09:23:00.000-07:00

Should Prisoners be Released Due to Lack of Funding?

I believe this presentation gets right to the point; therefore, it is immediate and tangible. I also think that it draws the viewer into the presentation. I am just hoping that there are not too many animations; I was trying to keep the distractions to a minimum.

I believe I have represented shared values in the money sign, and with the smiley face, I intended to evoke emotions of concern about the issue. I was making the point that even if we release prisoners due to overcrowding and lack of funding; the public will still pay the same amount of taxes, but they are distributed to different categories of government funding.

I think the placement of the arrows and money signs are important because it clearly depicts which path the flow of funds take, or lack of flow. It also shows the flow of prisoners that are released go back into the public, where there is concern of recidivism among the offenders.

I did use one icon in my presentation. This icon is the money sign and it is a global icon. By using this icon, I was hoping to evoke from the viewers the idea that many social issues are resolved with funding usually taking priority in the decision. I guess the arrow would be another icon in which everyone agrees on the meaning of it. It clearly shows the direction of the flow.

I picture my audience as everyone. I think anyone can relate to this presentation because this issue does involve everyone. It does not matter where you live or what your occupation is, you can still relate to this issue, normally will have an opinion about it, and probably will have formulated an idea of how to handle the situation.

I have several claims in my visual argument, but the main claim is that if we release prisoners from prisons and jails, no matter the reason, the public as a whole will be unhappy and concerned. This issue needs to be resolved, but there are too many variables and opinions to arrive at a working solution now. I hope that at some point in the near future we can come up with a solution to this issue that will provide for public safety as well as ensuring that offenders get just desserts.

References

Wood, N. (2009). Perspectives on Argument.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Diagram 1

2012-09-10T13:02:00.000-07:00

Fingerprints

In order to study my own fingerprints, I used the graphite from my pencil to enhance my print. I then placed it onto the top of a filing cabinet in my office. I used my lift tape to lift the print and examine it. I found that my print is of a plain whorl pattern. I had some difficulty locating a latent print in my house. I assumed there would be one on the kitchen counter. I did not have the means of locating a latent print, so I just sprinkled some of my print powder on the counter. I do not know if we were supposed to receive a fingerprint brush with our forensic kit, but I do have a magnetic applicator. This applicator is hard to use. I did not locate a latent print. I pressed my hand on the counter and repeated the previous step, but I still could not locate a print. I pressed my finger on a handheld mirror and had better luck with it. I was able to lift the print with the help of some of the fingerprint powder. It was not a very good impression on the tape, I do not know if I used too much powder or not enough. I read in the textbook that it takes practice to do it properly, maybe that is the problem, lack of practice. I have no ink to use for fingerprints, so I used the graphite from my pencil. It works, but not very well. The only prints that I was able to compare were my own. I also only have black fingerprint powder, so I am limited to where I can lift prints. I also have to be on a flat surface to use the magnetic applicator. I am not sure if I am using it properly, there is limited instruction on its use in the text. It seems to take forever to apply enough powder to lift the print. Maybe you could shed some insight on this subject, I would really like to get this down, it is very interesting to me.

Crime Scene (Livingroom)

Crime Scene (Bedroom/Office)

2012-08-23T10:00:00.002-07:00

Types of Drugs

Opiates are a group of drugs that are considered painkillers. These drugs work on the central nervous system. This type of drugs would include drugs such as opium or one of its derivatives including morphine and heroin. Heroin is preferred over morphine partially because it is easier to prepare for use and the effects are felt quicker. Consequently, the affects are greater, but they do not last as long. This contributes to the development of an urge for more frequent use. Almost two-thirds of the composition of a bag of heroin is often unknown to the user. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 193-194)

Synthetic opiates are another category of depressants, but are not necessarily derivatives of opium; however, they have similar effects so they are commonly referred to as opiates. One of the drugs in this category would be OxyContin. This drug is mainly used for treating symptoms of chronic pain. Another drug within this category is methadone. This drug is widely used to treat individuals with addictions to other drugs. When this drug is in a person’s system, they do not feel the effects of other drugs, so methadone is meant to suppress the urge to use other drugs. Unfortunately, this drug seems to induce as many harmful effects to the individual as the drug it is intended to treat the individual for. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 193-194)

Hallucinogens such as marijuana are also a drug that is included in this category. A hallucinogen is a drug that alters your mood, attitude and/or your perception. Marijuana is usually prepared for use on the street by combining, in various proportions, the parts of the entire plant. The mixture is then dried and smoked.

A popular extraction from the plant is hashish, which is a resin that the plant contains. This extraction is also smoked. Although there are no known harmful effects from this drug, continued and frequent use develops a psychological dependency on the drug. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of the plant determines the plant’s potency. THC is also where marijuana obtains its hallucinogenic properties. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is another drug that is classified in this category, as well as phencyclidine (PCP) and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or (Ecstasy). (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 195-198)

Depressants are another category of drugs. Alcohol is a depressant; there is a substantial amount of alcohol sold annually. Alcohol brings in revenue in the neighborhood of eleven figures annually. The effect alcohol has on a person’s body is hard to predict because it depends on a large number of variables. For example, some of these variable are; if the person ate before consuming the alcohol, how much alcohol was consumed, body weight of the individual, and the individual’s metabolism to name a few. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 198-199)

Barbiturates are another form of depressants. They act like alcohol in many ways and prolonged use may produce physical dependencies.

Another form of depressants is anti-psychotics and anti-anxiety drugs. These depressants normally do not induce sleep or diminish mental capacity when taken in moderate doses. These include Librium, valium and xanax, among others. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 198-199)

People will do almost anything to get a high. This would include sniffing solvents. Some compounds, which contain volatile chemicals, will give a person a high when they inhale the fumes that are produced by the compound. This process is what is known as huffing, which involves compounds such as airplane glue or those similar to this.

Stimulants are drugs that induce the opposite effects that are produced by depressants. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 198-199)

Amphetamines are included in this group. The main appeal of these synthetic drugs is the rush that they provide, especially when taken intravenously. This is especially true with the chemical derivative methamphetamine. Cocaine is another stimulant, apparently in high demand, that induces similar effects. (Safferstein, 2011, pp. 198-199)

A very large percentage of the aforementioned drugs induce a high psychological dependency. The drugs include morphine, heroin, methadone, short-acting barbiturates, alcohol, Quaaludes, amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine and PCP. (Safferstein, 2011, p. 192)

There are also a large percentage of these drugs that cause physical dependencies. About the only ones that are excluded from this category are cocaine, caffeine, marijuana, LSD, and PCP. (Safferstein, 2011, p. 192)

As far as testing a substance to establish its identification, the first process is exclusion. The substance is tested for a variety of known substances to exclude certain drugs for further consideration. (Safferstein, 2011, p. 204)

Once the first step is complete, if the substance has not yet been identified, then we move on to the next step. The first step should narrow the possibilities to a point which minimizes the possibilities to facilitate ease of step two. The next step is called the confirmation step. This step must narrow the possibilities to a point that the chances of another substance reacting positive to the same series of tests is so remote as to prove certainty of the identification of the substance. (Safferstein, 2011, p. 205)

21 August 2012

References

Safferstein, R. (2011). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Tenth ed.). Upper Saddle River

, NJ: Pearson Education.

2012-08-15T08:37:00.002-07:00

Argument or Discussion?

Before I started this course, when I heard the word argument, I pictured two people yelling obscenities at one another and the argument possessing the potential of escalating into a fistfight. After the third week of completing the assignments in this course, my perspectives on the subject were drastically changed. Now when I hear the word argument, it brings to mind a couple of people, or a group of people, having a civil and intelligent conversation with opposing viewpoints in an attempt to come to some sort of agreement on their difference of opinions. This can be one party winning over the opponent, or a mutual agreement on the issue. I have also learned, taking a quote from our textbook, “Argument is everywhere”. (Wood, 2009). We encounter this phenomenon every day of our lives and are practically subjected to it, in one form or another, throughout the entirety of any given day.

There are many types of arguments. Now, when I hear the word argument, I picture a consensual discussion among a group of people that have different ideas, in varying degrees of rebuttal, on how to resolve an issue of great importance. I have learned to analyze these arguments and know what to look for within these arguments. I have learned to identify certain argumentation strategies in order to understand what the argument is all about. When I am analyzing an argument, I should know whether I am interested in the issue within a reasonable amount of time. If so, then to what degree? Do I totally agree, or am I reluctant to accept certain concepts of the argument? All of this is extremely important in order to arrive at a solution to the issue. Some arguments do not require a solution, they are there merely to persuade you to purchase their product, however, it is still an argument because you may not agree with some of their claims. Sometimes there is no solution, but this will possibly help the audience to be better informed about the issue, and to help them decide the importance of the issue and how critical it is to resolve it. (Wood, 2009, p. 73)

It can also be very helpful to research the background of the author. This may

help to understand his or her intentions. I also examine what constraints will develop in the audience because of this argument. Will I be constrained to shut out this argument completely or will it make me more agreeable with the argument? I am also concerned about the constraints of the rest of the audience. (Wood, 2009, p. 73)

The Toulmin model is useful in analyzing an argument. It teaches you to breakdown an argument into parts. If you can understand the different parts, it helps you to grasp onto the whole of the argument. I will not include all the parts here, but basically this model illustrates how to understand what the article is saying, recognize the sufficient information about the argument, identify the evidence for support of the claim of the argument, and locate sufficient warrant to back up all the above. (Wood, 2009, p. 73)

My instructor has helped me tremendously in this course by supplying ample feedback on my assignments to help me better understand these concepts. I have learned that when you break something into parts, you will better understand how these parts fit together and what their respective purposes are. It also makes it easier to identify the weak parts that need strengthening. I feel that this knowledge will help me in my career because as I said, arguments are everywhere and you encounter them every day. There is a reason for these arguments and if you know what the reasons are, you are better equipped to analyze the situation that they create. If you know how to interpret these arguments you will better understand life in general, because life creates the need for these arguments and how we interpret, and react to, these arguments depends greatly on the knowledge we have to analyze them efficiently.

References

Wood, N. (2009). Perspectives on Argument. Sixth Edition,Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

2012-08-12T17:29:00.002-07:00

The Importance of Trace Evidence

Trace evidence can prove to be invaluable to the forensic analyst. Trace evidence comes in many varieties and is easily overlooked by those who are not familiar with where to look for it. In the given scenario, we have several items, which we can classify as trace evidence. The first item we will look at is the glass fragments found near the victim's head, which came from the driver side window.

The composition of most window glass is made from what we call float glass. This type of glass gets its name from the process that is normally used to cool the glass on a layer of molten tin. In comparing glass fragments the pieces need to fit together perfectly to make a positive comparison. Fortunately, for us, the suspects left the vehicle behind and this greatly facilitates our investigation. In this case, we do not have to look for suspect glass for comparison to known glass; we have both in one convenient location. However, we still have to make comparisons for the benefit of legalities in a court of law. Next, we will discuss the comparison methods. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, p. 101).

As stated earlier, we should have no problem in demonstrating a perfect physical fit of the glass fragments. Two or more pieces of glass fitting together perfectly exclude the possibility of the fragments originating from different sources. Next, we will make a density comparison of the glass fragments. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, p. 101).

In our density comparison, we will use a method called flotation. In this method, we will add a piece of reference glass, which we collected from near the head of the victim, into a solution of bromoform. The density of the solution will be greater than that of the glass fragment causing the fragment to float. Next, we carefully and slowly add small amounts of a less dense liquid, bromobenzene, to the solution. We now add bromobenzene to the solution until the glass is suspended in the mixture. At this point, the densities of the glass fragment and the solution are the same. Next, we will add fragments of the suspect glass to the solution. The fragments should be comparable in size. If the solution also suspends these fragments, then the densities of the fragments are the same, indicating that the two or more fragments that we compared, originated from the same source. (Safferstein, Lab Manual for Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Tenth ed), 2011, p. 9). There are varying degrees of densities contained in any given sheet of glass. We will need to adjust our solution to allow for a specified variable of densities to match the imperfections in density of the glass fragments. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, p. 103).

The more proof we have linking the suspects to the evidence and the crime, the better chance we have of obtaining a conviction. Therefore, we will now perform another comparison test on the glass fragments. This time we will compare the refraction indices of the fragments. In this comparison, we are seeking the disappearance of the Becke line. The Becke line is a bright halo that appears around the edges of a glass fragment when immersed in a liquid with a different refractive index than that of the fragment. When the refractive indices of the immersion liquid and the particle of glass are the same, which is known as the match point, the halo disappears, thus the disappearance of the Becke line, this method is known as the immersion method. We can change the refractive index of the immersion liquid in a couple different ways, the first, is by submerging them in a specific liquid medium, which is usually a mixture of silicone oil. The first method in which the refractive index of the immersion liquid is changed is by changing the temperature of the liquid. This we do by slowly heating the liquid at about 0.2 degrees C per minute until the solution reaches the match point. Heating the liquid has no noticeable effect on the refractive index of the glass particle. We need to carefully control the temperature of the liquid and accurately record it during this procedure. When the solution reaches the match point it is time to submerge the particles to be compared to check for matching refractive indices of the fragments. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, p. 103).

Another method of changing the refractive index of the immersion liquid is by much the same way that we changed the density of the liquid in the first analysis. This time however we will use a mixture of bromoform and olive oil, because we are changing the refractive index instead of changing the density. The refractive index of most glass ranges from 1.47 for headlight glass to about 1.53 for ophthalmic lenses. The refractive indices for olive oil and bromoform are 1.45 and 1.59 respectively. By mixing these two liquids until the refractive index of the glass particle is reached, we will notice the disappearance of the Becke line in much the same way as when we heated the liquid to change its refractive index. Now we perform the comparisons in the same way, we immerse the remaining fragments that need comparison, to determine if the indices are the same, which would be an indication of like origins. (Safferstein, Lab Manual for Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Tenth ed), 2011, pp. 32-33).

Now we will turn our attention to the second piece of trace evidence found at the crime scene, which would be the dark red paint found across the victim’s torso. Paint is one of the most popular types of physical evidence, where the volume of comparison requests passing through the crime labs are concerned. When it comes to examining paint, the layer construction is the most important characteristic to observe in ascertaining the paint’s origin. Binder composition is another important factor in determining the origin of a paint specimen. Due to the wide variety that manufacturers produce, it makes the task of determining paint’s origin easier. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, pp. 342-343)

When it comes to analyzing paint, pyrolysis gas chromatography is extremely useful. This technique is probably the most reliable when characterizing a paint sample. This technique involves heating the sample until it acquires a gaseous state. When these gases are sent through a chromatograph, we analyze the exiting gases. The resulting pyrogram contains sufficient details to distinguish between polymers thus ascertaining the paint’s origin. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, pp. 344-345)

Infrared spectrophotometry is another reliable technique for obtaining the same results. This technique involves the infrared absorption characteristic of a paint sample. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, p. 345)

When collecting paint chips at the crime scene, it is imperative to keep the paint chip intact. The sample can be placed in a piece of paper, which is then folded around the sample or placed in a glass or plastic vial or test tube. If the sample is imbedded into another object then the entire object, if possible, should be sent to the lab for analysis. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, pp. 347-348)

Now we can start the analysis of the hair samples found at the crime scene. This would be a black medium hair found in the driver side headrest and a fine short blonde hair found on the lower portion of the passenger seat. Distinguishing human hair from animal hair is easily accomplished; however, arriving at a conclusion of the origin of a human hair when compared with another human hair is not as easily done. This difficulty is due to the variation of morphological characteristics of hair samples taken from the same individual. Color, length, and diameter of the hair are major concerns when comparing hairs, it is also necessary to collect an abundance of samples from a suspected individual to make adequate comparisons. As with bullet comparisons, hair comparisons are best achieved by the use of a comparison microscope. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, pp. 324-327)

The final piece of trace evidence we will examine is the pink fiber found on the bumper of the vehicle, which appears to match the pink shorts worn by the victim at the time of the crime. Examination and linking of a piece of fiber to its origin depends largely on the experience and expertise of the forensic analyst. Due to the mass production of fibers in today’s world, individual characteristics of a single fiber is hard to determine. This phenomenon is also largely attributable to the production of so many manufactured fibers. Fortunately, in this particular circumstance, we have the shorts the victim was wearing and the piece of fiber recovered from the bumper. This should permit us to make a positive match just by piecing together the materials. If this were not the case, it would make it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to determine the origin of the evidence fiber and match it with the reference fiber. (Safferstein, Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 2011, pp. 330-335)

We should now have enough corroborative evidence to charge and subsequently prosecute the suspects for this crime.

Definitions of Terms

1. Chromatograph>A method of finding out which components a gaseous or liquid mixture contains that involves passing it through or over something that absorbs the different components at different rates.

2. Float Glass>Flat polished transparent glass made by solidifying molten glass as it floats on liquid of higher density such as tin.

3. Flotation>A process for separating materials such as a mixture of minerals in an ore according to their different abilities to float in a given liquid.

4. Infrared Spectrophotometry>The portion of the invisible electromagnetic spectrum consisting of radiation with wavelengths in the range of 750 nm to 1 mm, between light and radio waves.

5. Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography>The use of heat to breakdown complex chemical substances into simpler substances.

6. Refraction Index>The change in direction that occurs when a wave of energy such as light passes from one medium to another of a different density.

References

Safferstein, R. (2011). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Tenth ed.). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Education.

Safferstein, R. (2011). Lab Manual for Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (Tenth ed).

Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Shadow of an Atom - Periodic Table of Videos

2012-07-15T11:06:00.001-07:00

2012-06-22T07:54:00.002-07:00

The Search for Causes of Crime

There are a great number of theories that attempt to explain the reason for crime. Some of these theories are concerned with the reasons for criminal behavior, some concern themselves with the reason for crime, and still others focus on the victims. I would like to focus on the reasons for criminal behavior. Within this category there are also a number of theories, some are very similar, yet others are very different. In my opinion no one theory does the job of explaining all these reasons. There have been numerous studies and experiments concerning criminal behavior. I believe the better theory would be Social Learning Theory.

Social Learning Theory is a category within the Psychological Theory which mainly concentrates on internal phenomena with external reinforcement. In other words, when an individual is absorbing information about what social norms should be, they may observe a criminal with a lot of assets. While supposedly learning the proper manner to obtain these things they change what they believe to be a socially acceptable means of obtaining them and thereby resorting to deviant or illegal behavior. (Champion, 2008, p. 38)

I believe a method that is related to the psychological theory is psychological profiling. This method developed during World War II, was originally meant to predict future acts by Hitler. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) later adopted this method to attempt to prevent violent crimes such as rape and to help minimize casualties during hostage negotiations. The main objectives of this method are to determine the likelihood of an individual to commit future crimes and to search for characteristics that are possessed predominantly by criminals. (Schmallenger, 2011, p. 92)

Another example of the psychological theory resulted from experimentation with dogs by Ivan Pavlov who was a Russian Physiologist. He received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work. Every day when he fed the dogs; he would also ring a bell simultaneously, after a period of time the bell alone produced salivation in the canines. This is an indication that various types of conditioning may result in deviant or criminal behavior, thus strengthening the psychological theory of crime causation. (Schmallenger, Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, Sixth Edition, 2012, p. 124)

Another theory that attempts to explain criminal behavior is known as the XYY Syndrome. In genetic language; X is passive and Y is aggressive. Females have an XX genetic make-up while males have an XY genetic make-up. Occasionally, an individual is born with an extra Y chromosome which is an XYY genetic make-up. Translated, it means a double dose of the aggressive chromosomes. Geneticists, believing that they may have found the key to certain types of criminal behavior, researched it further. Although there are a larger number of individuals with the XYY Syndrome that are incarcerated; as opposed to non-incarcerated, the number is insignificant when compared to the total number of individuals who are incarcerated. (Champion, 2008, p. 35)

References

Champion, D. J. (2008). Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections in the United States, Sisth Edition

. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Schmallenger, F. (2011). Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Text for the 21str Century, Eleventh

Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Schmallenger, F. (2012). Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Author: Dennis Bowman 21 June 2012

2012-06-20T22:02:00.001-07:00

Criminal Justice System

An individual formally enters the criminal justice system with the commission of a crime. Once in this system, there is a progression of steps which ideally end in the conviction and punishment of the individual(s) for the crime that they committed. I will examine each of these steps in the order in which they occur. Bear in mind that each step could be the end of the process resulting in prosecution or acquittal of the individual(s) who allegedly committed the crime. (Champion, 2008, p. 5)

I will begin by listing the four main components of the criminal justice system they are; law enforcement, prosecutorial decision making, courts and judges, and corrections. (Champion, 2008, p. 13)

The first component of the criminal justice system we will examine is law enforcement. As mentioned earlier, the way in which an individual enters the system is in the commission of a crime. This is where law enforcement comes in, when a person or persons are identified as the possible perpetrators of a crime that has been committed; a law enforcement officer will apprehend or arrest the individual. If the individual is a juvenile, they may be diverted to the juvenile court system, depending on the severity of the crime. Assuming the individual is not a juvenile, they are then booked. This process involves the documenting of personal information such as identity, contact information, and family members or friends with whom the individual associates. The information that is obtained during this process depends largely on the jurisdiction, as they vary considerably. (Champion, 2008, pp. 13-15)

The second component of the criminal justice system is prosecutorial decision making. This step in the process involves numerous decisions by a number of individuals as the process advances within the criminal justice system. Shortly after being arrested, an individual is taken in front of a judge in what is called an arraignment hearing. During this process, charges against the individual are read. Usually at this point, a decision is made concerning bail. This decision takes into consideration the severity of the crime and the flight risk of the individual to arrive at whether the individual will be afforded bail and what the amount of the bail will be. Sometimes if an individual is a minimal flight risk and the offense is not too severe, the individual will be released from custody on their own recognizance. This is more or less a promise to appear for their court date. (Champion, 2008, pp. 18-20)

Now we come to the third step in the criminal justice system process which is courts and judges This step is where the prosecution decides if there is enough evidence against the accused to proceed with a criminal trial. If there is not enough evidence to proceed then the defendant is usually released. If enough evidence exists then the case will proceed. Sometimes there will be a plea bargain on behalf of the defendant. This is a guilty plea either to a lesser charge or in exchange for a lesser sentence. This saves the court valuable time in processing the case even further in the criminal justice system. With this step completed a sentence is handed down. The next process is then corrections. (Champion, 2008, pp. 21-22)

The fourth and hopefully the final step in the criminal justice system process is corrections. I say hopefully because if this is the last step there is no recidivism. Once the sentence is handed down the defendant is remitted to corrections to carry out the sentence. Again, depending on the severity of the crime, the judge may suspend the sentence. If the sentence is probation, then the defendant is referred to a probation officer. Depending on what restrictions were imposed by the sentence, there is a variety of freedom for the individual. If the sentence involves the individual doing time in prison, then the individual is moved to the appropriate facility. The individual may be released from custody before the entire sentence is served. This has to be approved by a parole board. If approved, the the individual is placed on parole, which is very similar to probation in that it involves restriction of freedom of the individual. This also saves time and money. (Champion, 2008, pp. 22-25)

References

Champion, D. J. (2008). Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections in the United States, Sisth Edition

. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Dennis Bowman 20 June 2012

2012-06-01T15:30:00.001-07:00

The Criminal Investigation

In the very beginning of a criminal investigation, it is very important to know the meaning of relevance. This means that any evidence collected in a criminal investigation has to be relevant (connected) to the crime committed or it is inadmissible in a court of law. Evidence is considered material if it is capable of influencing the outcome of the trial, if not then it is called immaterial. Any search for evidence must be reasonable, such as a warrant or probable cause. If any of the evidence was obtained illegally, then the judge will disallow the evidence in the trial. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 18).

When an investigator arrives on the scene where criminal activity has taken place, he should first document everything up to his arrival. This information would include persons already present, anything that has been moved, any possibility of any evidence being contaminated, in a murder scene he or she should note if the body had been moved for any reason, such as to perform emergency medical services. Anything that has happened prior to his or her arrival he or she should be aware of. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 18)

The investigator then secures any and all physical evidence, and ensures proper documentation and packaging of the physical evidence to prevent contamination. He should also photograph the entire crime scene before any evidence is touched or moved in any way. The evidence is then transported to headquarters where it is placed under lock and key to ensure that the integrity of the evidence will be preserved. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 18)

Following the collection of evidence is the organization of all the evidence and facts that have been collected thus far. This should contain only facts without any personal opinions or conclusions. This process is known as the case preparation phase. This is the case that is submitted to prosecutors to determine what is relevant and what is not. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 31)

Now it is time for the negative evidence. This is evidence best suited to counter the defense’s attempt to disprove any evidence. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 31)

Next is the decision to charge, this responsibility lies in the office of the prosecutor. This stage stresses the importance of a proper case preparation by the investigator. This information is the basis of the facts used to influence the decision whether to indict. An investigator will know that he conducted a proper case preparation when it results in arrest and conviction of the perpetrator and the closing of the case. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 33)

When discussing evidence; we cannot forget about electronic evidence. Due to the impact of the global technological advancement s, some of what was once considered physical evidence is now electronic evidence. There should be a set of special rules governing the chain of custody of electronic material. I have included a guide for the handling and documentation of electronic evidence. I took this directly from a Microsoft Feed entitled Forensic Accounting Today.

1) Name of individual who received the evidence

2) Date, time, and place of collection or receipt

3) Name of custodian

4) Description of data obtained, including media specific information:

a) Media type, standard and manufacturer

b) Serial numbers and/or volume names

c) Writing on labels

d) Characterization of labels

e) Amount of data

f) Type of data

g) Write-protection status

5) Description of data collection procedures

a) List of tools used for each procedure

b) Name of individual conducting each procedure

c) Outcome of procedures

d) Problems encountered if any

6) Additional Documentation

a) Evidence transfer including reason for transfer

b) Date and time of media check-in and check-out from secure storage

c) Physical (visual) inspection of data

d) Description of data analysis

e) List of tools used for each procedure

f) Name of individual conducting each procedure

g) Outcome of procedure

h) Problems encountered if any

i) Note: Section to record anything out of the ordinary

Conclusion: Complete and accurate logging procedures will help ensure that electronic data can be authenticated in court. A little extra effort at the beginning of the project will afford a smooth, efficient chain of custody documentation process. (Jeff, 2011)

There are various techniques employed while conducting a criminal investigation. There are also different types of investigations. One such technique involves the clandestine surveillance of a know criminal. This involves several investigative techniques which are unique to this type of investigation. Among them are visual surveillance and audio surveillance. These two types are rather self-explanatory by reference to their names. Either one or both of these techniques are used to gather information and develop investigative leads. Contact surveillance is similar to the preceding types in that it is to monitor the movement of a suspect and with a fluorescent contact substance; objects the suspect has come in contact with can be recognized. All of these techniques can be lumped together in what is referred to as intelligence; which is the collecting and evaluation of information. (Lushbaugh, 2012, pp. 121-126)

Interview and interrogation is another part of the criminal investigation. An interview is the interaction of individuals for the purpose of obtaining information about a crime or its circumstances. The best place to conduct an interview is at the police station when circumstances permit. Privacy is also very important in order to prevent retroactive interference. At the beginning of an interview, the investigator should establish a rapport with the witness; this will promote better cooperation and a better chance of obtaining valuable information about the case. This will make the investigation move along a lot smoother and it helps eliminate uncertainties. Cognitive interviewing is another investigative technique used when a witness has trouble remembering events and this technique does not jeopardize the credibility of the witness in court, as with hypnotizing. (Lushbaugh, 2012, pp. 135-143). Interrogation is defined as the adversarial questioning of a suspect with the goal of soliciting an admission or confession of guilt. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 143).

Investigators gather enough evidence to show probable cause before making an attempt to arrest a suspect. This step is omitted when exigent circumstances are present. The arresting officer should make positive identification of the suspect and secure any tools which could aid the suspect in escape and/or cause harm to the arresting officer. The officer should then be alert for any obvious evidence in the immediate area of the suspect. This is known as the immediate control doctrine. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 30)

While investigating violent crimes such as serial killers; the killer will sometimes cross into jurisdictions other than the one in which he/she committed the crime. This movement of the killer facilitates in avoiding detection and makes it extremely difficult for law enforcement, in the jurisdiction in which the crime was committed, to track down the killer. The FBI has a program designed to help link information from varying jurisdictions into one place. This program is called “Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP)” and this program allows law enforcement from different jurisdictions to share information which may be useful in linking suspects to other crimes in other jurisdictions. (Lushbaugh, 2012, p. 171).

John F. Kennedy

Facts of the Case: Summary of the Case and Investigation

There is much controversy surrounding the circumstances and causes of the death of President John F. Kennedy. In this article I will attempt to separate the facts from fiction. There are many conspiracy theories concerning this event. I remember this happening. Along with these various theories there are also numerous unanswered questions concerning the exact circumstances. The Warren Commission was assigned the task of investigating this event by Vice- President Johnson. According to the findings of this Commission, a single bullet struck both President Kennedy and Governor Connally. According to some conspiracy theories there had to be two shooters to compensate for the different angles of the bullet paths. (Grier, 2010) There is, and probably always will be conspiracy theories to try to explain who is responsible for John F. Kennedy’s assassination. I believe the reasoning set forth by Peter Temple in his journal article. My interpretation of that reasoning is this: President Kennedy was a great man, therefore, it is hard to accept the fact that he was killed by a “nobody” for “no reason”, so in order for people to accept a reason for this injustice; they have to develop an elaborate theory to match the significance of this injustice. (Temple, 2008)

In 1979 a House Select Committee on Assassinations determined that there was a co-conspirator involved in the shooting of President Kennedy and the shooting was probably as a result from a conspiracy. This committee, however, ruled out any organizations that were believed to be involved by pro-conspiracy theory activists. (Ed. K, 2012)

A suit was filed in U. S. District Court on July 21, 2008 suggesting that the FBI withheld evidence concerning the shooting of President John F. Kennedy. This withheld information allegedly links the mafia to the killing; therefore strengthening one or more of the conspiracy theories that have been circulating and growing in intensity since this unforgettable event. (Katz, 2008).

Judyth Vary Baker, a disputed ex-lover of Lee Harvey Oswald, claims that Oswald was a double-agent trying to prevent the assassination of John F. Kennedy, but instead he was framed for the murder and killed to silence him about the incident.

(Daubs, 2011).

References

Daubs, K. (2011, Oct 18). Woman claims she was his lover, and she knows the truth about JFK. The

Toronto Star , GT3.

Ed. K, L. L. (2012, May 31). Crime and Punishment Essential Primary Sources. Retrieved May 31, 2012,

from ITT-Tech Virtual Library/Gale Virtual Reference Library: http://go.galegroup.com.proxy.itt-

tech.edu/ps/i.do?id=Gale%7CCX2588900057

Grier, P. (2010, Nov. 22). The John F. Kennedy assassination: Four unanswered questions. Christian

Science Monitor , p. N.PAG.

Jeff. (2011, Sept 26). Preserving Chain of Custody in E-Discovery. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from Forensic

Accounting Today: http://jemoore.typepad.com/blog/atom/sml

Katz, N. L. (2008). Prober: FBI Held Back Mob Info on JFK Slay. Daily News (New York) (Metro Edition),

14.

Lushbaugh, C. A. (2012). Criminal Investigation: Basic Perspectives, Twelfth Edition. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Education.

Temple, P. (2008). Keeping the fantasy alive; Assassination. The Age (First Edition), A2; Books; pg 21.

2012-05-29T13:17:00.001-07:00

Mark Fuhrman was one of the detectives who investigated the Brown-Goldman murders of which O. J. Simpson was suspected of committing. Detective Fuhrman was also known for his racist views. Detective Fuhrman was suspected of compromising the investigation by allegedly planting incriminating evidence at the Simpson residence. The Justice Department decided not to charge Detective Fuhrman for the alleged assault and mistreatment of minorities. The statute of limitations, which is five years, had run out. During the Simpson trial it seemed that the main emphasis was placed on Furman’s racism rather than Simpson’s guilt or innocence. This, in my opinion, destroyed the credibility of Fuhrman’s testimony and led jurors to suspect that Fuhrman was capable of performing the act of planting evidence to help sway the verdict of this case.. Fuhrman also perjured himself on the witness stand because he later admitted lying when asked about his involvement in misconduct concerning the mistreatment and verbal abuse of blacks. (Ostrow, 1998). Fuhrman, during an interview that was audio taped, uttered the “N” word repeatedly. In fact the manner in which he spoke the word makes it believable that he is in a habit of using that word frequently. (Daly, August 20, 1995)

One of the white jurors in the Simpson murder trial commented to one of her family members that she thought Simpson was guilty, but due to Fuhrman’s racism, which destroyed his credibility as a witness, she voted not guilty. The verdict of this case literally divided the nation. According to some media coverage after the trial; as a majority, black people were elated about the verdict and white people objected to it. (Clark, 1995).

In a tape recorded interview, Fuhrman referred to black people using the “N” word 41 times, however, jurors were instructed to ignore all but two of those comments. Simpson’s attorneys were outraged at this decision of Judge Ito’s. Fuhrman testified under oath that he had not used that word for the past ten years. I believe this added more fuel to the racist “fire”. I also believe that this is the reason that Judge Ito chose to disallow most of the comments; to avoid adding more fuel to a fire that was already burning very brightly. (Ito's Ruling On Fuhrman Tapes Called 'Outrageous' By Simpson Defense, 1995).

The O. J. Simpson murder trial contained numerous twists and turns. It seemed that Detective Fuhrman was in some way involved in each of them. The trial has been referred to by some as a soap opera. For one reason, the Fuhrman tapes, as they became to be known, allegedly proved that Detective Fuhrman was a racist and was involved in numerous activities which could be classified as racial slurs and even assaults on blacks. The defendant being black and both murder victims being white could present quite a problem. Another point is if the judge allowed the tapes as evidence, the prosecution stated they would call Captain York as a witness in the case. Captain York was once Detective Fuhrman’s commander. This would not have presented a problem in itself but, Captain York also happened to be Judge Ito’s wife. Judge Ito was the presiding judge over the O. J. Simpson murder trial. In other words, if Judge Ito allowed the Fuhrman tapes as evidence; due to personal knowledge of facts being discussed in the case, he would be forced to step down and more than likely, this action would result in a mistrial. (McCarthy, 17 August 1995)

I do not believe that Detective Fuhrman acted professionally nor did he act responsibly. The fact that he pleaded the Fifth Amendment when questioned about planting evidence, which could be used against Simpson, practically points to the fact that he was guilty of the action. (Bowman, 2012).

References

Bowman, D. (2012, May 26). Circumstances Surrounding the Brown/Goldman Murders. (D. Bowman, Ed.)

Retrieved May 28, 2012, from Law Enforcement and Forensics

: http://usmc3120.blogspot.com/refresh?widgetID=BlogArchive1

Clark, P. (1995). O. J. divides black and white America. Race the key in trial and aftermath. The Age (Late

Edition), 1.

Daly, M. (August 20, 1995). Let's see Tyson vs. Fuhrman. Daily News , 8.

Ito's Ruling On Fuhrman Tapes Called 'Outrageous' By Simpson Defense. (1995, Sept 16). Jet , p. 4.

Lushbaugh, C. A. (2012). Criminal Investigation: Basic Perspectives, Twelfth Edition. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Education.

McCarthy, P. (17 August 1995). O. J.'s latest trial twist-there goes the judge. Sydney Morning Hearald

(Austrailia) Late Edition , 12.

Ostrow, R. J. (1998, Arp 04). U. S. decides to not prosecute ex-detective mark fuhrman . South Florida

Sun, Sentinel , 3-A.

2012-05-28T20:49:00.001-07:00

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the decay of unstable isotopes of an element. Atoms with the same number of protons, but varying numbers of neutrons are said to be isotopes of one another. There are several ways that this can occur. They are called; alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma rays. These three processes are similar in some ways and are different in other ways. They are similar in that each of these processes results in an emission of radiation in one form or another. They are different in the effects they have on the original element and/or its individual atoms or nuclei.

Alpha decay emits what is called alpha particles which are relatively large and consists of two protons and two neutrons. Uranium 238 for example has 92 protons. When alpha decay is present the individual atoms lose two protons which lower the number of protons in the nucleus to 90. Since the number of electrons is relative to the number of protons in an atom, two of the electrons are released. The alpha particle is made up of two protons and two neutrons which is the same as a helium nucleus. When this alpha particle acquires the two electrons that were released it becomes an atom of helium gas. The original atom with its 90 protons becomes an entirely new element, which is thorium 234.

In beta decay, the process involves the decay of the neutron and the emission of an electron and a neutrino. The electron, however, is not part of the original atom and the neutrino is a particle of very small mass and carries a neutral electrical charge. This process also changes the element’s chemical identity. After this process the atom still has the same mass, but has one more proton and one less neutron, thus changing the identity into another element. Carbon 14 for example after undergoing this process becomes nitrogen 14.

Gamma radiation involves the nuclear quantum leaps of the protons or neutrons of an atom. When this happens it is similar to the quantum leap of an electron except it emits about one million times the energy. The resulting gamma radiation that is emitted is in the wavelengths of x-rays or even shorter wavelengths with more energy.

References

Trefil, J. H. (2010). The Sciences: An Intigrated Approach. George Mason University.

2012-05-28T18:57:00.001-07:00

Circumstances Surrounding the Brown/Goldman Murders

Simpson was arrested on June 17, 1994, following urging from his attorney Robert Shapiro; Simpson turned himself in to police. Simpson had fled when he learned that a warrant had been issued for his arrest. (Johnson, 2012)

An arrest warrant was issued on O. J. Simpson for suspicion of murder.

I cannot see any other way that Simpson could have been arrested.

Probable cause arrest differs from warrant arrest in that certain circumstances; a warrant is not needed to conduct a warrantless arrest, although a warrant must show probable cause accompanied by an affidavit swearing to its validity. (Lushbaugh, 2012)

Simpson was on good terms with police due to his celebrity status. Several complaints of abuse from his ex-wife Nicole went unheeded because of this relationship with police. When Simpson was arrested, he had a deep cut on his hand. Blood samples found at the crime scene matched Simpson’s DNA. There was also blood found on socks that Simpson had worn that matched the victims’. The murders occurred at 10:00 P. M. and on the same night Simpson left Los Angeles at 11:45 P. M. on a flight to Chicago for a scheduled meeting. When Simpson was asked about the cut on his hand, he indicated that when he learned about his ex-wife’s death he dropped a glass he was holding, this took place in a hotel in Chicago according to Simpson. Mark Fuhrman, a police officer with LAPD, was the officer who found a bloody glove allegedly belonging to Simpson. Simpson’s attorneys discredited Fuhrman claiming he was racist and that Simpson was framed for the double murders. (Johnson, 2012). Blasier, one of Simpson’s attorneys who is also an expert in DNA evidence, instructed jurors they should disregard most of the physical evidence introduced against Simpson by the prosecution. He also claimed that the evidence was either manufactured or the evidence that was not manufactured was tainted to the point that it should be inadmissible. Blasier also commented that there was not enough DNA comparisons made to determine absolute guilt. Police wandering around the crime scene during the investigation destroyed or tainted evidence, Blasier said. There were two videos entered into evidence showing that it could be possible. Blasier also pointed out that there were too many inconsistencies concerning most of the physical evidence such as, there were no blood trails leading to any of the blood soaked evidence. The photos of Simpson wearing shoes similar to the perpetrator could not be proved, by experts, to be legitimate. (Morello, 1997). Judge Ito threw out evidence he referred to as “Very compelling circumstantial evidence”. This evidence included fibers from the carpet at the crime scene allegedly found in Simpson’s Bronco; the reason being that this evidence was not disclosed to Simpson’s defense attorneys. (Clark, 1995)

The trial lasted 252 days and in the end, on Oct 3, 1995, O. J. Simpson was found not guilty of two counts of murder. Race was a very important issue in this trial because Simpson was black and his ex-wife Nicole and her friend Ron Goldman, the two victims, were both white. Another issue concerning race was the Los Angeles Police Department’s (LAPD) alleged treatment of blacks. The trial was held in downtown Los Angeles. The presiding judge was Judge Lance Ito. (McCabe, 2011)

Phillip Vanatter is the detective who led the O. J. Simpson murder investigation. The judge ruled that the police acted appropriately when entering Simpson’s residence to search for evidence. Simpson’s defense counsel claimed that Vanatter had used a vial of Simpson’s blood to plant evidence in Simpson’s residence. Detective Mark Fuhrman pleaded the Fifth when questioned about planting evidence to help convict Simpson. (Therolf, 2012)

References

Clark, R. (1995). Ito Won't Allow Evidence on Fibers Taken From O. J. Simpson's Bronco. Philadelphia

Inquirer , Section A, Column 1, 4.

Johnson, S. P. (2012, May 26). O. J. Simpson Trial (1995). Retrieved May 25, 2012, from Gale Virtua

l Reference Library: http://go.galegroup.com.proxy.itt

-tech.edu/ps/i.do?d=GALE%7CCX1767800219&v=2.1&u=itted&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w

Lushbaugh, C. A. (2012). Criminal Investigation: Basic Perspectives, Twelfth Edition. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson Education.

McCabe, S. (2011, Oct 3). O. J. Simpson acquitted in Trial of the Centur;y. The Examiner , 8.

Morello, D. (1997, Jan 24). Defense stresses police framed O. J. simpson his lawyers said officers botched

the investigation, they urged jurors to disregard most of the evidence. Philadephia Inquirer ,

A.2.

Therolf, G. (2012, Jan 29). O. J. Simpson murder investigation. The Ottawa Citizen , B.5.

2012-05-13T19:32:00.000-07:00

I support the decision made by the U. S. Supreme Court in the case of Weeks v. United States in that, the Supreme Court was right in ruling that there was an error in the trial court's judgment because basically the trial court's judgment stated that it does not matter how the evidence was obtained, it was admissable in court. The manner in which the evidence was obtained violates the defendant's constitutional rights; therefore, the evidence should not have been admissable in court. (Weeks v. United States, 1914) The police could have used the following beliefs to apply for a search warrant; they could have said that there was probable cause in that there would very possibly be stolen lottery tickets, or papers revealing evidence of the illegal sale of lottery tickets. This would have given them reason to file for a search warrant. The warrant would most likely have been issued on these beliefs. (Weeks v. United States, 1914) I do not see any other way the officers could have entered Week's residence other than forcing their way in. I think this would have raised more issues concerning the defendant's constitutional rights. The officers could very well have lied about the circumstances, only they know. I think the legal requirements for an officer for telling the truth are the same regardless of the circumstances, officers should tell the truth at all times (Lushbaugh, 2012,pp.17-35)
References:
Lushbaugh, C. A. (2012. Criminal Investigation: Basic Perspectives, Twelfth Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
Weeks v. United States, 232 &. S. 383(1914)(U. S. Supreme Court Feb 14, 1914)