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Join the Movement: Volunteer & Internship Opportunities with Divi Welfare Society

2025-07-29T11:43:00.000+05:30

Join the Movement: Volunteer & Internship Opportunities with Divi Welfare Society

At Divi Welfare Society, we believe that youth are not just the leaders of tomorrow, but change-makers of today. As part of our flagship initiative Bharat Vimarsh 2025, we are thrilled to announce exciting volunteer and internship opportunities for passionate individuals who want to contribute meaningfully to nation-building.

🙌 About Bharat Vimarsh 2025

Bharat Vimarsh 2025 is a national campaign to engage youth, scholars, educators, and thought leaders in deep conversations on education, employment, environment, technology, and India’s global future. Through summits, panel discussions, research dialogues, and outreach programs, we are creating a new narrative for a new Bharat.

💼 Who Can Join?

We are inviting:

College students and fresh graduates
Young professionals
Socially conscious citizens

Whether you are from a humanities, science, or technical background – if you have the will to serve and the skill to lead, we want you on our team.

📌 Roles Available:

Event Coordination & Outreach
Content Writing & Social Media
Research & Documentation
Campus Ambassadors
Design & Creative Team

🧠 What You’ll Gain:

Certificate of volunteering/internship
Letter of Recommendation (based on performance)
National-level exposure and networking
Real-world experience in project execution
A chance to be part of a meaningful social movement

📝 How to Apply:

Click the link below to apply through our official LinkedIn page or fill out our registration form:

🔗https://diviwelfaresociety.org/internship/

For any queries, email us at: 📩 diviwelfaresociety@gmail.com

This is more than just an internship – it’s a call to action. A chance to become a part of something bigger than yourself. If you believe in inclusive progress, youth dialogue, and nation-first thinking, then Divi Welfare Society is the place to be.

Let’s come together to shape the India of tomorrow.

#VolunteerWithPurpose #BharatVimarsh2025 #DiviWelfareSociety #YouthForNation #InternshipOpportunity #JoinTheChange

Daily Practice Question Math Class 8

2023-03-28T22:35:00.001+05:30

Trigonometry Test Paper Class 10

2023-03-28T22:25:00.000+05:30

Chapter Wise Class 10 Math Test and Key Points for Class 10 Math Pdf free download was prepared by LearnQuickZone from the latest edition of NCERT books to get good marks in board exams. NCERT Class 10 Science Notes contains physics, chemistry and biology notes of all chapters are part of Revision NCERT Notes for Class 10. Here we have given CBSE Class 10 Science Notes

CBSE releases Class 10th, 12th sample paper 2023

2022-09-18T00:07:00.002+05:30

CBSE releases Class 10th, 12th sample paper 2023 – Get way to download paper at cbseacademic.nic.in

CBSE has released the CBSE 10th & 12th sample question papers for academic time 2022- 23 through online mode. campaigners can check download sample question paper on the sanctioned website of cbseacademic.nic.in. Get way to download CBSE 10th & 12th sample question paper then.

CBSE releases Class 10th, 12th sample paper 2023 The Central Board of Secondary Education( CBSE) has released the Sample Question Papers( SQPs) for classes 10th & 12th for the current academic session 2022- 2023 through online mode. The sample question paper is available on the sanctioned website.

campaigners can download the CBSE 10th & 12th sample question papers through online mode from the sanctioned website of the board. Along with the sample paper, the marking scheme of class 10th & 12th has also released by the board online.

The sanctioned announcement has been released by the Central Board of Secondary Education( CBSE), “ The Board issues Sample Question Papers( SQPs) and Marking Schemes for classes X and XII to give a board templated to serve as a companion for icing uniformity and proper content of the classes. ”

The CBSE 10th & 12th sample question papers have been released for the campaigners do that they can get an idea about types of questions, marking scheme and number of sections a question paper would have. The sample papers will held scholars in the medication of coming times academic session.

The campaigners can download their CBSE 10th & 12th sample paper by following these easy way handed below in the composition.

How to Download CBSE 10th & 12th Sample Papers 2023

Follow the given instruction in order to download the CBSE 10th & 12th sample papers 2023

Visit the sanctioned website of CBSE at – https://cbseacademic.nic.in/
Click on the “ Sample Question Papers for Classes X & XII for the current Academic Session 2022- 23 ” link on the homepage.
Now click on the “ SQP Class X 2022- 23 ” or “ SQP Class XII 2022- 23 ” consequently.
Click on the separate link as per seeker’s class.
The new webpage will open on the screen.
Choose the subject and open the SQP link to download sample paper or click MS link of the subject to check the CBSE marking scheme.
A new train will open in PDF format.
Download the CBSE sample question papers 2022- 23 on the system.
CBSE 10th & 12th rearmost News Updates
working the CBSE 10th & 12th sample papers 2023 will help the campaigners in understanding the test pattern of CBSE 2023 and typology of questions that will be asked in the final examination of CBSE Board 2023. This will also help adding the speed and delicacy of answering the questions in the test

Preamble Notes PDF-Learn Quick Zone

2022-09-07T16:19:00.001+05:30

Preamble declares India to be a Sovereign ,Socialist , Secular and Democratic Republic

India's INS Vikrant: Awesome or Obsolete?- Learn Quick Zone

2022-09-03T00:55:00.003+05:30

India's INS Vikrant: Awesome or Obsolete?

Why In News :-

Recently, India’s Defence Minister reviewed the ongoing work on the Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC), INS Vikrant (IAC-1), which is a part of Atmanirbhar Bharat.

INS Vikrant, is commissioned in 2 Sep 2022.

INS Vikrant was an aircraft carrier of the Indian Navy. It was bought from the United Kingdom in the year 1957 and commissioned into the Indian Navy on 12 December 1961. This carrier served till 1997 before it was decommissioned in 1997. The ship has been replaced by INS Virat which was inducted into the navy on 14 May 2014. This article takes a look at both INS Vikrant
and INS Virat to help you decide whether you think INS Vikrant was awesome or obsolete!

The Aircraft Carrier Vikrant

As India's first indigenously built aircraft carrier, the INS Vikrant is an impressive milestone for India. For most countries, having just one aircraft carrier would be a significant accomplishment; but for India, where it has fought three wars with its neighbors in the past 25 years and relies heavily on imports to meet its military needs, it is a necessity. The INS Vikrant was developed in light of reports that China had plans to project naval power into the Indian Ocean and could rival Russia as the world's second largest navy by 2020. However, The role of aircraft carriers has been rendered obsolete by advanced technologies that can project power without deploying large conventional forces and ever-increasing reliance on long-range strike weapons such as missiles and stealthy aircraft. In addition, Chinese development of new anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs) capable of striking targets more than 900 miles away (1,500 kilometers) threatens the survivability of any surface ship.

The technology on board

INS Vikrant is the third ship of the Indian Navy. It was commissioned in August 2014. INS Vikrant is an aircraft carrier, the largest warship ever made by India. It can take on more than 30 fighters and attack helicopters that can provide much-needed support to ground troops from long ranges at sea. The warship weighs 40,000 tons and has a deck that measures over 330 meters. The vessel has ten decks. Four are dedicated for aviation related activities and six are intended for accommodation and various services. INS Vikrant features four jet-powered catapults and 12 arrestor wires which can be used to launch aircraft like the MiG 29Ks off its flight deck. The vessel also boasts of one of the biggest radars available on any naval platform.

The Design

Launched in 1961, the Indian Navy's premier aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant, has served admirably for over five decades. Originally designed as a World War II Royal Navy vessel, Vikrant means courageous in Sanskrit. It has also been touted as India's first indigenous aircraft carrier. Nonetheless, even though it might be considered a worthy symbol of India's recent engineering successes, it is not without its share of issues.

INdia's Role In the Region

This ship will feature 16 long-range surface-to-air missiles, 12 short range surface-to-air missiles, a naval gun and 8 torpedo tubes. it will be the country's first aircraft carrier to have a short take off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) configuration with six ski jump bows and will cost around $3 billion. The new indigenous Aircraft Carrier INS Vikrant is primarily designed for power projection in the littoral regions, search and rescue duties as well as anti piracy operations. The ship measures 226 meters in length and weighs over 13,000 tonnes, is comparable to United States Nimitz class carriers with an added advantage of being largely indigenously manufactured apart from certain technologies sourced from abroad such as its propulsion system which has been customised from France. It is named after the Indian Navy's first aircraft carrier INS Vikrant (R11), that served from 1961 to 1997. It was commissioned on 3rd August 2013 by then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at a ceremony held at Naval Dockyard in Mumbai.

Why Other Countries Need Carriers

So why is the carrier so important for India, which has been on a military ship-buying spree in recent years. For one, carriers are incredibly expensive. The world market price for a carrier is somewhere around $5 billion. These days, countries can spend much less to develop their own land-based aircraft and ballistic missiles to perform the same missions that fleets of carriers do at much lower cost. But in India's case, the country needs its own carrier because it simply doesn't have any other way to project power overseas without violating neighbors' airspace.

Life On Board

INS Vikrant is India's first aircraft carrier, one of the most advanced weapons system in the world, and one of the biggest floating airfield in existence. With a number of other significant roles to fulfill, this vessel is probably one of the most important factors for ensuring national security for India. The aircraft carrier has undergone a series of sea trials over the past six months with reports coming in on Sunday saying that it will be officially commissioned by Defense Minister Manohar Parrikar soon. Being 482 feet long and 103 feet wide, INS Vikrant features a ski-jump flight deck and full load displacement was increased to 18000 tonnes. With good structure and propulsion this ship can reach speeds of up to 25 knots per hour. It also possesses nuclear-powered steam turbines and catapults, which give fighter jets a longer range and faster speed. So why should this matter to you if you are not an Indian citizen? A lot actually! In 2012, the US government awarded four billion dollars worth of contracts to Lockheed Martin Corp., Northrop Grumman Corp., General Electric Co., United Technologies Corp., Raytheon Co., Huntington Ingalls Industries Inc. and BAE Systems Plc. These contracts have been controversial because they were awarded without any bidding process which puts out country at risk in terms of potential cost overruns and lack of competition.

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India Vs Pakistan: Why the Rivalry is So Big ? -Learn Quick Zone

2022-09-02T23:50:00.001+05:30

India Vs Pakistan: Why the Rivalry is So Big ?

India and Pakistan have been in conflict since the two countries gained independence from Britain in 1947, but this enmity runs much deeper than simple political differences. India and Pakistan were two sides of the same coin until at least the 18th century, when the British partitioned India into several different states to more easily control its vast population. The partition displaced many people, particularly Muslims who found themselves on the other side of the border from their homes, property and families in what became modern-day Pakistan.

The Argument

The rivalry between India and Pakistan has become so big because of some sporting events, such as the Asia Cup or the World Cup. In both instances, there have been riots breaking out in many different areas. This has led to people dying on both sides of this rivalry. The racism amongst each country towards each other leads to even more violence when provoked in some way. The media plays a big role too in fanning the flames and creating an environment that could be dangerous for anyone who gets caught up in it . One thing that was said by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in his speech after India won the Asia Cup was Pakistan will always stand against terrorism but today our players were devastated at being humiliated by India.

I think he said this because he feels humiliated and ashamed by what happened at the game and believes it should never happen again. I agree with him-it should not happen again!

Cricket

Pakistan and India have a long, storied rivalry that stretches back many years. One can point to so many different places where it began. Was it in 1947 when India gained independence from Britain but Pakistan was created out of formerly West-India states? Maybe, you trace the conflict back to 1965 when East Pakistan revolted against West and became Bangladesh? But really, what most people know about this on-going conflict stems from cricket. Since 1947, India and Pakistan have played 36 Test matches with 13 wins for each country and 12 ties - leading to an intense rival that dates back at least eight decades. Nowadays, this tension and anger between the two countries manifests itself on sporting fields. Recently, after India won The World Cup 2019, some Pakistani players accused Indian players of cheating and making other Pakistani players lose their focus during the game by rubbing dirt in their faces.

The ASIA cup (Asian Cricket Tournament) has always been hotly contested by these two countries. In 2013, India defeated Pakistan by six wickets after chasing down 276 runs thanks to Dhoni 89 runs off 82 balls. What does all this mean? A rivalry like no other exists between these two nations and cricket might be the reason why.

Culture

The culture of India and Pakistan have many similarities, but there are also many differences. For example, Bollywood and Lollywood are respectively South Asia's biggest film industries. They both exist primarily in Hindi and Urdu, but in some parts of Pakistan it's mainly Punjabi, whereas in India it's mainly Tamil or Telugu. At the same time they are considered to be regional film industries. There are also many parallels when it comes to their national songs and anthems as well as cuisine like curries and dishes using tandoori chicken and naan breads. India vs Pakistan world cup- India has won 5 times, with one final appearance (1999), and lost three times, with one final appearance (2011). India vs Pakistan in ASIA cup-Pakistan has won two times against India(1982, 1989) whereas India has won five times against Pakistan(1962, 1983, 1984, 1987). 2022 India vs Pakistan world cup-Indian fans are expecting a better performance from their team as compared to previous world cups.

India vs Pakistan big rivalry why?-The rivalry between India and Pakistan stems from the 1947 partition which divided British India into two countries on religious lines; over 14 million people were displaced during this process.

History

The cricket rivalry between India and Pakistan can be traced back to 1951, when the two nations were split over two entirely different interpretations of a newly partitioned state. Ever since then, they have been in an ongoing struggle to beat each other with fervent intensity on and off the field. In their inaugural match at Lord's, India defeated Pakistan by an innings. Throughout their history playing together, there have been innumerable intense contests that ended in heartbreak for one side or another. The most famous of these was the 1987 World Cup semi-final at Old Trafford, where India won by 22 runs after scoring 329/4 in 50 overs. Despite this victory, India did not win the tournament, instead succumbing to eventual champions Australia in the final. However, the rivalry continued even during peacetime as India toured Pakistan in 1997 to compete in the World cup. At Mumbai, Pakistan convincingly won the first Test by 4 wickets despite setting a mammoth 478 target (200+ runs more than any previous successful chase). It was also noted that India had long forgotten their original name - Persia - and it had become simply India. As tensions rose again throughout 2001 and 2002, India toured Pakistan twice for competitions like the Asia cup (once) and ICC Champions Trophy (twice).

Politics

India and Pakistan have fought each other three times in world cups. The second time they fought each other was at the Asia Cup 2018, which India won 2-0. They also played in what could be a pivotal match of 2022, which India won 2-1. India and Pakistan are both huge Asian powers that share a very volatile history with one another, leading to a lot of tension. When these two teams face off against one another it often turns into an explosive match that seems to always be on some sort of edge. These international football matches are typically intense because Indian and Pakistani supporters take up their respective flags and go head to head against one another. India and Pakistan’s rivalry stems from the history of British colonialism in South Asia. In 1947, India gained independence from Britain, but East Pakistan (modern day Bangladesh) didn’t want to stay independent from West Pakistan (modern day India). Ultimately, after much fighting between Indians and Pakistanis, East Pakistan became its own nation-state while West Pakistan remained as such. Since then India has been hostile towards any form of Muslim power in South Asia or the rest of the world for that matter, which includes Afghanistan and Bangladesh as well as modern day Islamic terrorist groups like ISIS.

Fear of Neighbour

India and Pakistan are neighbors, which often makes for a complicated relationship. There are many different reasons behind India and Pakistan's big rivalry, but it mostly seems to come down to disputes over who owns what land. For example, in 1947 when India gained independence from Britain, much of the Muslim population fled to their home country of Pakistan because they feared violence would break out with the Hindu majority who wanted their own country free from British rule. Thus, this sparked some territorial disputes between both countries that never seem to be resolved. Another reason for the tension may have something to do with religion; India has predominantly Hindus while Pakistan has more Muslims.

The World Cup match against each other in 1987 was considered one of the best games ever played by India and Pakistan, being tied 3-3 until someone won on penalty kicks. It should also be noted that India beat Pakistan on its way to winning the Asia Cup in 1992, 1994, 2004 and 2007. The 2022 World Cup qualifier match-up will take place on September 5th 2020 where there will most likely be plenty of hype about what side is going to win!

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Electricity Class 10 Notes -Learn Quick Zone

2022-08-22T21:37:00.002+05:30

Electricity Class 10 Notes -Learn Quick Zone

Chapter Wise Class 10 Science Notes and Key Points for Class 10 Science Pdf free download was prepared by LearnQuickZone from the latest edition of NCERT books to get good marks in board exams. NCERT Class 10 Science Notes contains physics, chemistry and biology notes of all chapters are part of Revision NCERT Notes for Class 10. Here we have given CBSE Class 10 Science Notes PDF.

Socialism, Karl Marx, and the Early Strands of Socialism-Learn Quick Zone

2022-08-21T08:59:00.001+05:30

Socialism, Karl Marx, and the Early Strands of Socialism

Socialism has become a bit of a dirty word lately, but the concept has been around long before Karl Marx or even Friedrich Engels, who coined the term and laid out the first real socialist manifesto. In fact, various forms of socialism have existed throughout human history and there are even some early versions of it in ancient Greece, though they were much different than the socialism we know today. So let’s look at what socialism means, where it comes from, and what specific strands of socialism we see in history and in modern day society today.

What Is Socialism?

Most people have some idea of what socialism is, but there are different types and interpretations of socialism. The word socialism first appeared in England in 1832 when it was used to describe the the doctrine of social progress. Karl Marx, who is considered the father of socialism, later defined it as a system under which production is owned by the community as a whole and carried on for the common good. Karl Marx was born into a wealthy family in Trier, Germany on May 5th 1818. He studied law at the University of Berlin from 1830-1835 and lived in France from 1843-1845 where he became involved with communism. In his books The Communist Manifesto (published February 16th, 1888) and Das Kapital (published January 23rd, 1890), Karl Marx argued that industrialization had produced new classes of workers such as those employed by industrialists or working within factories - or proletarians - and capitalists - the owners of industry. Karl Marx believed that capitalism would inevitably lead to revolution since capitalists control most aspects of society while proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains.

Different Types of Socialism

There are many different types of socialism, but all share the same basic goal: to create a more equal society. One early strand of socialism was the Doctrine of social Progress, which argued that societies could progress towards greater equality. Karl Marx's brand of socialism also advocated for a more equal society, but through different means. While there are many different types of socialism, they all seek to create a more just and equitable world. Karl Marx's idea of socialism is based on his view that the capitalist system creates class distinctions and conflicts. He advocates an end to private property and argues for state ownership of the economy. Karl Marx believes in an economic system where people work in order to support themselves, not for profit or gain as in capitalism. In contrast, the Doctrine of social Progress believes that society can achieve greater equality with gradual changes over time (e.g., education).

Understanding From Each According to His Ability, To Each According to His Need

In 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published The Communist Manifesto, which laid out the tenets of socialism. Among these was the idea that socialism would create a society in which from each according to his ability, to each according to his need. In other words, everyone would contribute what they could to society, and society would then redistribute resources to everyone based on their needs. This principle is often invoked in discussions of welfare and social safety nets. While it's a noble idea, it's difficult to achieve in practice. Critics argue that it's simply not possible to know what everyone's needs are, or to ensure that everyone receives what they need. But proponents of socialism point out that there are countless examples where this type of system has worked effectively for centuries. For example, communist countries such as Cuba have traditionally enjoyed high levels of equality despite being poor by capitalist standards. Additionally, when children are raised by an entire community rather than just parents, they tend to develop more robust personalities. Supporters also point out that during disasters like Hurricane Katrina, private charity is unreliable and inequitable while government-provided assistance can be faster and more comprehensive.

The Role of Government in a Socialist System

In a socialist system, the government plays a key role in planning and controlling the economy. The government owns or controls the means of production, such as factories, land, and businesses. This allows the government to control what is produced and how it is distributed. The government also provides social services such as healthcare and education. In some socialist systems, such as those in Scandinavia, the government also provides a safety net of sorts to ensure that no one falls into poverty. Other socialist countries have adopted different approaches. China has moved away from communism towards a mixed economy that includes elements of capitalism. Cuba's communist government has been led by Fidel Castro since 1959, after he led an overthrow of the US-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar.

Problems With Communism's Implementation Around the World

The ideas put forth by Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto have been tried in many different ways around the world, but each implementation has had its own share of problems. In Russia, for example, the government was too corrupt and too powerful, leading to a repressive regime that didn't truly represent the people. China's communist government has also been criticized for being autocratic and not allowing enough personal freedoms. Cuba is another country where socialism has been tried, but its citizens have long complained about a lack of basic necessities like food and medicine. In Venezuela, socialism has led to an economic crisis, with high inflation and shortages of basic goods. No matter where it's been tried, it seems that communism hasn't been able to live up to its promises. Karl Marx wrote about how workers would unite together to overthrow their oppressors, and how there would be no need for any hierarchy within society after this revolution. But we can see from these examples that this is not always the case; sometimes hierarchies emerge even stronger than before. So why does communism seem to fail so often? Karl Marx might say that it is because they haven't followed his teachings closely enough or because the leaders are implementing them incorrectly or without considering the consequences. Some may argue instead that he wasn't right in predicting what would happen in the future under such a system (especially given recent developments). Whatever your opinion on Karl Marx and socialism, you can agree that it still has much work to do if it wants to be considered successful on any level.

Legislature || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-5 ( Book-1) || Notes

2022-08-21T07:16:00.000+05:30

Legislature || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-5 ( Book-1) || Notes

There are three organs of government :-

Legislature

executive

Judiciary

According to Article 76 of the Constitution, the Indian Parliament consists of two houses as well as the President.

️ Legislature :-

The legislature of the Union is called the Parliament, it is composed of the President and two houses, which are the Council of State (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The legislature of the states is called legislature or assembly.

The legislature is elected by the people. Therefore it makes the law by becoming the representative of the people. Its debate, protest, demonstration, exit, consensus, concern and cooperation, etc., keeps it very lively.

The importance of the legislature is very high in a democratic government. Parliamentary system of government has been adopted in India which is based on the British system.

There are two types of legislature :-

(1) Parliament at the center

(2) State Legislature in the State

️ Indian Parliament has two parts :-

Lok Sabha :- The temporary house of the Indian Parliament is called Lok Sabha. Whose term is of 5 years and its 542 members are elected.

Rajya Sabha :- The other house of the Indian Parliament which is permanent is called Rajya Sabha. The term of its members is 6 years.

Requirement of two houses in Parliament :-

Countries full of diversity often want a bicameral national legislature so that all sections of the society can be given proper representation.

Another advantage of this is that every decision taken by one house gets reconsidered in the other house.

Every bill and policy is considered twice.

One house cannot impose any decision in haste.

️ Major Functions of Parliament :-

Making laws.

Control over the executive.

Financial Functions: Passing the Budget

Constitution amendment.

Election related work.

Judicial work.

Representation.

Forum for debate.

Control of foreign policy.

Thoughtful work.

️ Provinces with bicameral legislature :-

Bihar

Jammu and Kashmir

Uttar Pradesh

Maharashtra

Karnataka

️ Rajya Sabha :-

The upper house of the Indian Parliament is the Rajya Sabha, it has a maximum of 250 members, of which 12 are nominated by the President and 238 are elected by indirect elections by the states. They are elected for 6 years. Rajya Sabha is a permanent house. After every two years, one-third of the members are elected. Nominated members are drawn from the fields of literature, science, art, social service, sports etc.

Qualifications to become a member of Rajya Sabha :-

He should be a citizen of India.

Be 30 years old.

They are elected by the Single Transferable Proportional Representation System.

According to the Representation of the People Act of 1951, the name of the candidate of Rajya Sabha or Lok Sabha must be registered in some parliamentary constituency.

️ Powers of Rajya Sabha :-

Considers and passes ordinary bills and proposes amendments to money bills.

Passes constitutional amendments.

Controls the executive by asking questions and presenting resolutions and proposals.

Participates in the election of the President and Vice-President and can remove them and the judges of the Supreme Court.

The proposal to remove the Vice-President can be brought only in the Rajya Sabha.

It can empower the Parliament to make laws on the subjects of the State List.

It protects the interests (powers) of the states.

️ Financial Powers :-

The Rajya Sabha can consider the Finance Bill for 14 days.

Constitutional amendment powers.

Administrative Powers – Questions can be asked to the ministers in relation to their departments in the Rajya Sabha.

Other Powers On election, impeachment, declaration of emergency, removal of the judge from his office, permission is necessary on both the houses.

️ Lok Sabha :-

The Lok Sabha is the lower house of the Indian Parliament. It can have a maximum of 550 members. At present there are 543 elected members of the Lok Sabha and two members (Anglo-Indians) can be nominated by the President. The members of the Lok Sabha are elected directly by the public, its term is fixed for 5 years but it can be dissolved even before time.

Lok Sabha is more powerful because of the parliamentary system of government in India because its members are directly elected. It also has the power to remove the executive.

Qualifications to become a member of Lok Sabha :-

Citizen of India.

Age 25 years.

Don't be mad and bankrupt.

Do not hold any profitable government post.

️ Special Powers of Lok Sabha :-

Makes laws on the subjects of the Union List and the Concurrent List. Introduces and passes Money Bills and General Bills.

Approves tax proposals, budgets and annual financial statements.

Controls the executive by asking questions, asking supplementary questions, bringing motions and through no-confidence motions.

The Lok Sabha does the work of amending the constitution.

Approves the declaration of emergency.

Elects the President and Vice-President and can remove them and the judges of the Supreme Court.

Constitutes committees and commissions and considers their reports.

Money Bills can be introduced only in Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha has more powers than the Rajya Sabha. Rajya Sabha is not elected by the people but by the MLAs.

In the democratic system adopted by the constitution, the people have the ultimate power. This is the reason why the Constitution has given the power to remove the government and control the finances only with the elected representatives (Lok Sabha).

️ Procedure for making laws :-

Bill: - The draft of the proposed law is called a bill.

Bill Proposed Law Draft Article 107-112 Law making.

️ Types of Bills :-

There are two types of bills :-

🔶 Government Bill (which is served by ministers.)

1. Money Bill

2. Ordinary Bill

3. Constitution Amendment Bill

Private Bill (introduced by another member of Parliament)

1. Ordinary Bill

2. Constitution Amendment Bill

️ Government Bill :-

A bill which is introduced/introduced by a minister of the government in the Parliament. It is called a government bill. There are two types of government bills.

🔶 simple bill - all government legislation, except money or money bill are simple bill. For example, for the matters related to the public, a new law has to be made or any amendment has to be made in the constitution.

There are two types of ordinary bills.

1. General Bill

2. Constitution Amendment Bill

🔶 funds or financial legislation: - That Bill which says any new tax, rebate or other related financial transactions or funding for a task financial legislation bill.

️ Non-Government Bill :-

A bill which is presented in Parliament by a member of Parliament other than a minister, is called a private bill.

️ Process :-

First reading.

Second Reading (Committee Level)

Discussion on the report of the committee

Third reading.

Procedure in the second house.

President's approval.

️ Means of Parliamentary Control :-

Debate and Discussion – Question Hour, Zero Hour, Adjournment Motion.

Acceptance or rejection of laws.

Financial control.

No-confidence motion, censure motion.

️ Parliamentary Committees :-

The formation of committees for various legislative and day-to-day business is an essential aspect of parliamentary work. It discusses various matters and supervises administrative work.

️ Financial Committees :-

Public Accounts Committee: - Whether the expenditure of various departments of the Government of India has been done according to the rules or not.

Estimates Committee:- How can one be economical in expenditure.

Public Undertaking: - Examines the reports of government industries whether the industry or business is being run efficiently or not.

️ Departmental Standing Committees :-

Regulatory Committee.

Privileges Committee.

Business Advisory Committee.

Assurance Committee.

️ Ad hoc committees :-

It is constituted from time to time to investigate and report on specific subjects. Joint Committee on Bofors Agreements. The Parliament rarely rejects the suggestions made by the committees.

How does the Parliament control itself :-

Parliament to be meaningful and disciplined.

The Speaker of the House is the supreme authority in matters of the proceedings of the legislature.

The 52nd amendment was made in 1985 by the Anti-Defection Act. Amended by the 91st Constitutional Amendment. If a member, despite the orders of the leadership of his party - does not appear in the house or votes in the house against the direction of the party or voluntarily resigns from the membership of the party, it is called 'defection'. The Speaker can disqualify him from the membership of the House.

In the Indian federal government, 29 states and 7 union governing units form the federal government in India. Delhi has been given the status of National Capital Region.

The system of legislature is not the same in every state of India. In some states there is a unilateral system and in some states there is a bicameral system.

The task of making laws in the states has been given to the legislatures :-

1. Legislative Assembly to the Lower House.

2. The Upper House is called the Legislative Council.

️ Bicameral State :-

Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, seven states, all other states are unicameral.

️ Powers of the Legislative Assembly :-

Legislative power.

Financial powers.

Executive powers.

Election related work.

Constitutional amendment powers.

️ Powers of Legislative Council :-

Legislative Powers.

Financial powers.

Executive powers.

Despite both the houses being the essential parts of the state legislature, the constitution has given the assembly a very powerful and influential position.

️ Defection :-

If a member does not appear in the house despite the orders of the leadership of his party or votes in the house against the direction of the party or voluntarily gives the membership of the party, then it is called defection.

️ Anti-defection law :-

By the 52nd Amendment of the Constitution, a law was made in 1985 by which the Speaker of the House controls the behavior of its members. This is called the Anti-Defection Act. If it is proved that a member has defected, then his membership of the House is terminated. And such a defector is disqualified for any political post.

Executive || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-4 ( Book-1) || Notes

2022-08-21T07:05:00.000+05:30

Executive || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-4 ( Book-1) || Notes

In a democracy, the government is divided into three organs:-

Legislature

Judiciary

executive

️ Executive :-

It is that part of the government that implements the rules and regulations in the organization on a daily basis.

The part of the government that implements rules and regulations and does the work of administration is called the executive. The executive is responsible for implementing the policies and laws approved by the legislature.

The executive consists not only of the President, Prime Minister or Ministers, but also includes the entire administrative structure (members of the civil service).

️ Political Executive :-

The political executive consists of the head of the government and his ministers. They are responsible for all the policies of the government. Political officials are elected, not permanent.

️ Permanent Executive :-

The people who are responsible for the day-to-day administration are included in the permanent executive. These are civil servants like IAS, IPS etc.

️ Functions of the Executive :-

To implement the policies of the government and to implement the laws made by the legislative bodies.

The executive assists the government in the law making process.

The executive conducts relations with the states.

Executes various types of treaties and agreements.

In all countries, the head of the state is the supreme commander of the country's armed forces, but he does not participate in any war.

️ Types of Executive :-

Actual Executive (UK and India)

Nominal executive (PS of India and Emperor of Britain)

Single Executive ( PS of US )

Majority Executive (Switzerland)

Paternal executive (Great Britain) (by lineage)

Elected Executive (India and US)

Parliamentary Executive (UK and IN Germany, Italy, Japan, Canada)

Presidential Executive (US, Brazil, Latin America)

Semi-Presidential Executive (India, France, Russia, Sri Lanka)

️ Presidential system :-

In a presidential system, the President is the head of both the country and the government. In this system, the office of the President is very powerful both in theory and in practice. This system is found in many countries of America, Brazil and Latin America.

There is a presidential system in America and the executive powers are with the President.

️ Parliamentary system :-

In a parliamentary system, the prime minister is the head of the government, in this system there is a president or king who is the nominal head of the country. The prime minister has real power. This system is in place in countries like India, Germany, Italy, Japan, England and Portugal etc.

Germany has a parliamentary system in which the President is the nominal head and the Chancellor is the head of government.

Italy has a parliamentary system in which the President is the head of the country and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

Japan has a parliamentary system in which the king is the head of the country and the prime minister is the head of government.

Canada has a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in which the Queen is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government.

️ Semi-Presidential Arrangement :-

In the semi-presidential system, there is both the President and the Prime Minister, but in this, the President can get important powers in the conduct of daily affairs, there is a similar system in France, Russia and Sri Lanka.

Russia has a semi-presidential system in which the President is the head of the country and the Prime Minister appointed by the President is the head of government.

In France, the President and the Prime Minister are part of the semi-presidential system. The President appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers but cannot remove them as they are responsible to the Parliament.

️ Parliamentary System :-

The Prime Minister and his associates constitute the real executive.

The Prime Minister and his ministers are members of the Legislature.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislature.

Lower house (Lok Sabha) by the President at any time. can be dissolved.

The cabinet can be removed at any time by a motion of no confidence in the house.

️ Presidential System :-

The President is the real head of the executive.

Ministers are not members of the Legislature.

The members of the cabinet are not responsible to the legislature.

The President cannot dissolve either House.

The Legislature has no right to pass a no-confidence motion in the cabinet.

️ Parliamentary Executive in India :-

The makers of our constitution wanted that the government should be such that it is sensitive and responsive to the expectations of the people, this was possible only in the parliamentary executive.

In this system in India, the President is the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers run the government at the national level. At the state level, the Governor, the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers together form the executive.

Formally the executive powers of the Union have been given to the President, but in reality, the President exercises these powers through the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

Reasons for adoption of parliamentary system in India :-

Presidential executive lays a lot of emphasis on the powers of the President, due to which the person remains in danger of worship. The framers of the Constitution wanted a government that had a powerful executive, but at the same time it should have adequate restrictions on individual worship.

In a parliamentary system, the executive is responsible to the legislature or the people and is also controlled. Therefore, the constitution accepted the system of parliamentary executive both at the national and provincial levels.

️ President :-

The President is elected for 5 years, that too indirectly, by the elected MPs and MLAs. This election is held according to the system of proportional representation and the principle of single transferable vote.

The Parliament can remove the President from his office through the process of impeachment. Impeachment can be done only on the ground of violation of the constitution.

️ Power and position of the President :-

There is a ceremonial head: Although the President has many executive, legislative (law making), legal and emergency powers, but he exercises all these powers on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

️ Age and tenure for the election of President :-

The minimum age to contest the election of the President should be 35 years and the term of an elected President is 5 years. Any former president can run for re-election.

️ Presidential Prerogatives :-

Constitutionally, the President has the right to get information about all important issues and proceedings of the Council of Ministers.

1. Can return the Houses for reconsideration.

2. Delay in assent to bills passed by the Parliament by exercising veto power.

3. Decide who will become the Prime Minister at the time of many leaders' claims after the election.

The process of impeachment of the President :-

To remove the President from his office, he is impeached, this is done when the President commits any violation of the Constitution.

The impeachment motion of the President can be introduced in any House of the Parliament, whether it is Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.

🔹 require more than two-thirds majority in the House proposal. If this motion gets more than two-thirds majority in the house, then the charge against it is investigated by the other house.

🔹 President will depart from his position if other allegations in the House accepted the two-thirds majority.

Note :- "No President has been impeached till now".

After all, what is the need of the presidency?

In the parliamentary system, if there is no support, the council of ministers can be removed at any time, at such a time there is a need for a head of state whose term is permanent, who can symbolically represent the whole country.

The Vice President does all these things in the absence of the President.

️ Vice President of India :-

Elected for five years, just as the President is elected. He is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and acts as the acting President in the event of the President's death, resignation, removal by impeachment or any other factor becoming vacant.

️ Procedure for removal of Vice President from his post :-

The Vice-President can be removed by a motion of the Rajya Sabha, provided that the motion is also accepted by the Lok Sabha. There is no provision for impeachment of the Vice President.

️ Election of Vice President :-

The Vice-President is elected by the system of single transferable vote. This election is different from the election of the President. In this, only both the houses of the Parliament participate, the legislatures have no role. The oath of office of the Vice President is administered by the President of India.

Functions and Powers of Vice President :-

The Vice-President acts as the House-husband of the Rajya Sabha.

He conducts the proceedings of the House as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

On the death of the President, on the resignation of the President, on the absence of the President, on the removal of the President or on any prolonged illness, the Vice President can assume the office of the President.

️ Prime Minister and Council of Ministers :-

The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha. As soon as he loses the majority, he also loses his position.

The Prime Minister, the head of the Council of Ministers, decides who will be the ministers in his council of ministers. It is the Prime Minister who allocates the ranks and ministries of various ministers. That is why he is also the head of the Council of Ministers.

It is mandatory for the Prime Minister and all the ministers to be members of the Parliament. If a person becomes a minister or prime minister without being a member of parliament, he has to be elected as a member of parliament (either house) within six months.

What should be the size of the Council of Ministers :-

By the 91st amendment of the Constitution, it was provided that the number of members of the Council of Ministers should not exceed 15% of the total number of members of the Lok Sabha or the Legislative Assemblies of the states.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. This means the government which loses confidence in the Lok Sabha has to resign. This principle is based on the principle of unity of the cabinet. Its spirit is that if a no-confidence motion is passed against a single minister, then the entire council of ministers has to resign.

️ Prime Minister's Location :-

Paramount in Government: The Council of Ministers comes into existence only when the Prime Minister takes the oath of office. The entire Council of Ministers is dissolved by the death or resignation of the Prime Minister.

️ The axis of the Prime Minister's government :-

The Prime Minister acts as a bridge between the Council of Ministers on the one hand and the President and the Parliament on the other, he informs the President about the administration of federal affairs and proposed laws.

Sources of Power of Prime Minister :-

Control over the Council of Ministers.

Leadership of Lok Sabha.

Access to the media.

His personal rise during the election.

Image of the national leader in international conferences.

Hegemony over the officer class.

Image of the leader during foreign trips.

Pocket Box.

The powers of the Prime Minister have changed a lot due to the coalition governments. Since 1989, we have seen the era of coalition governments in India. Some of these governments could not remain in power even for the entire duration of the Lok Sabha. In such a situation, the office of the Prime Minister has not been as powerful as it is in a government with a majority of one party.

Changes in the powers of the post of Prime Minister :-

The role of the President has increased in the selection of the Prime Minister.

The tendency to consult political allies has increased.

The privileges of the Prime Minister have been curtailed.

Policies are made only after negotiation and agreement with allies.

️ Nature of the executive in the states :-

The states have a governor who is (on the advice of the central government) appointed by the president.

The Chief Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly.

All the other principles are the same which is applicable due to the parliamentary system in the central government.

️ Permanent executive (bureaucracy) :-

The executive mainly consists of the President, Prime Minister, ministers and a large organization of bureaucratic or administrative machinery. It is also called civil service.

Trained and proficient officers working as permanent employees of the government in the bureaucracy assist the ministers in formulating policies and implementing them.

An efficient administrative machinery exists in India but this machinery is politically responsible which means that the bureaucracy is politically neutral. In a democracy, governments keep coming and going, in such a situation, it is the responsibility of the administrative machinery to help the new governments in formulating their policies and implementing them.

️ Election of the members of the bureaucracy :-

The bureaucracy includes all India services, provincial services, employees of local government and technical and managerial officers of public undertakings. The task of recruiting members of the Civil Services in India is entrusted to the Union Public Service Commission (U.P.S.C.).

️ Public Service Commission :-

Similar public service commissions have also been made in the states which are called State Public Service Commissions.

The tenure of the members of the Public Service Commission is fixed, they can be suspended or removed only on the basis of the inquiry conducted by the judge of the Supreme Court.

The appointment of public servants is done on the basis of skill and merit. The constitution has given opportunity to all sections of the society along with backward classes to become government bureaucracy, for this the constitution provides for reservation for Dalits and tribals.

️ Classification of Civil Services :-

All India Services - Indian Administrative Service Indian Police Service.

Central Services Indian Foreign Service Indian Customs.

Provincial Services Deputy Collector Sales Tax Officer.

Union Public Service Commission selects candidates for Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and Indian Police Service (IPS). The District Magistrate (Collector) of a district is the most important officer of the government in that district and is usually an officer of the IAS level.

️ Pocket Veto :-

When the President does not assent to a bill and does not return the reconsideration under Article III of the Constitution, in such a situation, he uses pocket veto.

Election and Representative || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-3 ( Book-1) || Notes

2022-08-21T06:55:00.000+05:30

Election and Representative || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-3 ( Book-1) || Notes

Election :-

In a democratic system, the method by which the people choose their representatives is called election.

️ Representative :-

In a democratic system, the person whom the public elects and sends to the government (Parliament/Legislative Assembly), that person is called a representative.

️ Direct Democracy :-

Due to the small population in ancient Greek city-states, the people directly gathered at one place and raised their hands to participate in everyday (daily) decisions and running the government. Which is called direct democracy.

️ Indirect Democracy :-

Direct democracy has not been practical in modern large population nations. The general public cannot directly participate in the action of the government by directly gathering at one place. Therefore, their presence is registered in the government by sending its representatives. This is called indirect democracy.

️ Elections and Democracy :-

Elections and democracy are two sides of the same coin. Democracy is incomplete without elections, then elections are meaningless without democracy.

️ History of Elections in India :-

The first elections in India were held in the year 1951-1952.

The second election was held in the year 1957.

️ Election system in India :-

In the Indian Constitution, some basic rules for elections, laws and rules for the formation of autonomous bodies have been listed. Detailed rules and regulations amendment. The task of change has been given to the legislature.

In the election system, the constitution of the Election Commission, its functioning, who can contest the election, who can vote, who will oversee the election, how the counting of votes will be done etc. is all clearly written.

️ Election Commission :-

There is a three-member election commission to conduct free and fair elections in India. It consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two other Election Commissioners. The Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the President. The first Election Commissioner of the country was Mr. Sukumar Sen. The tenure of the Chief Election Commissioner is 6 years or 65 years whichever is earlier. The present Chief Election Commissioner is Shri Sunil Arora.

️ The system of winning by the most votes :-

This system has been adopted in India. In this the one who gets the most votes will win even if the margin of victory is only one vote.

Qualifications fixed in the constitution to become a member of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha :-

Be a citizen of India.

Age should be 25 years.

Do not hold office of profit.

Don't be insane or bankrupt.

Not of criminal tendency or punishment.

Importance of elections in democracy :-

Election and democracy are two sides of the same coin. Today there is democracy in more than a hundred countries in the world. Where there is democracy, the electoral system is adopted to elect the people's representatives.

️ Election Process :-

Issue of notification by the Election Commission.

Date of election, date of application, withdrawal of nomination. To supervise election campaign and election campaign, to conduct free and fair elections on fixed dates, to conduct vote counting and to declare election results. (Elections, appointment of officers, establishment of polling stations)

️ Proportional Representation System :-

In this system, each party issues a priority list of its candidates before the elections, and selects as many candidates from that priority list as the quota of seats is given to it. This system of elections is called proportional representation system.

️ Types of Proportional Representation System :-

There are two types of proportional representation system. like -

1. In Israel and the Netherlands, the whole country is considered a single constituency and each party is given seats in proportion to the votes it receives in national elections.

2. The second type is in Argentina and Portugal, where the whole country is divided into multi-member constituencies.

Why was the system of 'Win by Most Vote' accepted in India?

This system is simple, for those voters who do not have knowledge of politics and elections.

Voters have a clear choice at the time of election.

Voters in the country get the opportunity to choose candidates instead of parties whom they know personally.

️ Reservation of constituencies :-

The system of reserved constituencies has been adopted by the Indian Constitution in an attempt to give equal representation to all classes in the Parliament. Under this arrangement, all the voters in a constituency will cast their vote but the candidate will only belong to the community or social class for which the seat is reserved.

️ Universal adult suffrage :-

Right to vote for all citizens above 18 years of age without any discrimination of caste, religion, sex and region.

️ Electoral Reforms :-

No system of election can ever be ideal. It has many drawbacks and limitations. A democratic society has to constantly look for ways to make its elections more free and fair, which is called electoral reform. Like banning people of criminal nature from contesting elections in India or setting some compulsory education qualifications to contest elections.

️ Features of Election System :-

India has adopted the system of winning with the most votes, its features are

1. In this, the representatives are accountable to the public.

2. There is a direct contact between the voter and the representative.

3. This system is based on the democratic principle of regional representation.

4. It costs less.

5. National unity would have been strengthened by this system.

6. It's simple.

️ Defects of election system :-

Excess expenditure of money.

Buying of votes.

False propaganda.

Communal Violence.

Vote in the name of caste, religion.

Entry of criminals.

Rights In The Indian Constitution || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-2 ( Book-1) || Notes

2022-08-21T00:38:00.005+05:30

Rights In The Indian Constitution || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-2 ( Book-1) || Notes in English

Rights :-

Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can develop himself. Rights are those rights which a common man needs to lead the life which he demands. The facilities provided by law protect the rights.

️ Declaration of Rights :-

In most democratic countries, the rights of citizens are listed in the constitution, such a list is called 'Declaration of Rights'. The demand for which was raised by Nehru in 1928.

Why do we need Fundamental Rights?

Fundamental rights are essential for the basic development, all-round development of the individual. They help in bringing equality, liberty, fraternity, economic and social development in the society.

️ National Human Rights Commission :-

National Human Rights was formed in 2000. It consists of members – one former Chief Justice of Supreme Court, one former Chief Justice of High Court and two members having knowledge or practical experience in relation to human rights. Functions - To hear complaints, investigate and provide relief to the victim.

Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution :-

During the freedom movement of India, the demand for civil rights was raised from time to time by the revolutionaries / freedom heroes. In 1928 also, the Motilal Nehru Committee raised the demand for a Declaration of Rights. Then after independence most of these rights were listed in the constitution.

️ General Rights :-

Those rights which are enforced with the help of ordinary laws and Parliament can change these rights by making laws.

️ Fundamental Rights :-

Those rights which are listed in the constitution and special provisions have been made to implement them. The constitution itself guarantees and protects them. The constitution has to be amended to change these rights. No part of the government can do any work against the fundamental rights.

Note:- India has taken the inspiration of Fundamental Rights from the Constitution of America.

Article 12 to 5 of Part-3 of the Constitution contains details/mention of Fundamental Rights.

️ Types of Fundamental Rights :-

Note: - There are 7 fundamental rights mentioned in the original constitution, but under the 44th Constitutional Amendment 1978, the fundamental right to property has been abolished and it has been established in Article 300(1) as the right of common law.

The six fundamental rights mentioned in part three of the Indian constitution are as follows:-

1) Right to Equality (Articles 14 – 18)

2) Right to Freedom (Articles 19 – 22)

3) Right against exploitation (Article 23 - 24)

4) Right to freedom of religion ( Articles 25 - 28 )

5) Culture and Education (Articles 29-30)

6) Right to constitutional remedies ( Article 32 )

1. Right to Equality :-

Article 14:- Guaranteed legal equality and equal legal protection without discrimination.

Article 15 :- Government – Establishment of a society free from discrimination on the basis of religion, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 16:- Equality of opportunity in public appointments.

Article 17:- Abolition of untouchability from society.

Article 18:- Prohibition of titles other than military and educational titles.

2 . Right to Freedom :-

Article 19: - Freedom of speech and expression, to form associations, to hold meetings, to travel throughout India, to settle in any part of India and to do any business freely.

Article 20:- To provide protection to a person accused or punished in an offence.

Article 21:- No person can be deprived of the liberty to live except by process of law. Article 21 (a) - RTE, 2002, 86th Constitutional Amendment Education Fundamental Right, age 6 to 14, free and compulsory education.

Article 22: - To provide protection to any citizen from arrest and detention in special cases.

Note – The Right to Education was added to Article 211 (A) by the 93rd Amendment (2002).

3. Right against exploitation :-

Article 23: - Prohibition on human trade (smuggling) and forced labor, bonded labor by use of force - When India became independent, then slavery and forced labor was prevalent in many parts of India. The zamindars made the farmers work but did not pay wages, especially women were bought and sold like cattle.

Article 24 - Prohibition of children in mines, factories and hazardous work.

Article 24 :- According to this, children below the age of 14 years shall not be employed in any hazardous work, such as – in mines in factories etc.

4. Right to religious freedom :-

Article 25: - Right to profess, practice and propagate one's own religion.

Article 26:- Right to establish institutions doing religious and charitable work in the form of organized unit.

Article 27: - Propagation of religion and care of religious sect. will not be compelled to pay tax for

Article 28: - No religious education shall be given in any government educational institution.

5. Right to Culture and Education :-

Article 29 :- Gives right to the citizens of any state of India to maintain their own special language, script or culture.

Article 30 - Under this, the language and religious minorities are given the right to establish educational institutions and run their administration.

6. Right to constitutional remedies :-

Article 32 :- The father of the constitution, Dr. Ambedkar has termed this right as "the heart and soul of the Constitution". Under this, the courts issue many special orders, which are called writs.

Which are as follows :-

1. Habeas Corpus ( Habis Corpus )

2. Parmadesh ( Mandamas )

3. Prohibition

4. Inquiry of Rights ( Quo Warranto )

5. Induction (sarshiyori)

1. Habeas Corpus ( Habis Corpus) :-

Habeas corpus is called by the court to order an arrested person to appear before the court/judge.

2. Parmadesh (Mandamas) :-

Under this, if any public officer / Mandamas does not discharge his office, then the court can order him to perform duty.

3. Prohibition (Prohibition) :-

Under this, the Supreme Court or the High Court can be asked to adjourn the hearing in any matter of the lower or subordinate courts.

4. Inquiry of Rights ( Quo Warranto ) :-

Rights query means "What are your rights?" This writ is issued when a person acts in a public office without any authority, then the court obtains information about his right through this writ, if the court is not satisfied with the answer of that person, may stop working.

5. Induction (Sarshiyori) :-

Under this, a writ of commutation is issued by the Supreme Court or High Court to set aside an order issued by a subordinate court, tribunal or quasi-judicial authority.

️ Constitution of South Africa :-

The Constitution of South Africa came into force in December 1996, when the country was reeling from the threat of civil war after the apartheid government was removed, the Declaration of Rights is a cornerstone of democracy in South Africa.

️ Major rights listed in the Constitution of South Africa :-

Right to dignity.

Right to privacy.

Right to fair treatment related to labour.

Right to health, environment and environmental protection.

Right to proper housing.

Right to health facilities, food, water and social security.

Child Rights.

Right to basic and higher education.

Right to receive information.

Rights of cultural, religious and linguistic communities.

️ What are the Directive Principles of State Policy?

In independent India, in addition to fundamental rights, many rules were needed to bring equality to all citizens and welfare of all. Under the Directive Principles of State Policy, similar policy directions have been given to the governments, which cannot be challenged in court but the government can be urged to implement them. It is the responsibility of the government to enforce them to the extent it can.

There are three main things in the list of major policy directive principles -

1. The goals and objectives that we as a society should accept.

2. The rights that citizens should get in addition to the fundamental rights.

3. The policies that the government should accept.

Fundamental Duties of Citizens :-

In 1976, the list of fundamental duties of citizens (Article 51 (a)) has been included by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment.

Under this ten fundamental duties of citizens are as follows:-

To abide by the constitution, respect the national flag and the national anthem.

To cherish and follow the high ideals that inspired the national movement.

To protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.

To be ready for the defense and service of the nation.

To build brotherhood among the citizens.

Understand the importance of the glorious tradition of our social culture and maintain it.

Preserve the natural environment.

Develop scientific outlook, humanism and the spirit of knowledge acquisition and improvement.

Protect public property, make Swachh Bharat Abhiyan a success and stay away from violence.

Try to move towards excellence in all spheres of individual and group activities.

️ Policy - Relationship between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights :-

Both are complementary to each other. While the Fundamental Rights impose restrictions on certain actions of the government, the Directive Principles instruct them to perform certain functions.

Fundamental rights especially protect the rights of the individual, while the Directive Principles talk about the interest of the whole society.

️ Policy - Difference between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights :-

Fundamental rights have legal support but Directive Principles do not get legal support. That is, you can go to court for violation of fundamental rights, but you cannot go to court for violation of Directive Principles.

Fundamental rights are related to individuals and Directive principles are related to society.

The Fundamental Rights have been achieved while the Directive Principles are yet to be implemented.

The objective of Fundamental Rights is to establish political democracy in the country, the objective of Directive Principles is to establish social and economic democracy.

Fundamental rights promote the welfare of the individual Directive principles promote the welfare of the community.

️ Bonded Labor :-

Generation after generation of wages from the poor by the landlords, moneylenders and other rich people. Now it has been declared a crime.

Class 11th CH 1Constitution : Why and How

2022-08-21T00:18:00.003+05:30

Constitution : Why and How || 11th Class Pol. Science Ch-1 ( Book-1) || Notes In English

11th Notes

What is the constitution?

Constitution is the collection of rules and laws related to the governance of any country. Through this, the government of that country has sovereignty (depending on itself or on the constitution) and whatever rules and laws it makes, the people automatically follow them.

Types of constitution in the world :-

There are mainly two types of constitutions in the world.

1. Written Constitution

2. Unwritten Constitution

1.Written Constitution :-

A written constitution is that constitution, which is definitely made by a constituent assembly, it is called a written constitution.

Example:- India, America, Japan.

2.Unwritten constitution :-

Unwritten constitution is that constitution which is not made by any Constituent Assembly but there is evidence of traditions and laws passed from time to time, judges etc.

Example:- Britain, New Zealand, Israel.

️ Functions of the Constitution :-

The constitution establishes the three major organs of government (legislature, executive and judiciary) of a state.
The constitution explains the powers of the three organs of the government and also sets the limits of their duties.
The constitution regulates the mutual relations between the three organs of government and their relations with the people.
The constitution works to fulfill the specific social, political and economic nature, beliefs and aspirations of the people, and prevents anarchy.

Requirement of Constitution :-

Man is a social animal. Society is made up of different types of communities. Constitution is necessary to bring harmony among these communities.
The constitution provides a set of basic rules for creating mutual trust among the people.
Who will have the power to take the final decision? The Constitution decides this.
The constitution sets the rules and bye-laws of government formation and its powers and limits.
Constitution is also necessary for the establishment of a just society.

️ Constituent Assembly in the world :-

The person who gave the first idea of the Constituent Assembly in the world was British / British citizen Sir Henry Maine.
The first Constituent Assembly in the world was formed in the US state of Philadelphia in 1786. At that time there used to be 13 states in America which together made up the Constitution of America.
After this, the Constituent Assembly was formed in France in 1789.
The first constitution in France was written in 1793.

️ Cripps Mission :-

Sent to India in March 1942 by British Prime Minister Churchill under the leadership of British Member of Parliament and Labor leader Sir Stafford Cripps, whose purpose was to remove India's political deadlock.
However, the real purpose of this mission was to entice Indians to cooperate in the war. Sir Cripps was also a member of the British War Cabinet and actively supported the Indian National Movement.
On behalf of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were authorized for examination and discussion in the context of Cripps Mission.

️ Indian Constituent Assembly :-

The person who gave the idea of Constituent Assembly in India was MN Rai.
1895: - As far as India is concerned, the first vision of the Constituent Assembly in India is seen in the Swaraj Bill in 1895, which was prepared under the direction of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
1922 :- In 1922, Mahatma Gandhi was the first person who gave the speech of the Constituent Assembly.
1924: - The first person to demand a Constituent Assembly in 1924 (in 1924 AD) was P. Motilal Nehru (his father's name was Dada Gangadhar Naharu who was the Kotwal of Lalkla, Delhi during the revolution of 1857.)
1924 and 1934 :- In 1924 and 1934, Swaraj Dal was the first political party in which the demand for Constituent Assembly was made twice in 1924 and 1934.

Note :- The credit of taking the ideas of the constitution to the public goes to Jawahar Naharu who has mentioned in many of his speeches and made it known to the public.

1936 :- 1936 Congress was established on 1885 December 28. For the first time in 1936, the Congress spoke about the importance of the meaning of the Lucknow session of the Constituent Assembly, this session was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru (the initial workers of the Congress were 72 at that time).
1940 :- In August 1940, the British Prime Minister Churchill was the first person who said that the people of India will prepare the constitution of India themselves.

️ Formation process of the Constituent Assembly of India :-

1942: - The proposal of the Constituent Assembly on the principle of Britain was placed before the Indian in 1942 through the plan of the Cripps Mission. But the Krims proposal was rejected by all political parties. That is why the Constituent Assembly could not be formed here.

Note: - Radical Democratic Party was the only political party that accepted the Cripps proposal, this party was formed by MN Rai.

1945: - In July 1945, when the new Labor Party government came to power in England, the way for the formation of the Indian Constituent Assembly was opened. Vice Roy Lord Wavell confirmed this.
1946: - The practical form of the Cripps proposal was given in the name of the 1946 Cabinet Mission plan and on the basis of this, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946.
According to the cabinet mission plan – constitution making – the number of members of the body – 389 was fixed. Out of which 292 representatives were to be taken from the eleven provinces under the Governors of British India, 04 representatives were to be taken from the four provinces of the Chief Commissioners (Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar, Coorg and British Balochistan) and 93 representatives were to be taken from the Indian princely states.

Note: - Out of these, Hyderabad was the only princely state whose representatives did not come to the assembly.

Each province of the British Province was given seats in the Constituent Assembly in proportion to their population. (one place per 10 million people)
The seats in each province were divided into three major communities - Muslims, Sikhs and generals in proportion to their population.
June 3, 1947, according to the Mountbatten plan, the India-Pakistan partition was decided, as a result the members of Pakistan ceased to be members of the Constituent Assembly and the actual number of members of the Constituent Assembly of India was reduced to 299.

Nature of Constituent Assembly :-

Constituent Assembly duly inaugurated - day - Monday, 09 December 1946 at eleven o'clock in the morning.

Sessions of the Constituent Assembly :-

First Session : -

The first session of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December 1946. 209 members attended this meeting
On 9 December 1946, Dr. Sachchidanand Sinha was appointed as the Provisional President.

Second Session : -

The second session of the Constituent Assembly was held on 11 December 1946.
During this session, on 11 December 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the Permanent President of the Constituent Assembly and the Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was elected.

Third Session : -

On 13 December 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru presented the objective of the constitution. In this the outline of the future sovereign democratic republic of India was presented. Which was accepted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 January 1947.

Note: - The Objective Resolution was a model of the process and ideals of the Constitution, according to which the Indian Constitution was to be framed.

Fourth Session : -

The fourth session of the Constituent Assembly of India lasted from 14 July 1947 to 31 July 1947. During this session, the national flag tricolor was adopted on 22 July 1947.
The Constitution of India, adopted on 26 November 1949, had 395 articles, 22 parts and 8 schedules, 3 appendices. At present the schedules have increased from 8 to 12.
As of 25 July 2017 there were 465 articles. and became 465 on 31st December 2017.
The Constitution of India, adopted on 26 November 1949, was duly implemented on 26 January 1950.
There were 299/300 members in the Constituent Assembly of India, out of which on 26 November 1949, a total of 284 members were present, these 284 members signed the finally passed constitution.
Every motion introduced in the assembly, every word and everything done there has been recorded and published in 12 rough volumes in the name of Constituents/Assemblies/Debates.

Total time total sittings in the making of Indian constitution :-

It took 2 years 11 months and 18 days to make the constitution and a total of 166 meetings were held and about 64 lakh rupees were spent in making the constitution.

️ Present Schedules in the Indian Constitution :-

There are twelve (12) schedules.

️Women members in the Constituent Assembly :-

A total of 9 women members in the Constituent Assembly, out of which three were very important, were in many committees. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukha and other princesses were Amrita Kaur, Begum Ejaz Rasool, Vijayalakshmi.

️ Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly :-

On 29 August 1947, Dr. Constitution of seven member committee under the chairmanship of Bhimrao Ambedkar. This committee presented the draft of the Constitution to the President of the Constituent Assembly on 21 February 1948.

Formation process of the Constituent Assembly of India :-

First meeting on 9 December 1946, Provisional President Dr. Satchidananda.
Cabinet Mission Proposal.
11 December 1946 Dr. Appointment of Rajendra Prasad as permanent chairman.
Member No. 389 , (292 + 4 + 93 ) .
14 August 1947, Partitioned India Constituent Assembly meeting, total meetings – 166.

Four shortcomings in the formation of the Constituent Assembly of India :-

Lack of sovereignty.
Improper classification of provinces.
The princely states were not compelled to follow the constitution.
The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected in an undemocratic manner.

Preface :-

The purpose of the constitution maker is the essence of the ideas, the preamble is also called the preamble or preamble, its basis is considered to be the objective proposal.

Note: - The definition of the Preamble has been taken from the Constitution of Australia and its practical form has been taken from America. The constitution is the mirror of the nation and the system of governance and the preamble is the mirror of the constitution.

In the Preamble 3 types of justice have been used.

1. Social justice

2 . economic justice

3. political justice

social justice - the right to social justice has been ranked in the original places, especially equity.

economic justice - economic justice has been ranked in the policy director elements.

political justice - has the right to vote for political justice and election rights.

Note :- Preamble is considered as part of the constitution.

The Preamble is the mirror of the Constitution.
The preamble is also called the key to the republic and the essence and purpose of the constitution, philosophy.
This was said by KM Munshi.
By the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1976, 3 new words were added to the Preamble.

(i) Socialism (ii) Secularism (iii) Integrity (Unity and Integrity)

Note :- On 22 July 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the national tricolor.

On 26 January 1950, the Government of India gave the status of a national emblem to the Ashoka Pillar.
24 January 1950 Constituent Assembly Jan - Gan - mind was given the status of the national anthem and national song were also the Vande Mataram.
On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly gave the status of official language to Hindi and script Devanagari.
In the year 2000, a National Commission was set up by the Vajpayee government under the chairmanship of Justice MN Venkatachalya to investigate the working of the Constitution. 22 feb 2020
law rule in India is moving from the constitution the name of our country in the Constitution is the 2-way "India That India" India "That India"
The world's smallest constitution is that of America, which has only 7 articles and it came into force on 4/3/1789.

Sources of Indian Constitution :-

About 75 percent of the constitution was taken from the Government of India Act 1935.
10 Fundamental Human Rights were included from the Motilal Nehru Committee Report appointed in 1928.

Some things from the constitutional system of other countries were also included in the Constitution of India such as :-

British Constitution :-

The decision to win the election on the basis of the highest number of votes.
Parliamentary form of government.
The idea of rule of law.
The office of the Speaker in the legislature and his method of law making.

Constitution of America :-

List of Fundamental Rights.
Power of judicial review and independence of judiciary.

Constitution of Ireland :-

Directive Principles of State Policy.

Constitution of France :-

The principle of liberty, equality and fraternity.

Constitution of Canada :-

Form of a quasi-federal government (federal system with a strong central government.
Theory of residuary powers.

Features of the Constitution :-

A complete constitution written by the representatives of the people.
It constitutes a fully sovereign, democratic, socialist, secular republic.
Reminds citizens of Fundamental Rights along with Fundamental Duties.
There is an independent judiciary.
Parliamentary government system.
Directive Principles of State Policy etc.

Indian constitution rigid :-

Constitution is rigid – According to Article 368, amendment in some subjects requires the support of at least half of the state legislatures in addition to a two-thirds majority of the members of the Parliament. (special majority)

️ Indian Constitution Flexibility :-

The Indian Constitution is flexible because many amendment provisions in it are amended by passing the simple majority of the Parliament.

Expansion of words mentioned in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution :-

(a) Justice, (b) Liberty, (c) Equality, (d) Fraternity, (e) Secularism, (f) Socialist

Justice: - To provide social, economic and political justice.

Freedom:- Freedom of expression, thought, belief, religion, deed and worship, devotion.

Equality:- The end of all forms of discrimination or freedom from discrimination.

Fraternity:- To create a feeling of mutual love / affection among every citizen of the country.

Secularism:- Freedom to practice religion to citizens of all religious views.

Socialist: The aim of the government should be maximum public welfare, social welfare work, public welfare work. Society is supreme.

Constitution making controversy in Nepal :-

Since 1948, five constitutions have been made in Nepal - 1948, 1951, 1959, 1962, 1990 and 2006. At present the Madhesi movement is protesting against this. Most of the people want amendment in the constitutFundamental provisions of a successful constitution :-
Every person must have a reason to respect the provisions of the Constitution.
Ensuring social security of minorities from the majority, providing equal facilities.
Strengthening the power of small social groups.
To protect the freedom of all in the society.

When was the constitution of South Africa made?

The Constitution of South Africa was made in December 1996.

️ Global problems included in the constitution of South Africa :-

Environmental protection, class discrimination, housing problem, health problem, global poverty.

Powerplay in IPL: Good or Bad for Cricket?

2022-08-20T15:13:00.003+05:30

Powerplay in IPL: Good or Bad for Cricket?

Powerplay in the Indian Premier League (IPL) cricket has been the most controversial addition to the game over the years. While some support it, others feel that this has only led to more injuries and lesser batting standards due to field restrictions in the middle overs. Here’s all you need to know about IPL rules on powerplay, including how it came into existence and why we need it today.

What are powerplays in cricket?

In cricket, a powerplay is a set of fielding restrictions imposed by the International Cricket Council (ICC) on the number of fielders that can be deployed by the batting team. The rules regarding powerplays vary depending on the format of the game. In Test matches and One Day Internationals (ODIs), there are two powerplays which must be taken during the innings; one between overs 16 and 40, and another between overs 41 and 50. In Twenty20 Internationals (T20Is), there are three powerplays which must be taken during the innings;

How do they work?

In the Indian Premier League (IPL), there are two mandatory powerplays. The first powerplay is between overs 1-6, and during this time, only two fielders are allowed outside the 30-yard circle. The second powerplay is between overs 16-20, and during this time, only four fielders are allowed outside the 30-yard circle. Once these compulsory times have passed, all 10 players can be on the field of play at any given time.

Advantages of powerplays

The Indian Premier League (IPL) is a Twenty20 cricket tournament held in India. It was founded by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) in 2008. The first season was played in 2009 with eight teams. Powerplays are a new addition to the game of cricket and many people believe that they are not good for the sport. Here are some advantages of powerplays:

1. They add excitement to the game.

2. They help keep the interest of viewers.

3. They make the game more interesting and competitive.

4. They provide more opportunities for batsmen to score runs.

5. They increase the scoring rate of the game.

6. They give bowlers more opportunity to take wickets.

Disadvantages of powerplays

Since the introduction of powerplays in the Indian Premier League (IPL), there have been several disadvantages to the game of cricket. One major disadvantage is that it makes the game more unpredictable. This can be seen as a good thing by some, but it also means that teams can lose wickets more quickly, which can lead to less competitive matches. Another downside is that powerplays often result in more boundary runs, which can make for higher scoring games and less interesting cricket to watch. Finally, some argue that powerplays are unfair to bowlers, who have less opportunity to make an impact on the game when they are operating under strict rules.

Do the new rules benefit India, the most dominant cricketing nation?

The new Powerplay rules introduced in the Indian Premier League (IPL) have been controversial, to say the least. Some feel that they benefit the Indian cricket team, while others argue that they are bad for the sport as a whole. So, who is right? Let's take a look at the pros and cons of the new Powerplay rules.

Alternative to powerplay

Since its inception in 2008, the Indian Premier League (IPL) has been a tournament rife with controversy. The latest addition to the long list of issues is the powerplay rule, which states that each team must field only four outfielders during the first six overs of each innings. While some argue that this rule makes the game more exciting, others say that it is detrimental to the sport of cricket. So, what is the truth? Let's take a look.

Is this really fair on other teams especially overseas teams?

The Powerplay rule in the Indian Premier League has been a controversial one since it was introduced. Some people feel that it is unfair on other teams, especially overseas teams, as they are not used to playing with this rule. Is this really fair on other teams? Let's take a look at the pros and cons of the Powerplay rule.

History CH1 Notes यूरोप में राष्ट्रवाद का उदय in Hindi

2022-08-18T23:37:00.002+05:30

" यूरोप में राष्ट्रवाद का उदय "

18 वीं सदी में कई देश जैसे जर्मनी , इटली तथा स्विटजरलैंड आदि उस रूप में नहीं थे जैसा कि आज हम इन्हें देखते हैं । ये छोटे - छोटे राज्यों में विभाजित थे जिनका अपना एक स्वतंत्र शासक था ।

1804 की नेपोलियन संहिता :-

इसे 1804 में लागू किया गया । इसने जन्म पर आधारित विशेषाधिकारों को समाप्त कर दिया । इसने न केवल न्याय के समक्ष समानता स्थापित की बल्कि सम्पत्ति के अधिकार को भी सुरक्षित किया।

वियना कांग्रेस :-

1815 में ब्रिटेन , प्रशा , रूस और ऑस्ट्रिया जैसी यूरोपीय शक्तियों ( जिन्होंने मिलकर नेपोलियन को हराया था ) के प्रतिनिधि यूरोप के लिए एक समझौता तैयार करने के लिए वियना में इकट्ठा हुए जिसकी अध्यक्षता आस्ट्रिया के चांसलर ड्यूक मैटरनिख ने की ।

नेपोलियन कौन था ?

नेपोलियन ( 15 AUG 1769 ) एक महान सम्राट था जिसने अपने व्यक्तित्व एवं कार्यों से पूरे यूरोप के इतिहास को प्रभावित किया ।
अपनी योग्यता के बल पर 24 वर्ष की आयु में ही सेनापति बन गया ।
उसने कई युद्धों में फ्रांसीसी सेना को जीत दिलाई और अपार लोकप्रियता हासिल कर ली फिर उसने पीछे मुड़कर नहीं देखा और फ्रांस का शासक बन गया ।

उदारवाद :-

उदारवाद यानि Liberalism शब्द लातिनी भाषा के मूल शब्द liber पर आधारित है । जिसका अर्थ है स्वतंत्रता । नए मध्यम वर्ग के लिए उदारवाद का अभिप्राय था व्यक्ति के लिए आज़ादी व कानून के समक्ष समानता ।

रूढ़िवाद :-

एक ऐसा राजनीतिक दर्शन जो पंरपरा , स्थापित संस्थानों , पौराणिक परंपराओं और रिवाजों पर बल देता है ।

कुलीन वर्ग :-

ये जमीन के मालिक थे । यह यूरोपीय महाद्वीप का सबसे शक्तिशाली वर्ग था ।

निरंकुशवाद :-

एक ऐसी सरकार या शासन व्यवस्था जिसकी सत्ता पर किसी प्रकार का कोई अंकुश नहीं होता ।

जनमत संग्रह :-

एक प्रत्यक्ष मतदान जिसके द्वारा एक क्षेत्र की सारी जनता से किसी प्रस्ताव को स्वीकार या अस्वीकार करने के लिए पूछा जाता है ।

यूटोपिया ( कल्पनादर्श ) :-

एक ऐसे समाज की कल्पना जो इतना आदर्श है कि उसका साकार होना लगभग असंभव होता है ।

रूमानीवाद :-

एक ऐसा सांस्कृतिक आंदोलन जो एक खास तरह की राष्ट्रीय भावना का विकास करना चाहता था ।

नारीवाद स्त्री :-

पुरूष को सामाजिक , आर्थिक एवं राजनीतिक समानता की सोच के आधार पर महिलाओं के अधिकारों और हितों का बोध नारीवाद है ।

जुंकर्स :-

प्रशा की एक सामाजिक श्रेणी का नाम जिसमें बड़े - बड़े ज़मींदार शामिल थे ।

यूरोप में राष्ट्रवाद :-

यूरोप में राष्ट्रवादी चेतना की शुरुआत फ्रांस से होती है

1789 की फ्रांसीसी क्रांति :-

1789 की फ्रांसीसी क्रांति राष्ट्रवाद की पहली स्पष्ट अभिव्यक्ति थी । इसने फ्रांस में राजतंत्र समाप्त कर प्रभुसत्ता फ्रांसीसी नागरिकों को सौंपी । इस क्रांति से पहले फ्रांस एक ऐसा राज्य था जिसके संपूर्ण भू - भाग पर एक निरंकुश राजा का शासन था ।

सामूहिक पहचान बनाने के लिए उठाये गए कदम :-

1. प्रत्येक राज्य से एक स्टेट जनरल चुना गया और उसका नाम बदलकर नेशनल असेंबली कर दिया गया ।

2. फ्रेंच भाषा को राष्ट्रभाषा घोषित कर दिया गया ।

3. एक प्रशासनिक व्यवस्था लागू की गई जिससे सबको समान कानून का अनुभव हो ।

4. आंतरिक आयात निर्यात , सीमा शुल्क समाप्त कर दिया गया और भार तथा माफ की एक समान व्यवस्था लागू की गई ।

स्कूल और कॉलेज की छात्राओं द्वारा भी समर्थन के रूप में क्लब का गठन किया गया जिनका नाम दिया गया जैकोबिन क्लब ।

फ्रांस की आर्मी ने समर्थन के तौर पर हर विदेशी क्षेत्र में भेज दिए गए जिससे राष्ट्रवादी भावना और बढ़ती चली गई ।

नेपोलियन का शासन काल :-

जब नेपोलियन फ्रांस पर अपना शासन चलाना शुरू किया तो उन्होंने प्रजातंत्र को हटाकर उन्हें राजतंत्र को स्थापित कर दिया ।

नागरिक संहिता या नेपोलियन की संहिता 1804

कानून के समक्ष सबको बराबर रखा गया ।
संपत्ति के अधिकार को सुरक्षित बनाया ।
भू - दासत्व और जागीरदारी शुल्क से मुक्ति दिलाई ।

जागीरदारी :- इसके तहत किसानों जमींदारों और उद्योगपतियों द्वारा तैयार समान का कुछ हिस्सा कर के रूप में सरकार को देना पड़ता था ।

नेपोलियन के समय ही व्यापार आवागमन एवं संचार में बहुत ज्यादा विकास हुआ ।
राष्ट्रीयवादी विचार को बांटने के लिए उन्होंने कुछ क्षेत्रों में कब्जा कर लिया और कर को बढ़ाना और जबरन भर्ती जैसे अनेक कानून व्यवस्था स्थापित कर दिया ।

यूरोप में राष्ट्रवाद का निर्माण :-

किसी भी राष्ट्र के निर्माण के लिए एक सामूहिक पहचान , संस्कृति परंपरा आदि का समान होना जरूरी है ।
यूरोप में अलग - अलग समाज था ।
जैसे : - हैब्सबर्ग साम्राज्य में लोग जर्मन , अंग्रेजी , फ्रेंच , इटली आदि अलग - अलग भाषाएं बोलते।

यूरोपीय समाज की संरचना ( 19 शताब्दी के पहले )

यूरोपियन समाज असमान रूप से दो भागों में विभाजित था।

1. उच्च वर्ग ( कुलीन वर्ग )

2. निम्न वर्ग ( कृषक वर्ग )

उच्च वर्ग कुलीन वर्ग :-

कम जनसंख्या ।
उच्च वर्ग तथा वर्चस्व जमाने वाला ।
जमींदार यानी ढेर सारे खेतों के मालिक ।
सभी अधिकार दिए जाते थे ।

निम्न वर्ग कृषक वर्ग :-

अधिक जनसंख्या ।
निम्न वर्ग
जमीन हीन यानी या तो जमीन न थी या तो किराए पर रहते थे ।
किसी भी प्रकार के अधिकार नहीं दिए जाते थे ।

1.) यानी यूरोपियन समाज असमान रूप से विभाजित ।

2.) उन्नीसवीं सदी के बाद एक नया वर्ग जुड़ गया वह था नया मध्यवर्ग ।

नया मध्यवर्ग :-

इसमें सभी पढ़े - लिखे लोग थे जैसे शिक्षक , डॉ , उद्योगपति , व्यापारी आदि ।
पढ़े - लिखे होने के नाते उन्होंने एक समान कानून की मांग की यानी उदारवादी राष्ट्रवाद ।

उदारवादी राष्ट्रवाद :-

व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता
कानून के समक्ष सब एक समान
सरकार का पक्षधर
बाजार की स्वतंत्रता
इस उदारवादी राष्ट्रवाद के चलते राष्ट्रवाद का विचार सब जगह फैलने लगा ।
इसी वजह से 1789 में फ्रांस की क्रांति हुई ।
इससे एक राज्य के अंदर जो भी नियंत्रण ( चीजों तथा पूंजी के आगमन पर ) था उसे खत्म कर दिया गया लेकिन अलग - अलग राज्यों के बीच के नियंत्रण यानी सीमा शुल्क को खत्म नहीं कर पाया ।
इसके लिए एक संगठन बनाया गया जिसका नाम था " जॉलबेराइन " ( zollverein )

जितने भी शुल्क अवरोध थे उसे समाप्त कर दिया गया ।
मुद्राओं की संख्या दो कर दी , इससे पहले 30 से ज्यादा थी

नेपोलियन के समय केवल पुरुष जिनके पास धन है वही वोट दे सकते थे ।

जॉलवेराइन :-

यह एक जर्मन शुल्क संघ था जिसमें अधिकांश जर्मन राज्य शामिल थे । यह संघ 1834 में प्रशा की पहल पर स्थापित हुआ था । इसमें विभिन्न राज्यों के बीच शुल्क अवरोधों को समाप्त कर दिया गया और मुद्राओं की संख्या दो कर दी गइ । जो पहले बीस से भी अधिक थीं यह संघ जर्मनी के आर्थिक एकीकरण का प्रतीक था ।

रूढ़ीवाद ( 1815 के बाद नया रूढ़िवादी )

1815 में नेपोलियन को हरा दिया गया इसके लिए ऑस्ट्रिया , प्रशा , रूस , ब्रिटेन ने मिलकर काम किया ( वाटर लू की लड़ाई में )
इसके बाद यूरोपीय सरकार पारंपरिक संस्थाएं और परिवार को बनाए रखना चाहते थे ।
इसके लिए उन्होंने नेपोलियन के समय जितने भी बदलाव हुए थे उन सब को खत्म कर दिया गया जिसके लिए एक समझौता किया गया जिसका नाम था वियना समझौता या वियना संधि ।

संधि के तहत मुख्य 3 निर्णय लिया गया :-

पहला फ्रांस की सीमाओं पर कई राज्य कायम कर दिया गया ताकि भविष्य में फ्रांस अपना विस्तार ना कर सके ।
फ्रांसीसी क्रांति के दौरान हटाए गए बूर्वो वंश को सत्ता में बहाल किया गया।
तीसरा राजतंत्र को जारी रखा गया ।

यूरोप में क्रांतिकारियों :-

यूरोपियन सरकार के इन सारे निर्णय के विरोध में क्रांतिकारी ने जन्म लिया ।
क्रांतिकारियों ने अंदर ही अंदर कुछ खुफिया समाज का निर्माण किया ।
जिनका मुख्य मकसद ( लक्ष्य ) था ।
राष्ट्रवाद को बढ़ावा देना ।
वियना संधि की विरोध करना ।
स्वतंत्रता के लिए लड़ना ।

ज्युसेपी मेसिनी एक क्रांतिकारी :-

इटली का एक महान क्रांतिकारी जिसने “ यंग इटली ' नामक आंदोलन चलाया और जिसके फलस्वरूप इटली में एकीकरण की भावना को बल मिला । वह राजतन्त्र के घोर विरोधी थे ।
सभी रूढ़ीवादी ज्युसेपी मेसिनी से डरते थे क्योंकि वह इटली का एकीकरण चाहते थे ।

भूख कठिनाई और जन विद्रोह :-

1830 को कठिनाइयों का महान साल भी कहा जाता है।

कारण

जबरदस्त जनसंख्या वृद्धि
लोग गांव से शहर की ओर रुख कर दिए
बेरोजगारी में वृद्धि
गरीबी में वृद्धि
इसी सालों के दौरान फसल बर्बाद हो गई जिससे खाने की सामग्री की कीमत बढ़ने लगी और छोटे - छोटे फैक्ट्रियां बंद होने लगी ।
खाने पीने की कमी और व्यापक बेरोजगारी ,

इन सभी कारणों से लोगों ने सरकार के खिलाफ विद्रोह कर दिया लोग सड़कों पर उतर आएँ जगह - जगह अवरोध लगाया गया । जिसे कृषक विद्रोह के नाम से जाना गया ।
जिससे यूरोपियन सरकार को गणतंत्र राज्य घोषित कर दिया गया ।

गणतंत्र के बाद कानून में आये बदलाव :-

21 साल से अधिक उम्र के लोगों को वोट डालने का अधिकार ।
सभी नागरिकों को काम के अधिकार की गारंटी दि गई ।

रोजगार उपलब्ध कराने के लिए कारखाने उपलब्ध कराए गए ।
इन सभी से धीरे - धीरे गरीबी और बेरोजगारी कम होने लगी ।

जर्मनी और इटली का निर्माण

जर्मनी का एकीकरण :-
1848 में यूरोपियन सरकार ने बहुत कोशिश किया कि वे जर्मनी का एकीकरण कर दे परंतु वह ऐसा नहीं कर पाए ।
क्योंकि , राष्ट्र निर्माण की यह उदारवादी पहल राजशाही और फौज की ताकत ने मिलकर दबा दी ।
उसके बाद प्रशा ने यह भार अपने ऊपर लेते हुए कहा कि वे जर्मनी का एकीकरण करके ही रहेंगे ।
उस समय प्रशा का मुख्यमंत्री ऑटोमन बिस्मार्क था ( जनक )
प्रशा ने एक राष्ट्रीय एकीकरण के आंदोलन का नेतृत्व किया ।
7 वर्ष के दौरान ऑस्ट्रिया , डेनमार्क और फ्रांस से तीन युद्ध में प्रशा की जीत हुई और एकीकरण की प्रक्रिया पूरी हुई ।
जनवरी 1871 में , वर्साय में हुए एक समारोह में प्रशा के राजा विलियम प्रथम को जर्मनी का सम्राट घोषित किया गया ।

इटली का एकीकरण :-

इटली अनेक वंशानुगत राज्य तथा बहुराष्ट्रीय हैब्सबर्ग साम्राज्य में बिखरा हुआ था ।
केवल एक सार्डिया पीडमॉण्ड में एक इतालवी राजघराने का शासन था ।
इटली एकीकरण के प्रक्रिया का अध्ययन करने के लिए हमें तीन लोगों पर विचार करना होगा ।

ज्युसेपे मेसिनी

कावूर

ज्युसेपे गैरीबॉल्डी

ज्यूसेपे मेत्सिनी :-

इटली का एक महान क्रांतिकारी जिसने “ यंग इटली ' नामक आंदोलन चलाया और जिसके फलस्वरूप इटली में एकीकरण की भावना को बल मिला । वह राजतन्त्र के घोर विरोधी थे ।
1831 और 1848 में क्रांतिकारी विद्रोह की असफलता से युद्ध के जरिए इतालवी राज्यों को जोड़ने की जिम्मेदारी सार्डिया - पीडमॉण्ड के शासक विक्टर इमेनुएल द्वितीय पर आ गई ।

गैरीबाल्डी :-

इटली का महान क्रांतिकारी जो मेत्सिनी का सहयोगी व समकालीन था । उसने लाल कुर्ती नामक सेना तैयार की जिसकी सहायता से उसने ऑस्ट्रिया को हराया । उसने इटली की स्वतंत्रता के लिए कई आंदोलन किए ।

कावूर :-

कावूर को इटली का बिस्मार्क माना जाता है । वह इटली के सार्जीनिया राज्य का प्रधानमंत्री था । उसने सर्वप्रथम अपने राज्य को इटली में मिलाने का कार्य किया ।

ब्रिटेन ( ब्रितानी ) की एकीकरण :-

ब्रिटेन साम्राज्य में - अंग्रेज , वेल्श , स्कॉट या आयरिश जैसे ढेर सारा समाज था जिसे नृजातीय कहते थे ।
औद्योगिक क्रांति के बाद ब्रिटेन की आर्थिक शक्ति बहुत ज्यादा बढ़ गई थी ।
इंग्लैंड और स्कॉटलैंड के बीच एक्ट ऑफ यूनियन से " यूनाइटेड किंग्डम आफ ग्रेट ब्रिटेन " का गठन हुआ ।
कुछ साल बाद इसके अंदर आयरलैंड को भी जोड़ दिया गया ब्रिटेन एक नया राष्ट्र का निर्माण हुआ ।

इंग्लैंड + स्कॉटलैंड + आयरलैंड = यूनाइटेड किंग्डम

राष्ट्र के निर्माण के बाद

1. राष्ट्रगान लिखी गई ।

2. अङ्ग्रेजी को मुख्य भाषा बनाया गया

3. ब्रिटेन का राष्ट्रध्वज भी बनाया गया ।

राष्ट्रीय की दृश्य कल्पना

रूपक : -

जब किसी अमूर्त विचार ( जैसे- लालच , स्वतंत्रता , ईर्ष्या , मुक्ति ) को किसी व्यक्ति या किसी चीज के जरिए इंगित किया जाता है तो रूपक कहते हैं ।
18 वीं और 19 वीं शताब्दी में रूपक का प्रयोग राष्ट्रवादी भावना के विकास और मजबूत बनाने में किया जाता था।

राष्ट्रवाद और साम्राज्यवाद :-

19 वीं सदी तक जो राष्ट्रवाद की भावना थी अब वह साम्राज्यवाद में बदलने लगा ।
साम्राज्यवाद : - जब कोई देश , अपने देश की शक्ति को बढ़ाता है , आर्मी और अन्य साधन का प्रयोग करके उसे साम्राज्यवाद कहते हैं ।
1871 के बाद यूरोप में गंभीर राष्ट्रवादी तनाव का स्रोत बाल्कन क्षेत्र था ।
इस क्षेत्र में भौगोलिक और जातीय भिन्नता थी ।
इसमें आधुनिक - रोमानिया , बुल्गारिया , अल्बेनिया , यूनान , क्रोएशिया बोस्निया , हर्जेगोविना , स्लोवेनिया सर्बिया और सर्बिया शामिल थे।
बाल्कन क्षेत्र में रोमानी राष्ट्रवाद के विचार फैलने और ऑटोमन साम्राज्य के विघटन से स्थिति काफी विस्फोटक हो गई ।
उस समय जितने भी बड़ी शक्तियां थी जैसी जर्मन ब्रिटेन रूस अपनी शक्तियों को बढ़ाना चाहते थे ।
बाल्कन क्षेत्र को अपने - अपने में शामिल करना चाहते थे ।
इसके लिए अनेक युद्ध हुए जिनके नतीजे कुछ भी नहीं निकला और प्रथम विश्व युद्ध हुआ जिससे राष्ट्रवाद की भावना पूरे विश्व में फैल गई ।

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InternationalConference Session -3

Rudra & Anishka

Anchor 1:- Good Morning, Ladies & Gentleman/ one & All Gathered here , the Galaxy of Intellectuals , You are excellency ,invited guests speakers & dear Friends . How different is this Morning .

Dear Audience , you will yourself discover as the part of Ancient Civilization.

Anchor 2:- We are gathered here today to witness & experience the lightening of joy of knowledge. I welcome the dignitaries , who are spending their valuable time with us today , not only for participating but also for guiding us to a beautiful Joy . Thank you one & all.

Anchor 1:- I am Anishka member of Divi welfare society along with my co-host …….

Anchor 2:- I am Rudra Pratap Singh Director IT of a Divi Welfare Society

Anchor 1:- We Feel privilege to welcome you all on the behalf of Divi Welfare Society With Stem Institute Varanasi, International educator group - Washington DC , Supported by BERS Bag Energy Research society, Yog pran vidya, Learn quick zone and Youth4Nation to the 3 days Conference on Ancient Science Techonolgy & Civilization .

Well ,I would like to quote here, Dean William R. Inge Once said “ The Aim of Education is The Knowledge not of fact but of Values .”

Anchor 2:- We Feel honoured to have with us. The honourable Chair-person his Excellency Mr. Gyaneshwar Chaubey is Presently professor of Zoology [ Molecular Anthropology ] at Banaras Hindu University Create new idea with young generation scientists. He is National geographic explorer. He has experience at senior scientist at Estonian Biocentrism 7 yr. interest in genetics of Indian caste system.

It will be my pleasure to invite on this virtual meet as the Chair-person of the 3^rd session of this conference , Mr.Gyaneshwar Chaubey.

Speech

Anchor1 :- Now I Would like to introduce our next speak Now I Would like to introduce our next speaker for the day Prof. S. Y. Kulkarni is a Professor of architecture and former head (2007-2011) of the department of architecture and planning at Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, from 1977 to 2015. From 1987 – 89, he was a visiting faculty at department of architecture of Baghdad Technology and at University of Mosul in Iraq and at Nepal Engineering College Kathmandu, Nepal in 1999. After retirement from IITR, served as Professor and Dean in the Department of Architecture at the Himgiri Zee University, Dehradun from 2016 to 2018.

Speech

Thank you very much Sir , for such a informative talk with us.

And a line said by Albert Eienstein “ If we knew what it was were doing , It would not be called research ,would it ?’’

Anchor 2:- And with that great gratitude being expressed Now I Introduce Our Next Speaker for the Day prof. Jagdish Rai , he earned his Phd. degree from BHU, Varanasi. He was Professor and Head of Physics Department at IIT Roorkee. Later he joined Invertis University, Bareilly and Vice Chancellor. He has served the Indian Institute of Technology for almost 35 years. He has worked in the countries of India, USA, Germany and Canada. He has got several awards had honors to his credit. It will be Privilege for me to Invite Prof. Jagdish Rai

Speech

Thank You Very Much Sir , your thoughts Provoking address set a perfect platform to deliver your knowledge.

I would like to share a line by will Durant Said” Civilization exists by geologic consent subject change without notice.”

Anchor 1 ;- Now I Would like to introduce our next speaker for the day Prof K. K. Singh was Professor of Civil Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. He also obtained his ME degree from the same institute. He served IIT Roorkee for about 3 decades. Prof. K.K. Singh has written several books. His books of science fiction had become very popular. He has many scientific publications to his credit.

Speech

One again , we thank you whole heartedly to share your light of knowledge with us.

A Famous like by James Burk ,” Scientists are the true driving force of civilization.

Anchor 2:- Now I would like to introduce our next speaker of the day Brij AP Singh is veteran army officer who has served the nation for a few decades. He has intense interest in ancient Indian sculptures. He is a widely traveled person and has authored many books on the ancient temples and other monuments of national importance.

Speech

Thank you sir, your thought provoking address set a perfect patform to deliver your knowledge.

I remember a line at this time by Will Durant “civilization begins with order, grows with liberty and dies wih chaos.”

Anchor 1:- Now, I would lke to introduce our next speaker for the day Dr. (Ms) Shreya, she is 27 years old young Doctor from Ranchi University pursuing Book writing and job as Asstt. Professor. One of the topper of her School, felicitated by Government of India. Cracked RET in first attempt. Paper were published in Journal of Scientific Research, BHU (August 6, 20) and RJAS (UGC CARE Listed)

We appreciate to give your precious time , I would like welcome our speaker Miss . Shreya

Speech

Thank you Mam , for your precious thoughts, we will cultivate the advice you gave us.

Here, Some lines stated by Albert Eienstine “We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count without, which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made.”

Anchor 2 :- Now I Would like to introduce our next speaker for the day Dr. Miss Heena Fatima Ali is a well known architect. She has done the research work on the energy conservation in ancient building like Jama Masjid in Delhi. She holds Ph.D. degree from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Presently she is working in Qatar.

We feel delighted to have with us. I would like to welcome our guest to deliver the light of knowledge.

Speech

Thank you so much mam , we appreciate to give your precious thoughts Valuable knowledge thank you for giving us this wonderful Opportunity .

Last but not the least , I thank you fellow students for enthusiastically arranging this event , Without you this event would not be a success Thank You My Buddies

Line for buddies, quoted by Misty Copeland “Anything is possible when you have the right people there to support you.”

Anchor 1 :- In Occasions like this we get opportunity to test our knowledge & Understanding . I extend My gratitude to the respected guests , speakers and all our audience not only for spending their time with us today , but also for encouraging us to achieve many endeavoures . Thank you all .

Anchor 2:-- Now , Let me handover the Stage of this International Conference on Ancient Science , technology and Civilization , to our chair person Mr. Gyaneshwar Chaubey .

Thank You Sir.

Divi International Conference

Integrs Class 7th Notes- Learn Quick Zone

2022-07-06T12:49:00.000+05:30

Integers Notes will help students while studying the chapter related to Integers It is an important chapter in the syllabus of Class 7 Math . Analysis of the Integers Questions, it will help students to understand the chapters in a better way

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Motion Class 9th NCERT Notes -Learn Quick zone

2022-07-06T12:30:00.003+05:30

Motion CLASS 9th Notes

Motion Class 9th Notes will help students while studying the chapter related to Motion . It is an important chapter in the syllabus of Class 9th Social Science. Analysis of the Motion Questions, it will help students to understand the chapters in a better way .

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CBSE Declared Class 10 Term 1 Results to School Institute

2022-03-12T09:22:00.002+05:30

CBSE Class 10 Term 1 Result 2022 has been declared via way of means of the board. In an email, the board has shared the CBSE Term 1 Result of sophistication 10 college students with the respective schools. Link to test CBSE Class 10 end result, but isn't to be had on cbseresults.nic.in. Here`s how to test.

Central Board of Secondary Education, CBSE Class 10 Term 1 Result 2022 has been announced. The board has launched the end result and marks of the scholars who regarded for the Class 10 board examinations in November and December. Interesting, the end result isn't to be had on cbseresults.nic.in. Instead , the CBSE Term 1 Result 2022 for Class 10 together with scorecard has been mailed to the respective school. There isn't anyt any replace on CBSE Class 12 Term 1 Result as yet.

In an unparalleled move, the board has determined to percentage the overall performance of the Class 10 college students with the colleges over email. School`s might be capable of collate and percentage the marks scored via way of means of the scholars with them after they down load and technique the end result. Meanwhile, it's far possibly that the board might also launch the end result on line on cbseresults.nic.in. With no link, right here is how college students can test their CBSE Class 10 Term 1 Result 2022.

CLASS 10 POLITICAL PARTIES NOTES & PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION -LEARN QUICK ZONE

2022-01-28T14:37:00.008+05:30

Notes & Important Question for Class 10 Social Science -Political Parties

Political Parties Notes & Previous year Questions will help students while studying the chapter related to Political Parties. It is an important chapter in the syllabus of Class 10 Social Science. Analysis of the Political Parties Questions, it will help students to understand the chapters in a better way

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Directive Principles of the State Policy

2021-09-25T13:44:00.002+05:30

Directive Principles of the State Policy

1. Mentioned in Part-4 and cover articles from (36-51) of the Constitution of India.

2. Called as Novel Features of the Constitution.

3. Inspired by the Irish constitution.

4. Similar to the Instruments of Instructions mentioned in the Government of India Act, 1935.

5. Together with fundamental rights, they are termed as the conscience of the constitution.

6. ‘Directive Principles of State Policy’ denotes the ideals that the State should keep in mind while formulating policies and enacting laws. These are the constitutional instructions or recommendations to the State in legislative, executive and administrative matters.

7. The DPSPs constitute a very comprehensive economic, social and political programme for a modern democratic State. They aim at realizing the high ideals of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity as outlined in the Preamble to the Constitution. They embody the concept of a ‘welfare state’.

8. The Directive Principles are non-justiciable in nature, that is, they are not legally enforceable by the courts for their violation. Therefore, the government (Central, state and local) cannot be compelled to implement them. Nevertheless, the Constitution (Article 37) itself says that these principles are fundamental to the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws.

9. The provisions of the Directive Principles are broadly classified into-

(a) Socialist principles

(b) Gandhian principles

10. Some Important Articles in DPSPs are :

To promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order permeated by justice— social, economic and political—and to minimise inequalities in income, status, facilities and opportunities (Article 38).

To secure (a) the right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens; (b) the equitable distribution of material resources of the community for the common good; (c) prevention of concentration of wealth and means of production; (d) equal pay for equal work for men and women; (e) preservation of the health and strength of workers and children against forcible abuse; and (f) opportunities for healthy development of children (Article 39).

To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor (Article 39 A). This was added by 42nd constitutional amendment act, 1976.

To secure the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement (Article 41).

To make provision for just and humane conditions for work and maternity relief (Article 42).

To take steps to secure the participation of workers in the management of industries (Article 43 A). Also added by 42nd constitutional amendment act, 1976.

To organise village panchayats and endow them with necessary powers and authority to enable them to function as units of self-government (Article 40).

To promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operation basis in rural areas (Article 43).

To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health (Article 47).

To prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves and other milch and draught cattle and to improve their breeds (Article 48).

To secure for all citizens a uniform civil code throughout the country (Article 44).

To provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years (Article 45). Also, amended by the 86th constitutional amendment act, 2002.

To separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the State (Article 50).

To promote international peace and security and maintain just and honourable relations between nations; to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations, and to encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration (Article 51).

10. The 86th Amendment Act of 2002 changed the subject-matter of Article 45 and made elementary education a fundamental right under Article 21A. The amended directive requires the State to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

11. The 97th Amendment Act of 2011 added a new Directive Principle relating to co-operative societies. It requires the state to promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control and professional management of co-operative societies (Article 43B).

12. The DPSPs are instructions to the State.