LinuxtoLearn

2010-11-02T02:01:00.000-07:00

Linux is an operating system, a large piece of software that manages a computer. It is similar to Microsoft Windows, but it is entirely free.Originally the term Linux referred strictly to the kernel (the core of the operating system).
Linux is created by Linus Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest in Minix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his work in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel was released. The kernel, is the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone.

Basic Commands

2009-11-13T00:44:00.000-08:00

Below is a listing of each of the Unix / Linux commands currently listed on Computer Hope and a brief explanation of what each of the commands do. This is a full listing which means not all the below commands will work with your distribution and may also not work because of your privileges.

Command	Description
a2p	Creates a Perl script from an awk script.
ac	Prints statistics about users' connect time.
alias	Create a name for another command or long command string.
ar	Maintain portable archive or library.
arch	Display the architecture of the current host.
arp	Manipulate the system ARP cache.
as	An assembler.
at	Command scheduler.
awk	Awk script processing program.
basename	Deletes any specified prefix from a string.
bash	Command Bourne interpreter
bc	calculator
bdiff	Compare large files.
bfs	Editor for large files.
bg	Continues a program running in the background.
biff	Enable / disable incoming mail notifications.
break	Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop.
bs	Battleship game.
bye	Alias often used for the exit command.
cal	Calendar
calendar	Display appointments and reminders.
cancel	Cancels a print job.
cat	View and/or modify a file.
cc	C compiler.
cd	Change directory.
chdir	Change directory.
checkeq	Language processors to assist in describing equations.
checknr	Check nroff and troff files for any errors.
chfn	Modify your own information or if super user or root modify another users information.
chgrp	Change a groups access to a file or directory.
chkey	Change the secure RPC key pair.
chmod	Change the permission of a file.
chown	Change the ownership of a file.
chsh	Change login shell.
cksum	Display and calculate a CRC for files.
clear	Clears screen.
cls	Alias often used to clear a screen.
cmp	Compare files.
col	Reverse line-feeds filter.
comm	Compare files and select or reject lines that are common.
compress	Compress files on a computer.
continue	Break out of while, for, foreach, or until loop.
copy	Copy files.
cp	Copy files.
cpio	Creates archived CPIO files.
crontab	Create and list files that you wish to run on a regular schedule.
csh	Execute the C shell command interpreter
csplit	Split files based on context.
cu	Calls or connects to another Unix system, terminal or non-Unix system.
curl	Transfer a URL.
cut	Cut out selected fields of each line of a file.
date	Tells you the date and time in Unix.
dc	An arbitrary precision arithmetic package.
df	Display the available disk space for each mount.
deroff	Removes nroff unroff. >/troff utroff. >, tbl utbl. >, and eqn ueqn. > constructs.
dhclient	Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Client.
diff	Displays two files and prints the lines that are different.
dig	DNS lookup utility.
dircmp	Lists the different files when comparing directories.
dirname	Deliver portions of path names.
dmesg	Print or control the kernel ring buffer.
dos2unix	Converts text files between DOS and Unix formats.
dpost	Translates files created by troff utroff. > into PostScript.
du	Tells you how much space a file occupies.
echo	Displays text after echo to the terminal.
ed	Line oriented file editor.
edit	Text editor.
egrep	Search a file for a pattern using full regular expressions.
elm	Program command used to send and receive e-mail.
emacs	Text editor.
enable	Enables / Disables LP printers.
env	Displays environment variables.
eqn	Language processors to assist in describing equations.
ex	Line-editor mode of the vi uvi. > text editor.
exit	Exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network.
expand	Expand copies of file s.
expr	Evaluate arguments as an expression.
fc	The FC utility lists or edits and re-executes, commands previously entered to an interactive sh.
fg	Continues a stopped job by running it in the foreground
fgrep	Search a file for a fixed-character string.
file	Tells you if the object you are looking at is a file or if it is a directory.
find	Finds one or more files assuming that you know their approximate filenames.
findsmb	List info about machines that respond to SMB name queries on a subnet.
finger	Lists information about the user.
fmt	Simple text formatters.
fold	Filter for folding lines.
for	Shell built-in functions to repeatedly execute action(s) for a selected number of times.
foreach	Shell built-in functions to repeatedly execute action(s) for a selected number of times.
fromdos	Converts text files between DOS and Unix formats.
fsck	Check and repair a Linux file system.
ftp	Enables ftp access to another terminal.
getfacl	Display discretionary file information.
gprof	The gprof utility produces an execution profile of a program.
grep	Finds text within a file.
groupadd	Creates a new group account.
groupdel	Enables a super user or root to remove a group.
groupmod	Enables a super user or root to modify a group.
gunzip	Expand compressed files.
gview	A programmers text editor.
gvim	A programmers text editor.
gzip	Compress files.
halt	Stop the computer.
hash	Remove internal hash table.
hashstat	Display the hash stats.
head	Displays the first ten lines of a file, unless otherwise stated.
help	If computer has online help documentation installed this command will display it.
history	Display the history of commands typed.
host	DNS lookup utility.
hostid	Prints the numeric identifier for the current host.
hostname	Set or print name of current host system.
id	Shows you the numeric user and group ID on BSD.
ifconfig	Sets up network interfaces.
ifdown	take a network interface down
ifup	bring a network interface up
isalist	Display the native instruction sets executable on this platform.
jobs	List the jobs currently running in the background.
join	Joins command forms together.
keylogin	Decrypt the user's secret key.
kill	Cancels a job.
ksh	Korn shell command interpreter.
ld	Link-editor for object files.
ldd	List dynamic dependencies of executable files or shared objects.
less	Opposite of the more command.
lex	Generate programs for lexical tasks.
link	Calls the link function to create a link to a file.
ln	Creates a link to a file.
lo	Allows you to exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network.
locate	List files in databases that match a pattern.
login	Signs into a new system.
logname	Returns users login name.
logout	Logs out of a system.
lp	Prints a file on System V systemv. > systems.
lpadmin	Configure the LP print service.
lpc	Line printer control program.
lpq	Lists the status of all the available printers.
lpr	Submits print requests.
lprm	Removes print requests from the print queue.
lpstat	Lists status of the LP ulp. print services.
ls	Lists the contents of a directory.
mach	Display the processor type of the current host.
mail	One of the ways that allows you to read/send E-Mail.
mailcompat	Provide SunOS solaris. 4.x compatibility for the Solaris mailbox format.
mailx	Mail interactive message processing system.
make	Executes a list of shell commands associated with each target.
man	Display a manual of a command.
mesg	Control if non-root users can send text messages to you.
mii-tool	View, manipulate media-independent interface status.
mkdir	Create a directory.
mkfs	Build a Linux file system, usually a hard disk partition.
more	Displays text one screen at a time.
mount	Disconnects a file systems and remote resources.
mt	Magnetic tape control.
mv	Renames a file or moves it from one directory to another directory.
nc	TCP/IP swiss army knife.
neqn	Language processors to assist in describing equations.
netstat	Shows network status.
newalias	Install new elm aliases for user and/or system.
newform	Change the format of a text file.
newgrp	Log into a new group.
nice	Invokes a command with an altered scheduling priority.
niscat	Display NIS+ tables and objects.
nischmod	Change access rights on a NIS+ object.
nischown	Change the owner of a NIS+ object.
nischttl	Change the time to live value of a NIS+ object.
nisdefaults	Display NIS+ default values.
nisgrep	Utilities for searching NIS+ tables.
nismatch	Utilities for searching NIS+ tables.
nispasswd	Change NIS+ password information.
nistbladm	NIS+ table administration command.
nmap	Network exploration tool and security / port scanner.
nohup	Runs a command even if the session is disconnected or the user logs out.
nroff	Formats documents for display or line-printer.
nslookup	Queries a name server for a host or domain lookup.
on	Execute a command on a remote system, but with the local environment.
onintr	Shell built-in functions to respond to (hardware) signals.
optisa	Determine which variant instruction set is optimal to use.
pack	Shrinks file into a compressed file.
pagesize	Display the size of a page of memory in bytes, as returned by getpagesize.
passwd	Allows you to change your password.
paste	Merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files.
pax	Read / write and writes lists of the members of archive files and copy directory hierarchies.
pcat	Compresses file.
perl	Perl is a programming language optimized for scanning arbitrary text files, extracting information from those text files.
pg	Files perusal filters for CRTs.
pgrep	Examine the active processes on the system and reports the process IDs of the processes
pico	Simple and very easy to use text editor in the style of the Pine Composer.
pine	Command line program for Internet News and Email.
ping	Sends ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to network hosts.
pkill	Examine the active processes on the system and reports the process IDs of the processes
poweroff	Stop the computer.
pr	Formats a file to make it look better when printed.
priocntl	Display's or set scheduling parameters of specified process(es)
printf	Write formatted output.
ps	Reports the process status.
pvs	Display the internal version information of dynamic objects within an ELF file.
pwd	Print the current working directory.
quit	Allows you to exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network.
rcp	Copies files from one computer to another computer.
reboot	Stop the computer.
red	Line oriented file editor.
rehash	Recomputes the internal hash table of the contents of directories listed in the path.
remsh	Runs a command on another computer.
repeat	Shell built-in functions to repeatedly execute action(s) for a selected number of times.
rgview	A programmers text editor.
rgvim	A programmers text editor.
rlogin	Establish a remote connection from your terminal to a remote machine.
rm	Deletes a file without confirmation (by default).
rmail	One of the ways that allows you to read/send E-Mail.
rmdir	Deletes a directory.
rn	Reads newsgroups.
route	Show / manipulate the IP routing table.
rpcinfo	Report RPC information.
rsh	Runs a command on another computer.
rsync	Faster, flexible replacement for rcp urcp..
rview	A programmers text editor.
rvim	A programmers text editor.
s2p	Convert a sed script into a Perl script.
sag	Graphically displays the system activity data stored in a binary data file by a previous sar usar. run.
sar	Displays the activity for the CPU.
script	Records everything printed on your screen.
sdiff	Compares two files, side-by-side.
sed	Allows you to use pre-recorded commands to make changes to text.
sendmail	Sends mail over the Internet.
set	Set the value of an environment variable.
setenv	Set the value of an environment variable.
setfacl	Modify the Access Control List (ACL) for a file or files.
settime	Change file access and modification time.
sftp	Secure file transfer program.
sh	Runs or processes jobs through the Bourne shell
shred	Delete a file securely, first overwriting it to hide its contents.
shutdown	Turn off the computer immediately or at a specified time.
sleep	Waits a x amount of seconds.
slogin	OpenSSH SSH client (remote login program).
smbclient	An ftp-like client to access SMB/CIFS resources on servers.
sort	Sorts the lines in a text file.
spell	Looks through a text file and reports any words that it finds in the text file that are not in the dictionary.
split	Split a file into pieces.
stat	Display file or filesystem status.
stop	Control process execution.
strip	Discard symbols from object files.
stty	Sets options for your terminal.
su	Become super user or another user.
sysinfo	Get and set system information strings.
sysklogd	Linux system logging utilities.
tabs	Set tabs on a terminal.
tail	Delivers the last part of the file.
talk	Talk with other logged in users.
tac	Concatenate and print files in reverse.
tar	Create tape archives and add or extract files.
tbl	Preprocessor for formatting tables for nroff unroff. or troff utroff.
tcopy	Copy a magnetic tape.
tcpdump	Dump traffic on a network.
tee	Read from an input and write to a standard output or file.
telnet	Uses the telnet protocol to connect to another remote computer.
time	Used to time a simple command.
timex	The timex command times a command; reports process data and system activity.
todos	Converts text files between DOS and Unix formats.
top	Display Linux tasks
touch	Change file access and modification time.
tput	Initialize a terminal or query terminfo database.
tr	Translate characters.
traceroute	Print the route packets take to network host.
troff	Typeset or format documents.
ul	Reads the named filenames or terminal and does underlining.
umask	Get or set the file mode creation mask.
unalias	Remove an alias.
unhash	Remove internal hash table.
uname	Print name of current system.
uncompress	Uncompressed compressed files.
uniq	Report or filter out repeated lines in a file.
unmount	Crates a file systems and remote resources.
unpack	Expands a compressed file.
untar	Create tape archives and add or extract files.
until	Execute a set of actions while/until conditions are evaluated TRUE.
useradd	Create a new user or updates default new user information.
userdel	Remove a users account.
usermod	Modify a users account.
vacation	Reply to mail automatically.
vedit	Screen-oriented (visual) display editor based on ex uex.
vgrind	Grind nice unice. program listings
vi	Screen-oriented (visual) display editor based on ex uex.
vim	A programmers text editor.
view	A programmers text editor.
w.	Show who is logged on and what they are doing.
wait	Await process completion.
wc	Displays a count of lines, words, and characters in a file
whereis	Locate a binary, source, and manual page files for a command.
while	Repetitively execute a set of actions while/until conditions are evaluated TRUE.
which	Locate a command.
who	Displays who is on the system.
whois	Internet user name directory service.
write	Send a message to another user.
ux.	Execute the X windows system.
xfd	Display all the characters in an X font.
xlsfonts	Server font list displayer for ux.
xset	User preference utility for X.
xterm	Terminal emulator for ux. >.
xrdb	X server resource database utility.
yacc	Short for yet another compiler-compiler, yacc is a compiler.
yes	Repeatedly output a line with all specified STRING(s), or 'y'.
yppasswd	Changes network password in the NIS database.
zcat	Compress files.

Log files

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Almost all logfiles are located under /var/log directory (and subdirectory). You can change to this directory using cd command but you need to be the root user. You can use less, more, cat or tail command to see the logs. Go to /var/logs directory.

Common Linux log files name and usage

/var/log/message: General message and system related stuff
/var/log/auth.log: Authenication logs
/var/log/kern.log: Kernel logs
/var/log/cron.log: Crond logs (cron job)
/var/log/maillog: Mail server logs
/var/log/qmail/ : Qmail log directory (more files inside this directory)
/var/log/httpd/: Apache access and error logs directory
/var/log/lighttpd: Lighttpd access and error logs directory
/var/log/boot.log : System boot log
/var/log/mysqld.log: MySQL database server log file
/var/log/secure: Authentication log
/var/log/utmp or /var/log/wtmp : Login records file
/var/log/yum.log: Yum log files

Configuration Files

2009-11-09T03:23:00.000-08:00

profile		System wide environment and startup script program.
/dev/MAKEDEV		The /dev/MAKEDEV file is a script written by the system administrator that creates local only device files or links such as device files for a non-standard device driver.
/etc/aliases		Where the user's name is matched to a nickname for e-mail.
/etc/bootptab		The configuration for the BOOTP server daemon.
/etc/crontab		Lists commands and times to run them for the cron deamon.
/etc/dhcpd.conf		The configuration file for the DHCP server daemon.
/etc/ethers		File for RARP mapping from hardware addresses to IP addresses. See the man page ethers(5).
/etc/exports		The file describing exported filesystems for NFS services.
/etc/fdprm		The floppy disk parameter table. Describes the formats of different floppy disks. Used by setfdprm.
/etc/filesystems		Can be used to set the filesystem probe order when filesystems are mounted with the auto option. The nodev parameter is specified for filesystems that are not really locally mounted systems such as proc, devpts, and nfs systems.
/etc/fstab		Lists the filesystems mounted automatically at startup by the mount -a command (in /etc/rc or equivalent startup file).
/etc/group		Similar to /etc/passwd but for groups rather than users.
/etc/groups		May contain passwords that let a user join a group.
/etc/gshadow		Used to hold the group password and group administrator password information for shadow passwords.
/etc/host.conf		Specifies how host names are resolved.
/etc/hosts		List hosts for name lookup use that are locally required.
/etc/HOSTNAME		Shows the host name of this host. Used for support of older programs since the hostname is stored in the /etc/sysconfig/network file.
/etc/inittab		Configuration file for init, controls startup run levels, determines scripts to start with.
/etc/inetd.conf		Sets up the services that run under the inetd daemon.
/etc/issue		Output by getty before the login prompt. Description or welcoming message.
/etc/issue.net		Output for network logins with LINUX version
/etc/ld.so.conf		Configuration file for ld.so, the run time linker.
/etc/lilo.conf		Configuration file for LILO.
/etc/limits		Limits users resources when a system has shadow passwords installed.
/etc/localtime		In Debian the system time zone is determined by this link.
/etc/login.defs		Sets user login features on systems with shadow passwords.
/etc/logrotate.conf		Configures the logrotate program used for managing logfiles.
/etc/magic		The configuration file for file types. Contains the descriptions of various file formats for the file command.
/etc/motd		The message of the day, automatically output by a successful login.
/etc/mtab		A list of currently mounted file systems. Setup by boot scripts and updated by the mount command.
/etc/named.conf		Used for domain name servers.
/etc/networks		Lists names and addresses of your own and other networks, used by the route command.
/etc/nologin		If this file exists, non-root logins are disabled. Typically it is created when the system is shutting down.
/etc/nsswitch.conf		Name service switch configuration file.
/etc/passwd		The user database with fields giving the username, real name, home directory, encrypted password and other information about each user.
/etc/printcap		A configuration file for printers.
/etc/profile, /etc/cshlogin, /etc/csh/cshrc		Files executed at login or startup time by the Bourne or C shells. These allow the system administrator to set global defaults for all users.
/etc/protocols		Describes DARPA internet protocols available from the TCP/IP subsystem. Maps protocol ID numbers to protocol names.
/etc/rc or /etc/rc.d or /etc/rc?.d		Scripts or directories of scripts to run at startup or when changing run level.
/etc/rc.d/rc0.d		Contains files used to control run level 0. Usually these files are softlink files.
/etc/rc.d/rc1.d		Contains files to control run level 1. Scripts beginning with an S are for start, K for kill.
/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit		Init runs this when it starts.
/etc/resolv.conf		Configures the name resolver, specifying the address of your name server and your domain name.
/etc/securetty		Identifies secure terminals from which root is allowed to log in.
/etc/services		Lists the network services that the system supports.
/etc/shadow		Shadow password file on systems with shadow password software installed. Shadow passwords move the encrypted password files from /etc/passwd to /etc/shadow which can only be read by root.
/etc/shadow.group		Systems with shadow passwords may have this file.
/etc/shells		Lists trusted shells. The chsh command allows users to change their login shell to shells listed only in this file.
/etc/skel/.profile		Can be used by administrator to set the editor environment variable to some editor that is friendly to new users.
/etc/sudoers		A list of users with special privileges along with the commands they can execute.
/etc/smb.conf		The configuration file for setting up Samba services.
/etc/sysconfig/amd		Used to configure the auto mount daemon.
/etc/sysconfig/clock		Used to configure the system clock to Universal or local time and set some other clock parameters.
/etc/sysconfig/i18n		Controls the system font settings.
/etc/sysconfig/init		This file is used to set some terminal characteristics and environment variables.
/etc/sysconfig/keyboard		Used to configure the keyboard.
/etc/sysconfig/mouse		This file is used to configure the mouse.
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-interface		Defines a network interface.
/etc/sysconfig/pcmcia		Used to configure pcmcia network cards.
/etc/sysconfig//routed		Sets up dynamic routing policies.
/etc/sysconfig/static-routes		Configures static routes on a network.
/etc/sysconfig/tape		Used for backup tape device configuration.
/etc/X11/XF86Config		The configuration file for the X server.
/etc/syslog.conf		Configuration file for the syslogd daemon.
/etc/termcap		The terminal capability database. Describes by what "escape sequences" various terminals can be controlled. See terminfo, termcap, curs_termcap man pages.
/etc/terminfo		Details for terminal I/O.
/etc/usertty		This file is used to impose special access restrictions on users.
$HOME/.bashrc		User aliases, path modifier, and functions.
$HOME/.bash_profile		Users environment stuff and startup programs.
$HOME/.bash_logout		User actions to be done at logout.
$HOME/.hushlogin		When this file exists in the user's home directory, it will prevent check for mail, printing of the last login time, and the message of the day when the user logs in.
$HOME/.inputrc		Contains keybindings and other bits.
$HOME/Xrootenv.0		Has networking and environment info.
/proc/cpuinfo		Information about the processor such as its type, make and performance.
/proc/devices		A list of devices configured into the currently running kernel.
/proc/dma		Shows which DMA channels are being used at the moment.
/proc/filesystems		Filesystems that are configured into the kernel. The file used to detect filesystems if the /etc/filesystems does not exist.
/proc/ioports		Shows which I/O ports are in use at the moment.
/proc/interrupts		Shows which interrupts are in use and how many of each there have been.
/proc/kcore		An image of the physical memory of the system.
/proc/kmsg		Messages output by the kernel. These are also routed to syslog.
/proc/ksyms		Symbol table for the kernel.
/proc/loadavg		The load average of the system.
/proc/meminfo		Information about memory usage, both physical and swap.
/proc/modules		Which kernel modules are currently loaded.
/proc/mounts		Contains information on filesystems currently mounted, similar to /etc/mtab
/proc/net		Contains status information about network protocols.
/proc/self		A symbolic link to the process directory of the program that is looking at /proc. When 2 process look at proc, they get different links.
/proc/stat		Various statistics about the system such as the number of page faults since the system was booted.
/proc/uptime		The time the system has been up.
/proc/version		The kernel version.
/tmp/fvwmrca01339		FVWM-M4 defines. Contains networking, Xwindows, other setup info.
/usr/lib/zoneinfo		Time zone datafiles are stored here on the Debian system
/var/log/lastlog		Used by finger to tell when a user was last logged in.
/var/log/wtmp		Binary info on users that have been logged on. The last command uses this info.
/var/run/utmp		Contains information about users currently logged in. Who and w commands use this file.
/var/named/root.hints		Used for domain name server. Placed here optionally, but this is the normal location.
/var/named/*		Files used by domain name server. Placed here optionally, but this is the normal location.
/var/log/btmp		Used to store information about failed logins. This file must be first created to activate it.
/var/log/lastlog		Contains information about the last time a login was done on the system. Works with lastb(1).
/var/log/maillog		The normal system mail log file.
/var/log/messages		The main system message log file.
var/log/secure		System tracking of user logins. Check this file periodically.
/var/spool/mail		Where mailboxes are usually stored.

About Us

2009-11-09T02:51:00.000-08:00

We are the people want to distribute information about Linux.Who want to learn Linux can access the site and learn everything about Linux OS and any topic related to Linux.Soon we will cover many topic related to Linux and built a complete portfolio to learn Linux and to do every thing in Linux.
With Best Wishes
Bhajan

Contact Us

2009-11-04T04:02:00.000-08:00

Bhajan Lal
Linux Administrator
Email - bhajan.verma@gmail.com

VI EDITOR

2009-11-04T02:20:00.000-08:00

Partial list of interactive commands:

Cursor movement:

Keystrokes	Action
h/j/k/l	Move cursor left/down/up/right
spacebar	Move cursor right one space
-/+	Move cursor down/up in first column
ctrl-d	Scroll down one half of a page
ctrl-u	Scroll up one half of a page
ctrl-f	Scroll forward one page
ctrl-b	Scroll back one page
M (shift-h)	Move cursor to middle of page
H	Move cursor to top of page
L	Move cursor to bottom of page
W w 5w	Move cursor a word at a time Move cursor ahead 5 words
B b 5b	Move cursor back a word at a time Move cursor back a word at a time Move cursor back 5 words
e 5e	Move cursor to end of word Move cursor ahead to the end of the 5th word
0 (zero)	Move cursor to beginning of line
$	Move cursor to end of line
)	Move cursor to beginning of next sentence
(	Move cursor to beginning of current sentence
G	Move cursor to end of file
%	Move cursor to the matching bracket. Place cursor on {}[]() and type "%".
'.	Move cursor to previously modified line.
'a	Move cursor to line mark "a" generated by marking with keystroke "ma"
'A	Move cursor to line mark "a" (global between buffers) generated by marking with keystroke "mA"
]'	Move cursor to next lower case mark.
['	Move cursor to previous lower case mark.

Editing commands:

Keystrokes	Action
i	Insert at cursor
a	Append after cursor
A	Append at end of line
ESC	Terminate insert mode
u	Undo last change
U	Undo all changes to entire line
o	Open a new line
dd 3dd	Delete line Delete 3 lines.
D	Delete contents of line after cursor
C	Delete contents of line after cursor and insert new text. Press esc key to end insertion.
dw 4dw	Delete word Delete 4 words
cw	Change word
x	Delete character at cursor
r	Replace character
R	Overwrite characters from cursor onward
s	Substitute one character under cursor continue to insert
S	Substitute entire line and begin to insert at beginning of line
~	Change case of individual character
ctrl-a ctrl-x	Increment number under the cursor. Decrement number under the cursor.
/search_string{CR}	Search for search_string
?search_string{CR}	Search backwards (up in file) for search_string
/\<search_string\>{CR}	Search for search_word Ex: /\ Search for variable "s" but ignore declaration "string" or words containing "s". This will find "string s;", "s = fn(x);", "x = fn(s);", etc
n	Find next occurrence of search_word
N	Find previous occurrence of search_word
.	repeat last command action.

Terminate session:

Use command: ZZ
Save changes and quit.
Use command line: ":wq"
Save (write) changes and quit.
Use command line: ":w"
Save (write) changes without quitting.
Use command line: ":q!"
Ignore changes and quit. No changes from last write will be saved.
Use command line: ":qa"
Quit all files opened.

Editor

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All Linux configuration files are written in plain English, easy to read and to adapt. You use a text-editor to write or make changes to such files. The two most popular, powerful, and unfortunately "difficult" text editors, both of which are found in every Linux distro, are Vi and Emacs.
Most GUI-based editors, such as Kedit, are easier to manage. But don't make the mistake of thinking that a GUI-based editor is all you need. There are situations that crop up with Linux that require a text-mode editor -- in other words, when you don't have the luxury of accessing a GUI desktop at all. Vi and Emacs are the only tools that come with every Linux distro that work in text mode, so learning one or the other is mandatory.

Type of Editor

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Linux has a surprisingly large number of available editors, many of them inherited from UNIX.some of them are.

Editor                         Description

ed               Original UNIX line-based editor, useful in scripts

emacs             GNU editor and fully integrated user environment

ex                   Powerful line-based editor (integrated with vi)

gawk             GNU awk, powerful text editor for records containing fields

sed Stream-oriented (non-interactive) line-based editor

vi                 Classic screen-based editor for UNIX

vim    Vi IMproved, enhanced support for programmers

Some distributions have vim as the default version of vi, e.g. Red Hat Linux. This brief overview will concentrate on the two important screen-based editors that are shipped with Linux distributions. For information on the other editors, consult the relevant man pages.
The Emacs Editor
Emacs is more than "just an editor" -- it provides a fully integrated user environment offering the sort of facilities outlined below.

Issue shell comands
Open a window for a shell
Read and send mail
Read news
Access the internet
Write and test programs
Maintain a calendar
Play a game!

Emacs has a vast number of editing modes, which create an environment designed for the type of editing you are doing. There are two types of modes, major and minor.

Major Modes
These include modes for various programming languages (e.g. Bash, C, Lisp, and Perl), for text processing (e.g. Latex, SGML, troff, and plain text), and even Dired (Directory Editor) for managing directories.

Minor Modes
These allow you to set or unset features that are independent of the major mode, e.g. auto-fill (word wrapping), insert vs overwrite, and auto-save.
If you spend a lot of time editing files with a particular structure, then a customised version of emacs will pay real dividends by reducing the number of keystrokes needed to complete a specific task.

The Vi Editor
This is the classic screen-based editor for UNIX. Apart from vim, there are a number of enhanced versions of vi, including elvis, nvi, and vile. The vi editor works in two modes, command and insert. This is attractive for users who separate text entry from editing.

Command mode
Once a file is opened, you are in command mode. This provides the following facilities.
Invoke insert mode
Issue editing commands
Move the cursor to a different position in the file
Invoke ex commands
Invoke a Linux shell
Save or exit the current version of the file
Insert mode
You enter new text in the file (e.g. append, insert, overwrite, or substitute) and then press Esc to return to command mode.

Type of Shell

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Several shell available with Linux are:

Shell Name	Developed by	Where	Remark
BASH ( Bourne-Again SHell )	Brian Fox and Chet Ramey	Free Software Foundation	Most common shell in Linux. It's Freeware shell.
CSH (C SHell)	Bill Joy	University of California (For BSD)	The C shell's syntax and usage are very similar to the C programming language.
KSH (Korn SHell)	David Korn	AT & T Bell Labs	--
TCSH	See the man page. Type $ man tcsh	--	TCSH is an enhanced but completely compatible version of the Berkeley UNIX C shell (CSH).

To find all available shells in your system type following command:
$ cat /etc/shells
each shell does the same job, but each understand a different command syntax and provides different built-in functions.
In MS-DOS, Shell name is COMMAND.COM which is also used for same purpose, but it's not as powerful as our Linux Shells are!
Any of the above shell reads command from user (via Keyboard or Mouse) and tells Linux Os what users want. If we are giving commands from keyboard it is called command line interface ( Usually in-front of $ prompt, This prompt is depend upon your shell and Environment that you set or by your System Administrator, therefore you may get different prompt ).
To know your current shell type

$ echo $SHELL

Shell

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The Linux/Unix shell refers to a special program that allows you to interact with it by entering certain commands from the keyboard; the shell will execute the commands and display its output on the monitor. The environment of interaction is text-based and since it is command-oriented this type of interface is termed Command Line interface or CLI. Before the advent of GUI-based computing environments, the CLI was the only way that one can interact and access a computer system.
Up until now, there was never a need to type commands into a shell; and with the modernization and creation of a lot of newer GUI-based tools, the shell is becoming increasingly un-required to perform many tasks. But that said, the shell is a very powerful place, and a lot is achieved through it. A lot of the front-end GUI methods of doing things have similar ways and means to get done with using the shell. Professional Linux and UNIX users find the shell very powerful, and an introduction to at least the basic shell usage is useful.

Runlevels

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A listing of valid runlevels

Linux Runlevels

Mode	Directory	Run Level Description
0	/etc/rc.d/rc0.d	Halt
1	/etc/rc.d/rc1.d	Single-user mode
2	/etc/rc.d/rc2.d	Not used (user-definable)
3	/etc/rc.d/rc3.d	Full multi-user mode (no GUI interface)
4	/etc/rc.d/rc4.d	Not used (user-definable)
5	/etc/rc.d/rc5.d	Full multiuser mode (with GUI interface)
6	/etc/rc.d/rc6.d	Reboot

Shutdown and Rebooting

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ShutDown/Halt The System

The init command will allow you to change the current runlevel, and for a shutdown, that value is 0. Here is an example:

[root@bigboy tmp]# init 0

Fedora also has a shutdown command which can also be used to the same effect. It often prompts you as to whether you are sure you want to execute the command, which can be avoided with the -y switch. The -h switch forces the system to halt, and the first argument tells it how long to wait before starting the procedure, in this case 0 minutes. You can also specify shutting down at a specific time of the day; please refer to the man pages for details. Another advantage of the shutdown command is that it warns people that the shutdown is going to occur.

[root@bigboy tmp]# shutdown -hy 0

Broadcast message from root (pts/0) (Sat Nov  6 13:15:27 2004):

The system is going down for system halt NOW!
[root@bigboy tmp]#

Reboot The System

You can also use the init command to reboot the system immediately by entering runlevel 6.

[root@bigboy tmp]# init 6

The "reboot" command has the same effect, but it also sends a warning message to all users.

[root@bigboy tmp]# reboot

Broadcast message from root (pts/0) (Sat Nov  6 12:39:31 2004):

The system is going down for reboot NOW!
[root@bigboy tmp]#

More graceful reboots can be done with the shutdown command using the -r switch and specifying a delay, which in this case is 10 minutes.

[root@bigboy root]# shutdown -ry 10

Broadcast message from root (pts/0) (Sat Nov  10 13:26:39 2008):

The system is going DOWN for reboot in 10 minutes!

Broadcast message from root (pts/0) (Sat Nov  10 13:27:39 2008):

The system is going DOWN for reboot in 9 minutes!
...
...
...
Broadcast message from root (pts/0) (Sat Nov  10 13:36:39 2008):

The system is going down for reboot NOW!

The Linux Boot Sequence

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When you installed Linux the installation process prompted you for a list of partitions and the sizes of each in which your filesystems would be placed.
When allocating disk space for the partitions, the first sector, or data unit, for each partition is always reserved for programmable code used in booting. The very first sector of the hard disk is reserved for the same purpose and is called the master boot record (MBR).
When booting from a hard disk, the PC system BIOS loads and executes the boot loader code in the MBR. The MBR then needs to know which partitions on the disk have boot loader code specific to their operating systems in their boot sectors and then attempts to boot one of them.
Fedora Linux is supplied with the GRUB boot loader which is fairly sophisticated and therefore cannot entirely fit in the 512 bytes of the MBR. The GRUB MBR boot loader merely searches for a special boot partition and loads a second stage boot loader. This then reads the data in the /boot/grub/grub.conf configuration file, which lists all the available operating systems and their booting parameters. When this is complete, the second stage boot loader then displays the familiar Fedora branded splash screen that lists all the configured operating system kernels for your choice.
When Linux begins to boot with its kernel, it first runs the /sbin/init program, which does some system checks, such as verifying the integrity of the file systems, and starts vital programs needed for the operating system to function properly. It then inspects the /etc/inittab file to determine Linux's overall mode of operation or runlevel. A listing of valid runlevels can be seen in Table 7-1.

Linux Runlevels Based on the selected runlevel, the init process then executes startup scripts located in subdirectories of the `/etc/rc.d` directory. Scripts used for runlevels 0 to 6 are located in subdirectories `/etc/rc.d/rc0.d` through `/etc/rc.d/rc6.d`, respectively.

Here is a directory listing of the scripts in the /etc/rc.d/rc3.d directory:
ls /etc/rc.d/rc3.d
K75netfs K96pcmcia ... ... ... ... K86nfslock S05kudzu ... ... ... ... K87portmap S09wlan ... ... ... ... K91isdn S10network ... ... ... ... K92iptables S12syslog ... ... ... ... K95firstboot S17keytable ... .
#
As you can see, each filename in these directories either starts with an "S" which signifies the script should be run at startup, or a K, which means the script should be run when the system is shutting down. If a script isn't there, it won't be run.
Most Linux packages place their startup script in the /etc/init.d directory and place symbolic links (pointers) to this script in the appropriate subdirectory of /etc/rc.d. This makes file management a lot easier. The deletion of a link doesn't delete the file, which can then be used for another day.
The number that follows the K or S specifies the position in which the scripts should be run in ascending order. In our example, kudzu with a value 05 will be started before wlan with a value of 09. Fortunately you don't have to be a scripting/symbolic linking guru to make sure everything works right because Fedora comes with a nifty utility called chkconfig while Debian / Ubuntu uses the update-rc.d command to do it all for you.
The default boot runlevel is set in the file /etc/inittab with the initdefault variable. When set to 3, the system boots up with the text interface on the VGA console; when set to 5, you get the GUI.

Installing Red Hat Linux as the Second Operating System

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Installing Red Hat Linux as the Second Operating SystemAfter creating enough free space on a Windows system, start installing Red Hat Linux. When you get to the Disk Partitioning , you must choose manual partitioning if you need to delete a Windows partition. You can choose either automatic or manual partitioning if you already have free space to install Red Hat Linux. If you partition the disk automatically, choose to keep all partitions and install Red Hat Linux in free space. If you partition the disk manually, use Disk Druid to delete the appropriate Windows partition if necessary and create the Red Hat Linux partitions in the free space. When you boot, you will be able to choose which operating system you want to run.

Installation

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To begin most installations, insert the first installation CD into the CD drive and turn on or reset the system. For hard disk and network-based installations, you can use the rescue CD in place of the first installation CD.
The system boots from the CD and displays a screen of instructions with a boot: prompt at the bottom.

Booting the System: The boot: Prompt

Normal installation You can give many different commands at a boot: prompt. If you are installing from CDs, you can generally press ENTER without entering a command to start installing Red Hat Linux. Or you can just wait; if you do not type anything for a minute, the installation proceeds as though you pressed ENTER.
Display problems If you have problems with the display during installation, give the following command, which turns off video memory, in response to the boot: prompt:

boot: linux nofb

SELinux By default, Fedora is installed with SELinux turned off. Unless you need a very secure system, you do not need to turn this feature on. Give the following command to install Fedora with SELinux turned on:

boot: linux selinux

When you give this command to install Fedora, the Firewall screen allows you to set up SELinux.
Non-CD installations If you are installing from other than CDs, that is, if you are installing from files on the local hard disk or from files on another system using FTP, NFS, or HTTP, give the following command in response to the boot: prompt:

boot: linux askmethod

Booting As the system boots, text scrolls on the monitor, pausing occasionally. After a while (up to a few minutes, depending on the speed of the system), the installer displays a graphical or pseudographical display, depending on the system you are installing and the commands you gave at the boot: prompt.

Boot Commands

Installs Red Hat Linux in graphical mode (by default) on a monitor with a resolution of 1024x768, without probing for any devices. The installation program asks you to specify the source of the installation data (CD, FTP site, or other).

boot: linux resolution=1024x768 noprobe askmethod

Following are some of the commands you can give at the boot: prompt. Each command must be terminated with ENTER.
ENTER Without entering a command, press ENTER in response to the boot: prompt to perform a graphical installation from CDs. This installation probes the computer to determine as much as possible about the hardware.
memtest86 FEDORA Calls memtest86 when you boot from a CD only. The GPL-licensed memtest86C to configure the test, ESCAPE to exit. See www.memtest86.com for more information. utility is a standalone memory test for x86-based computers. Press
linux askmethod Gives you a choice of installation sources: local CD or hard drive or over a network using NFS, FTP, or HTTP.

Local CD Displays the CD Found screen, which allows you to test the installation media (the same as if you had just pressed ENTER).

Hard drive Prompts for the partition and directory that contains the ISO images of the installation CDs.

NFS , FTP , or HTTP Displays the Configure TCP/IP screen from which you can select DHCP or enter the system's IP address, netmask, default gateway (IP), and primary nameserver.

linux lowres Runs the installation program at a resolution of 640x480. See also linux resolution.
linux mem= xxx M Overrides the detected memory size. Replace xxx with the number of megabytes of RAM in the computer.
linux mediacheck Tests one or more installation CDs using an MD5 sum. This option works with the CD, DVD, hard drive ISO, and NFS ISO installation methods.
FEDORA This test is performed automatically during a normal CD installation.
linux nofb no framebuffer Turns off the framebuffer (video memory). Useful when problems occur when the graphical phase of the installation starts. Particularly useful for systems with LCD displays.
linux noprobe Disables hardware probing for all devices, including network cards (NICs), graphics cards, and the monitor. Forces you to select devices from a list. You must know exactly which cards or chips the system uses when you use this command. Use when probing causes the installation to hang or otherwise fail. This command allows you to give arguments for each device driver you specify.
Linux rescue Puts the system in rescue mode;
linux resolution= WxH Specifies the resolution of the monitor you are using for a graphical installation. For example, resolution=1024x768 specifies a monitor with a resolution of 1024 by 768 pixels.
linux selinux FEDORA Enables SELinux on the system you are installing. When you give this command to install Fedora, the Firewall screen allows you to set up SELinux..
linux skipddc Allows you to configure the monitor manually; see linux noprobe for more information.
linux text Installs Linux using pseudographical mode. Although the images on the screen appear to be graphical, they are composed entirely of text characters.
linux vnc FEDORA Installs over a VNC (Virtual Network Computing) remote desktop session. After providing an IP address, you can control the installation remotely using a VNC client from a remote computer. You can download the VNC client, which runs on several platforms, from www.realvnc.com.

The Anaconda Installer

Anaconda, the program that installs Red Hat Linux, is written in Python and C, identifies the hardware, builds the filesystems, and installs or upgrades the Red Hat Linux operating system. Anaconda can run in textual or graphical (default) interactive mode or in batch mode.
While you are installing Red Hat Linux, until Anaconda displays the About to Install screen, you can press CONTROL-ALT-DEL to abort the installation process and reboot without making any changes to the hard disk.
Exactly which screens Anaconda displays depends on whether you are installing Fedora or Red Hat Enterprise Linux and which command(s) you specified following the boot: prompt (preceding). With some exceptions, notably if you are running a text-mode installation, Anaconda starts by probing the video card, monitor, and mouse and by starting a native X server with a log in /tmp/X.log. (This log is not preserved unless you complete the installation.)
While it is running, Anaconda opens the virtual consoles shown in Table .You can display a virtual console by pressing CONTROL-ALT-F x where F x is the function key that corresponds to the virtual console number.

Table Virtual Console Assignments During Installation

1	Installation dialog
2	Shell
3	Installation log
4	System messages
5	Miscellaneous messages
7	GUI interactive installation

At any time during the installation, you can go virtual console 2 (CONTROL-ALT-F2) and give commands to see what is going on. Do not give any commands that change any part of the installation procedure.

Using Anaconda

Anaconda provides a NEXT button at the lower-right of each of the installation screens and a BACK button next to it on most screens. When you have completed the entries on an installation screen, click NEXT , or, from a text install, press the TAB key until the NEXT button is highlighted and then press ENTER. Select BACK to ENTER to the previous screen.
Initially, each of the graphical installation screens is divided into two columns: a narrow help column on the left and information and prompts about the installation on the right. Select the Hide Help button (lower-left) to remove the help column. Select Release Notes (next to Hide Help) to display the release notes for the version of Red Hat Linux you are installing.
FEDORA Because Red Hat does not manufacture Fedora disks, during a CD-based Fedora installation, Anaconda displays the pseudographical CD Found screen before starting the installation. From this screen, you can verify that the installation CDs do not have any errors. Checking the CDs takes a few minutes and can save you hours of aggravation if the installation fails due to bad media.
RHEL+FEDORA You can force the display of the CD Found screen by giving the command linux mediacheck in response to the boot: prompt

Anaconda Screens

Following is a list of screens that Anaconda displays during a default installation. It may display different screens depending on what commands you give and choices you make.
CD Found FEDORA Allows you to check as many installation CDs as you like, in any order. Choose OK to test the media, Skip to bypass the test. See the preceding TIP. This screen is displayed in pseudotext mode and does not appear in two columns. Use the TAB key to move between choices; press ENTER to select the highlighted choice.
During a graphical installation, when you leave the CD Found screen, Anaconda displays messages telling you it is probing for the devices it will use during installation. After probing, it starts the X server.
Welcome Displayed after Anaconda obtains enough information to start the X Window System. There is nothing for you to do on this screen except hide the help panel and display the release notes. Select NEXT.
Language Selection Select the language you want to use for the installation. This language is not necessarily the same language that the installed system displays.
Keyboard Configuration Select the type of keyboard attached to the system.
Mouse Displayed only if the type of mouse cannot be determined. Select the type of mouse attached to the system. Mark the Emulate 3 buttons box if you have a two-button mouse and want the system to respond as though you had pressed the middle button when you press the two mouse buttons at the same time.
Monitor FEDORA Displayed only if the monitor cannot be probed successfully. Select the brand and model of the monitor attached to the system. Select a generic LCD or CRT display if the monitor is not listed. You can specify the Sync frequencies in place of the monitor brand and model, but be careful: Specifying the wrong values can ruin some older hardware.
Upgrade Examine If it detects a version of Red Hat Linux on the hard disk that it can upgrade, Anaconda gives you the choice of upgrading the existing installation or overwriting the existing installation with a new one (Figure 2-1). Refer to "Installing a Fresh Copy or Upgrading an Existing Red Hat System?"

Figure 2-1 Upgrade Examine screen
Installation Type FEDORA Select the type of installation you want (Figure 2-2): Personal Desktop, Workstation, Server, or Custom. Refer to "Types of Installations (FEDORA)" .

Figure 2-2 Installation Type screen
Disk Partitioning Setup Select Automatically partition or Manually partition with Disk Druid. The automatic selection gives you the option of reviewing and changing the partitions Anaconda sets up. For more information, refer to "Using Disk Druid to Partition the Disk".
Boot Loader Configuration By default, Anaconda installs the grub boot loader . If you do not want to install a boot loader, click Change boot loader and select Do not install a boot loader. When you install Red Hat Linux on a machine that already runs another operating system, Anaconda frequently recognizes the other operating system and sets up grub so you can boot from either operating system. Refer to "Setting Up a Dual-Boot System" You can manually add other operating systems to grub's list of bootable systems by clicking Add and specifying a label and device to boot from. For a more secure system, specify a boot loader password.
Network Configuration Specify network configuration information (Figure 2-3). This screen has three frames: Network Devices, Hostname, and Miscellaneous Settings. If you are using DHCP to set up the network interface, you do not need to change anything.

Figure 2-3 Network Configuration window
The Network Devices frame lists the network devices the installer knows about. Normally, you want network devices to become active when the system boots; remove the mark from the check box at the left of a device if you do not want it to become active when the system boots.
To configure a network device manually (not using DHCP), highlight the device and click Edit to the right of the list of devices. Anaconda displays the Edit Interface window (Figure 2-4). Remove the mark from the Configure using DHCP check box and enter the IP address and netmask in the appropriate boxes before clicking OK.

Figure 2-4 Network Configuration: Edit Interface window
If you are not using DHCP, click manually under Set the hostname and enter the name of the system. When you turn off DHCP configuration in Network Devices, Anaconda allows you to specify a gateway address, and one or more DNS (name-server) addresses. You do not have to specify more than one DNS address, although it can be useful to have two in case one nameserver stops working. Click Next.
Firewall Set up a firewall (Figure 2-5). First, select No firewall or Enable firewall. If you select Enable firewall, select the services that you want the firewall to allow to pass through to the system. Selecting WWWHTTP) does not allow HTTPS (secure HTTP), which is used for secure browser connections to financial institutions and when giving credit card information, through the firewall. Specify https:tcp in Other ports to allow secure HTTP to pass. If you have multiple network devices (one of which may be a dial-up line), you may want to consider one of them to be trusted. Never trust a device connected to the Internet. Put a mark in the check box next to any trusted devices in the box labeled If you would like to allow all traffic from a device, select it below. If Anaconda displays the SELinux combo box shown in Figure 2-5, select the state you want SELinux to be in when you start the system. The chapter on iptables has information on how to build a more complete and functional firewall. (

Figure 2-5 Firewall Configuration screen showing SELinux combo box
Additional Language Support Select languages that the installed system will support. The default language is the language the system will boot up in. Select as many other languages as you like from the list.
Time Zone Specify the time zone the system is located in. Click on a location on the map or scroll through the list and highlight the appropriate selection. Put a mark in the check box if your system clock is set to UTC .
Root Password Specify the root password.
After you specify the root password, Anaconda pauses to read the software package information.
Package Installation Defaults In this screen, Anaconda lists the packages it will install by default. Choose Install default software packages to install this list of packages or Customize software packages to be installed to modify the list. Regardless of your selection, you can change which packages are installed on a system at any time; refer to "system-config-packages: Adds and Removes Software Packages" .
"Introduction to Red Hat Linux," uses examples from KDE to introduce the graphical desktop. Install KDE if you want to follow these examples. You can remove KDE later if you like.
Package Group Selection If you choose to accept the default list of software packages (previous screen), Anaconda skips this screen. Select the groups and packages you want to install. For more information, refer to "system-config-packages: Adds and Removes Software Packages" .
About to Install Anaconda displays the About to Install screen just before it starts installing Red Hat Linux on the hard disk.
You can abort the installation by pressing CONTROL-ALT-DEL at any point up to and including this screen without making any changes to the system. Once you press NEXT in the About to Install screen, Anaconda writes to the hard disk.
Installing After you press NEXT, Anaconda installs Red Hat Linux. Depending on the number of software packages you are installing, this process can take quite a while. Anaconda keeps you informed of its progress and requests CDs (if you are installing from CDs) as it needs them.

When You Reboot

When Anaconda instructs you to do so, remove the installation CD if present and reboot the system. The system boots Red Hat Linux and asks a few questions before allowing you to log in.
License Agreement First, Anaconda displays the Welcome screen, followed by the License Agreement screen. Select Yes I agree to the License Agreement if you agree with the terms of the licence agreement.
Date and time The next screen allows you to set the date and time. Running the Network Time ProtocolNTP) causes the system clock to reset itself periodically from a clock on the Internet. If the system is connected to the Internet, you may want to select Enable Network Time Protocol and choose a server from the combo box. (
Display Next, Anaconda displays the Display screen, which allows you to specify the resolution and color depth of the monitor.
User Account The next screen allows you to set up user accounts. You can set up user accounts now or once the system is fully operational. For more information, refer to "Configuring User and Group Accounts" .
Sound Card The Sound Card window identifies the sound card and has a button that can play a test sound. There is nothing that you can configure from the Sound Card window.
Additional CDs Next, the system asks if you have additional CDs for installing more software packages.
Finish Setup Finally, from the Finish Setup screen, click NEXT to complete the setup and display the login screen.
When you leave the Finish Setup screen, you are done with the installation. You can use the system and set it up as you desire.

History

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In 1991, a student at the University of Helsinki in Finland named Linus Torvalds who had been using Minix, a non-free Unix-like system, began writing his own kernel. He started by developing device drivers and hard-drive access, and by September had a basic design that he called Version 0.01. This kernel, which is called Linux, was afterwards combined with the GNU system to produce a complete free operating system.

On October 5th, 1991, Torvalds sent a posting to the comp.os.minix newsgroup announcing the release of Version 0.02, a basic version that still needed Minix to operate, but which attracted considerable interest nevertheless. The kernel was then rapidly improved by Torvalds and a growing number of volunteers communicating over the Internet, and by December 19th a functional, stand-alone Unix-like Linux system was released as Version 0.11.

On January 5, 1992, Linux Version 0.12 was released, an improved, stable kernel. The next release was called Version 0.95, to reflect the fact that it was becoming a full-featured system. After that Linux became an underground phenomenon, with a growing group of distributed programmers that continue to debug, develop, and enhance the source code baseline to this day.

Torvalds released Version 0.11 under a freeware license of his own devising, but then released Version 0.12 under the well established GNU General Public License. More and more free software was developed for Linux over the next several years.

Linux continued to be improved through the 1990's, and started to be used in large-scale applications like web hosting, networking, and database serving, proving ready for production use. Version 2.2, a major update to the Linux kernel, was officially released in January 1999. By the year 2000, most computer companies supported Linux in one way or another, recognizing a common standard that could finally reunify the fractured world of the Unix Wars. The next major release was V2.4 in January 2001.