LET'S FLY TOGETHER TO ACHIEVE OUR DREAMS

Political science class 12 board repeating questions

2025-03-21T09:27:00.000-07:00

Part A: Contemporary World Politics

Ch1. The End of Bipolarity

1.Define bipolarity (2015)

2.The Soviet economy was more developed than the rest of the world except for the US. Explain.

3.Explain any four issues of tension and conflict in the former Soviet republics.

4.Highlight any two factors responsible for the strong relations between India and Russia (12,10,18,2008)

5.Explain the meaning of garage sale in the context of shock therapy.(Set-2019,18,09)

6.Discuss the factors leading/responsible for the disintegration of the Soviet Union and its impact on global politics.

Answer: The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 was influenced by multiple factors:

Economic Stagnation: Centralized planning led to inefficiencies, resulting in poor economic performance and scarcity of consumer goods.

Political Reforms: Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika (economic restructuring) and Glasnost (political openness) inadvertently weakened central control.

Nationalist Movements: Various republics sought independence, fueled by ethnic and nationalistic sentiments.

External Pressures: The arms race with the U.S. strained the Soviet economy, making it unsustainable.

The collapse led to a unipolar world dominated by the United States, the emergence of new independent states, and a shift towards market economies in Eastern Europe.

2. Alternative Centres of Power

What are the components of Asian vision 2020 (2019)?

Highlight any two problems faced by the European countries after the second world war (2022).

Explain any two causes which select to the formation of ASEAN (2023)

What makes EU highly influential regional organisation (2020 2015)?

Peace and prosperity of countries lane establishing and strengthening of regional economic organisations justify.

What are the main principles and limitations of bricks.

Examine the rise of the European Union and China as alternative centers of power in the global arena.

European Union (EU): The EU's integration has created a significant economic bloc with considerable political influence, promoting regional stability and a collective foreign policy.

China: Rapid economic growth has positioned China as a global manufacturing hub and a major player in international trade, challenging existing power structures.

Both entities provide alternatives to U.S. dominance, advocating for multipolarity in international relations.

China followed it's own part in introducing a market economy justify the statement

explain any four states taken by China to develop its economy.

4. Contemporary South Asia

Why could democracy not take routes in Pakistan despite the fat that both the countries India and Pakistan share a common past?(2018,19,15)

What factors have contributed to failure of democracy in Pakistan?

What is the conflict between India and Sri Lanka relations explain the first taken by both the countries towards maintaining peace and cooperation in the region?

South Asia stands for diversity in every sense and yet constitution do you agree with the statement give two reasons for your answer

How far it is justify to say that foreign policy of independent India vigorously pursuit the dream of a peaceful world.

Evaluate the political and economic challenges faced by South Asian countries in the post-Cold War era.

South Asian nations confront several challenges:

Political Instability: Frequent changes in governments, ethnic conflicts, and insurgencies affect governance.

Economic Development: Poverty, unemployment, and underdevelopment persist, despite economic reforms.

Inter-state Relations: Historical disputes, such as the India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir, hinder regional cooperation.

Terrorism: The region has been a hotspot for terrorist activities, impacting security and development.

Addressing these requires strengthening democratic institutions, economic collaboration, and conflict resolution mechanisms.

5. International Organizations

Assess the role of the United Nations in maintaining international peace and security.

Outline the evolution of un since its establishment in 1945 describe its functioning with structures and agencies.

Answer: The United Nations (UN) plays a pivotal role through:

Peacekeeping Operations: Deploying forces to stabilize regions post-conflict.

Mediation: Facilitating dialogue between conflicting parties.

Sanctions: Imposing measures to deter aggressive actions.

However, challenges like veto power in the Security Council and limited enforcement capabilities can impede its effectiveness.

Explain any four reasons which make India's claims stronger for a permanent membership the security council?

As a citizen of India how would you support India's candidature for permanent membership of the security council justify your proposal.

All the UN has failed to act as an effective check on the hegemony of us Nations prefer its continuation suggest any three suitable arguments to justify the relevance of UN in the post cold war era.

6. Security in the Contemporary World

What do you mean by the non traditional lotion and traditional lotion of security?

What do you mean by global poverty what are the ways which can help in reducing disparity between the poor and rich at the global level?

Discuss the concept of human security and how it differs from traditional notions of security.

Human security emphasizes protecting individuals' well-being, focusing on economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security. Traditional security centers on state sovereignty and territorial integrity. The shift acknowledges that threats like poverty, disease, and environmental degradation can destabilize societies as much as military conflicts.

7. Environment and Natural Resources

Describe India stand on global environmental issue.

What is jio politics analyse the effect of oil on jio politics and the global economy.

Analyze the global environmental concerns and the role of international agreements in addressing these issues.

Answer: Key environmental concerns include climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss. International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement aim to mitigate these by setting emission reduction targets and promoting sustainable practices. Success depends on global cooperation and adherence to commitments.

8. Globalization

How have globalization in India impacted each other support your answer with any three suitable arguments for each.

Economic globalization is recognisation of the world substantiate the statement.4.m

Question: Critically examine the economic, cultural, and political dimensions of globalization and its impact on sovereignty.

Answer: Globalization encompasses:

Economic: Increased trade and investment flows.

Cultural: Spread of ideas, values, and lifestyles.

Political: Enhanced intergovernmental cooperation

Part B: Politics in India Since Independence

1. Challenges of Nation-Building

Discuss the linguistic reorganization of states and its impact on national integration.

This three stamps were issued in 1950 to mark the first republic Day on 26th Jan 1915 what do the images on the stamps tell you about the challenging of the new republic?

Mention any two considerations that were guided by governments approach in the context to princely states.

What were the Indian leaders reluctant in accepting the principle of linguistic reorganisation of states of Indian union just after independence? what was the main demand of Vishal Andhra movement?

What was the task of the state reorganisation commission what was its most silent recommendations?

Question: Discuss the major challenges India faced after independence and how they were addressed.

Answer: After independence in 1947, India faced several nation-building challenges:

1. Partition and Refugee Crisis:

The partition led to mass migration and communal violence.

The government set up refugee camps and provided rehabilitation.

2. Integration of Princely States:

Around 565 princely states had to be integrated into India.

Sardar Patel used diplomacy and, in some cases, force to unify them.

3. Linguistic Reorganization of States:

The demand for states based on language led to the States Reorganization Act (1956), creating linguistic states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

4. Democratic Constitution Implementation:

The new constitution ensured democracy, fundamental rights, and secularism.

5. Economic Development:

India adopted planned economic development through Five-Year Plans to build infrastructure, industry, and agriculture.

These efforts helped in stabilizing India and maintaining unity in diversity.

2. Era of One-Party Dominance

Why original election got suspended twice or got delayed?

Why conducting first free and fair election in India was not an easy task.

How collision like character of the Congress party give it and unusual strength?

Analyze the factors that led to the dominance of the Congress party in the early years of India's independence.

Answer: The Congress Party remained dominant from 1947 to the late 1960s due to:

1. Legacy of Freedom Struggle:

Congress played a key role in India's independence, gaining public trust.

2. Strong Leadership:

Leaders like Nehru provided vision and stability.

3. Inclusive Ideology:

Congress accommodated diverse interests—workers, farmers, industrialists, and different communities.

4. Weak Opposition:

Other parties lacked national appeal and were fragmented.

5. Electoral System & Mass Support:

Congress had a strong grassroots network, securing victories in elections.

Impact:

Positive: Stability, economic planning, and democratic consolidation.

Negative: Lack of strong opposition led to political complacency.

The dominance declined in the late 1960s due to economic issues, regional movements, and emerging opposition parties.

3. Politics of Planned Development

What was the major areas of focus of the first 5 year plan how was the second plan different from the first plan?

Evaluate the successes and failures of India's Five-Year Plans in achieving economic development.

Answer: India's economic policy was based on state-led planned development through Five-Year Plans:

1. Objectives of Planning:

Achieve economic self-reliance.

Reduce poverty and unemployment.

Develop infrastructure and industries.

2. Major Developments:

First Five-Year Plan (1951-56): Focus on agriculture, irrigation, and rural development.

Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61): Industrialization strategy under Mahalanobis model.

Green Revolution (1960s): Increased agricultural productivity but led to regional imbalances.

3. Impact:

Positive: Infrastructure development, self-sufficiency in food grains.

Negative: Unequal growth, slow industrialization, and economic crises in the 1960s.

Despite challenges, planning helped lay the foundation for India's economic growth.

4. India’s External Relations

Why did India not signed npt or by India consider npt as discriminately and refused to sign it

The conduct of foreign affairs is an outcome of a two way interaction between domestic compulsions and prevailing international climate take one example from India external relation in 1960 to substantiate state your answer.

Examine the evolution of India's foreign policy, focusing on its non-alignment stance during the Cold War.

India's foreign policy was built around the principles of peace and cooperation but India fought she was in a space of 10 years between 1962 and 1971 would you say that this was a failure of the foreign policy or would you say that this was the result of international situation give reasons to support your answer.

Question: Explain the main features of India's foreign policy after independence, focusing on non-alignment.

Answer: India's foreign policy was guided by non-alignment and peaceful coexistence.

1. Non-Alignment Policy:

India refused to join either the US-led capitalist bloc or the USSR-led communist bloc during the Cold War.

It promoted peace, sovereignty, and independent decision-making

2. Panchsheel Agreement (1954):

Five principles of peaceful coexistence signed with China.

3. Relations with Major Powers:

USA: Tense relations initially, but improved post-1991.

USSR: Strong ties in defense, trade, and technology.

4. Regional Relations:

Pakistan: Conflict over Kashmir led to wars (1947, 1965, 1971).

China: 1962 border war strained relations.

South Asia: Promoted regional cooperation (SAARC).

5. Impact:

India played a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) but faced challenges in maintaining neutrality.

5. Challenges to the Congress System

Discuss the emergence of opposition parties and the decline of the Congress system in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Exam in the challenges of political succession after the death of Jawaharlal Nehru.

What is referred to as sign of maturity of Indian democracy explain the circumstances that led to it since Nehru's death.

Describe any 6 events of the year 1967 which made it a landmark year in India's political and electoral history.

Explain the second phase of Indian politics towards a multi party coalition system with reference to general election of 1967.

Explain any three me now comes of Lok Sabha election of 1977.

Question: What were the reasons for the decline of Congress dominance in Indian politics?

Answer: The decline of Congress started in the late 1960s due to:

1. Internal Conflicts:

Split within the party in 1969 (Congress (O) vs. Congress (I) under Indira Gandhi).

2. Economic Challenges:

Inflation, food shortages, and unemployment weakened public support.

3. Emergence of Regional Parties:

Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, and Socialist Party gained influence.

4. Rise of Opposition:

1977 elections: The Janata Party defeated Congress for the first time.

5. Emergency Period (1975-77):

Indira Gandhi’s declaration of Emergency led to suppression of rights, which angered people and led to her defeat in 1977.

The fall of Congress dominance paved the way for coalition governments in later years.

6. Crisis of the Democratic Order

What is in your opinion was the main reason behind the resolution of Janta party in 1980?

Analyse any three lessons that will learn from the emergency declared in India on 25th June 1975

Analyze the causes and consequences of the Emergency imposed in India during 1975-77.

Why is emergency considered to be one of the most controversial episodes in Indian politics analyse any three reasons

Answer: Causes of Emergency (1975-77):

1. Political Instability:

Growing opposition and protests against Indira Gandhi.

2. Allahabad High Court Verdict (1975):

Declared Indira Gandhi’s election invalid, leading to her fear of losing power.

3. Economic Issues:

Inflation, unemployment, and protests (e.g., JP Movement).

Consequences:

Suspension of Civil Liberties: Fundamental rights were curtailed.

Censorship: Media was strictly controlled.

Political Arrests: Opposition leaders were jailed.

Economic Reforms: Some welfare policies were implemented, like family planning and rural development.

The Emergency ended in 1977, and the Janata Party won the elections, restoring democracy.

Examine the dramatic changes that took place in the party system in India during 1969 to 1977.

8. Regional Aspirations

Discuss the various regional movements in India and their impact on the federal structure.

What were the reasons for the rise of political violence in the North eastern part of India?

Dasha movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of the movement against outsiders support the statement with suitable arguments.

Analyse chogyal's role at the time of sikkim's merger with India as its 22nd state.

The accommodation of regional demands and the formation of linguistic States where also seen as more dramatic justify the statement with any three suitable arguments (2016)

Which three lessons do we learn from regional aspirations and their accommodation as an integral part of democratic politics ?describe.

Describe the successionist movement of measles how as per provisions of the constitution was it resolved on accommodation of diversities?

Throw some light on the internal dimensions of the problem of Jammu and Kashmir (2016,2019)

Explain the internal time divisions of the state of Jammu and Kashmir and describe how this lead to multiple regional aspirations in that state.

Jammu and Kashmir is one of the living example of the plural society and politics justify the statement with any three suitable arguments.

Examine the main provisions of the Rajiv Gandhi longowal record of e 1985 how far was they got successful in bringing back normalcy in Punjab(2018).

What were the main provisions of the Punjab record in what way we can see they the basis of further tensions between Punjab and its neighbouring States.

Question: Discuss the role of regional movements in shaping Indian politics.

Answer: Regional movements emerged due to cultural, economic, and political aspirations:

1. Punjab (Khalistan Movement):

Demand for a separate Sikh state led to Operation Blue Star (1984).

2. North-East Movements:

Assam, Nagaland, and Mizoram witnessed autonomy demands.

Assam Accord (1985) addressed immigration issues.

3. Tamil Nadu (Dravidian Movement):

Demanded linguistic and regional autonomy, influencing state politics.

Impact:

Strengthened federalism in India.

Led to the creation of new states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand.

9. Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Analyze the major political developments in India since the 1990s, including coalition politics and economic reforms.

Describe briefly the growing consensus in recent years in Indian politics( CBSE 2021 2017)

Many people think that a two particle system is required for successful democracy drawing your India's experience of last 20 years write an essay on the advantages and present party system in India has.

Assess the impact of coalition government on the politics of India (2020).

Trace the emergence of BJP as a significant force in forced emergency politics.

Describe the major developments that have taken place in Indian politics during the NDA 3 - NDA 4

IN SPITE OF DECLINE OF CONGRESS DOMINANCE THE CONGRESS PARTY CONTINUES TO INFLUENCE POLITICS IN THE COUNTRY DO YOU AGREE GIVE REASON

Lesson plan- planned development (class-12)

2025-01-30T08:34:00.000-08:00

Lesson Plan: Politics of Planned Development

Class: 12th Political Science

Chapter: Politics of Planned Development

Duration: 45 minutes

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Learning Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

1. Understand the concept of planned development in India after independence.

2. Analyze the role of the Planning Commission and the Five-Year Plans.

3. Critically evaluate the political debates surrounding economic development.

4. Relate the impact of planned development on Indian society and economy.

---

Teaching Aids:

Chalkboard/Whiteboard

Chart or diagram of the Five-Year Plans

Printed excerpts of debates on planned development (if available)

---

Teaching Methodology:

Lecture-based explanation

Socratic questioning

Discussion and critical analysis

---

Lesson Breakdown:

---

1. Introduction (5 minutes)

Start with a question:

“What do you think were the most important tasks for India after independence besides nation-building?”

Allow a few responses and connect them to the need for economic development.

Briefly introduce the concept of planned development as a method to achieve growth and social justice.

---

2. Explanation of Key Concepts (15 minutes)

Planned Development:

Explain how India adopted planned development through the Planning Commission, inspired by socialist and mixed economic models.

Five-Year Plans:

Discuss the objectives of the Five-Year Plans with a focus on:

Industrial growth

Agricultural reform

Poverty alleviation

Highlight the role of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru in advocating planning for development.

Debates and Challenges:

Land reforms: Successes and failures in redistributing land.

Public sector vs. private sector debates.

Balancing economic growth with social justice.

Role of the Planning Commission:

Explain its responsibilities in formulating and implementing economic policies.

---

3. Class Activity: Debate (10 minutes)

Divide the class into two groups. Assign one group to argue in favor of planned development and the other group to argue against it.

Encourage students to discuss the pros and cons, such as:

Pros: Economic growth, focus on infrastructure, self-reliance.

Cons: Bureaucratic inefficiencies, regional disparities, over-dependence on the state.

Moderate the discussion and summarize the main points.

---

4. Historical Case Study (10 minutes)

Present the Green Revolution as an example of planned development.

Explain its significance in increasing agricultural productivity.

Discuss the political and social implications, such as the rise of regional inequalities.

Ask students:

“Do you think the benefits of the Green Revolution outweighed its challenges? Why or why not?”

---

5. Conclusion (5 minutes)

Recap the main points:

India’s adoption of planned development to achieve economic growth.

The successes and limitations of the Five-Year Plans.

The ongoing relevance of debates on development strategies in contemporary India.

End with a reflective question:

“If you were a policymaker today, what would you prioritize for India’s development?”

---

Homework:

1. Read the section on the Green Revolution in the textbook.

2. Write a short essay (150-200 words) on: "The role of planned development in reducing poverty in India."

3. Prepare for a discussion on: "Should India continue with centralized planning or focus on decentralized development

Lesson plan- challenges of nation building (class12)

2025-01-30T08:25:00.000-08:00

Lesson Plan: Challenges of Nation Building

Class: 12th Political Science

Chapter: Challenges of Nation Building

Duration: 45 minutes

Objective:

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

Understand the concept of nation-building.

Identify and explain the key challenges faced by newly independent nations.

Relate these challenges to the post-independence scenario in India.

Discuss solutions or ways to address these challenges.

---

Teaching Aids:

Chalkboard/Whiteboard

Chart paper (if available)

Reference books or printouts (for further reading)

---

Teaching Methodology:

Interactive Teaching

Group Discussion

Storytelling

Q&A

---

Lesson Breakdown:

1. Introduction (5 minutes)

Begin by engaging the students with a question:

"What do you think a nation needs to be built successfully?"

Allow a few responses.

Introduce the topic by explaining that after gaining independence, nations face multiple challenges in their efforts to build a unified, strong state.

Briefly describe how India, post-independence, had to address these challenges.

---

2. Explanation of Key Concepts (10 minutes)

Nation-building:

Explain what nation-building means—creating a nation that unites its people despite their cultural, religious, and social differences.

Use the analogy of building a house with different materials to make the concept relatable.

Challenges of Nation Building:

Cultural Diversity: India’s diversity of religions, languages, and cultures.

Religious Differences: Explain the impact of partition and how it led to religious tensions.

Economic Disparities: Discuss the economic inequalities that existed and still exist in different regions.

Regionalism: The challenges posed by regional movements for autonomy.

Language Barriers: The struggle to find a common language for communication and unity.

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3. Class Activity: Group Discussion (15 minutes)

Divide the class into small groups. Assign each group one of the challenges from the chapter (Cultural Diversity, Religious Differences, etc.).

Ask them to discuss how that particular challenge could affect the stability of the nation. They should come up with possible solutions and real-life examples (especially from India).

After 10 minutes, invite each group to present their findings to the class.

4. Case Study (5 minutes)

Provide a brief case study of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel’s role in integrating princely states.

Explain how the task of nation-building was not just about uniting the people but also about bringing together different regions.

Ask students how this case study relates to the challenges they discussed earlier.

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5. Interactive Q&A (5 minutes)

Open the floor to questions.

Ask students to reflect on how some of these challenges are still relevant today, both in India and globally.

Encourage them to think critically about how nations can evolve in a way that accommodates all groups within society.

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6. Conclusion (5 minutes)

Recap the key points:

Nation-building is not just about political unity but about overcoming challenges like cultural diversity, regionalism, and economic disparities.

Emphasize that these challenges are interconnected, and addressing one can often help with others.

Give a reflective question for homework:

"How do you think modern India is dealing with the challenges of nation-building? Can you identify any recent efforts or policies?"

---

Homework:

Assign students to read further on the role of Indian Constitution in addressing these challenges, especially through Articles related to diversity, regional autonomy, and language policies.

Ask them to write a short essay (150-200 words) on how nation-building in India has evolved since independence.

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This lesson plan integrates a mix of theory, discussion, and practical examples, making the chapter more relatable and engaging. It gives students a chance to actively participate and think critically, all while understanding the historical and contemporary significance of the challenges of nation-building

Manufacturing Industries class 10 geography

2024-12-05T04:32:00.001-08:00

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw material to more valuable product is known as manufacturing.

Example-

1.CLOTH FROM COTTON

2. SUGAR FROM SUGARCANE.

3. PAPER FROM WOOD.

4. IRON FROM IRON ORE.

What you will read in this chapter~

☆ What is manufacturing industries?

☆Classifications of industries

☆ Agro based industries

☆ Minerals based industries

☆ Industrial pollution and environmental degradation

USES OF MANUFACTURING-

1.. Economic strength of a country is measured from the development of manufacturing industries. It is the backbone of our economy.

2.. The reduced the dependence of people on agriculture.

3.. Providing jobs.

4.. Export of manufactured goods and bring foreign exchange.

5.. Eradicate poverty and unemployment.

6... Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.

CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY TO NATIONAL ECONOMY.

The share of manufacturing sector in the GDP gross domestic product has been stagnant at 17 % over the last two decades.

The total contribution of industry to the GDP is 27% out of which 10% comes from mining, quarrying, electricity and gas.

The growth of the manufacturing sectors had been 7% in the last decade since 2003 the growth rate has been 9 to 10% per annum the desired growth rate over the next decade is 12%.

The national manufacturing competitiveness council(NMCC) has been set with the objective of improving productivity through proper policy interventions by the government and renewed efforts by the industry.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES

1.Availability of cheap labour.

2. availability of water.

3. availability of electricity.

4. availability of capital.

5. availability of market

6. availability of raw material.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRY

1.. On the basis of Source of raw material used.

2.. according to their main role

3.. on the basis of capital investment

4.. on the basis of ownership

5.. bulk and weight of raw materials and finished goods.

AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES
Cotton textiles

Jute textiles

Sugar industries

MINERALS BASED INDUSTRIES

Iron and steel industries

Aluminum smelting

Chemical industries

Fertilizers industries

Cement industries

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Air pollution

Water pollution

Thermal pollution

Noise pollution

CONTROLOF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

NTPC

NTPC is a major power providing corporation in India.

It has ISO certificate for EMS(environment management system) 14001.

How to score full marks two months strategy

2024-12-05T04:32:00.000-08:00

Before I start the topic, I want to make it clear that if you are thinking, I will spoon feed you, then you are totally wrong

Me or anyone else can only guide you show you directions, motivate you boost you, but it is you only you have to give the exam you have to read. We will just show you right path but Chalna to Aap ko Hi Hoga.

Main subjects Should be given at most priority because IT who Ye Tumhara optional subject Panna To last four days, mein hai

Soon your boat, their sheets are announced by CBSE. You have to left everything. You have to left your Instagram, Facebook Snapchat. What’s up events you have to left being worried about your school attendance only and only think you have to give focus is your next two months strategy for your board exam exams.

Now, as the day sheets having announced, you have to study for at least 829 hours

Daily, you have to give

three hours for science

three hours for social studies, and

three hours for maths

In the morning, first slot

Day one, read the chapter 1

Day two, complete the chapter 1 thoroughly

Day three, you have to complete writing the NCERT questions

Day four, you have to start with a new chapter that is chapter number two, and similarly go on

On Sunday, you have to take a test of whatever you have read in the previous six days

Most important topics to cover-Class12

2024-04-01T23:05:00.000-07:00

Important Expected Topics for Board Exam Political science

Book-📚 "Politics in India since Independence"

Major topics.

1.Problems of Integration of Princely States

2. Reorganization of States of Indian Union

3. Rule of Sardar Balabhai Patel as an Iron Man of India

4. Five Consequences of Partition of British India

5. Examine the Social Ways of the Congress and Congress Nature

6. Major importance and role of 5-year plans.

7. Non-alignment movement and its various features.

8. India's foreign policy and historical setbacks with India - China war and India- Pakistan conflict.

9. Major Objectives and Pros and Causes of Nehru's Foreign Policy

10. Major Issues which lead formal split of the Congress Party in 1969.

11. Major Factor of Popularity of Indira Gandhi in Early 1970s

12. Four-Five Consequences of Emergency of 1975

13. 1977 Power of Opposition and Government of Janata Dal

14. Tension between Executive and Judiciary on Declaration of Indira Gandhi's Election Invalid

15. Total Revolution and Communitarian Socialism by Jay Prakash Narayan

16. Major Incident and Causes for the Emergency and Consequences of Emergency and Legacy of Emergency.

17. Jammu Kashmir insurgency sea and nature of Dravidian movement.

18. Lessons from regional expirations 19. Issues of development of NDA government after 2014.

20. Mandal and it's recommendations.

21.Security declination

Minor Topics

1. Three challenges India faces after independence.

2. Issues of merging with the prehistory states, Manipur, Hyderabad, Kashmir, and also map work.

3. Tryst with destiny, speech, meaning, and significance.

4. Evolving of election commission and its challenges before first general election.

5. Social and communist parties.

6. Various reasons of dominance of Congress.

7. Emergence of Bharatiya Jan Sangh. 8. Failure of Congress in southern states.

9. Role or aims and objectives of function of Niti Aayog as think tank of India.

10. Outcomes of early phase of planned development.

11. Main areas and significance of second five-year planning.

12. National Development Council and compositions and functions.

13. India's nuclear policy and its features.

14. India's stand on NPT.

15. Tibet issues and cause of tension between India and China.

16. Any 5 DPSP of state policy with maintaining and promoting International Peace and Justice

17. Afro-Asia treaty and Panchseal.

18. 1960 as dangerous decade.

19. Reinvention of Congress party, Congress-O and Congress-R.

20. 2 and 4 challenges faced by Indira Gandhi after 1969 election.

21. First general election and its outcomes.

22. Fourth general election and challenges for the Congress party.

23. 1969 presidential election and split in Congress party.

24. Grand victory of Janata party 1977.

25. Anandpur Sahib resolution and its controversy.

26. Assam Accord.

27. EV Ramasamy Periyar and formation of Dravid Kanjugam DK.

28. Secessionist movement of Majoram in Nagaland.

29. Election of Lok Sabha 2014.

30. Coalition government 1984 and its significance and composition.

31. Political parties and consensus that emerged after Lok Sabha 2004.

32. Goals and objectives of Lok Sabha NDA 3 and NDA 4 government.

33. Babri masjid and Ram Mandir issue.

34.Shah Bano Case

Also map work from this book...

Book-📚"Contemporary World Politics"

Major topics

1. Disintegration of Soviet Union Causes and Consequences

2. Fall of Berlin Wall and Significance of USSR

3. Features of Soviet System

4. Soviet Union's Limitations and Gorbachev's Reforms

5. India-Russia Relationship

6. Asian Region 2020

7. Geographical Influence on Formation of Regional Organizations 8. India-China Relations and Various Conflicts

9. Various Factors of Rising the Power of India and Japan and South Korea in Alternative Center of Power

10. Political and Diplomatic Influence of European Union

11. Meaning and Nature of South Asia and Function of SAARC

12. Significance and Evolution of International Organizations and Formation of UN.

13. Mean what is of UN General assembly security council and reforms in security council.

14. Various causes of UN failure in recent happening Russia Ukraine war and Israel Palestine conflict.

15.Terrorism is a traditional trade.

16. Security in contemporary world and cooperative security

17.Traditional and non traditional security threats

18.India security stretegy

19.New source of rate

20.Common but different cities responsibilities in terms of environmental conservation.

21. India's stand on environmental issues

22. Globalisation meaning nature and significance and concept of globalisation

23.Globalisation and its impact on India

Minor topics

1.Shock therapy and otherwise spring

2. Limitations of USSR

3. Major objective of ASEAN

4.Chinese economy reforms and rise of China s global power

5 Formation and objectives of European union

6 India and Bangladesh relation

7 India and Nepal relation

8.Major conflict between India's and Pakistan

9.Main objective of United nation

10.Suggested reform in UN

11. Significant agencies..

IMI, WB, IAEA , AMNESTY international, UNICEF, UNESCO, ICO

12.Balance of power meaning and significance

13.Military alliance

14.SDG goals and is in the 21 and global commerce and outcomes a dual summit

15.Monotreal protocol

16.Kyoto protocol

17.Contribution of technology in globalisation

18.Various consequences of globalisation

19.Cultural homogeneous and heterogeneous.

20. India's experience in resisting globalisation .

21.Wider gap between rich and poor by globalisation.

holiday homework

2023-05-08T06:58:00.012-07:00

CLASS- 9TH HOLIDAY HOMEWORK

1. LEARN AND WRITE 2 LONG ANSWER IN YOUR OWN WORDS (FROM 1 CHAPTER OF ALL BOOKS COMPLETED IN CLASS)

2. PICTURE COMPREHENSION

HISTORY –

CHAPTER –French revolution (any two picture)

3. CBSE PROJECT-

1. Introduction to Disaster Management or

2. Common Hazards - Prevention and Mitigation

4..GEOGRAPHY :

CHAPTER 1 – INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION

Note: Answers of the following questions to be attempted in the respective notebooks.

(i) In a political and Physical map of India mark and label the following:

*India-States with Capitals, Tropic of Cancer, Standard Meridian

* Southernmost, northern most, eastern most and western most point of India

(Location and Labelling)

*Mountain Ranges- The Karakoram, The Zaskar, Shivalik, Aravali, Vindhyas, Satpura,

Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats. Peaks- K2, Kanchenjunga, Anai Mudi,

*Plateaus- Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau, Chhota Nagpur plateau.

* Coastal Plains: Konkan, Malabar Coast, Coromandal Coast and Northern Circar.

* In a political map of France show Following place

1.Bordeaux

2.Nantes

3.Paris

4. Marseilles

2. Find out more about anyone of the revolutionary figures you have read about in the chapter “French Revolution” Write a short biography of this person.

3.Make a project file on ‘Democracy v/s Dictatorship’ . Do case study of any 6 countries?

4.Project work : Ch 4 (Climate)

Collect photographs typical rural houses and clothing of people from different regions of India. Examine whether they reflect any relationship with the climatic condition and relief of the area.

Find out which songs dance festivals and special food preparations are associated with certain seasons in your region. Do they have some commonality with other regions of India.

5 .Make a flow chart on Fundamental Rights and Explain the rights.(Take help chapter 5th Democratic Rights).

6. Explain any five anti-poverty programs undertaken by the government. (Take help chapter 3 Economic)

CLASS 10th HOLIDAY HOMEWORK

1. LEARN AND WRITE 2 LONG ANSWER IN YOUR OWN WORDS (FROM 1 CHAPTER OF ALL BOOKS)

2. Map work

Locate all major soil types (India) on the suitable map of India.

1. Alluvial 2. Black 3. Red and Yellow

4. Laterite 5. Arid 6. Forest and Mountains

3. learn and write additional questions from each chapter which you have done in the month of April and May.

4. Prepare a project file with following details:

☆The total length of the project report should

not be more than 7 and 8 written pages of.

☆ A-4 size sheet for Projects [Choose any one topic]

Consumer Awareness: The content must cover the following:

• Meaning of Consumer Awareness

• Forms of Consumer Exploitation / Malpractices

• Factors causing exploitation of the Consumers

• Enactment of COPRA 1986 and its benefits

• Role of WTO in protection of Consumers

• Rights and Duties of the Consumers

• Consumer Protection Measures

Social Issues: Prepare a project on any three of the following social evils still prevailing in our society;

- highlighting the reasons, effects and suggest solutions to get them eliminated from our country.

•Poverty

• Illiteracy

• Corruption

• Gender Inequality

• Inflation, hoarding and panic buying during pandemic crisis

• Domestic violence against women and child abuse

The students must write about following key matter:

a. Social issues in Indian Society

b. Reforms initiated to combat the social issues

c. Role of Popular leaders and movements.

Sustainable Development :

The students must write about following key matter:

a. Need of development.

b. Importance of development

c. Policies initiated to adopt measures for Sustainable Growth

5. Map work:

Locate and label the following on the political map of India:-

(i)Major soil Types

(ii) Water Resources : Dams - Salal,Bhakra Nangal,Teheri,Rana Pratap Sagar,Sardar Sarover, Hirakud, Nagarjuna Sagar,Tungabhadra.

(iii)Major area of rice and wheat

Largest /Major producer state of Sugercane ,tea,Coffee ,Rubber ,cotton and Jute

(iv)Indian National Congress Sessions :-

*Calcutta (sept.1920 ) *Nagpur (December 1920) *Madras (1927) *Lahore (1929)

(v)Important Centres of Indian National Movement

*Champaran *Kheda * Ahmedabad * Chauri Chaura *Dandi *Amritsar

(vi) Software Technology Parks :- Noida, Gandhinagar, Mumbai, Pune, Hydrabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Thiruvananthapuram.

(vii)Power plant :

a.Thermal –Namrup,Ramagundam,Singrauli

b.Nuclear –Narora,Tarapur,Kakrapara,Kalpakkam

(viii) Major Ports and International Airport (That is given in syllabus)

(vix) Iron Ore mines, Coal mines and Oil Fields ( That is given in syllabus)

6.Write a note on Mahatma Gandhi Ji and How Gandhi ji shaped our Independence:

☆ 5 major freedom movements initiated by Mahatma Gandhi

7. On the basis of reading chapter 2nd of History ‘The nationalism of India “make at least 20 additional questions covering the whole chapter and solve them in the fair notebook of History (10 very short ,6 short answers and 4 long answers.

8.On the basis of reading chapter 1st of political science .Make at least 20 additional questions covering the whole chapter and solve them in the fair notebook .(10 very short Answers,6 short answers and 4 long answers

CLASS 12th HOLIDAY HOMEWORK

♧ Make summary of the chapters we have completed in the class.

♧ Make a Question Bank which is based on chapters which we have already completed in class, 20 questions from each chapter which will mandatorily include 1 Mark, 3 Marks & 5 Marks questions.

♧ Take 4 world political maps- and Locate the following-

● Axis powers and allied powers

● NATO countries

● Warsaw countries (any 5)

● Countries where the Arab spring occurs.

♧ Make a PPT on any one topic. It should be made by every student.

1.Globalization and its effect on India's society and polity.

2.Rise of NDA as a single largest political party in 2014 and 2019.

Elections and Representation, Class11th

2023-03-26T06:57:00.013-07:00

ELECTION AND REPRESENTATION

Q1. What is Election?

Ans:- The method through which the people choose their representative is known as Election. Elections are very important in a democracy. It is a process of voting to choose their representative or their political leader.

Two Types of Election: Direct and Indirect Election

Direct Election: In the direct type of elections, all the voters participate in the elections of their representative.

Indirect Election: In the case of indirect election, the elected members of the people further elect their representatives.

2. Why do we need elections?

Need and Importance of Election-

i. It creates a political competition among parties and candidates.

ii. It gives oppurtunities to deserving and capable people to represent.

iii. Election gives an opportunity to political parties to form government.

iv. People have got opportunity to elect their representative as they wish.

v. Even independent candidates get a chance to contest election and win. No Stable and welfare state would exist without election. A state is free from anarchy without election.

vi. An autocracy, monarchy or dictatorship would preserve without election.

3. What makes an election democratic?

Several conditions are required to make an election democratic. Democratic and non – democratic regimes hold some sort of elections.

Following Conditions makes an election Democratic:

1. Every citizen should have the right to choose on the basis of one person, one vote and one value.

2. There should be existence of political parties and people should have a choice to elect representatives. Candidates should be free to contest elections.

3. Elections must be held periodically.

4. Candidates preferred by people should get elected.

5. Elections should be held in a free and fair manner.

All the above mentioned points make an election democratic.

Describe the concept Democracy?

Ans. The modem period is considered as the age of democracy where participation of people ensured at every level of government. In the words of Abraham Lincoln. “Democracy the government of the people, for the people and by the people”.

• Democracy can be classified into two types, i.e. Direct Democracy and Indirect Democracy.

DIRECT DEMOCRACY

1.. It exist in a country where people make their own laws and appoint government personal directly.

2.. It exist in small states

3.. It is real democracy.

4.. It is not possible inmodetn democracies, since size of the countries has become large along with large population and other complex problems.

For exp- Greek city states, Swiss cantons

INDIRECT DEMOCRACY

1.. Indirect democracy the people do not participate directly but they participate indirectly through their elected representatives who act in accordance with the wishes of the people.

2.. It exist in large states.

3.. It is representative democracy.

4.. it immersed because it is not possible to elect representatives at one single place in large scale and was size countries for example it exist in modern democracy like India USA.

ELECTION SYSTEM IN INDIA

1. India is a constitutional democracy with a parliamentary system of government and at the heart of the system is a commitment to hold regular, free and fair elections.

2. India is a largest democratic country in the world having largest population, large number of people participated in the election process after every five year.

3. These elections determine the composition of the government, the membership of the two houses of parliament, the state and union territory, legislative assemblies, and the Presidency and Vice-Presidency.

4. Elections in India are events involving political mobilization and organizational complexity on an amazing scale.

5. In India there are two methods of elections which are widely used:

I. First Past the Post System (FPTP)

Election for the Lok Sabha (General elections), MP’s members of legislative Assembly (MLA’s) are conducted through FPTP system method.

2. Proportional Representation System(PR)

Election for Rajya Sabha (MP’s) Members of Legislative Council (MLC’s), President and Vice-President are conducted by PR method.

FIRST PAST THE POST SYSTEM (FPTP)

The First Past the Post system is the simplest form of plurality/majority system, using single member districts and candidate-centered voting. The voter is presented with the names of the nominated candidates and votes by choosing one, and only one, of them.

The winning candidate is simply the person who wins the most votes; in theory he or she could be elected with two votes, if every other candidate only secured a single vote. Along with the UK, the cases most often analyses are Canada, India, and the United States.

Under this system:

I. The entire country is divided into 543 constituencies;

II. Each constituency elects one representative; and

III. sThe candidate who secures the highest number of votes in that constituency is declared elected.

IV. It is important to note that in this system whoever has more votes than all other candidates is declared elected.

V. The winning candidate need not secure a majority of the votes. This method is called the First Past the Post (FPTP) system.

VI. In the electoral race, the candidate who is ahead of others, who crosses the winning post first of all, is the winner.

VII. This method is also called the Plurality System. This is the method of election prescribed by the Constitution.

VIII. In FPTP system the candidate need not to get majority vote (50%+1), if candidates has highest vote then the other candidate he will be declared elected.

IX. In multiparty system like India, no candidates get majority votes because voters gets divided.

Example: if there are five parties or candidates contest election in one constituency….

Advantages of FPTP System

This is simple for the electorate to understand the voting process and it is easy to operate.

There is quick-results of election can be counted quickly (makes the power from on party to another quick and easy).

There is very little chances of extremist parties being elected to parliament under FPTP.

It is It establishes a clear link between representatives and constituencies.

It allows governments that are formed to have a clear mandate, of course, on the basis of plurality of support amongst the election.

There is accountability enhanced.

Disadvantages of FPTP System

The number of votes cast for a party in general elections is not accurately reflected in the number of seats won.

The smaller parties are unfairly treated under FPTP system.

Encourages tactical voting for a party other than your preferred party purely to prevent a particular party from being elected). The main emphasizes is focus on major parties.

Many votes are wasted, especially those cast for losing candidates.

It undermines the legitimacy of government so far as governments are based only on minority support.

In such a system some social groups specially minorities may go under represented.

PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM (PR SYSTEM):

Proportional representation is a system used to elect a country’s government. This means the results of an election decides directly how many seats to each party has got.

Each elected representative will be member of one or another party. If one party ha an overall majority, then it forms the government.

Under this system:

Each party prepares a list of candidates for each constituency, depending on how many have to be elected from that constituency.

Each party fills its quota of seats by picking those many of its nominees from preferences list that has been declared before the election.

In both these variations, voters exercise their preference for a party and not a candidate. The seats in a constituency are distributed on the basis of votes polled by a party. Thus, representatives from a constituency, would and do belong to different parties.

In this system, a party gets the same proportion of seats as its proportion of votes.

In India, we have adopted PR system on a limited scale for indirect elections.

The Constitution prescribes a third and complex variation of the PR system for the election of President, Vice President, and for the election to the Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.

Under The PR System,

List system: under the list system, the entire country is considered as a single constituency or is divided into a large number of multi member constituencies. Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion to the votes they get in the election.

For instance, if the number of votes to be cast is 1, 00, 000 and the seats to be filled is 10, then the quota would be 1,00,000/10=10,000vote.

Single Transferable Vote System: There are Multi-member constituencies. Parties put up as many candidates as there are seats to fill in each constituency. Voters vote on the basis of preferences giving rank to candidates in order of preference. To be elected, candidates require a fixed quota of votes.

The number of votes needed to be elected is calculated according to the following formula:

Quota = Total votes polled+1

Total number of Candidates to be elcted+1

For example, if 1, 00,000 votes are casts in a constituency to elect 4 members, the quota of votes will be

= 1,00,000/(4+1)+1 = 1,00,000/5+1 = 20,000 + 1 = 20,001

Merits

A> It ensures that all parties are proportionally represented in the Legislature.

B> It secures the rights of minorities.

C> It is in true harmony with the spirit of democracy.

D> It ensures that votes are not wasted.

Demerits

A> It is complex system and is difficult to operate

B> The direct bond between voters and their representative is reduced as it is based on multi-member constituencies.

C> It leads to formation of a large number of small parties leading to coalitions.

D> It leads to unstable coalition which destroys the homogeneity of government and makes parliamentary government impossible.

PR System in Rajya Sabha

In India, PR system has been adopted for electing members to Rajya Sabha on

the basis of Single Transferable Vote system.

Each state has a fixed voter of seats for Rajya Sabha.

The members are elected by the respective State Legislative Assemblies.

Voters include the MLA’s of the State.

Each voter ranks candidate in order of his or her preference.

To be declared winner, a candidate is required to get a specific quota of votes.

Why India did adopted the FPTP system of representation?

Ans. Both FPTP system and PR system have their merits and demerits. In India, PR system has been adopted for the election of President, Vice – President and members of Rajya Sabha. India has adopted the FPTP system of representation because of the following reasons:

I. The reason for the popularity and success of the FPTP system is its simplicity.

II. The entire election system is extremely simple to understand even for common voters who may have no specialized knowledge about politics and elections.

III. There is also a clear choice presented to the voters at the time of elections.

IV. Voters have to simply endorse a candidate or a party while voting.

V. Depending on the nature of actual politics, voters may either give greater importance to the party or to the candidate or balance the two.

VI. The FPTP system offers voters a choice not simply between parties but specific candidates.

VII. In other electoral systems, especially PR systems, voters are often asked to choose a party and the representatives are elected on the basis of party lists.

VIII. As a result, there is no one representative who represents and is responsible for one locality.

IX. In constituency based system like the FPTP, the voters know who their own representative is and can hold him or her accountable.

Why not PR System?

I. PR based election may not be suitable for giving a stable government in a parliamentary system.

II. This system requires that the executive has majority in the legislature.

III. The PR system may not produce a clear majority because seats in the legislature would be divided on the basis of share of votes.

IV. In a diverse country like India, a PR system would encourage each community to form its own nation-wide party.

V. This may also have been at the back of the mind of our constitution makers that the experience of the working of the Constitution has confirmed the expectation of the constitution makers.

Why FPTP System?

I. The FPTP system generally gives the largest party or coalition some extra bonus seats, more than their share of votes would allow.

II. This system makes it possible for parliamentary government to function smoothly and effectively by facilitating the formation of a stable government.

III. The FPTP system encourages voters from different social groups to come together to win an election in a locality.

IV. The FPTP system has proved to be simple and familiar to ordinary voters. It has helped larger parties to win clear majorities at the center and the State level.

V. The system has also discouraged political parties that get all their votes only from one caste or community.

In this respect, the experience of FPTP in India is slightly different. After independence, though we adopted the FPTP system, there emerged a one party dominance and along with it, there existed many smaller parties. After 1989, India is witnessing the functioning of the multiparty

Coalitions. At the same time, gradually, in many States, a two-party competition is emerging. But the distinguishing feature of India’s party system is that the rise of coalitions has made it possible for new and smaller parties to enter into electoral competition in spite

of the FPTP system.

RESERVATION OF THE CONSTITUENCIES

I. In this system, all voters in a constituency are eligible to vote but the candidates must belong to only a particular community or social section for which the seat is reserved.

II. The Constitution provides for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

III. This provision was made initially for a period of 10 years and as a result of successive constitutional amendments, has been extended up to 2020.

IV. The Parliament can take a decision to further extend it, when the period of reservation expires.

V. The number of seats reserved for both of these groups is in proportion to their share in the population of India.

VI. Of the 543 elected seats in the Lok Sabha, 84 are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 47 are reserved for Scheduled Tribes.

Who decides which constituency is to be reserved? On what basis is this decision taken?

I. This decision is taken by an independent body called the Delimitation Commission.

II. The Delimitation Commission is appointed by the President of India and works in collaboration with the Election Commission of India.

III. It is appointed for the purpose of drawing up the boundaries of constituencies all over the country. A quota of constituencies to be reserved in each State is fixed depending on the proportion of SC or ST in that State.

IV. After drawing the boundaries, the Delimitation Commission looks at the composition of population in each constituency.

V. Those constituencies that have the highest proportion of Scheduled Tribe population are reserved for ST.

VI. In the case of Scheduled Castes, the Delimitation Commission looks at two things. It picks constituencies that have higher proportion of Scheduled Caste population. But it also spreads these constituencies in different regions of the State.

VII. This is done because the Scheduled Caste population is generally spread evenly throughout the country. These reserved constituencies can be rotated each time the Delimitation exercise is undertaken.

Who is the voter? Who can contest elections?

I. Ans. We know that democratic elections require that all adult citizens of the country must be eligible to vote in the elections. This is known as universal adult franchise.

II. One of the important decisions of the framers of the Indian Constitution was to guarantee every adult citizen in India, the right to vote.

III. Till 1989, an adult Indian meant an Indian citizen above the age of 21.

IV. An amendment to the Constitution in 1989, reduced the eligibility age to 18.

V. Adult franchise ensures that all citizens are able to participate in the process of selecting their representative.

RIGHT TO CONTEST ELECTION

I. All citizens have the right to stand for election and become the representative of the people.

II. There are different minimum age requirements for contesting elections. For example, in order to stand for Lok Sabha or Assembly election, a candidate must be at least 25 years old.

III. There is a legal provision that a person who has undergone imprisonment for two or more years for some offence is disqualified from contesting elections.

IV. There are no restrictions of income, education or class or gender on the right to contest elections. In this sense, our system of election is open to all citizens

Q. Critically evaluate the concept of Universal Adult Franchise? How it is important?

Ans. Universal Adult Suffrage refers to the right to vote given to all adult citizens without any distinction of caste, class, colour, creed, language, religion, etc. It has faced some criticisms also:

• Right to vote is a special privilege to confer on those who utilize it for the welfare of the state. Hence, it should be conferred only to the educated persons and illiterate persons should be debarred from it because they cannot understand who the best candidate for the state is.

• The Universal Adult Suffrage establishes the government of fools because fools and ignorant form the majority in the society which can create some dangerous consequences in the state.

• All the people should not be given the right to vote equally and to contest elections as well because God has not created everybody equal.

• The right to vote should be extended to those persons only who are competent or capable of using it because it is a responsibility not the right and a responsibility cannot be extended to the incompetent persons.

• The Universal Adult Suffrage leads to corruption because contesting and voting, both are usually made on the bases of money and muscle power by dominating the poor the downtrodden people.

ELECTION COMMISSION

Election commission is a constitutional body who referred an article 324 of the Indian constitution which provides for an independent election commission for the superintendent directions and control of the electoral and the conduct of the election in India.

In the beginning it was made a single member commission but the constitutional amendment this commission is made multi member commission with one chief election commissioner and two other election commissioners all have equal powers.

Q. What is the composition of Election Commission of India?

Answer: The composition of Election Commission of India

• The Election Commission consists of Chief Election Commissioner and the number of other Election Commissioners may also be fixed by the president from time to time.

• Thus, the Election Commission may be single member or multi member body. Till 1989, the Election Commission was a single member body.

• In 1993, two more Election Commissioners were also appointed and become multimember body since then.

• The Chief Election Commissioner presides over the Election Commission, but the other Election Commissioners also enjoy the same power to work mainly on consensus as a collective body only.

• The constitution of India has ensured independence of Election Commission and declared it can important body to conduct free and fair elections.

Q. Explain the role of Election Commission of India.

Answer: The role of Election Commission can be summarized as follows:

• The Election Commission controls over the election machinery to conduct free and fair elections as supervises and makes changes if needed in the electoral rules of the elections.

• The Election Commission prepares the voters’ list who enjoy the right to vote as well as considers objections also to be raised by voters in reference of voters’ list.

• Election Commission provides the election symbols to the political parties as well as to independent candidates. As Congress (I) has been assigned the symbol of hand and lotus has been provided to BJP. The independent candidates are provided symbols on temporary basis.

• The Election Commission declares and recognizes the political parties as national or regional.

How does the Election Commission of India ensure its independence?

Answer: The Election Commission ensures its independence by the following provisions

• Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners and Regional Election Commissioners are appointed for a fixed term.

• The Chief Election Commissioner cannot be removed from his office before the expiry of his term except on the grounds of incapacity and misbehavior only if a resolution to this effect is passed by both the houses of parliament by a two-third majority.

• Other Election Commissioners and Regional Election Commissioners can be removed from the Office only on the recommendations of the Chief Election Commissioner.

• Salaries and other allowances of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are to be paid out of consolidated fund of India.

• Tenure and other service conditions of Chief Election Commissioner and others, are fixed by the president, but they cannot be changed to their disadvantage during their term of office.

Q. Suggest some major suggestions for electoral reforms.

Answer:The various committees have worked on electoral reforms, i.e. the Goswami Committee and Tarkunde Committee, but these have not brought substantial changes in electoral system and law.

It seems that political parties are indifferent to electoral reforms because in some cases, political parties have neutralized the steps taken by the Election Commission to bring in some desired changes.

It is now widely recognized to preserve and strengthen the democratic setup a comprehensive agenda of reforms is necessary in system, structure and processes:

• Criminalization should be checked in politics.

• Political parties’ functions should be regulated.

• Voters’ participation and awareness should be ensured.

• Make the election machinery effective and credible.

• The use of money and muscle power should be stopped.

• A proportionate share to every class, section and society should also be provided in the parliament.

Parties and party system in India

2022-12-12T07:48:00.207-08:00

WHAT WE WILL READ IN THIS CHAPTER???

WHAT IS POLITICAL PARTIES

NEED, FUNCTIONS And types;

CHALLENGES OF BUILDING DEMOCRACY

CONGRESS DOMINANCE

NATURE AND IDEOLOGY OF CONGRESS

NON CONGRESSISM

INFIRA GANDHI AS AN TOWERING LEADER

SPLIT IN CONGRESS

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS

ELECTORAL VERDICT OF 1971

WHAT IS A POLITICAL PARTY??

Meaning-

A political party is an organized group of people who have the same ideology, or who otherwise have the same political positions, and who field candidates for elections, in an attempt to get them elected and thereby implement the party's agenda(policies and programmes).

Three components of political party-

1. Strong leader

2. Active member

3. followers

Why do we need political parties?

Imagine a situation where there is a no political party and each and every candidate would be independent to contest election to the next question arises whether it can bring diverse problems a single solution can it can can the independent candidate can better take care of the country.

It is very difficult for a single individual to address all issues of the country hence we need political party because they can take care of bigger issues very effectively and efficiently.

Functions of politicalparties-

1.. Contesting elections

political parties contest elections. A political parties nominates its candidate for the electoral contest in various constituents sees.

Policies political parties put forward different policies and programmes so that the voters can choose the best from them.

2.. Making laws political parties play a very disease role in making laws for the country.

3..Formation of government

political parties form and run government. The executive body is formed by people from the ruling party various political leaders are assigned the front ministries to carry out the task of governance.

4..Playing a position

a party which does not get majority or come under major reticulation need to play the role of opposition.

5..Shape Public opinion

political parties shape public opinion. they do so by using and highlighting issues in the legislature and in the media.

6...Access government machinery and welfare schemes-

parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes, since it is easy to approach local party leader than government officers.

Types of party system-

1..One party system

In single-party systems, one political party is legally allowed to hold effective power.

Although minor parties may sometimes be allowed, they are legally required to accept the leadership of the dominant party.

North Korea and China are examples.

2..Two party or bi-party system

Two-party systems are states in which there are two political parties dominant to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible and political parties are traditionally parties that are ideologically broad and inclusive.

Example-USA

3.. MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM

Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties come together in the form of coalition to form the government.

Australia, Canada, People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Ireland, United Kingdom, and Norway are examples of countries with two strong parties and additional smaller parties that have also obtained representation.

The smaller or “third” parties may hold the balance of power in a parliamentary system, and thus may be invited to form a part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties; or may instead act independently from the dominant parties.

Indian context

India is not the only country to have experienced the dominance of one party but there many countries with this experience.

But there is a crucial difference between these and the Indian experience. In the rest of the cases the dominance of one party was ensured by compromising democracy.

In some countries like China, Cuba and Syria the constitution permits only a single party to rule the country. Some others like Myanmar, Belarus, Egypt, and Eritrea are effectively one-party states due to legal and military measures.

Challenges of building democracy

Indian constitution was adopted on 26th January 1950. at the time of independence, it was a big question towards success of democracy in India.

Why???

After independence problems or issues we have to dealt with-

1.Poverty

2.Unemployment

3.Merging princely states with Indian union

4.To accommodate diversities.

5.To protect our sovereignty

6.To ensure democracy

critics

# The biggest gamble in the history

# J.L. Nehru would live to confess the failure of universal adult franchise in india.

# A future and more enlightened age will view with astonishment the absurd farce of recording the votes of millions of illiterate people.

Why so much of critisim?

1.. It was believed that democracy is suitable for only western countries

2... For a poor illiterate country it is hard to understand the system of democracy.

Democracy- an accepted norms

■REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCCRACY

■PEOPLE INDIRECTLY PARTICIPATE IN THE GOVERNANCE PROCESS

■WE NEED POLITICAL PARTIES

■GROUP OF PEOPLE- COMING TOGETHER- CONTEST ELECTION- WELFRE PROGRAMMES

■FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES

■TYPES OF POLITICAL PARTIES

Election commission was setup in 1950. Sukar sen become 1st chief election commission and 1st general election were held in oct 1951 to feb 1952.........

First election was difficult to conduct as they were facing many challenges-

1...Drawing boundaries was required.

2...Voters list was to be prepared

3....40 lakhs women were not recorded.

4....There were 17 crore eligible voters but only 15% are literate.

Other difficuties

Why such issues emerged?

5... India got its independence very late

6...India's vast size

7...Huge population

8...Lack of resources and lack of awareness

solution:: To elect 3,200 MLAs and 489 members of loksabha MPs,

3 lakhs polling officers were trained

CONGRESS SYSTEM

NEHRU ERA(1952-64)

FIRST GENERAL ELETION

CONGRESS AS SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL COALITION

CONGRESS AS A DOMINANT PARTY

First general election- (1952 to 1957)

It took 6 months for the campaining, polling and counting to be completed.

The election were competitive.

Level of participation was encouraging.

When the result were declared theses were accepted as fair even by the loosers.

Observers outside india were equally impressed.

India’s 1st general election of 1952 became the landmark in the history of democracy all over the world.

How did congress win the elections?

The results of the first general election did not surprise anyone.

The Indian National Congress was expected to win this election.

When the final results were declared, the extent of the victory of the Congress did surprise many. The party won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha elections and finished way ahead of any other challenger.

The Communist Party of India that came next in terms of seats won only 16 seats. The state elections were held with the Lok Sabha elections. The Congress scored big victory in those elections as well. It won a majority of seats in all the states

Why was the congress dominant after first three elections?

The roots of this extraordinary success of the Congress party go back to the legacy of the freedom struggle. Congress was seen as inheritor of the national movement.

In Jawaharlal Nehru, the party had the most popular and charismatic leader in Indian politics. He led the Congress campaign and toured through the country

Many leaders who were in the forefront of that struggle were now contesting elections as Congress candidates.

The Congress was already a very well-organised party and by the time the other parties could even think of a strategy, the Congress had already started its campaign.

Thus, the Congress had the ‘first off the blocks’ advantage. By the time of Independence the party had not only spread across the length and breadth of the country as we had seen in the maps but also had an organisational network down to the local level.

Most importantly, as the Congress was till recently a national movement, its nature was all-inclusive. All these factors contributed to the dominance of the Congress party.

Congress as an ideological and social coalition

SOCIAL COALITION

Congress evolved from its origins in 1885 as a pressure group for the newly educated, professional and commercial classes to a mass movement in the twentieth century.

This laid the basis for its eventual transformation into a mass political party and its subsequent domination of the political system.

Thus the Congress began as a party dominated by the English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and urban elite. But with every civil disobedience movement it launched, its social base widened.

It brought together diverse groups, whose interests were often contradictory. Peasants and industrialists, urban dwellers and villagers, workers and owners, middle, lower and upper classes and castes, all found space in the Congress.

Gradually, its leadership also expanded beyond the upper caste and upper class professionals to agriculture based leaders with a rural orientation

IDEOLOGICAL COALITION

Many of these groups merged their identity within the Congress. Very often they did not and continued to exist within the Congress as groups and individuals holding different beliefs.

In this sense the Congress was an ideological coalition as well. It accommodated the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical, extremist and moderate and the right, left and all shades of the centre.

The Congress was a ‘platform’ for numerous groups, interests and even political parties to take part in the national movement.

In pre-Independence days, many organisations and parties with their own constitution and organisational structure were allowed to exist within the Congress.

Challenges of political succession-

1. FROM NEHRU TO SHASTRI(1964-1966)

2. FROM SHASTRI TO INDIRA GANDHI

3. FROM INDIRA GANDHI TO MORAJI DESAI(1977-1979)

1964

PM JAWAHARLAL NEHRU passed away in may 1964.

Any outsiders questioned whether India's democratic experiment will survive after Nehru or not.

There were doubts if he new leadership would be able to handle the multiple crisis that awaited a solution.

The 1960s were labeled as the “dangerous decade” with unresolved problems like poverty, communal riots, inequality and regional division etc.

The ease with which the succession after Nehru took place all the critics were proved wrong

Nehru to shastri

K Kamal raj the party president consulted party leaders and members and found that there was a consensus in favor of LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI.

Shastri was non controversial leader. He had been a minister in Nehru's cabinet for many years.

He was known for his simplicity and commitment to his principles.

He served as PM from 1964 to 1966

The country faced major challenges like failed monsoon, drought, food crisis war with Pakistan (1965), war with China (1962).

Slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” symbolized- the country's resolve to face both this challenges.

His prime minister ship came to an abrupt end on 10 January 1966 expired in TASHKENT UZBEKISTAN.

He was there to sign an agreement with Ayub Khan the then President of Pakistan

Shastri to Indira Gandhi

Congress face the challenge of political succession again in 1966.

An intense competition between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi has emerged this time.

Morarji Desai had earlier served as chief minister of Bombay state and also minister at centre

Indira Gandhi had been Congress President in the past and had also been union minister for information in the Shastri cabinet (1964-66)

The senior leaders decided to back Indira Gandhi but the decision was not unanimous. Senior Congress leader supported Indira Gandhi in the belief that the administrative and political in explains would encourage her to be dependent on them for support and guidance

The contest was resolved through a secret ballot.

Indira Gandhi defeated Morarji Desai by securing the support of more than two third of party MP.

Indira Gandhi

PM from 1966 to 1977 and 1980 to 1984

- Famous slogan garibi hatao (in 1971 election)

- Abolition of privy purse

- Nationalisation of banks

- Nuclear test

- Environmental protection

- 31st October 1984 she was assassinated

Emergence of opposition party

Parties that were entirely different in their programs and ideology got together to form anti Congress fronts.

Ram Manohar Lohiya call this a new strategy known as now “non congressism”

FOURTH GENERAL ELECTION OF 1967

1… BACKGROUD UNDER WHICH ELECTION HELD CHALLENGES FACED.

2… IDEOLOGY OF NON CONGRESSISM

3... ELETORAL VERDICT

4… COALITIONAND DEFECTION

Time period of 1967

At that time the country was witnessing many major changes such as-

Decline in agricultural production

Serious food shortage

Depletion of foreign exchange price rise

Food scarcity

Growing unemployment

Band, hartal were frequently called because of price hike. the governments of the protest as the law and order problem.

The communist and socialist parties launched struggles for greater equality

Devaluation of Indian rupee- 1 dollar = 5 rupees but after devaluation $1 became 7.2 rupees.

4th general election 1967-result declaration

The four general election to the lok sabha and the state assemblies held in February 1967.

The Congress was facing the electorate for the first time without Nehru.

The Congress did manage to get a majority in the lok sabha but with its lowest tally of seats and share of votes since 1952.

Political experts like Kamaraj in Tamilnadu, SK Patil in Maharashtra, Atul Ghosh in West Bengal and K.B. sahay in Bihar got defecion.

In 7 state Congress cannot form government and in 2 States because of Defeaction.

In Madras state regional party the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam(DMK) come to power by securing a clear majority. The DMK had laid a massive anti- Hindu agitation by students against the centre on the issue of imposition of Hindi as official language.

SPLIT IN CONGRESS

1. INDIRA GANDHI VS SYNDICATE

2. PRESIDENT ELECTION OF 1969

DISCUSS THE MAJOR ISSUES WHICH LED TO THE FORMAL SPLIT OF THE CONGRESS.

After 1967 elections there was seen many ups and down in the Congress party. The Congress party was totally split into two parts that is one led by Indira Gandhi and another by the Syndicate.

SYNDICATE- It was a formal name given to a group of Congress leaders who were in control of party’s organisation.

One major challenges faced by Ms Indira Gandhi from within her own party she had to deal with the Syndicate.

While Syndicate played a vital role in the installation of Indira Gandhi, as the prime ministers and in return they were expecting her to follow their advises but however gradually Indira Gandhi attempted to asset her position within the government and within the party she choose her trusted groups of advisers from outside the party.

Two challenges faced by Indira Gandhi

She need to work towards her again in the ground that the Congress has lost its in the 1967 election point number

2.. she need to build her independence from the Syndicate.

Series of initiatives launched by Indira Gandhi

10 point programs adopted in May 1967

Social control of banks nationalisation of general insurance

ceiling on urban property and income

Public distribution of food grains land reforms and provisions of how sides to the ruler poor.

The Syndicate leaders had serious reservations about these programs.

president election 1969

Many changes took over in 1969 when the rivalry came to open.

Syndicate managed to nominate her longtime opponent and the speaker of the lok sabha . N sanjeeva Reddy as the official Congress candidate for the presidential election.

Indira Gandhi encouraged the then President V V Giri to file his nomination as an independent candidate.

president election 1969

The then party president S Nilagappa issued a whip, asking all the Congress MPS and MLS to vote in favor of Neelam sanjeeva Reddy.

Indira Gandhi called for account science vote which meant that the MP and MLA should be free to vote the way they want.

Morarji Desai was the deputy PM and finance minister serious issues emerged between Indira Gandhi and Morarji Desai and as a result he left the government.

V V Giri got elected this formula and the spirit in the party the Congress President expelled the PM from the party.

She came that her group was the real Congress. The Congress led by the Syndicate was known as Congress organisation (O) and the group led by the Indira Gandhi was known as congress requisitionist (R).

1971 ELECTION AND RESTORATION OF CONGRESS

1. THE CONTEST

2. THE OUTCOME

3. RESTORATION

The split in the Congress reduced Indira Gandhi government to a minority get her government continued in office with issue base support of few other parties including the communist party of India and the DMK.

All major non communist, non Congress opposition parties formed and electoral alliance called “grand alliance” but the new Congress had something which is opponent's lacked.

It had an issue and agenda and a positive slogan.

Indira Gandhi put forward a positive program based on the slogan- garibi hatao.

The Congress are CPI alliance won more fields and votes than the Congress had ever won.

374 seats in lok sabha and secured 48. 4% votes.

Congress 352 seats with about 44% votes at its own the Congress could win only 16 seats.

The Congress led by Indira Gandhi claimed to be the real Congress and distributed to its dominant position in Indian politics..

The grand alliances prove to be a failure.

It was followed by the crisis in Pakistan and the establishment of Bangladesh and aid to the popularity of Indira Gandhi..

Har party swept through all the state assembly elections held in 1972.

Thanking you

Security in the contemporary world

2022-12-12T07:14:00.002-08:00

What is security?

The basic security implies freedom from threat but in actual security relates only to extremely dangerous threats. Threats that could so endangered core values or be damaged beyond repair. If we did not do something to deal with the situation..

Traditional notions:

external factors

In the traditional conception of security, the greatest danger to a country is from military threats.

The source of this danger is another country which by threatening actions endangers the core value of sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.

In responding to the threat of war, a government has three basic choices-

A government has three basic choices

1..to surrender

2..to prevent

3.. to defend

Therefore, security policy is concerned with preventing war, which is called deterrence and with limiting or ending words which is called defence.

Traditional security policy has a third component called balance of power means to build up one's military power( economic and technological power).

A fourth and related component of traditional security policy is alliance building.

An alliance is a coalition of states that coordinate their actions to deter or defend against military attack.

The US backed the islamic militants in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union in the 1980s but later attacked them when Al Qaeda- a group of Islamic militants led by Osama bin laden launched Terrorist strikes against America on 11 September 2001.

In traditional view of security then most important threats to a country’s security comes from outside its borders.

Traditional notions: internal

Asia and Africa, newly independent countries faced security challenges.

The new countries face the prospect of military conflict with neighbouring countries. Another they had to worry about internal military conflict with neighbouring countries.

Internal wars now make up more than 95% of all armed conflicts fought anywhere in the world. Between 1946 and 1991 there was 12 fold rise in the number of civil wars.

Traditional security and cooperation

An universally accepted view that countries should not only go to war for the right reasons.

Armies must avoid killing or hurting non combatants as well as unarmed and surrender combatants.

Cooperation includes three important Forms-

1)...Disarmament- it requires all states to give up certain kinds of weapons.

For example, the 1972 BMC and the 1992 CMC Banned, the production and possession of these weapons. More than 155 states acceded to the BMC and 181 states acceded to CMC, including all the great powers..

2 )...Arms control. It regulates the acquisition or development of weapons.

The antiballistic missile treaty in 1972, tried to stop the US and Soviet Union from ballistic missiles as a defensive shield to launch a nuclear attack. It did not allow both countries to deploy a very limited number of defensive system..

3)..confidence building: it is a process in which countries share ideas and information with their rivals. Share their military intentions and military plans.We can say, confidence building is a process design to ensure that rivals do not go to war through misunderstanding or misconceptions.

Non-traditional notions

Non-traditional notions of security go beyond military threats to include a wide range of threats and dangers effecting the conditions of human existence, means global security-

1...human security

It is about the protection of people more than the protection of state, because concept of human security argue that the threat agenda– should include hunger, disease and natural disasters because these kill far more people than war, genocide and terrorism combined.

2..Global security.

The idea of global security emerged in the 1990s in response to the global nature of threats such as global warming, international terrorism and health epidemics, bird flu and so on...

No country can resolve this problem alone. For example, due to global warming is sea level rise of 1.5 to 2.0 meters would flood 20% of Bangladesh, most part of Maldives and threaten nearly half of the population of Thailand.

New source of threats

1.. Terrorism

It refers to political violence that targets the civilians deliberately and indiscriminately. Civilian targets are usually choose to terrorism the public as a weapon against national government or other parties in conflict.

For example, hijacking planes, planting bombs in trains, market and other crowded places.

2..Human rights

there are three types-

political rights- which includes freedom of speech and assembly

economic rights- which include social rights

third is the right of colonised people or ethnic and indi genous.

3.. Global poverty

Another source of insecurity. Among the world’s poorest countries population is expected to triple in the next 50 years.

currently half of the world's population growth occurs in just six countries- India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh and Indonesia, sub-Saharan Africa, which is also the porous region of the world.

4.. migrants

poverty in South led to a large-scale migration to seek a better life, especially better economic opportunities in the north.

people who have fled their homes but remain within national boundaries are called internally displaced people. Kashmiri pundits are the examples of internally displaced community.

5..Health epidermic

diseases like HIV aids, bird flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome have rapidly spread through migrations, business, tourism and military cooperation.

May 2003 and estimate 4 crore people were infected with HIV or AIDS worldwide 2/ third of the year in Africa and half of the rest in South Asia.

other new disasters such as eloba virus and hepatitis C have emerged while old diseases like TV, malaria, dengue, fever have muted into drug resistance forms that are difficult to threat.

cooperative security

government organisation like WHO, WTO, IMF, World Bank,

non-governmental organisation, Amnesty international, the Red Cross, Private foundations and charity Churches, trade unions, associations social and developmental organisation, business and cooperation and great personalities- Nelson Mandela, mother, Teresa etc...

India’s security strategy

India security has four broad components-

1..The first component was strengthening its military capabilities.

2.. the 2nd component of India’s, security strategy has been to strengthen international norms and international institutions to protect its security interest.

3..The third component of India security strategy is geared towards meeting security challenges within the country.

4.. Finally, there has been an attempt in India to develop its economy in a way that the vast masses of citizens are lifted out of poverty and misery and huge economic inequalities are not allowed to exist.

Thanking you

judiciary class 11

2022-12-08T10:54:00.009-08:00

Judiciary is important and independent organ of the government.

Structure of Indian Judiciary is ÷

1..Supreme court of India

2..High Court

3...District Court

Why do we need a Judiciary?

1..Plays important role in interpreting and in protecting the constitution

2..Disputes can arise between individuals, between groups and between individuals or groups and government.

3..Role of Judiciary is to protect rule of law and ensure supremacy of law.

4..Rule of law means law doesn’t discriminate anyone basing on religion, caste, creed, gender and law is supreme for everyone.

5..Safeguard rights of the individual and settles disputes.

6..Judiciary safeguard democracy by ensuring that an individual or a group does not become dictator.

7..Judiciary is important body of a government, without any political pressures.

Independence of Judiciary means:

1.. No restrain on the functioning of Judiciary by other organs of the government.

2.. No interference with the decision of Judiciary

Judges perform their functions without fear or favor.

3.. Independent Judiciary doesn’t mean arbitrariness or having no accountability.

4.. Judiciary is accountable to the Constitution, to the democratic traditions and to the people of the country.

Measures to maintain the Independence of Judiciary:

1.. Independence doesn’t imply absence of accountability.

2..Legislature isn’t involved in the process of appointment of Judges. Appointment of Judges is based on experience as a lawyer and/or must be well versed in law.

3..Political opinions or political loyalty should not be the criteria for appointments.

4..Security of tenure ensures that judges could function without fear of favor.

5..Judiciary isn’t financially dependent on executive or legislature.

6.. Judiciary has the power to penalize those who are found guilty of contempt of court.

7..Parliament cannot discuss the conduct of the judges except when the proceeding to remove a judge is being carried out.

Appointment of Judges-

1.. Council of Ministers, governors and Chief Ministers and Chief Justice of India (CJI) all influence the process of judicial appointment.

2.. Appointment of Chief Justice of India (CJI) follows the convention of appointing the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court was appointed as the Chief Justice of India.

This convention was however broken twice.

3.. In 1973 A. N. Ray was appointed as CJI superseding three senior Judges. Again, Justice M.H. Beg was appointed superseding Justice H.R. Khanna (1975).

4.. Chief Justice of India recommends names of person to be appointed judges of Supreme Court and High Court in consultation with four senior most judges of the court. This system is called Collegium.

5.. The Judges are appointed by President after Consultation with Chief Justice of India.

Tenure of Judges is not fixed in Supreme Court.

There are these provisions:

* He/ She holds office until he attains the age of 65 years.

* He/ She can resign his office by writing to the president.

*He/ She can be removed from his office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament.

Removal of Judges-

* A Judge can be removed only on the ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity.

*A motion containing the charges against the judge must be approved by special majority in both houses of the Parliament.

* Unsuccessful Attempt to remove a Judge was seen in 1991.

* First ever motion to remove a Supreme Court Justice (V.Ramaswami) was signed by 108 members of Parliament.

*While in making appointments, the executive plays a crucial role; whereas the legislature has the powers of removal. This is in order to maintain balance of power and independence of the judiciary.

Process of removal of a Judge-

● The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court by the process of impeachment:

● A removal motion signed by 100 members (in the case of Lok Sabha) or 50 members (in the case of Rajya Sabha) is to be given to the Speaker/Chairman.

● The Speaker/Chairman may admit the motion or refuse to admit it. If it is admitted, then the Speaker/Chairman is to constitute a three member committee to investigate into the charges.

● The committee should consist of

(a) the chief justice or a judge of the Supreme Court,

(b) a chief justice of a high court, and

● If the committee finds the judge to be guilty of misbehavior or suffering from an incapacity, the House can take up the consideration of the motion.

● After the motion is passed by each House of Parliament by special majority, an address is presented to the president for removal of the judge.

● Finally, the president passes an order removing the judge. No judge of the Supreme Court has been impeached so far.

Structure of the Judiciary

The Constitution of India provides for a single integrated judicial system. This provision in Indian Constitution has been taken from Government of India Act, 1935.

Judiciary in India has a pyramidal structure, meaning that unlike other federal countries in world, India does not have separate State courts

Supreme Court of India-

☆ It is the apex court of India

☆ Its decisions are binding on all courts.

☆Can transfer Judges of High Courts.

☆ Can move cases from any court to itself.

☆Can transfer cases from one High Court to another.

☆ It is the protector and guarantor of the fundamental right.

High Court-

☆ Can hear appeals from lower courts.

☆ Can issue writs for restoring Fundamental Rights.

☆ Can deal with cases within the jurisdiction of the State.

☆ Exercises superintendence and control over courts below it.

☆ There are 25 High Courts in India.

District Court

☆ Deals with cases arising in the District.

☆ Considers appeals on decisions given by lower courts.

☆ Decides cases involving serious criminal offences.

Subordinate Courts

☆ Consider cases of civil and criminal nature

Jurisdiction of Supreme Court-

The Supreme Court of India is most powerful court anywhere in the world. The functions and responsibilities of the Supreme Court are defined by the Constitution.

1.. Original Jurisdiction

It refers to the cases that can be directly considered by the Supreme Court without going to the lower courts before that.

Cases here relate to the federal matters, meaning cases that arises between Union and the States; and among the States themselves.

It is called original Jurisdiction because Supreme Court alone has the power to deal with such cases.

SC here also interprets the powers of Union and State government as laid down in the Constitution.

2.. Writ Jurisdiction

If Fundamental right has been violated, aggrieved person can directly move the Supreme Court for remedy under Art. 32 or to High Court under Art. 226 of Constitution of India.

The Supreme Court and High Court can give special orders in the form of writs.

Through writs, the Court can give orders to the executive to act or not to act in a particular way.

3.. Appellate Jurisdiction

The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal.

An appeal can be made in SC against the decisions of the High Court.

An appeal can be made only if High court finds case is fit for appeal, or needs an interpretation of law or constitutional provision.

SC has the power whether or not to accept the appeal and id accepted will give the interpretation.

In same way High Court has appellate jurisdiction over lower courts.

4.. Advisory Jurisdiction

The President of India can seek advice of SC on matters of public importance or that which involves interpretation of Constitution.

SC is not bound to give such advice neither President is binding to follow that advice.

However it has two fold importance:

1) Avoid litigation on Govt. part by avoiding such actions.

2) Advice of the Supreme Court, allows government to make suitable changes in its action or legislations.

Decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts within the territory of India.

Supreme Court can review it’s own decision and has done at several instances in past.

Cases of contempt of SC are heard by SC only.

JUDICIAL ACTIVISM

Normal Scenario: an individual can approach the courts only if he/she has been personally aggrieved.

In 1979, the Court set the trend when it decided to hear a case where the case was filed not by the aggrieved persons but by others on their behalf.

Court filed by activist, public spirited citizens and voluntary organisation on behalf of other people, relating to matters of public importance. These are called Public Interest Litigation (PIL).

PIL largely referred to the issues like, protection of existing rights, betterment of life conditions of the poor, environmental concerns etc.

Initially PIL were based on basis of newspaper reports and postal complaints received by the court. Court usually heard cases brought to it but this step reflected the activist part of Judiciary and hence referred to as Judicial activism.

Post-1980 period, through PIL Judiciary also heard cases of that section of society who can’t easily approach court.

Judicial Activism has served in various ways:

1) It has mad Judiciary pro-active and more accessible for everyone.

2) Renewed faith in Judiciary among people.

3) It has forced Executive to be more responsive and accountable.

4) It has made electoral system much more free and fair.

Judicial Activism has certain drawbacks as well:

1) Interference with the task of Executive and Legislative.

2) Disturbed the balance between 3 organs of Government (Legislative, Executive and Judiciary)

3) It could be a threat to principles of the democracy.

Judicial Review-

SC protects rights of individual in two ways:

1) Restore Fundamental Rights by issuing writs under Article 32.

2) SC can declare the concerned a law as unconstitutional (ultra vires) and therefore non-operational (Article 13).

SC is protector of the Fundamental Rights of Citizen and final interpreter of Constitution.

SC has the power to examine the constitutionality of any law, if the Court arrives at the conclusion that the law is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution, such a law is declared as unconstitutional and inapplicable.

Constitution of India has no mention of term Judicial Review. Despite this India’s written Constitution and invoking writs to protect Fundamental Rights indicates towards Judicial Review power of the court.

SC can use review power if a law violates the distribution of powers laid down by the Constitution under 7th Schedule.The review power also extends to the laws made by state legislature.

JUDICIARY AND PARLIAMENT

In order to prevent control of Courts by legislature certain provisions are brought. Powers of the President and Governor were brought under the purview of the courts. SC involvement in administration of Justice by ordering probe by executive agencies like CBI. These cases relate to functionaries of Executive and Legislative involving corruption and other charges.

Principle of separation of Power:

Legislature: making laws and amending the Constitution

Executive: implementing these

Judiciary: settling disputes and assuring laws made are consistent with the Constitution.

Right to Property, is one fine example demonstrating relation of Judiciary and Parliament:

In order to initiate Land Reforms, Parliament wanted to curtail land holding by the people.To do so Parliament through an amendment abrogated the Right to Property.

SC said that even through an amendment, a fundamental right cannot be abridged. Period from 1967-1973 saw this controversy become serious.

Besides land reforms there were other contentious issues like laws enforcing preventive detention, laws governing reservations in jobs, regulations acquiring private property for public purposes, and laws deciding the compensation for such acquisition of private property.

In 1973 SC in it’s ruling of Kesavananda Bharati case laid down the Basic Structure of Constitution which will be defined from time to time by SC and any law inconsistent with this can be struck down by the SC, even if that has been done by Parliament through amendment.

Right to Property was removed from Fundamental Rights in 1979.

Relation between Parliament and Judiciary has several contentious issues:

■ can the judiciary intervene in and regulate the functioning of the legislatures? Or legislature does this on their own.

■ Can a person who is held guilty for breach of parliamentary privileges seek protection of the courts? Or should be totally in the hands of Presiding Chair of the respective House of Legislature.

■ Can a member of the legislature against whom the legislature has taken disciplinary action get protection from the court?

■ Similarly, should the conduct of judges be discussed in the Parliament?

These questions raises concerns over principle of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Independence of Judiciary.

Important question of outcomes of democracy

2022-11-16T09:06:00.005-08:00

1..When is democracy considered successful? Explain.

Democracy is considered to be successful because:

a. The rulers elected by the people must take all major decision and not the rich and powerful.

b. The election must offer a free choice and opportunity to the people.

c. The choice should be available to all the people based on political equality.

2..Examine the political outcome of democracy.

a. Right to the citizens to choose their leaders and keep check on them.

b. If required people can participate in decision-making either directly or indirectly or through representatives.

c. It produces accountable, responsible and legitimate government.

3..“Democratic governments in practice are known as accountable.” Support the statement with arguments.

Democratic governments in practice are accountable because:

a. It is right to expect democracy to form a government that follows procedures and is accountable to the people.

c. It is also expected that the democratic government develops mechanisms for citizens to take part in decision-making whenever they think it as fit.

d. The democratic government is accountable to the people. If it ignores the will of the people, they will not elect their ruler in the next general election.

e. The procedures and decision-making process should be transparent for democratic government to be accountable to the people.

4.. “Democratic government is legitimate government.” Support the statement with arguments. [CBSE 2016]

Why is democratic government known as legitimate government?

a. A democratic government is called legitimate government because it is people’s own government.

b. It maybe slow, less efficient and not very responsive and clean, but it is people’s government.

c. There is an overwhelming support for the idea of democracy all over the world. People of South Asia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan and Nepal have no doubt about the suitability of democracy for their own country.

d. People wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them. Democracy’s ability to generate its own support makes it more legitimate.

5.. “Democracy accommodates social diversities”. Support the statement with examples.

a. Democracies develop a procedure to conduct their competition. This reduces the possibility of these tensions becoming explosive or violent.

b. No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But we can certainly learn to respect these differences and can evolve a mechanism to negotiate these differences.

c. Ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts is thus a definite plus point of democratic regimes.

d. Example: Belgium has successfully negotiated differences among its ethnic population. This reduces the possibility of tensions.

6..What are the two conditions to accommodate social diversities in a democracy? Mention any one exception to this.

a. It is necessary to understand that democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion.

b. The majority always needs to work with the minority so that governments function to represent the general view. Majority and minority opinions are not permanent.

C. It is also necessary that rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic group, etc.

d. Rule by majority means that in case of every decision or in case of every election, different persons and groups may and can form a majority.

7..“There is overwhelming support for the idea of democracy all over the world.” Support the statement.

There is an overwhelming support for the idea of democracy all over the world because:

a. A democratic government is people’s own government.

b. The evidence from South Asia shows that the support exists in countries with democratic regimes.

c. People wished to be ruled by representatives elected by them.

d. People believe that democracy is suitable for their country.

e. Democracy has the ability to generate its own support which in itself is an outcome that cannot be ignored.

8..What outcomes can one reasonably expect of democracies?

The outcomes one can reasonably expect of the democracy are:

a. In the political sphere—Right to vote, right tp contest.

b. In the economic sphere—minimised economic inequalities.

c. In the social sphere—Equal protection to women, SCs, STs and OBCs.

9.. Discuss any three factors that describe the successful working of democracy in India.

Factors for the success of democracy:

a. Transparency of democracy.

b. It is accountable and responsible of ruling.

c. It provides legitimacy.

d. It accommodates government of social diversity.

e. It provides dignity and freedom to the citizens.

10.. What are the expected outcomes of democracy? Explain.

The expected outcomes of democracy are as follows:

a. A government that is chosen and accountable to the people is called democratic government.

A government that is responsive to the needs of the people.

c. Economic growth and development reducing all forms of inequality and end of poverty.

d. Accommodating all social diversities.

e. Ensuring the dignity and freedom of the individuals.

11..How does a democracy produce an accountable, responsive and legitimate government?

A democracy produces an accountable, responsive and legitimate government as:

a. People have a right to choose their rulers and have control over the rulers.

b. Whenever possible and necessary, they should participate in decision-making on issues that affect them all.

c. Democracy produces a government which is accountable to the citizens.

d. Democracy is based on the idea of liberation and negotiation.

e. Decision-making is based on norms and procedures and its transparency.

12.. Are democracies based on political and economic equalities? Explain.

Democracy is based on political equality:

a. All citizens have equal role in electing representatives.

b. Parallel to the process of bringing individuals into the political arena, we find growing economic inequalities.

c. Democracy does not appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities.

d. The ultra-rich enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth and income. At the bottom of the society, the people have very little to depend on.

f. It is difficult to meet their basic needs of life, such as food, clothing, house, education and health.

13.. How far democracies have been able to reduce poverty? Elaborate.

a. Democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities. Although majority of voters constitute the poverty ridden group, yet democratically elected government do not appear to be as keen to address the question of poverty as you would expect them to.

b. Situation is much worse in some of the countries where people depend upon rich countries for food supplies.

c. But even then democracy is favoured , because it provides the opportunity to change the rulers.

14.. Explain any three weaknesses of democracy.

a. Democracies take more time in decision-making.

b. Democracies fall short of elections that provide a fair chance to everyone and subjecting every decision

to public debate.

c. The routine tales of corruption are enough to convince that democracies are not free of evil.

14.. Explain the ways in which democracy can be redefined to make democracy more effective.

Ways in which democracy can be redefined to make democracy more effective:

a. Ensures that views of minority are respected.

b. Eliminates caste, religion and gender based discrimination.

c. People enjoy extensive rights from right to vote to participate in elections.

People enjoy social and economic rights

15.. “Democracy is seen to be good in principle but felt to be not so good in practice.” Justify the statement.

Democracy is seen to be good in principles but not in practice because of the following reasons:

a. The decision-making process in democracy is time taking, whereby justice delayed is justice denied.

b. The tyranny of the majority overrides the will of the minority.

c. Corruption and red-tapism dominates the functioning of democracies.

d. An illiterate and uninformed electorate fails to give itself a legitimate and accountable government.

e. The role of charismatic leaders and dynastic politics dominates political cultures.

16.. “Democracies are not appearing to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities.” Analyse the statement.

Democracy and the economic outcomes:

a. Slow economic development and economic growth due to population.

c. Basic needs of life, such as food clothing, shelter are difficult to achievPrevalence of economic inequalities.

d. Poverty is still a big issue.

e. Allocation of resources in few hands.

f. Unjust distribution of goods and opportunities.

Explain the three factors that are crucial in deciding the outcome of politics of social divisions.

Three factors are crucial in deciding the outcome of politics of social divisions:

a. The outcome depends on how people perceive their identities. If people see their identities in singular and exclusive terms, it becomes very difficult to accommodate.

It is much easier if the people see that their identities are multiple and are complementary with the national identity.

b. It depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community.

c. It depends on the how the government reacts to demands of the different groups. If the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, social divisions become less threatening for the country.

“Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual”. Justify this statement.

a. Democracy stand much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual. The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout the world have recognised this, at least in principle.

b. This has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies. For societies which have been built for long on the basis of subordination and domination, it is not a simple matter to recognize that all individuals are equal.

c. Most societies across the world were historically male dominated societies. Long struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.

d. In a non-democratic set up, this unacceptability would not have legal basis because the principle of individual freedom and dignity would not have the legal and moral force there.

e. Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal opportunity.

“Democracies lead to a peaceful and harmonious life among citizens.” Justify this statement.

a. It will be a fair expectation that democracy should produce a harmonious social life. Democracy usually develop a procedure to conduct their competition. This reduces the possibility of these tensions becoming explosive or violent.

b. No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But we can certainly learn to respect these differences and we can also evolve mechanism to negotiate the differences. Democracy is best suited to produce’ this outcome.

c. Non-democratic government often turn a blind eye to or suppress internal social differences. Ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts is thus a definite plus point of democratic government.

d. It is necessary to understand that democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority always needs to work with the minority so that governments function to represent the general view.

e. It is also necessary that rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic group. Rule by majority means that in case of every decision or in case of every election, different persons and groups may and can form a majority. Democracy remains democracy only as long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority at some point of time.

“Democracy stands much superior in promoting dignity and freedom of the citizens”. Justify the statement.

“Democracy stands much superior in promoting dignity and freedom to the citizens”:

1. Every individual wants to receive respect from fellow beings.

2. The passion for respect and freedom is the basis of any democracy.

3. Democracies throughout the world have recognized this. It has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.

4. Long struggles by women have got them respect and equal treatment.

5. In many democracies, women were deprived of their right to vote for a long time which they have achieved now.

6. In India l/3rd of seats have been reserved for women in local bodies.

7. Democracy has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal opportunity.

How are the democratic governments better than the other forms of governments?

“Democracy is a better form of government than any other form of government.” Analyse the statement with arguments.

Why do we feel that democracy is a better form of government than any other form? Explain.

The democratic governments are better than other forms of governments because:

a. Democratic governments have formal Constitution, while it is not the case in other form of governments.

b. They hold regular elections, while it is not the case in other form of governments.

c. They have political parties, whereas there is no such thing in other form of governments.

d. They guarantee rights to citizens, while it is not the case in the other form of governments.

e. Such governments allow room to correct mistakes, while it is not there in the other form of government.

f. Such government accommodates social diversities, while no such thing is there in other form of government.

Evidence shows that in practice, many democracies did not fulfill the expectations of producing economic development in the country. Validate the statement with the help of relevant example.

a. If we consider all democracies and all dictatorships for the fifty years between 1950 and 2000, dictatorships have slightly higher rate of economic growth.

b. Economic development depends on several factors : country’s population size, global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.

c. However, the difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.

d. Overall, it cannot be said that democracy is a guarantee of economic development. But we can expect democracy not to lag behind dictatorships in this respect.

e. With such a significant difference in the rates of economic growth between countries under dictatorship and democracy, it is better to prefer democracy as it has several other positive outcomes.

For example: North Korea has higher rate of economic growth than India.

Ques- How is democracy accountable and responsible to the needs and expectations of the citizens? Analyse.

Democracy is accountable and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens because:

a. In a democracy, people have the right to choose their representatives and the people will have control over them.

b. Citizens have the right to participate in decision-making that affects them all. This ensures that the working of the government is transparent.

c. Everybody expects the government to be attentive to the needs and expectations of the people.

d. It is expected that the democratic government develops mechanisms for citizens to hold the government accountable.

e. The opposition parties can also question and criticize the government policies. They keep a check on the ruling party and make sure that it does not misuse the power.

Ques-“Democracy is more effective than its other alternatives.” Justify the statement.

Democracy is more effective than its other alternatives:

a. Democracy promotes equality among citizens.

b. It enhances the dignity of the individual.

c. It also improves the quality of decision¬making.

d. It provides a method to resolve conflicts.

e. It gives room to correct mistakes

f. Democracy’s ability to generate its own support is itself an outcome that cannot be ignored.

Democratic government is a legitimate government

Ques- Explain with examples, how the dignity and freedom of citizens are best guaranteed in a democracy.

a. Democracies throughout the world have recognized the fact that people should be treated with due respect. The passion for respect and freedom is the basis of democracy.

b. Democracies recognize all individuals as equal. This equality is a big thing for the societies which have been built for long on the basis of subordination and domination.

c. Most societies across the world are male-dominated but democracies have created sensitivity that equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.

d. Caste-based inequalities and atrocities are also not acceptable to democracies. All these combined together enhance the dignity and freedom of the individual.

Ques-“Democracy has failed to reduce economic inequality and poverty.” Do you agree? Give arguments in support of your answer.

In actual life, democracies do not appear to be reducing inequalities.

a. The poor constitute a large proportion of our voters and no party likes to lose their votes, yet democratically elected governments have not addressed the question of poverty as one would have expected them to.

b. The people in several poor countries are now dependent on the rich countries even for food supplies.

Argument in support:

a. It enhances the dignity of the individuals.

b. It improves the quality of decision-making.

c. It provides a method to resolve conflicts.

Ques- “Democracies lead to peaceful and harmonious life among citizens.” Support the statement with any three suitable arguments.

The statement is correct that democracy leads to peaceful and harmonious life. Arguments for the statement:

Democracies accommodate various social divisions.

a. Democracies usually develop a procedure to conduct competitions. This reduces the possibility of these tensions becoming explosive or violent.

b. No doubt, no society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. We can certainly learn to respect these differences. Ability to handle social differences,

c. divisions and conflicts is thus a definite plus point of democratic regimes.

Money and credit

2022-11-15T23:25:00.225-08:00

WHAT WE WILL READ IN THIS CHAPTER-

 What is money?

 Barter System

 Old forms of money

 Modern forms of money

 Currency: Medium of exchange  Deposits with banks

 Demand deposits

 Cheque

 Loan activities of banks

 Credit,Dept trap and collateral

 Terms of credit

 Different sectors of credit arrangement

 Role of Reserve Bank of India in the formal sectors.

 Informal sectors

 Sources of credit for rural households in India in 2003

 Why is it important that the formal sectors should lend more?

 Self Help Groups

 Why are the SHGs popular?

WHAT IS MONEY?

● Money is something that can be used as a means of paying, a measure of value or a medium of exchange.

● The main function of money in the economic system is to facilitate the exchange of goods and services.

BARTER SYSTEM

● In a barter system, commodities are exchanged with commodities without the use of money.But both parties have to agree to sell and buy each other’s commodities.

●This is called double coincidence of wants.

●Money eliminates the need of double coincidence of wants.

CURRENCY

Modern forms of money includes-paper notes and coins. It is not made of precious metals as gold, silver, copper coins.

Ques: Why is currency accepted as a medium of exchange?

1. The currency is authorised by the government of India.

2. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issues currency on behalf of the central government.

3. As per Indian Law, no other individual or organisation is allowed to issue currency.

4. A law legalises the use of rupee (₹) as a medium of payment that cannot be refused in settling the transactions in India.

5. No individual in India can legally refuse a payment made in rupees (₹).

DEPOSITS WITH BANKS

■ People deposit money which they do not need at a point of time by opening a bank account in their name.

■Banks accept the deposits and also pay an amount of interest on the deposits.

■Since the deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits.

FEATURES OF CHEQUES

1..Cheque is a written document prescribed form provided by bank.

2..It is written by a depositor to his banker.

3..It caries an order to pay a certain sum of money from the deposit.

4..It is a modern form of money

Essential components of a cheque÷

Signature of depositor.
Name of payee (Self/ Bearer/any third party)
Amount must be specific and written in both words and numbers.
Date of drawing or making.
Account number of the depositor.

LOAN ACTIVITIES OF BANKs

■Banks keep only a small proportion of their deposits with themselves, as a provision to pay the depositors who might come to withdraw from the bank on any given days.

■Banks use a major portion of the deposits to extend loan(credit).

■Banks mediate between those people who have surplus funds(depositors) and those people who are in the need of those funds(borrowers).

■Banks charge a higher rate of interest on the loan than what they offer on deposits.

■The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to the depositors is their main source of income.

CREDIT

■Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of future payment.

TWO DIFFERENT CREDIT SITUATIONS ÷

● A large number of transactions in our day- to-day activities involve credit in some form or the other.

•Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of future payment.

•Let us see how credit works through the following two examples.

Conclusion of above pics-

1.. In one situation credit helps to increase earnings and therefore the person is better off than before.

2..In another situation, because of the crop failure, credit pushes the person into a debt trap.

3..To repay her loan she has to sell a portion of her land. She is clearly much worse off than before.

4..Whether credit would be useful or not, therefore, depends on the risks in the situation and whether there is some support, in case of loss.

DEBT TRAP

■At times repayment of the loan becomes difficult and credit instead of improving the earnings, pushes the borrower into a situation from which recovery is very difficult and painful. This situation is called debt- trap.

TYPES OF CREDIT

1..Collateral÷ Collateral is an asset that the borrower own ( such as land, building, vehicle, live stocks, deposits with banks) and uses this as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid.

■If the borrower fails to pay the loan, the lender has the right to sell the asset or collateral to obtain payments.

2.. Documentation

3.. Tenure

4..Mode of Repayment

5.. Rate of interest

The terms of credit vary substantially from one credit arrangement to another.

CREDIT ARRANGEMENT IN INDIA

FORMAL SECTOR CREDIT-

• Banks

• Cooperatives

INFORMAL SECTOR CREDIT-

• Money lenders

• Traders

• Relatives and friends

Ques: What is the role of Reserve Bank of India in formal sector?

◇Reserve Bank of India supervises the functioning of the formal .

◇It monitors the banks in actually maintaining cash balance.

◇RBI sees that banks gives loans not only to the profit making businesses and traders but also to small cultivators, small scale industries, small borrowers etc.

◇Banks have to submit information to the RBI periodically on how much they are lending, to whom, at what interest rate etc.

Ques: Why is it important that the formal sectors should lend more?

1..The formal sector still meets only about half of the total credit needs of the rural people.

2.. Most loans from the informal lenders carry a very high interest rate and do little to increase the income of the borrowers.

3.. Thus the banks and the cooperatives need to lend more particularly in the rural areas, so that the dependence on the informal sector reduces.

4..While formal sector loans need to expand, it also necessary that everyone receives the loans.

SELF HELP GROUPS

1.. the self help groups is a modern form of Financing the small finance needs of borrows who cannot obtain loans from banks because of their inadequate financial documents and lack of collateral.

2.. Self- Help Groups consists of 15- 20 members.

3..The members pool their savings and after some time, it becomes a large amount which is used to give loans to the needy ones at a very normal rate of interest.

4..This helps to reduce the functioning of informal sectors of credit.

5..After a year or so, if such group is regular in its savings, it becomes eligible for availing loan from the bank.

6..Loan is sanctioned in the name of the group and is meant to create self-employment opportunities for the members .

7..Loans are provided for releasing mortgaged land, for meeting working capital needs as buying seeds, fertilisers, raw materials, for acquiring assets like sewing machines, handlooms, cattle etc.

8..Important decisions regarding the savings and loan activities are taken by the group members.

9..The group decides the purpose, amount, interest to be charged, repayment of the loan etc.

10..Non- repayment of the loan is taken seriously. Because of this feature the banks are willing to lend loan especially to the poor women when organised in SHGs.

The Self Help Groups are becoming popular for the following reasons:

1.. They help the borrowers overcome the problem of lack of collateral.

2.. They can get timely loans for variety of purposes and at a reasonable interest rate.

3.. They are the building blocks of the organisation of the rural poor.

4..It helps women to become self reliant.

5..The regular meetings of the group provide a platform to discuss and act on various social issues such as health, nutrition, domestic violence, etc.

6..Almost all the borrowers are women and belong to poorest sections of the society.

7..These borrowers have proved that the poor women can start and run a variety of small income generating activities successfully.

Water Resources, class 10

2022-08-31T11:13:00.005-07:00

Introduction:

Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater that can be put to use. This freshwater is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water that is continually being renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle. All water moves within the hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a renewable resource.

Water is a renewable resource as it is renewed by water cycle itself, where three processes take place as evaporation, condensation and precipitation. This process of water cycle is never ending and hence, water is a renewable resource.

Meaning of water scarcity:

Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient availability of water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region.

Reasons for water scarcity:

a) Over Exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water.

b) Water Scarcity is the outcome of large and growing population. A large population means more water for domestic and to produce more food.

c) Water resources are exploited to expand agricultural production, which may lead to decline in ground water level.

Falling ground water levels is adversely affecting water availability and food security of the people.

d) Industrialization: The ever-increasing number of industries has made matters worse by exerting pressure on existing freshwater resources. Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them. Much of this energy comes from hydroelectric power.

e) Urbanisation: Moreover,multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem.

Housing societies and colonies have their own groundwater pumping devices to meet their water needs.

f) There can be scarcity may be due to bad quality of water.Most of the water is polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides, fertilizers etc.

Managing and conserving water resources is the need of the hour

a) To safeguard ourselves from health hazards.

b) To ensure food security.

c) For continuation of our livelihood and productive activities.

d) To prevent the degradation of eco-system.

Hydraulic structure in Ancient India

a) In the first century B.C. at Sringaverapur near Allahabad water harvesting system existed using the flood water from Ganga river.

b) During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes etc. were built.

c) Irrigation works were also found in Kalinga, Nagarjuna Konda, Bennur and Kohlapur.

d) In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.

e) In the 14th Century, Iltutmish constructed a tank in Hauz Khas (Delhi) for supplying water to Siri fort area.

Dams -

A dam is a large wall or barrier that blocks or stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir or a lake. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over which, or through which, water flows, either sometimes or always.

Dams are classified according to structure, intended purpose or height.

Based on structure and the materials used, dams are classified as timber dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

According to the height, dams can be categorised as large dams and major dams or alternatively as low dams, medium height dams and high dams.

Multi-purpose river projects- are large dams that serve several purposes in addition to impounding the water of a river and used later to irrigate agricultural fields.

Multipurpose projects apart from supplying water for irrigation and electricity generation also supply water for domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

For example, the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra-Nangal project etc.

Advantages of multi-purpose river projects are-

a) Multipurpose projects greatly help in storing water which can be utilized for irrigation.

b) They also help in checking floods.

c) Provide water supply for domestic and industrial uses.

d) It is helpful in the development of hydroelectricity.

e) It is also helpful for the tourism industry. Bhakra- Nangal Project on river Satluj is one of the example of multipurpose project.

f) Used for inland navigation and fish breeding.

Disadvantages of Multi-purpose river projects are -

a) It affects the natural flow of river causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir. It destroys the habitats for the rivers aquatic life.

b) Dams make it difficult for the aquatic fauna to migrate.

c) Existing vegetation and soils are submerged under water.

d) Building of dams creates large scale displacement of local communities. They have to give up their land, livelihood etc.

e) Floods occur due to the sedimentation in the reservoir and life and property are devastated.

f) They induced earthquakes, water-borne diseases, pollution from the excessive use of water.

g) Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the multi purpose project. Eg.- Krishna-Godavari dispute is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh governments. It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government for a multipurpose project. This would reduce downstream flow in their states with adverse consequences for agriculture and industry.

h) Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops. This has great ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil. At the same time, it has transformed the social landscape i.e. increasing the social gap between the richer landowners and the landless poor.

i) Dams also create conflicts between people wanting different uses and benefits from the same water resources. In Gujarat, the Sabarmati-basin farmers were agitated and almost caused a riot over the higher priority given to water supply in urban areas, particularly during droughts.

Movements against Multi-purpose river projects

Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new social movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam Andolan’ etc.

Resistance to these projects has primarily been due to the large-scale displacement of local communities. Local people often had to give up their land, livelihood and their meagre access and control over resources for the greater good of the nation.

Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement is a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built across the Narmada river in Gujarat. It originally focused on the environmental issues related to trees that would be submerged under the dam water. Recently it has re-focused the aim to enable poor citizens, especially the displaced people to get full rehabilitation facilities from the government. he Tehri Dam Andolan etc.

Do you know?

Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over the Narmada River in Gujarat. This is one of the largest water resource projects of India covering four states—Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the requirement of water in drought-prone and desert areas of Gujarat (9,490 villages and 173 towns) and Rajasthan (124 villages).

Do you know?

The Krishna-Godavari dispute is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh governments? It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government for a multipurpose project. This would reduce downstream flow in their states with adverse consequences for agriculture and Industry.

Water Harvesting -

A) Many though that given the disadvantages and rising resistance against the multi-purpose projects, water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally.

b) People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and their water needs.

c) In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.

d) ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan.

e) In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.

f) In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.

g) ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water, particularly in Rajasthan.

h) In the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks for storing drinking water. They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.

Rain falling on the roof tops would travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground tanks.

The rainwater can be stored in the tanks till the next rainfall making it an extremely reliable source of drinking water when all other sources are dried up, particularly in the summers.

Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly referred to in these parts, is considered the purest form of natural water.

Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on the decline as plenty of water is available due to the perennial Rajasthan Canal, though some houses still maintain the tankas since they do not like the taste of tap water.

i) In Meghalaya there is a 200 years old system of tapping stream & spring water by using bamboo pipes.18 to 20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe, gets transported over 100’s of metres and is reduced to 20 -80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.

METHOD: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on the hilltops to lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections made of bamboo divert water to the site where it is distributed into branches made of bamboo pipes.

The water flow is manipulated by changing the position of the pipes. At the last stage, the channel sections & diversion units are reduced. The last channel section helps water to be dropped near the roots of the plant.

Rain water harvesting: Examples in India:

a) In Gendathur, a remote backward village in Mysore, Karnataka, villagers have installed, in their household’s rooftop, rainwater harvesting system to meet their water needs. Nearly 200 households have installed this system and the village has earned the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater.

b) Tamil Nadu is the first and the only state in India which has made roof top rainwater harvesting structure compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.

c) Roof top rain water harvesting is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya. It is interesting because Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55 km. from Shillong receive the highest.rainfall in the world, yet the state capital Shillong faces acute shortage of water. Nearly every household in the city has a roof top rain water harvesting structure. Nearly 15-25 per cent of the total water requirement of the household comes from roof top water harvesting.

Sectors of Indian economy, class 10

2022-08-31T10:06:00.008-07:00

ECONOMICS CHAPTER-2

SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY

Meaning of Economy-

economy refers to all those activities and arrangements which the citizen of a country either individually or collectively and I take to satisfy they are wants of food clothing shelter etc.

There are mainly three sectors of Indian economy. These are-

1. Primary Sector-

When the economic activity depends mainly on exploitation of natural resources then that activity comes under the primary sector.

Agriculture and agriculture related activities are the primary sectors of economy.

Ex: Farming, forestry, hunting, fishing and mining.

2.. Secondary Sector-

When the main activity involves manufacturing then it is the secondary sector.

All industrial production where physical goods are produced come under the secondary sector.

It is the next step after primary. Some manufacturing processes are required here. It is also called the industrial sector.

For example, using cotton fibre from the plant, we spin yarn and weave cloth. Using sugarcane as raw material, we make sugar or gur.

3.. Tertiary Sector-

Tertiary sector includes activities that help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors.

These activities, by themselves, do not produce a good but they are an aid or support for the production process.

It is also called the service sector.

Example: Teachers, doctors, washermen, barbers, cobblers, lawyers, call centres, software companies, etc..

COMPARISON OF 3 SECTORS-

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)-

The value of final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year provides the total production of the sector for that year.

The sum of production in the three sectors gives Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country.

GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a particular year.

It shows how big the economy is. In India, the task of measuring GDP is undertaken by a central government ministry.

The tertiary sector has become important in India because of the

following reasons:-

* Services such as hospitals, educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police stations, courts, village administrative offices, municipal corporations, defence, transport, banks, insurance companies, etc. are considered as basic services and are necessary for all people.

* The development of agriculture and industry leads to the development of services such as transport, trade, storage, etc

*With the rise in the income of people, they start demanding more services like eating out, tourism, shopping, private hospitals, private schools, professional training, etc.

* Over the past decade, certain new services based on information and communication technology have become important and essential.

The meaning of this finding is-

Majority of people are still employed in agricultural activities.

As agriculture provides seasonal employment during cropping season so chances of hidden employment are big.

Moreover, as history suggests a developed nation’s dependency shifts from primary sector towards tertiary sector in all aspects of economic development, so it can be said that India is still way behind because majority still depend on agriculture.

Secondary and Tertiary Sector have failed to generate enough employment opportunities making a pressure on primary sector.

Although educated and skilled workforce do get employed in secondary and tertiary sector but for unskilled and semi-skilled workers there is still shortage of employment avenues.

How to Create More Employment?

Away by which we can tackle this problem is to identify, promote and locate industries and a large number of people may be employed.

A study conducted by the Planning Commission estimates that nearly 20 lakh jobs can be created in the education sector alone.

Every state or region has the potential for increasing the income and employment for people in that area.

We must realize that some of the suggestions discussed above would take a long time to implement.

Recognizing this, the central government in India made a law implementing the Right to Work.

The same study by the Planning Commission says that if tourism as a sector is improved, every year we can give additional employment to more than 5 lakh people.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) 2005-

The central government in India made a law implementing the Right to Work in about 625 districts of India.

Under MGNERGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of, work are guaranteed 100 days of employment in a year by the government.

If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the people.

Other Classifications of Economy

1..Organised Sector-

It is a sector where the employment terms are fixed and regular, and the employees get assured work.

They are registered by the government and have to follow its rules and regulations, which are given in various laws such as the Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops and Establishments Act, etc.

People get medical benefits. The factory manager has to ensure facilities like drinking water and a safe working environment. When they retire, these workers get pensions as well.

The job is regular and has fixed working hours. If people work more, they get paid for the overtime by the employer.

Workers enjoy the security of employment.

People working in the organised sector get several other benefits from the employers such as paid leave, payment during holidays, provident fund, gratuity, etc.

Examples of the organised sectors are Government employees, registered industrial workers, Anganwadi workers, village health workers, etc.

2.. Unorganised Sector-

The unorganised sector is characterised by small and scattered units, which are largely outside the control of the government.

There are rules and regulations but these are not followed since they are not registered with the government.

Jobs are low-paid and often not regular.

There are no such facilities in the unorganised sector.

Employment is not secure. People can be asked to leave without any reason.

There is no provision for overtime, paid leave, holidays, leave due to sickness, etc.

Examples of the unorganised sectors are Shopkeeping, Farming, Domestic works, Labouring, Rickshaw pulling, etc.

How to Protect Workers in Unorganised Sector?

There is a need for protection and support of the workers in the unorganised sector.

Here are a few points which will help in doing so.

The government can fix the minimum wages rate and working hours.

The government can provide cheap loans to self-employed people.

Government can provide cheap and affordable basic services like education, health, food to these workers.

The government can frame new laws which can provide provision for overtime, paid leave, leave due to sickness, etc.

Sectors in Term of Ownership

1.. Public Sector-

In the public sector, the government owns most of the assets and provides all the services.

Railways or post office is an example of the public sector.

The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits. Its main aim is public welfare.

2.. Private Sector-

In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or companies.

Companies like Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) are privately owned companies.

Activities in the private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits.

Responsibilities of Government

Government faces money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rended by it.

Government have to undertake heavy spending such as construction of roads bridges railways generating electricity providing irrigation through dams etc also it has to ensure that these facilities are available for everyone.

There are some activities which the government has to support to encourage the private sector to continue their production or business.

The government in India buys wheat and rice from farmers at a fair price and sells at a lower price to customer customers through ration shops in this way it's supports both farmers and consumers.

Running proper schools and providing quality education health and education facilities for all are some of the duties of the government.

Government also needs to pay attention to the aspects of human Development such as eability of safe drinking water housing facilities for the poor and food and nutrition taking care of the poorest and most ignored region of the country.

Lesson plan for all subjects

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Important questions of chapter-End of bipolarity (Class 12)

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CHAPTER-2 BOOK 1

THE END OF BIPOLARITY

Why is it said that the collapse of Berlin Wall signified the collapse of the bi-polar world?

The Berlin Wall, which had been built at the height of the Cold War and was its greatest symbol, was toppled by the people in 1989.

This dramatic event was followed by an equally dramatic and historic chain of events that led to the collapse of the ‘Second World’ and the end of the Cold War.

Very soon the control of Soviet Union ended in East Germany. Germany was reunited and the complete Germany joins western power block and European Union.

Russia did not remain a super power and in this way the Berlin was symbolized in the end of the bi-polar world.

Mention the name of the Eastern alliance led by the Soviet Union.
The Warsaw Pact was the name of the Eastern alliance led by the Soviet Union. It was the group of supporters of Communism and socialism.

Mention the features that distinguish the Soviet economy from that of a capitalist country like the US.
The features that can be distinguished the Soviet economy from that of a capitalist country like the US can be summed up as follows:

1. Soviet economy experienced a complex communication network, vast energy resources including oil, iron and steel, machinery production, and a transport sector that connected its remotest areas with efficiency.

2. Soviet Union had a domestic consumer industry that produced everything from pin to cars, though their quality did not match with that of the Western capitalist countries.

3. Soviet Union ensured a minimum standard of living for all its citizens, and government subsidized basic necessities including health, education, children and other welfare schemes.

4. There was an absence of unemployment in Soviet Union.

5. State ownership was the dominant form of ownership: land and productive assets were owned by the Soviet state.

Discuss the drawbacks of the Soviet system.
The Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authorization, making life very difficult for its citizens.
1. Lack of democracy and absence of freedom of speech stifled people. The one- party system represented by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had tight control over all institutions and was unaccountable to the people.

2. The party refused to recognize the urge of people in the fifteen different republics that formed the Soviet Union to manage their own affairs even cultural affairs.

Although on paper the main constituent republic forming USSR i.e. Russia dominated everything and people from other regions felt neglected and often suppressed.

What were the factors that forced Gorbachev to initiate the reforms in the USSR?

Mikhail Gorbachev who had become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. He was forced to initiate the reforms in the USSR due to the following reasons:

1. Reforms were necessary to keep the USSR abreast of the information and technological revolutions taking place in the West.

2. Gorbachev's decision to normalise relations with the West and democratise and reform the Soviet Union had some other effects that neither he nor anyone else intended or anticipated.

3. To loosen the administrative system this exempted ordinary people from the privileges.

4. Gorbachev initiated the policies of economic and political reform and democratisation within the country. The reforms were opposed by leaders within the Communist Party.

How Gorbachev did improve the economy of USSR?
Gorbachev decided to introduced the following-
1. He allowed small scale enterprises to private competition, introduced quality controls in the production process and automation and computerization was allowed to introduce efficiency.

2. The party’s firm grip over every aspect of the economy was loosened and autonomous institutions run along professional lines were given the job of maintaining standards.

3. The role of state planners was terminated and owners of enterprises were encouraged to keep in touch with market realities and respond according to consumer’s demands.

In which region was the nationalist dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union strongest and why?
Ironically, during the Cold War, many thought that nationalist unrest would be strongest in the Central Asian republics.

Nationalist dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union was strongest in the more ‘Europeanised’ and prosperous part- in Russia and the Baltic areas as well as Ukraine and Georgia.

The reason was that the ordinary people here felt alienated from the Central Asians and from each and concluded also that they were paying too high an economic price to keep the more backward areas within the Soviet Union.

What was Shock Therapy? Was this the best way to make a transition from communism to capitalism?
The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe that was influenced by the World Bank and the IMF came to be known as ‘shock therapy’. This was a painful process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system.

Shock therapy varied in intensity and speed amongst the former second world countries, but its direction and features were quite similar. This was not the best way to make a transition from communism to capitalism due to the following consequences:

1. Russia, the large state-controlled industrial complex almost collapsed, as about 90% of its industries were put up for sale to private individuals and companies. Since the restructuring was carried out through market forces and not by Government directed industrial policies, it led to the virtual disappearance of entire industries. This was called ‘the largest garage sale in history’, as valuable industries were undervalued and sold at throwaway prices.

2. Though all citizens were given vouchers to participate in the sales, most citizens sold their vouchers in the black market because they needed the money.

3. The value of the rubble, the Russian currency, declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings. The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security, and Russia started to import food. The real GDP of Russia in 1999 was below what it was in 1989.

4. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society, and the academic and intellectual manpower disintegrated or migrated.

5. A mafia emerged in most of these countries and started controlling many economic activities. Privatisation led to new disparities. Post-Soviet states, especially Russia, were divided between rich and poor regions. Unlike the earlier system, there was now great economic inequality between people.

6. The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and priority as the demands of economic transformation. Dissent or opposition wasn't allowed.

Describe any four consequences of the disintegration of Soviet Union.
The consequences of the disintegration of Soviet Union were:
1. The disintegration of the Soviet Union meant the end of the Cold War because the Cold War was the culmination of the rivalries between the USA and the USSR. Thus, Cold War confrontations were put to an end.

2. The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to a dramatic change and upheaval in the power relations which had implications for world politics. The disintegration left open the world space to be dominated by the sole superpower called the USA or to have the dominance of several powers. The world witnessed a transition from the bio-polar world to a Uni-polar world.

3. The Breton Woods institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund became active players in the wake of developmental needs of the second world countries as they were borrowing money from the World Bank and IMF. It helped to raise the importance of these institutions as the newly formed countries were depended on these institutions for their development.

4. The world saw the emergence of many new countries with their own independent aspirations. It also witnessed secessionist movements in many countries. Chechnya and Dagestan are two examples of these movements.

5. The Baltic States namely Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia joined the European Union and subsequently became members of the NATO. This opened up the way of progression of Capitalism around the globe.

Undoubtedly the significant consequence of the withering away of the USSR was the inauguration of the period of US hegemony in which capitalism was pronounced as the winner because socialism had been dead.

List any two consequences of ‘Shock Therapy’.
1. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of people into poverty. The middle classes comprises academic and intellectual manpower was either disintegrated or migrated.

2. Privatization led to new disparities. Post soviet states, especially Russia, were divided between rich and poor regions. Economic inequality between people could be witnessed more than it was during the regime of Soviet Union.

Highlight features of the old system of social welfare that got destroyed due to shock therapy?
Features of the old system of social welfare that got destroyed due to shock therapy were as:
1. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed.
2. Withdrawal of government subsidies led to poverty.
3. Privatisation led to new disparities.

Discuss the economic relationship between India and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era.
The economic relationship between India and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era were:
1. Technical assistance for steel plants and machinery plants was given by USSR.
2. Indian currency (Rupee) was accepted for bilateral trade.

Which two republics of the USSR have had violent secessionist movements at the time of its disintegration?
The Chechnya Republic and the Dagestan Republic were the two republics of the United States of Soviet Russia which have violent secessionist movements at the time of its disintegration.

What were the major consequences of the disintegration of the Soviet Union for countries like India?
There were three broad kinds of enduring changes that resulted from the disintegration of the Soviet Unions. Each of these had numerous consequences for countries like India such as:
1. First of all, it meant the end of Cold War confrontations. The ideological dispute over whether the socialist system would beat the capitalist system was not an issue anymore. The end of the confrontation demanded an end to this arms race and possible new peace.

2. Second, power relations in world politics changed and, therefore, the relative influence of ideas and institutions also changed. As it turned out, the US became the sole superpower. Backed by the power and prestige of the US, the capitalist economy was now the dominant economic system internationally.

Politically, the notion of liberal democracy emerged as the best way to organise political life.

3. The end of the Soviet bloc meant the emergence of many new countries. All these countries had their own independent aspirations and choices. Some of them, especially the Baltic and East European states, wanted to join the European Union and become part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

The Central Asian countries wanted to take advantage of their geographical location and continue their close ties with Russia and also to establish ties with the West, the US, China and others.

Thus, the international system saw many new players emerge, each with its own identity, interests, and economic and political difficulties. It is to these issues that we now turn.

Highlights the main political developments in Czechoslovakia of Eastern Europe.
In Czechoslovakia as in other post-communist states in Central and Eastern Europe, the end of communist rule in late 1989 was followed by a popularisation of politics.
1. The liberal political and social reforms brought by Alexander Dubcek in Czechoslovakia were understood by USSR as a violation of rules of Union.

2. Russians therefore, sent troops in August 1968, to smoother these progressive tendencies.
Dubcek had to bow out and was replaced by another hardliner communist, Gustav Husak. Velvet Revolution was conducted by Charter 77 in 1977 and the famous playwright, Vaclav Havel became the President of the country in December 1989.

3. Another important change came about with the division of the country and the emergence of two states. As the breakup of the federation at the end of 1992 illustrates, Czechoslovakia’s newly re-created democratic political system proved unable to survive the continued conflict between Czechs and Slovaks that dominated public life during the first two years of the post-communist era.

Describe the relation between India and Russia.
India has maintained strong relations with Russia. In fact India’s relations with Russia are an important aspect of India’s foreign policy. Indo-Russian relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by popular perceptions.

1. Russian and India share a vision of a multipolar world order. More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo-Russian strategic Agreement of 2001.

India stands to benefit from its relationships with Russia and Kashmir issue, energy supplies, sharing information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and balancing its relations with China.

2. Russia stands to benefit from this relationship because India is the second largest arms market for Russia. The Indian military gets most of its hardware from Russia.

Russia has repeatedly come to the assistance of India during its oil crises. India is seeking to increase its energy imports from Russia and the republics of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.

3. Co-operation with these republics includes partnership and investment in oilfields. Russia is important for India’s nuclear energy plans and assisted India’s space industry by giving, for example, the cryogenic rocket when India needed it. Russia and India have collaborated on various scientific projects.

Read the paragraph carefully and give answer these questions.
The value of the Rubble declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings. The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security, and the government started to import food. The old trading structure broke down with no alternative in its place. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty.

1. What is meant by subsidy?
The subsidy is a sum of money granted by the state or a public body to help an industry or business keep the price of a commodity or service low so that affordability of the item could be maintained in the market.

2. How did the disintegration of the collective farm system lead to the loss of food security?
The disintegration of collective farm system led to capitalism in agriculture which left people without food security because state-sponsored subsidies were abolished, food grains etc to poor were put to an end under the capitalist system. It resulted in a lack of food availability.

3. This passage is associated to which country? Why did the government start importing food?
The given passage is associated with the United States of Soviet Russia. The government started importing food to meet the shortage of food in the country.

Write a short note on “ARAB SPRING”.

The 21st century witnessed emergence of new developments for democracies and democratization in West Asian countries, one such event is characterized as Arab Spring that began in 2009.

Located in Tunisia, the Arab Spring took its roots where the struggle against corruption, unemployment and poverty was started by the public which turned into a political movement because the people considered the existing problems as outcome of autocratic dictatorship.

The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings that enveloped several largely Muslim countries, including Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, Libya, Egypt and Bahrain.

The events in these nations generally began in the spring of 2011, which led to the name.

However, the political and social impact of these popular uprisings remains significant today, years after many of them ended.

Why the Name ‘Arab Spring’?

The name "Arab Spring” is a reference to the Revolutions of 1848—also known as the “People’s spring”—when political upheavals swept Europe.

Ever since, “spring” has been used to describe movements toward democracy like Czechoslovakia’s 1968 “Prague Spring.” Western media began popularizing the term “Arab Spring” in 2011.

What was the aftermath of Arab Spring?

Most notably, in Egypt, where early changes arising from the Arab Spring gave many hope after the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak, authoritarian rule has apparently returned.

Following the controversial election of Mohamed Morsi in 2012, a coup led by defense minister Abdel Fattah el-Sisi installed the latter as president in 2013, and he remains in power today.

Muammar Gaddafi, in Libya, meanwhile, authoritarian dictator Muammar Qaddafi was overthrown in October 2011, during a violent civil war, and he was tortured (literally dragged through the streets) and executed by opposition fighters. Video footage of his death was seen by millions online.

However, since Qaddafi’s downfall, Libya has remained in a state of civil war, and two opposing governments effectively rule separate regions of the country.

Similarly, the civil war in Syria that began in the aftermath of the Arab Spring lasted for several years, forcing many to leave the country to seek refuge in Turkey, Greece and throughout Western Europe.

For a time, the militant group ISIS had declared a caliphate—a nation governed by Islamic law—in northeastern Syria. The group executed thousands of people, and many others fled the region in fear of their lives.

Yet, although ISIS has largely been defeated in Syria, the oppressive regime of long-time dictator Bashar al Assad remains in power in the country.

What were the results of the protest by the people?

The demand for democracy that started in Tunisia spread throughout the Muslim-dominated Arab countries in West Asia.

Hosni Mubarak, who had been in power in Egypt since 1979, also collapsed as a result of the massive democratic protests.

In addition, the influence of Arab Spring could also be seen in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya and Syria where similar protests by the people led to democratic awakening throughout the region.

What do you mean by Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)?

It is the free association of sovereign states that was formed in 1991 by Russia and 11 other republics that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

Established in 1991.

Membership 12 States — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

What was the background for the establishment of CIS?

1. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was founded in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Meetings are held periodically on a rotating basis at the CIS countries' capitals. An informal summit was held in Sochi, Russia in July 2001. Forums include the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Prime Ministers, and the Council of Foreign Ministers.

2. Upon its foundation, members adopted the Alma-Ata Declaration, which confirmed the promise of the former republics to cooperate in various fields of external and internal policies, and announced the guarantees for implementation of the international commitments of the former Soviet Union. Georgia joined the Commonwealth in December 1993.

3. The CIS performs its activities on the basis of the Charter, adopted by the Council of Heads of States on 22 January 1993, which stipulates the goals and principles of the Commonwealth, and rights and obligations of the countries. The Charter states that the Commonwealth was formed on the basis of sovereign equality of all its members and that the Member States were independent and equal subjects under international law.

What are the functions of CIS?

The CIS’s functions are to coordinate its members’ policies regarding their economies, foreign relations, defence, immigration policies, environmental protection, and law enforcement.

Its top governmental body is a council composed of the member republics’ heads of state (i.e., presidents) and of government (prime ministers), who are assisted by committees of republic cabinet ministers in key areas such as economics and defence.

The CIS’s members pledged to keep both their armed forces and the former Soviet nuclear weapons stationed on their territories under a single unified command.

In practice this proved difficult, however, as did the members’ efforts to coordinate the introduction of market-type mechanisms and private ownership into their respective economies.

Describe the background history of CIS.

The Charter states that the Commonwealth was formed on the basis of sovereign equality of all its members and that the Member States were independent and equal subjects under international law.

The Charter also states that the CIS serves the development and strengthening of friendship, inter-ethnic accord, trust, mutual understanding, and cooperation between States.

4. The Commonwealth does not have supranational powers. Countries' interaction within the CIS is accomplished through its coordinating institutions: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Councils of Foreign Ministers, Defence Ministers, Border Troops Commanders, the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, the Executive Committee (the legal successor of the Executive Secretariat), and the Interstate Economic Committee of the Economic Union.

What do you know about GULF WAR?

With the disintegration of USSR and the end of cold war left open only two possibilities like either the remaining would dominate and create a “unipolar system” bringing in multipolar system where no one power could dominate.

The US Hegemony was established to show the overwhelming superiority of its military power. Through this the US Hegemony was established and this led to the emergence of “New World Order”.

The process for the establishment of US Hegemony started in August 1990 when Iraq invaded Kuwait. The United Nations tried all diplomatic avenues to convince Iraq to quit it’s aggression but failed.

Hence UN mandated the liberation of Kuwait by force.

A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it under UN’s ‘Operation Desert Storm’ but it was led by the US because 75 per cent of the coalition forces were from the US only. This war is popularly known as the First Gulf War establishing the US hegemony.

The use of smart bombs or computer operated bombs in first gulf war showed the huge technological gap between US and other existing powers or countries.

Due to the use of computer operated bombs this war is also known as “Video Game War” or “Computer War”.

Elaborate Afghanistan War.

International conflict in Afghanistan beginning in 2001 that was triggered by the September 11 attacks and consisted of three phases.

The first phase—toppling the Taliban (the ultraconservative political and religious faction that ruled Afghanistan and provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda, perpetrators of the September 11 attacks)—was brief, lasting just two months.

The second phase, from 2002 until 2008, was marked by a U.S. strategy of defeating the Taliban militarily and rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state.

The third phase, a turn to classic counter insurgency doctrine, began in 2008 and accelerated with U.S. PRESEIDENT Barrack Obama’s 2009 decision to temporarily increase the U.S. troop presence in Afghanistan. The larger force was used to implement a strategy of protecting the population from Taliban attacks and supporting efforts to reintegrate insurgents into Afghan society.

The strategy came coupled with a timetable for the withdrawal of the foreign forces from Afghanistan; beginning in 2011, security responsibilities would be gradually handed over to the Afghan military and police. The new approach largely failed to achieve its aims.

Insurgent attacks and civilian casualties remained stubbornly high, while many of the Afghan military and police units taking over security duties appeared to be ill-prepared to hold off the Taliban.

By the time the U.S. and NATO combat mission formally ended in December 2014, the 13-year Afghanistan War had become the longest war ever fought by the United States.

Important questions of Nationalism in India ( Class 10 history)

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Nationalism in India

Let Us Revise

Class 10

Q.1. Describe the role of Alluri Sitaram Raju in Andhra Pradesh during 1920s. (Marks 3)

Ans. Role of Alluri Sitaram Raju in the Gudem hills of Andhra Pradesh:

(i) Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he had a variety of special powers like making astrological predictions, healing people and surviving bullet shots.

(ii) The rebels proclaimed him as an incarnation of God.

(iii) Raju was inspired by Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement.

(iv) Persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.

(v) But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

(vi) Used guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj. (To be assessed as whole)

Q2. Explain the three initial movement of Gandhi ji in India. (3Marks)

Ans: 1. Kheda Movement: (1916) : Kheda,Gujarat Gandhi ji Supported peasants here who were demanding to reduce high revenue cost by organising Satyagraha for them and was successful.

2. Champaran Movement ( 1917): In Champaran , Bihar, he had launched a satyagra for the indigo planters who were not interested to cultivate this crop as they didn't have any benefit.

3. Ahemdabad Mill Workers Movement(1918): In Ahemdabad cotton mill workers were asking to increase wages, improved working conditions and to fix working hours. Here also Gandhi ji Supported mill workers for their cause and it was also a successful movement.

Q.2. Why did Gandhiji decide to launch a nationwide ‘Satyagraha’ against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919)? How was it opposed? Explain. (Marks 5)

Ans. Gandhi ji decided to launch a nation-wide Satyagraha:

(i) This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council.

(ii) Indian members opposed the Act.

(iii) It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities.

(iv) It allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. (Any two points to be explained)

It opposed in the following ways: (i) Rallies were organised in various cities.

(ii) Workers went on strike.

(iii) Shops were closed.

(iv) Communication, railway, telegraphs lines were disrupted. (Any other relevant point) (Any three)

Q.3. “British rule in India would have collapsed if Indians had not cooperated.” How did this statement help in starting a mass movement in India against the British rule?

Ans. (i) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indian and if Indians had refused to cooperate, British rule in India would have collapsed within a year.

(ii) He proposed that the movement should unfold in stages.

(iii) It should begin with the surrendering of titles that the government had awarded to the Indians.

(iv) A boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative assemblies, schools and foreign goods would show their non-cooperation to the British empire.

(v) Mahatma Gandhi felt that in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched. (Any three)

Q.4. Explain the effects of the First World War on India. Marks 5

How did the ‘First World War’ create new economic and political situations in India? Explain with examples.

Explain any five major problems posed by the First World War in India.

Examine the effects of the First World War on the National Movement of India.

Explain How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India. [NCERT]

Ans. (i) The war created a new economic and political situation.

(ii) It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans.

(iii) To fulfil the loan demands taxes were increased, custom duties were raised. Not only this, a new tax in the form of income tax was also introduced.

(iv) Prices increased, doubling between 1913 and 1918. This hit the common people.

(v) Villagers were asked to supply soldiers and through force recruitment in rural areas.

(vi) During 1918-19, crops failed in many parts of India which created a shortage of food.

(vii) Spread of influenza epidemic and death of 12 to 13 million people. (Any five)

Q.5. Define the term 'Civil Disobedience Movement'. Describe the participation of rich and poor peasant communities in the 'Civil Disobedience Movement'. (Marks 5)

Ans. Civil Disobedience Movement: To disobey the rules of the British Government.

Participation of rich and poor peasants:

(i) In the countryside, rich peasant communities like patidars of Gujarat and Jats of U.P. were active inmovement.

(ii) Rich peasants participated in the movement as a struggle against high revenue demand.

(iii) Rich peasants organized their community to support the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(iv) The poor peasants participated as they wanted their unpaid rent to be remitted. (Any other relevant point)

Detailed Answer: Definition of Civil Disobedience Movement: Civil Disobedience Movement refers to the act by a group of people by refusing to obey laws or pay taxes, as a peaceful way of expressing their disapproval of those laws or taxes and in order to persuade the government to change them. Gandhiji and Martin Luther King both conducted Civil Disobedience Movements in their respective countries to get rid of the exploitation and oppression offered by their colonial rulers.

(i) Rich Peasants: Depression and fall in prices affected them badly. They demanded reduction in land revenue. Swaraj meant reduction of taxes for them. They were disappointed when the movement was called off.

(ii) Poor Peasants: Depression affected them badly. They demanded reduction in rent. Swaraj meant reduction of rent for them. They joined Communist and revolutionary movements.

Q.6. Explain in brief the ‘Dandi March’. (Marks 3)

Describe the main features of the ‘Salt March’.

Ans. (i) Mahatma Gandhi started his famous ‘Salt March’ or ‘Dandi March’ on 11th March, 1930 accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.

(ii) The march was to cover 240 miles from Gandhi’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati Coastal town of Dandi.

(iii) On 6th April, 1930, he reached Dandi and ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt by boiling sea water.

(iv) This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. (Any three)

Correct the following statement and rewrite:

Q.7. The import of foreign cloth doubled between 1921 and 1922, its value increasing from ₹ 102 Crore to ₹ 200 Crore.

Ans. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from ₹102 Crore to ₹57 Crore.

Q.8. In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist Republician Army (HSRA) was founded at a meeting in Ferozeshah Kotla ground in Kolkata.

Ans. In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist Republician Army (HSRA) was founded at a meeting in Ferozeshah Kotla ground in Delhi.

Find the incorrect option:

Q.9. (a) In 1928, Vallabhbhai Patel led the peasant movement in Bardoli, a taluka in Gujarat.

(b) It was against enhancement of land revenue, known as the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(c) This movement was a success under the able leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel.

(d) The struggle was widely publicized and generated immense sympathy in many parts of India.

Ans. The Incorrect option is

(b): It was against enhancement of land revenue, known as the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Correct answer is: It was against enhancement of land revenue, known as Bardoli Satyagraha.

Q.10. What type of flag was designed during the ‘Swadeshi Movement’ in Bengal? Explain its main features. (Marks 3)

Ans. During the “Swadeshi Movement” in Bengal the flag was designed as a Tricolour Flag.

The two features of the flag were:

(i) The colour of the flag was Red, Green and Yellow.

(ii) It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces in British India.

(iii) It had a crescent moon representing Hindus and Muslims. (Any two)

Q.11. Explain any five factors which gave rise to the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930. Marks 5

Ans. Factors that gave rise to the Civil Disobedience Movement were:

(i) The problem with the Simon Commission.

(ii) Irwin’s vague offer of dominion status for India in an unspecified future.

(iii) Salt Law (iv) Negligence of eleven demands of Gandhiji by the British.

(v) Lahore Session of INC (1929)

Q.12. Explain the attitude of the Indian merchants and the industrialists towards the ‘Civil Disobedience Movement’. Marks 5

Ans. The attitude of the Indian merchants and the industrialists towards the Civil Disobedience Movement:

(i) During the First World War, Indian merchants and industrialists had made huge profits and became powerful.

(ii) They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and a Rupee-Sterling Foreign Exchange ratio that would discourage import.

(iii) To organise business interest they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (in 1920) and the Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries—FICCI ( in 1927).

(iv) They gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods.

(v) Most businessmen came to see ‘Swaraj’ as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longer exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints.(vi) After the failure of the Round Table Conference business groups were no longer uniformly enthusiastic.

(vii) They were apprehensive of the spread of militant activities and worried about prolonged disruption of business. (Any five)

Q.13. How did the Civil Disobedience Movement come into force in various parts of the country? Explain with examples. Marks 5

Ans. The Civil Disobedience Movement came into force in various parts of the country :

(i) Gandhi led the Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with his followers starting the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(ii) Thousands in different parts of the country broke the Salt Law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.

(iii) In the countryside like the rich Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement.

(iv) As rich peasant communities were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices, they became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(v) As the depression continued and the cash invoice dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay the rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlords to be remitted and thus they joined the movement.

(vi) Merchants and industrialists supported the movement by giving financial assistance and refused to buy and sell the imported goods.

(vii) The industrial working class of Nagpur region participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM).

(viii) Railway workers, dock workers, coal mine workers of Chhota Nagpur, etc. participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns.

(ix) Women also participated in large numbers. (Any five)

Why Gandhiji has taken up khilafat movement?

Answer

While Rowlatt satyagragha had been a widespread movement,it was still limited to cities and towns.Mahatma Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad -based movement in India.But he was sure that no such movement could be organized without bringing Hidus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt , was to take up the khilafat issue

The first world War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey.And there were rumors that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor-the spiritual head of the Islamic world.

To defend the khilafat's temporal powers,a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.

A young generation of Muslim leaders like Mohamaad Ali.and Shaukat Ali ,began discussion with Gandhi about the possibility of united mass action on the issue.Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a united national movement .At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920,he convinced oyher leaders of the need to start a non cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj

Q.14. Read the sources given below and answer the questions that follows:

SOURCE A : Towards Civil Disobedience [NCERT History Ch. 2 Page 38] In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He felt the movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles. Within the Congress, some leaders were by now tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils that had been set up by the Government of India Act of 1919. They felt that it was important to oppose British policies within the councils, argue for reform and also demonstrate that these councils were not truly democratic. C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics. But younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full independence.

SOURCE B : The Independence Day Pledge, 26 January, 1930 [NCERT History Ch. 2 Page 39] ‘We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them, the people have a further right to alter it or to abolish it. The British Government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence.’

SOURCE C : The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement [NCERT History Ch. 2 Page 39] Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin starting eleven demands. Some of these were of general interest; others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialists to peasants. The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, so that all classes within Indian society could identify with them and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign. The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule. Marks 3

Question : SOURCE A : Towards Civil Disobedience

(i) What was the major reason behind the formation of the Swaraj Party?

SOURCE B : The Independence Day Pledge, 26 January, 1930

(ii) What was the negative impact of the British rule in India?

SOURCE C : The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

(iii) In Mahatma Gandhi's opinion, what revealed the true oppressive face of the British government?

Ans. (i) C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics.

(ii) Negative impact of the British rule in India: The British Government in India had not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but had also based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and had ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually.

(iii) Salt was something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.

Q.15. Why was the ‘Salt March’ considered an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism? Explain. Marks 5

Ans. Salt March:

(i) Salt was consumed by all the sections of the society.

(ii) It was the most essential item of food.

(iii) The tax on salt and the government monopoly over production.

(iv) Gandhiji found salt as a powerful symbol that could unite the nation.

(v) On 31st January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin starting eleven demands.

(vi) The idea was to make the demands wide ranging, so that all classes within Indian society could identify with them and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign.

(vii) The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. (Any five)

CH: NATIONALISM IN INDIA

Question 1.

What did the Inland Emigrating Act of 1859 declare?

Answer:

The Act declared that plantation workers would not leave tea gardens without permission.

Question 2.

Why was the Rowlatt Act imposed?

Answer:

The colonial government imposed the Rowlatt Act to repress political activities and detain political prisoners without trial for two years.

Question 3.

The First World War led to a huge increase in defence expenditure. How was this expenditure financed?

Answer:

The huge increase in defence expenditure was financed by war loans and increasing taxes which involved hike in customs duties and introduction of income tax.

Question 4.

What was the Rowlatt Act?

It was one of the most repressive acts which gave the government enormous powers to curb political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Question 5.

What did Gandhiji want before launching a broad-based movement in India?

Answer:

He wanted to bring the Hindus and Muslims close together before launching a broad-based movement in India.

Question 6.

Why did Mahatma Gandhi decide to launch Non-cooperation Movement?

Answer:

Mahatma Gandhi believed that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse and swaraj would come. This belief made Gandhiji ready to launch Non-cooperation movement.

Question 7.

When and where was the Non-cooperation programme adopted?

Answer:

The Non-cooperation programme was adopted at the Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920.

Question8.

Why did the production of Indian textile mills and handlooms go up during the Non¬cooperation movement?

Answer:

The Non-cooperation movement was infact a boycott movement in which people started wearing only Indian clothes by discarding imported ones. This gave a boom in the production of Indian textile mills and handlooms.

Question 9.

Who was Baba Ramchandra?

Answer:

Baba Ramchandra was a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. He led the Awadh peasants during the Non-cooperation movement.

Question 10.

What were the demands of the Awadh peasants?

Answer:

Their demands included reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.

Question 11.

Why did panchayats organise nai-dhobi bandhs in many places in Awadh?

Answer:

Panchayats organised such bandhs to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.

Question 12.

How did the tribal peasants interpret the idea of swaraj?

Answer:

For them, swaraj meant freedom to enter the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits.

Question 13.

Mention one point of difference between Mahatma Gandhi and Alluri Sitaram Raju.

Answer:

Mahatma Gandhi was a staunch supporter of non-violence. Alluri Sitaram Raju, on the other hand, believed that India could be liberated only by use of force, not non-violence.

Question 14.

When did Mahatma Gandhi decide to call off the Non-cooperation movement? What was his experience?

Answer:

In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-cooperation movement. He felt the movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggle.

Question 15.

Name two radical leaders of India. What did they want?

Answer:

Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. They wanted more radical mass agitation to gain independence.

Question 16.

What was declared in the Lahore Congress?

Answer:

In the Lahore Congress, it was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence.

Question 17.

On 31 January 1930, Gandhiji sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. What was the most stirring of all?

Answer:

The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax and the government monopoly over its production.

Question 18.

What did Indian merchants and industrialists do to organise their business interests?

Answer:

They formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.

Question 19.

Why did business groups in India withdraw their support from the Non-cooperation movement after the failure of the Round Table Conference?

Answer:

After the failure of the Round Table Conference, business groups in India became apprehensive of the spread of militant activities and worried about prolonged disruption of business, as well as of the growing influence of socialism amongst the younger members of the Congress.

Question 20.

Why was the Congress reluctant to include workers’ demands as part of its programme of struggle?

Answer:

The Congress felt that this would alienate industrialists and divide the anti-imperial forces.

Question 21.

What was the Poona Pact?

Answer:

The Poona Pact was signed between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar in September 1932 to resolve the issue of separate electorates for dalits. It gave the depressed classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.

Question 22.

What was Gandhi-Irwin Pact?

Answer:

Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5 March 1931. By this Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference in London and the government agreed to release the political prisoners.

Question 23.

Why was the Congress unwilling to support ‘no rent’ campaigns in most places?

Answer:

The Congress was apprehensive of raising issues that might upset the rich peasants and landlords.

Question 24.

When was the Civil Disobedience Movement re launched?

Answer:

The Civil Disobedience Movement was re launched in 1932.

Question 25.

What was the belief of Natesa Sastri about folklore?

Answer:

He believed that folklore was national literature. It was ‘the most trustworthy manifestation of people’s real thoughts and characteristics’.

Question 26.

Describe the tricolour flag designed during the Swadeshi movement.

Answer:

During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It has eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.

Question 27.

What did nationalist histories urge the readers?

Answer:

Nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

Question 28.

Describe the Swaraj flag designed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1921.

Answer:

The Swaraj flag designed by Mahatma Gandhi was a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.

Question 29.

Name the writer of the book ‘Hind Swaraj’.

Answer:

Mahatma Gandhi.

Short Answers Type

Question 1.

Discuss various stages of the Non-cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi.

Answer:

Gandhiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages-

• It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded.

• Second stage involved a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.

• Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Question 2.

‘The merchants and industrialists made a significant contribution to the Civil Disobedience Movement’. In the light of the above statement, explain their role in the movement.

How did the industrialists relate to the Civil Disobedience Movement? Analyse their role.

Evaluate the role of business classes in the ‘Civil Disobedience Movement’.

Answer:

(i) Indian merchants and industrialists wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.

• (ii) Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla, the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy, and supported the civil disobedience movement when it was first launched.

(iii) They gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods. Most businessmen came to see swaraj at a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longer exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints.

Question 3.

How reinterpretation of history created a sense of collective belongingness among different community of India?

Answer:

(i) By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation Indian history had to be thought about differently.

(ii) The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began writing about glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.

(iii) This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised. These nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule. Thus, reinterpretation of history created a feeling of nationalism among different community of India.

Question 4.

Why did Mahatma Gandhi decide to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act? Explain any three reasons.

Answer:

The Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. The Act gave the government enormous powers t repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. The Indians were outraged by these laws as they were clearly undemocratic and oppressive and hurt national sentiments and dignity. Mahatma Gandhi called for a nation-wide protest against the proposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. Rallies were organised in various cities. Workers went on strike in

railway workshops and shops closed down.

Question 5.

“The Congress was reluctant to include the demands of industrial workers in its programme of struggle”. Analyse the reasons.

Answer:

• The industrial working classes did not participate in the civil disobedience movement in large numbers, except in the Nagpur region. As the industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers stayed aloof.

• Some workers who participated in the movement, selectively adopted some of the ideas of the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods, as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions.

• The Congress was reluctant to include workers’ demands in its programme of struggle as it felt that this would alienate industrialists and divide the anti-imperial forces.

• Question 6.

How could non-cooperation become a movement? Give your opinion.

Answer:

(i) The Non-cooperation Movement was launched by Gandhiji in 1920 and it was unfolded in stages. It began with the surrender of titles awarded by the government, the boycott of civil services, army, police, etc. and foreign goods. Through the summer of 1920 Mahatma Gandhi along with Shaukat Ali toured extensively, mobilising popular support for the movement.

• (ii) Various social groups participated in this movement and gradually it turned into a mass movement. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters, teachers resigned and lawyers gave up their legal practices. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfire.

(iii) From the cities, the movement spread to the countryside. It drew into its fold the struggle of peasants and tribals which were developing in different parts of India in the years after the war.

Question 7.

Describe the main features of the ‘Poona Pact’.

Answer:

• The Poona Pact was signed between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar in September 1932 to

resolve the issue of separate electorates for dalits.

• It gave the depressed classes who later came to be known as the scheduled castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.

• But they were to be voted in by the general electorate as their demand of separate electorate was not accepted by Mahatma Gandhi in the larger interest of the country.

• Question 8.

How did ‘Salt March’ become an effective tool of resistance against colonialism? Explain.

Answer:

• The idea of satyagraha emphasises the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggests that if the cause is true, if the struggle is against injustice, then physical force is not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without being aggressive, a satyagrahi can win the battle through non-violence. This can be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. By this struggle, truth is bound to triumph ultimately.

Question 9.

Describe any three suppressive measures taken by the British administration to clamp down on nationalists.

Answer:

In 1919, Gandhiji launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular upsurge, and scared that lines of communication such as the railways and telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided to clamp down on nationalists. It took several repressive methods. Some of them were

• Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

• Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took the command. He entered the Jallianwala Bagh area where a large crowd had gathered to protest against the Rowlatt Act and opened fire on them, killing hundreds.

• As the news of Jallianwala Bagh massacre spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. The government responded with brutal repression. Satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do salaam (salute) to all sahibs.

Question 12.

Why did the Non-cooperation Movement gradually slow down in the cities? Explain.

Answer:

The Non-cooperation Movement gradually slowed down in the cities due to the following reasons-

• Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. It became difficult for them to boycott mill cloth for a long time.

• The boycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. But these came up gradually.

• Therefore, students and teachers who had left government schools to participate in Gandhi’s Non-cooperation Movement, began coming back to schools and lawyers joined back in government courts.

Question 13.

Describe the role of merchants and industrialists in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Answer:

(ii) Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla, the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy, and supported the civil disobedience movement when it was first launched.

Question 14.

Describe the main features of the Salt March.

Answer:

What Mahatma Gandhi meant about satyagraha being active resistance was that it requires a lot of pure soul-force activity. It involves great sacrifices to be made, which can be done only by persons with strong will power. It requires resistance to oppression without using any physical force. The idea of satyagraha emphasises the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggests that if the cause is true, if the struggle is against injustice, then physical force is not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without being aggressive, a satyagrahi can win the battle through non-violence. This can be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. By this struggle, truth is bound to triumph ultimately.

Question 15.

How had the First World War created a new economic situation in India? Explain with three examples.

Answer:

• The First World War created a new economic situation by leading to a huge expenditure in defence which was to be financed by increasing taxes and raising customs duties.

• Crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.

• This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and epidemic.

Question 16.

How was Rowlatt Act opposed by the people in India? Explain with examples.

Answer:

• Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down.

• Banks, post offices and railway stations were attacked.

• People in Amritsar gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh to protest against the government’s new repressive measures.

• Question 17.

Which were the two types of demands mentioned by Gandhiji in his letter to Viceroy Irwin on 31st January 1930? Why was abolition of salt tax most stirring demand? Explain.

Answer:

On 31st January 1930, Gandhiji sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. Some of these were of general interest, others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialists to peasants. The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, so that all classes within Indian society could identify with them and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign.

• The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.

Question 18.

Mention three problems faced by the Awadh peasants.

Answer:

In Awadh, talukdars and landlords exploited the poor peasants in a variety of ways-

• They demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents at variety of other cesses.

• Peasants had to do begar and work at landlord’s farms without any payment.

• As tenants they had no security of tenure, being regularly evicted so that they could acquire no right over the leased land.

Question 19.

How did the rich peasants and women take part in Civil Disobedience Movement? (Imp)

Answer:

(i) Rich peasant communities like the patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were the active supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. They organised their communities, and at times forced reluctant members, to participate in the boycott programmes. For them, the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues.

(ii) Women participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement in a large number. During Gandhi’s salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him. They took part in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. They moved by Gandhiji’s call and saw service to the nation as a sacred duty.

Question 20.

How did the tribals of the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh interpret swaraj?

Enlist some of the features of the Gudem rebellion of Andhra Pradesh.

Answer:

(i) The tribals of the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh interpreted the idea of swaraj in a quite different way. Here, the tribals started a militant guerrilla movement in the early 1920s against the colonial government.

(ii) As in other forest regions, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel-wood and fruits. This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoods affected but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied.

(iii) When the government began forcing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju.

(iv) They attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerilla warfare for achieving swaraj. For them, swaraj meant freedom of entering the forests to graze their cattle, etc.

Question 22.

Who was Alluri Sitaram Raju? Explain his role in inspiring the rebels with Gandhiji’s ideas.

Answer:

Alluri Sitaram Raju was the leader of the Gudem tribals of Andhra Pradesh. He claimed that he had a variety of special powers – he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullets shots. The Gudem rebels were greatly inspired by him.

They proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God. Raju talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking during the Non-cooperation Movement. But he differed from Gandhiji at one point. He believed that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The colonial government was watching his activities with suspicion. It captured him and executed him in 1924. Over time he became a folk hero.

Long Answers Type

Question 1.

How did people belonging to different communities, regions or language groups develop a sense of collective belonging?

“Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation.” Support the statement.

Answer:

(i) The sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles and growing anger among people against the colonial government.

But there were also a variety of cultural processes through which nationalism captured people’s imagination. History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

(ii) The identity of the nation is often symbolised in a figure or image. This helps create an image with which people can identify the nation. It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be associated with the image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.

Then Abanindranath Tagore painted the image of Bharat Mata during the swadeshi movement. In his painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure. She is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In subsequent years, the image of Bharat Mata acquired many different forms, painted by different artists. Devotion to this mother figure came to be seen as evidence to one’s nationalism.

(iii) Movement to revive Indian folklore also enhanced nationalist sentiments. In late-nineteenth century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of pride in one’s past.

(iv) Icons and symbols played an important role in unifying people and inspiring in them a feeling of nationalism. During the swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag having red, green and yellow colours was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag having red, green and white colours and a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

(v) Feeling of nationalism was also created through reinterpretation of history. The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised. These nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under the British rule.

Question 2.

Categorise and discuss the different urban sentiments which joined the Non-cooperation Movement.

Answer:

(a) The growth of nationalism in the colonies including India is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. People in colonies discover their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provides a shared bond that ties many different groups together.

(b) The First World War created a new economic and political situation. It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes. Customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.

Through the war years prices increased leading to extreme hardship for the common people. Villages were called upon to supply soldiers and the forced recruitment in rural areas angered the common mass.

In 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. Millions of people died as a result of famines and the epidemic.

People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen. All this caused widespread anger and opposition against the British colonial rule and the national movement in India took a stronger turn.

(c) The Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. The Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

The Indians were outraged by these laws as they were clearly undemocratic and oppressive and hurt national sentiments and dignity. Mahatma Gandhi called for a nation-wide protest against the proposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. Rallies were organised in various cities. Workers went on strike in railway workshops and shops closed down.

(d) Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement because it was turning violent. Various incidents of violence perpetrated by the masses, especially the Chauri Chaura incident that took place in 1922 in Gorakhpur.

Here, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a violent clash with the police and the angry mob set police-station on fire in which several police were killed. Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to this movement. He felt that people were not yet ready for a mass struggle, and the satyagra his needed to be properly trained for non-violent demonstrations.

Question 3.

Explain the attitude of the Indian merchants and the industrialists towards the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Answer:

When the movement was first launched Indian merchants and industrialists supported it very enthusiastically. But when it was re-launched, all their enthusiasm had vanished. The failure of the Round Table Conference disappointed business groups. They were apprehensive of the spread of militant activities, and worried about prolonged disruption of business, as well as of the growing influence of socialism amongst the younger members of the Congress.

Question 4.

Describe the incident and impact of the Jallianwala Bagh.

Answer:

On 13th April 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh. Some came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures. Others had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.

General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds of innocent people. Dyer’s main intention was to ‘produce a moral effect’ and terrorise the satyagrahis. The indiscriminate firing by the British soldiers led to nation-wide outrage. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings. The Jallianwala Bagh incident was the most brutal incident in the history of India, The government responded with brutal repression seeking to humiliate and terrorise people, satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the grounds, crawl on the streets, and do salciam (salute) to all sahibs.

Impact of the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre- The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was the most brutal incident in the history of India. It reflected the government’s ruthless attitude towards the colonised people. It filled hatred in the hearts of the Indians. They were not ready to accept such a heinous crime. They showed their disapproval by surrendering titles that the government had awarded. They also boycotted civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.

Question 5.

How could non-cooperation become a movement? Explain with examples.

Answer:

Gandhi’s non-cooperation could become a movement due to its gradual spread in various parts of the country.

(i) In cities, middle-class people participated in the movement. Thousands of students left government controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.

(ii) People in large number boycotted foreign goods, picketed liquor shops and burnt foreign cloth in huge bonfires. In many places, merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. People began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones with the spread of the boycott movement.

(iii) From the cities, the Non-cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra. Being fed up with the atrocities of the talukdars and landlords, these peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of the zamindars.

In many places, nai dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen. In October 1920, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the villages around the region. So, when the Non-cooperation Movement began the following year, the Congress integrated the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

(iv) Tribal peasants also played an important role in making the non-cooperation a mass movement. They were already frustrated with the colonial government’s callous attitude. In such a situation when the government began forcing them to contribute begar for road building, they revolted under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju. He persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.

(v) The Non-cooperation Movement also inspired the planation workers of Assam. These workers wanted freedom to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed. So, when they heard of the movement, they defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.

Questions for Practice (2 Marks)

Q1. Explain the idea of Satyagraha.

Q2. Why was the Inland Emigration Act of 1859 troublesome for plantation workers.

Q3.. Who formed Khilafat Committee and why?

Q4.When and why the Non cooperation movement was called off by Gandhi ji?

Q5. What was the Rowllat Act ? Why it was opposed by Indians.?

Q6.The congress was reluctant to include the demands of Industrial Workers in its programme of struggle.Analyse the reason.

Q7. Why did Gandhi ji support the Khilafat issue?

Q8.Why did Gandhi ji choose Salt as a means of Satyagraha?

Q9. What was the reason behind clash between Gandhi ji and Dr. Ambedkar? How did it resolve?

Q10.How the tricolour flag designed during Swadeshi movement in Bengal was different from the flag designed by Gandhiji in 1921?

Questions for Practice (3 Marks)

Q1. Explain the three initial movement of Gandhi ji in India.

Q2. Describe the three Economic effects of First world war.

Q3. Explain the effects of Non cooperation movement on the economic front.

Q4. How did non cooperation movement unfold in stages? Why did it slow down in cities?

Q5. Describe the main features of the civil disobedience movement of 1930.

Q6. Why did Gandhi ji launch the civil disobedience movement. Explain three reasons.

Q7. What was Bardoli Satyagraha. Explain

Q8. Explain the incident of Jallianwala Bagh Massare.

Q9. How did women participate in Civil Disobedience movement? Why was congress reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the organisation?

Q10. Explain the measures taken by Gandhi ji to eliminate the problem of untouchability.

Q11. Write a short note on Poona Pact.

Q12. Simon Commission was greeted with the slogan ' Simon Go Back' . Support the statement with suitable arguments.

Q13. Describe the spread of Non Cooperation Movement in Countryside/ Peasants movement in Awadh.

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SAARC

2022-04-16T07:12:00.007-07:00

Proposal by ZIA UR RAHMAN(1980)

Formed in 1985, 8th December in Dhaka

Members:-

India

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Nepal

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

Maldives and

Afghanistan (2007)

SAARC GOALS-

1) Promote Economic cooperation among members.

2) Facilitate economic growth

3) Elevation of poverty.

4) Respect the territorial integrity of each other states and non interference in internal affairs.

Weakness of SAARC

1) Trust deficit among Nations or core members.

2) unresolved border disputes and trade barriers.

3) SAARC is a regional organisation with a negative mindset, formed by smaller neighbours of India to form a coalition against India; and to oppose India.

4) There has been huge asymmetry in terms of size and power among members, which is not found in other regional cooperation.

5) India and Pakistan rivalry is a major reason for failure of SAARC to emerge as economic unit. Economies where inward looking, they are supplementary rather than complementary.

6) South Asia is home to largest number of poor, destitutes, malnourished people. All countries are vulnerable and cannot handles situation all alone.

FAILURE OF SAARC.

According to Kaushik Basu, SAARC did not have a promising childhood but can expect a better adulthood, the reason is environment is changing-

1) Economies are opening up

2) Democracy is strengthening.

3) Located near economically vibrant region.

4) India is taking steps to normalise relationships.

5) Civil society is strengthening.

6) Since India and Pak acquired nuclear weapons, international communities getting serious to normalise India Pakistan relations.

SHIFT FROM SAARC TO SAFTA.

It is a free trade agreement emerged in 2004 as agreement. SAARC countries agreed to create SAFTA at Islamabad summit in 2004.

The main objectives were-

1. Commitment to create SAFTA.

2. COMMITMENT TO FIGHT TERRORISM

3. COMMITMENT ON POVERTY ELEVATION.

Before SAFTA, South Asian countries entered into South Asia preferential trading agreement SAPTA in 1995 ( 10 years after SAARC).

The objective of SAPTA= Poverty elevation through intra regional trade

Achievement= none in increasing intra regional trade or poverty alleviation.

Failure of SAPTA:-

1.. South Asia is region where politics takes the front seat and economy the back seat.

2... it is the least ambitious trading agreement

3.. there was no binding commitment or time bound agreement

4.. no disputes settlement mechanism as well as no clarity in rules and regulations.

Equality class 11 important questions

2022-04-14T11:39:00.004-07:00

EQUALITY

Question 1.. Some people argue that inequality is natural while others maintain that it is equality which is natural and the inequalities which we notice around us are created by the society. Which view do you support? Give reasons.

Answer:

Natural inequalities:

• These inequalities emerge due to differences in personal traits either physical, or mental or emotional.

• These inequalities are the result of different characteristics and abilities of inborn qualities of a man.

• These natural differences cannot be changed also.

Social inequalities:

• Socially produced inequalities are emerged as a result of inequal opportunities, i.e. family background, educational factors, etc.

• Social differences reflect the values of society, which may appear to be unjust.

Conclusion:

• The discrimination’s based on gender, colour, race, etc. have been made by society rather than based on inborn characteristics.

• Some natural differences have become alterable also, i.e. progress in medical sciences and technology has helped to several disabled persons to work more efficiently.

• Certain inequalities have been existing for centuries seem justified, and based on natural inequalities, i.e. women are considered weaker than man in every aspect, hence to deny them equal rights is considered the justifiable.

Question 2.. There is a view that absolute economic equality is neither possible nor desirable. It is argued that the most a society can do is to try and reduce the gaps between the richest and the poorest members of society. Do you agree?

Answer:

Economic equality: It refers to availability of equal opportunities to one and all present in the society, without any discrimination:

• Absolute economic equality of income has never existed in society. But democratic set up provides equal opportunities to at least those who are capable and possess potential with equal opportunities, inequalities may exist between individuals, but one’s position may be improved with the sincere efforts in the society.

Economic inequalities:

• Economic inequality exists if there are differences in wealth, property or income between different sections of society.

• It enhances the gap between the upper, middle, poor-rich and persons living below poverty line.

Measurement of economic inequalities:

• To estimate the number of people who are living below poverty line.

• To find out the differences between the rich and poor.

Importance of economic equality:

• Economic equality guarantees each and everybody equal opportunities to improve one’s potential and capabilities.

• Economic equality reduces the gap between the rich and the poor or high or middle class, etc.

• Economic disparities can make society more violent because the reforms cannot take place in such a society.

Question 3... Match the following concepts with appropriate instances:

(a) Affirmative action (i) Every adult citizen has a right to vote.

(b) Equality of opportunity (ii) Banks offer higher rate of interest to senior citizen

(c) Equal Rights. (iii) Every child should get free education.

Answer:

(a) Affirmative action: Banks offer higher rate of interest to senior citizen.

Appropriate instances:

• Senior citizens have contributed to the development and service of society throughout their age.

• Their age increases but their income decreases due to medical needs and social needs.

(b) Equality of opportunity: Every child should get free education

Appropriate instances:

• Every child should get an equal opportunity to get education, i.e. no one should be discriminated on any ground.

• This type of inequalities is against the principle of equality.

Appropriate instances:

• This principle is based on one person one vote one value, i.e. every adult citizen enjoys the right to vote.

• No citizen should be discriminated on any ground to exempt from enjoying right to vote.

Question 4.. A government report on farmers’ problems says that small and marginal farmers cannot get good prices from the market. It recommends that the government should intervene to ensure a better price but only for small and marginal farmers. Is this recommendation consistent with the principle of equality?

Answer:

Yes, this recommendation is consistent on the basis of the principle of equality:

• A democratic country should have the provisions to protect the interests of small and marginal farmers.

• The small and the marginal farmers can get assistance from government for their betterment.

• The farmers (medium and small) can get social, economic and political justice due to this arrangements.

Question 5.. Which of the following violates the principles of equality? And why?

(a) Every child in the class will read the text of the play by turn.

(b) The Government of Canada encouraged white Europeans to migrate to Canada from the end of the Second World War till 1960.

(c) There is a separate railway reservation counter for the senior citizens.

(d) Access to some forest areas is reserved for certain tribal communities.

Answer:

• This does not violate the principle of equality because every child is asked to perform the same activity without any discrimination.

• This violates the principle of equality due to discrimination on the basis of colour.

• It is not violating the principle of equality because senior citizens should be honoured and every individual one day can enjoy the same privileges.

• This violates the principle of equality because all tribal people should be treated equally, no one should be discriminated by reserving forest areas for some only.

Question 6.. Here are some arguments in favour of the right to vote for women. Which of these are consistent with the idea of equality? Give reasons.

(a) Women are our mothers. We shall not disrespect our mothers by denying them the right to vote.

(b) Decisions of the government affect women as well as men, therefore, they also should have a say in choosing the rulers.

(d) Women constitute half of humanity. You cannot subjugate them for long time by denying them the right to vote.

Answer:

The statement

(a) and

(d) both are consistent with the idea of equality because:

• Decisions of government affects every individual either men or women equally.

• Women should not be discriminated on the basis of gender.

• Equality and freedom are the two vital principles in a society, hence women cannot be denied the right to vote.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.... What is equality?

Answer:

Equality refers to avail equal opportunities to one and all without any discrimination on any ground and everybody is equal before law.

Question 2... Mention the attitude of colonial masters about black people during twentieth century.

Answer:

The colonial masters followed the policy of apartheid, i.e. discrimination on the ground of colour of people. Black coloured people were considered to be of less intelligence, childlike or to be good at manual work only.

Question 3.

Mention the attitude towards woman in orthodox India before independence.

Answer:

Women were considered the weaker sex than men, hence it has justified to deny her equality of rights.

Question 4... What is ‘Feminism’?

Answer:

A political doctrine of equal rights for men and women.

Question 5.... What is a political ideal of equality?

Answer:

All human beings exercise equal worth, regardless of their nationality, colour, race or gender

Question 6...What is political equality?

Answer:

• Every citizen should enjoy equal political rights without any discrimination.

• It is based on one person, one vote, one value.

• Every citizen can contest elections also.

Question 7...What is slave trade?

Answer:

Slave trade began when Africans were enslaved by the individual traders and transported to work in American plantations of sugar, rice, coffee, cotton and tobacco-during 15-16th centuries. Gradually, slaves began to be sold and purchased and treated in an inhuman manner.

Question 8... "Natural needs no longer can be seen as unalterable”. Justify the statement.

Answer:

Yes, natural needs no longer can be seen as unalterable because:

• Advancement in medical science has made disabled persons to be efficient to work effectively.

• Computers even assist to blind persons.

• A person’s look can also be changed with cosmetic surgery.

Question 9... How can the concept of equality be argued?

Answer:

• Equality can affect on family autonomy to increase competition in society.

• It may create bureaucracy to engulf between the masses and the state.

• It may lead to lowering of incentives and affect the efficiency of production process as well.

Question 10.... What is equality before law?

Answer:

• Article 14 of Constitution of India guarantees all citizens of India equality before law and equal protection within territories of India as well.

• No citizen can be discriminated on the ground of caste, colour, race, religion, language, sex, etc.

Question 11... What is the difference between equality and uniformity?

Answer:

Equality refers to a common identity of rewards and treatment as well. But uniformity refers to put each and every individual at one stage which is against the law of nature because men are unequal naturally, i.e. a mathematician cannot be placed to manual work as a mason.

Question 12...Mention different kinds of equality.?

Answer:

• Natural equality implies that all men are born free and equal, hence the state should promote social and economic opportunities to offer equality.

• Social equality makes all persons equally eligible to enjoy various opportunities.

• Civil equality refers to discrimination among citizens of country and all persons enjoy some laws.

• Political equality refers to enjoy political rights, i.e. to form political associations, contest elections, etc.

• Economic equality refers to enjoy wealth equally in the society and abolish poverty.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1... What are the main features of equality?

Answer:

• Equality does not offer any special privileges in the society to treat every member equal.

• Equality provides adequate opportunities to each and every citizen in the society to develop one’s own potential.

• Every individual must have an access to the basic needs of life in a society.

Question 2.. Mention political dimensions of equality.?

Answer:

Political equality provides equal political rights to every individual. Its dimensions are as follows:

• For the success of democracy, all the citizens should have an equal right to enjoy universal adult suffrage.

• Every individual must have the right to be elected as a representative also to contest elections.

• The citizens must enjoy the right to hold public offices also without any discrimination except qualification.

Question 3.... “Social inequalities can be minimized by an affirmative action”. Analyse the statement.

Answer:

• Disadvantaged communities should be provided with the facilities of scholarships and hostels, etc. in various institutions

• India has adopted the policy of reservations of seats and quotas to provide equal opportunity.

• SC’s, ST’s and OBC’s require special attention, and protection to create a just society to expand democracy.

Question 4....What are positive and negative aspects of equality?

Answer:

Positive aspect:

• To provide adequate opportunities to all.

• Every individual should get equal opportunities to develop one’s own potential upto their best level.

Negative aspect:

• It refers to absence of undue privileges to people.

• To remove man-made inequalities in the society.

• No one should be discriminated on the ground of caste, colour, race, religion, language, etc.

Passage-Based Questions

Passage 1.

Read the passage (NCERT Textbook, page 49) given below carefully and answer the questions that follow:

While reflecting on the issue of equality, a distinction must also be made between treating everyone in an identical manner and treating everyone as equals. The latter may on occasions need differential treatment but in all such cases the primary consideration is to promote equality. Differential or special treatment may be considered to realise the goal of equality but it requires justification and careful reflection. Since differential treatment for different communities was part and parcel of the caste system and practices like apartheid, liberals are usually very wary of deviations from the norm of identical treatment.

Questions:

1. What distinction should be made while reflecting on the issues of equality?

2. What would be the prime consideration to treat everyone equal?

3. What does special treatment require?

Answers:

1. It must be made between treating everyone in an identical manner or everyone as equal.

2. To promote equality while treating differently.

3. It requires justification and careful reflection.

Passage 2.

Read the passage (NCERT Textbook, page 50) given below carefully and answer the questions that follow:

Many of these issues relating to the pursuit of equality have been raised by the women’s movement. In the nineteenth century women struggled for equal rights. They demanded, for instance, the right to vote, the right to receive degrees in colleges and universities and the right to work — that is, the same rights as the men in their society. However, as they entered the job market they realized that women required special facilities in order to exercise these rights. For instance, they required some provision for maternity leave and creches in the workplace. Without special considerations of this kind they could not seriously compete for jobs or enjoy a successful professional and personal life. They needed, in other words, sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights as men.

Questions:

1. Why have women’s movements been raised?

2. What were the main demands of women’s movement?

3. What can be done for women to compete for jobs?

Answers:

1. To demand equality.

2. The right to vote, the right to work, the right to receive degrees in colleges and universities.

3. They should be given special consideration, i.e. provision for maternity leave and creches in workplace, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.... “Political liberty cannot be imagined without economic liberty.” Analyse.

Answer:

Liberty and equality are contemporary to each other. Political liberty gives a freedom to an individual to participate in the activities of state, i.e.:

• Right to vote to form government

• Right to hold public offices

• Right to form political party

• Right to contest elections.

Economic equality provides equal opportunities to earn the livelihood by an individual i.e.:

• All the individuals must have the means to meet their needs.

• Exploitation should not exist.

• Means of production and distribution should be made for public welfare. Relationship between political liberty and economic equality:

• A poor man is attracted sometimes to false commitments of politicians as they lack in proper intelligence to identify right or wrong because they could not attain even good education, hence they are unable to use their right to vote properly.

• Sometimes poor voters sell out their votes to rich candidates who trap them by making commitments to fulfill their requirements either in cash or kind, hence the poor voters misuse their right to vote in place of utilizing it for the welfare of country.

• To contest elections is an expensive activity and the poor who cannot afford one day meal easily, it is not possible to contest elections. Hence, the poors are exempted naturally from contesting elections due to the lack of wherewithal.It can be concluded that political liberty requires economic equality also.

Question 2... What is the relationship between liberty and equality?

Answer:

Liberty and equality run parallel to each other but sometimes it is presumed that both are opposed to each other.

1. Liberty and equality are complementary:

• Liberty in absence of equality is meaningless.

• Prof. Laski, Powny Polard and Maclver support this view.

• Liberty does not mean the same work and equal wages for all the people.

2. Liberty and equality are opposed to each other:

• Liberty and equality are opposed to each other to curtail individual liberty.

• De Tocqueviflle and Lord Acton are the supporters of this view.

• If equality is established in actual sense, then no one will enjoy the liberty to sharpen one’s own potential.

• Nature has also not created each and every individual equal hence everyone differs in one’s own traits, qualities, capabilities, etc.

It can be concluded that to enjoy them, one requires the presence of others, i.e. political liberty requires equal political status and civil liberty requires equality in the eyes of law to be treated equally. Hence economic equality is of least importance.

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globalization and the Indian economy- class 10

2022-04-14T11:06:00.013-07:00

CHAPTER 4

GLOBALISATION AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY

1. How have our markets transformed during the last few years?

Ans: There is a wide choice of goods and services in the market.

The latest models of digital cameras, mobile phones and television made by the leading manufacturers of the world are within our reach.

2. What is MNC? What are the various ways in which MNCs set up or control production in other countries?

Ans: Multinational corporations (MNCs) are companies that owns or controls production in more than one nation.

MNCs set up production on the following factors:

i. Availability of skilled & unskilled labour at low costs

ii. Availability of other factors of production is assured

iii. Government’s favourable policies

iv. Closeness to the place of market.

Having assured themselves of these conditions, MNCs set up factories and offices for production. They buy assets such as land, building, machines and other equipments.

3. What is investment and foreign investment?

Ans: The money that is spent to buy assets such as land, building, machines and other equipments is called investment.

Investment made by MNCs is called foreign investment.

4. What is Ford Motors? When did it come to India and what did it do?

Ans: Ford Motors, an American company, is one of the world’s largest automobile manufacturers with production spread over 26 countries of the world.

Ford Motors came to India in 1995 and spent Rs.1700 crore to set up a plant near Chennai. This was done in collaboration with Mahindra and Mahindra.

5. “Foreign trade integrates the markets in different countries.” Explain.

Ans: Foreign trade integrates the market in following ways:

i. Foreign Trade creates an opportunity for the producers to reach beyond the domestic market i.e. markets of their own countries. Producers can sell their produce in markets located in other countries of the world.

ii. The buyers too can import goods produced in another country.

iii. With the opening of trade, choice of goods in the market rises. Prices of similar goods in the two markets tend to become equal. And, producers in the two countries now closely compete against each other even though they are separated by thousands of miles.

iv. Foreign trade thus results in connecting the markets or integration of markets in different countries.

v. Example: There are endless number of footwear brands available in the Indian market. A consumer can choose between domestic brands like Bata and international brands like Nike, Adidas etc.

6. What do you understand by globalisation?

Ans: Globalisation is the process of rapid integration or interconnection between countries.

• It is the integration between countries through foreign trade and foreign investments by MNCs.

• Under globalisation, the countries that are closed to trade and foreign investment open up their economies and go global.

• Under globalisation, more and more goods and services, investment and technology are moving between countries.

• Besides the movement of goods, services, investments and technology, there is movement of people who move from one country to another in search of better income, better jobs or better education.

7. ‘Rapid improvement in technology is a major factor that has helped in globalisation’. Explain.

Ans: Rapid improvement in technology has contributed greatly towards the globalisation process. Advanced technology in transport system has helped in the delivery of goods faster across long distances at lower costs.

Example: Goods are placed in containers that can be loaded intact onto ships, railways, planes and trucks. This has led to huge reduction in port handling costs and increased the speed with which exports can reach markets.

Similarly, the cost of air 3 transport has also fallen which has enabled much greater volumes of goods being transported by airlines.

• Developments in information and communication technology has also helped a great deal. Telecommunication facilities like telegraph, telephone including mobile phones, fax are used to contact one another around the world, to access information instantly, and to communicate from remote areas.

• Information and communication technology has also played a major role in spreading out production of services across countries. Orders are placed through internet, designing is done on computers and payment for designing and printing can be arranged through internet.

• Internet also allows us to send instant electronic mail (e-mail) and talk (voice-mail) across the world at negligible costs.

8. Explain how liberalisation has enabled globalisation?

Ans: Removing barriers or restrictions set by the government on foreign trade is known as liberalisation. This means that goods can be imported and exported easily without any trade barrier.

• Indian government imposed trade barriers on imports and exports during 1950s and 1960s in order to protect the budding infant industries.

• Starting around 1991, these restrictions were lifted up by the government and India economy became liberal.

• With liberalisation, foreign companies could easily set up factories and offices in other countries. Businesses were allowed to make decisions freely about what they wish to import or export.

• Thus, it enabled MNCs to increase their investments in other countries as India. As a result of greater foreign trade, there is greater integration of production and markets across countries.

9. What was the reason for putting barriers to foreign trade and foreign investment by Indian government? Why did it wish to remove these barriers?

Ans: The Indian government after independence, had put barriers to foreign trade and foreign investment to protect the domestic producers from foreign competition because industries were just coming up in the 1950s and 1960s and competition at that stage would not have allowed these industries to come up.

Thus, India allowed imports of only essential items such as machinery, fertilisers, petroleum etc.

Starting around 1991, the government wished to remove these barriers due to the following reasons:

• India had attained technological capability.

• The government decided that the time had come for Indian producers to compete with producers around the globe.

• It felt that competition would improve the performance of producers within the country since they would have to improve their quality.

10. Why do government use trade barriers?

Ans: Government use trade barriers to increase or decrease (regulate) foreign trade and to decide what kind of goods and how much of each, should come into the country.

11. Why do developed countries want developing countries to liberalise their trade and investment? What do you think should be developing countries demand in return?

Ans: World Trade Organisation was started at the initiative of developed countries stating that all barriers of foreign trade and investment are harmful.

It is supposed to allow free trade for all. It is seen that the developed countries have unfairly retained trade barriers. On the other hand, WTO rules have forced the developing countries to remove trade barriers.

The developed countries have been following wrong practices. An example of this is the current debate on trade in agricultural products.

In US, the share of agriculture in GDP is 1% and its share in total employment is a tiny 0.5% and this very small percentage of people engaged in agriculture receive massive sums of money from the US government for production and for exports to other countries at abnormally low prices.

This is adversely affecting farmers in these countries. Therefore, developing countries should demand for fair trade practices to be followed by the developed countries under which they should stop giving subsidies to their agricultural sector.

12. “The impact of globalization has not been uniform”. Explain this statement.

Ans: POSITIVE IMPACT

i. There has been advantage to consumers of greater choice at improved quality and lower prices for several products. This has improved standards of living of people particularly in urban areas.

ii. MNCs have increased their investments in India in industries such as cell phones, automobiles, electronics, soft drinks, fast foods etc. As a result, new jobs have been created. Local companies supplying raw materials etc. to these industries have prospered.

iii. Several of the top Indian companies have been able to invest in newer technology and production methods and raised their production standards.

iv. Globalisation has enabled some large Indian companies to emerge as multinational themselves like Tata Motors (automobiles), Infosys (IT), Ranbaxy (medicines), Asian Paints (paints).

v. A host of services such as data entry, accounting, administrative tasks, engineering are now being done cheaply in countries such as India and are exported to the developed countries.

NEGATIVE IMPACT

i. Flexibility in labour laws: In order to cut down on their costs MNCs look for the cheapest supplier. The suppliers supply them with the goods at low price and in turn pay less wages to the workers.

ii. The economic condition of the workers are hampered due to this. Flexibility in labour laws has resulted in worsening the condition of workers because they are appointed on temporary basis to avoid payment of provident fund and other facilities. No overtime is paid for extra hours of work.

ii. Effect on small producers: Globalisation has hit the small producers because they are unable to complete with MNCs for the with producers or manufacturers on price and quality. Several units have been shut down rendering many workers jobless.

13. What steps have been taken by the government to attract foreign investment?

Ans: The following steps were taken by the government:

i. Industrial zones, called Special Economic Zones are being setup. SEZs are to have world class facilities: electricity, water, roads, transport, storage, recreational and educational facilities.

ii. Companies who set up production units in the SEZs do not have to pay taxes for an initial period of five years.

iii. Government has also allowed flexibility in the labour laws to attract foreign investment i.e. workers can be hired for short periods when there is intense pressure of work. This is done to reduce cost of labour for the company.

14. Describe the major problems created by the globalisation for a large number of small producers and workers.

Ans: The major problems are:

i. Small producers such as producing batteries, capacitors, plastics, toys, tyres, dairy products and vegetable oil have been hit hard due to competition. They could not complete on the issue of price and quality. Several of the units have shut down rendering many workers jobless. The small industries in India employ the largest number of workers (20 million).

ii. Faced with growing competition, most employers these days prefer to employ workers ‘flexibly’ i.e. workers’ jobs are no longer secure. Women too are denied their fair share of benefits. Workers have to put in very long working hours without any overtime.

15. Describe the steps that may be taken to make globalisation ‘fair’.

Ans: The government can play a major role in making fair globalisation possible. Its policies must protect the interests, not only of the rich and the powerful, but all the people in the country.

i. The government should ensure that labour laws are properly implemented and the workers get their rights.

ii. The government should protect the interest of small producers by using trade and investment barriers till the time they are in a position to compete with large producers or MNCs.

iii. It should negotiate with WTO for ‘fairer rules.’

iv. It should also align with other developing countries to fight against the domination of developed countries in the WTO.

16. How would flexibility in labour laws help companies?

Ans: Flexibility in labour laws help the companies in following ways:

i. It can help companies to decrease their production cost by employing labourers for short period of time when there is need instead of employing them for long period of time or yearly basis.

ii. Company heads can negotiate wages and terminate employment depending on market conditions.

iii. Companies can ask workers to work overtime when there is more pressure to complete the work.

Very Short Answers:

1. What is a trade barrier?

Ans: Restrictions on foreign trade are known as trade barriers.

2. What is the aim of WTO?

Ans: The aim is to liberalise international trade.

3. What was the effect of importing Chinese toys to India? Ans: Within a year, 70-80% shops have replaced Indian toys with Chinese toys.

4. Which country gives a massive sum of money to farmers so that they can sell their farm products at abnormally low prices in other countries?

Ans: USA

OTHER QUESTIONS

1. How does foreign trade lead to integration of markets across countries? Explain with an example.

2. “Globalisation and competition among producers has been of advantage to the consumers”. Give arguments in support of this statement.

3. How has liberalization of trade and investment policies helped the globalization process?

4. “Barriers on foreign trade and investment were removed to a large extent in India since 1991.” Justify the statement.

5. A group of companies in India wishes to import high quality ACs from South Korea but have to pay a huge import tax on them which would make the ACs very expensive leading to a decline in their sale. Ascertain the role of the import tax in this situation.

6. How can the government ensure that globalisaton is fair and its benefits are shared in a batter way by all?

7. “Globalisation has been advantageous to consumers as well as to producers.” Support the statement with suitable examples.

8. How do Multinational Companies manage to keep the cost of production of their goods low? Explain with examples.

9. How are multinational corporations (MNCs) controlling and spreading their production across the world?

social justice class 11 political science

2022-03-27T10:09:00.000-07:00

What is Justice?

Principles of Justice

Just Distribution

John Rawls Theory of Justice

Pursuing Social Justice

Free Market Vs State Intervention

introduction

Just as we intuitively understand what love means even if we cannot explain all its different shades of meaning, we also have an intuitive understanding of justice even though we may not be able to define it precisely.

In that sense justice is a lot like love.

In addition, both love and justice evoke passionate responses from their advocates. And as with love, no one hates justice, everyone wants justice for oneself and to some extent for others also.

But unlike love, which is an aspect of our relationships with a few people whom we know well, justice concerns our life in society, the way in which public life is ordered and the principles according to which social goods and social duties are distributed among different members of society.

What is justice?

According to Prof. Selmond- Justice is a means to distribute the due share to every body while Marxist considers from each according to his ability to each according to his needs”.

Justice has been defined in a various ways, i.e. at sometimes it believed “As you sow, so shall you reap”, and sometimes considered the result of actions in previous birth or the will of God.

For instance, in ancient Indian society, justice was associated with dharma and maintaining dharma or a just social order, was considered to be a primary duty of kings.

In China, Confucius, the famous philosopher argued that kings should maintain justice by punishing wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous.

In fourth century B.C. Athens (Greece), Plato discussed issues of justice in his book The Republic. Through a long dialogue between Socrates and his young friends, Glaucon and Adeimantus, Plato examined why we should be concerned about justice.

PEOPLE’S VIEWS

They observe that people who were unjust seemed to be much better off than those who were just. Those who twisted rules to serve their interests, avoided paying taxes and were willing to lie and be deceitful, were often more successful than those who were truthful and just. If one were smart enough to avoid being caught then it would seem that being unjust is better than being just. You may have heard people expressing similar sentiments even today

Socrates reminds these young people that if everyone were to be unjust, if everyone manipulated rules to suit their own interests, no one could be sure of benefiting from injustice. Nobody would be secure and this was likely to harm all of them.

Hence, it is in our own long term interest to obey the laws and be just. Socrates clarified that we need to understand clearly what justice means in order to figure out why it is important to be just.

He explained that justice does not only mean doing good to our friends and harm to our enemies, or pursuing our own interests. Justice involves the well-being of all people.

Just as a doctor is concerned with the well-being of his/her patients, similarly the just ruler or the just government must be concerned with the well-being of the people. Ensuring the well-being of the people includes giving each person his due

Today, our understanding of what is just is closely linked to our understanding of what is due to each person as a human being.

According to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, human beings possess dignity. If all persons are granted dignity then what is due to each of them is that they have the opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals. Justice requires that we give due and equal consideration to all individuals.

THREE PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE

EQUAL TREATMENT OF EQUALS

It is considered that all individuals share certain characteristics as human beings.

Therefore they deserve equal rights and equal treatment. Rights which are granted in most liberal democracies today include civil rights such as the rights of life, liberty and property, political rights like the right to vote, which enable people to participate in political processes, and certain social rights which would include the right to enjoy equal opportunities with other members of the society.

Apart from equal rights, the principle of treating equals equally would require that people should not be discriminated against on grounds of class, caste, race or gender. They should be judged on the basis of their work and actions and not on the basis of the group to which they belong.

Therefore, if two persons from different castes perform the same kind of work, whether it be breaking stones or delivering Pizzas, they should receive the same kind of reward. If a person gets one hundred rupees for some work and another receives only seventy five rupees for the same work because they belong to different castes, then it would be unfair or unjust.

Similarly, if a male teacher in a school gets a higher salary than a female teacher, then this difference would also be unjustifiable and wrong.

PROPORTIONATE JUSTICE

There could be circumstances in which we might feel that treating everybody equally would be unjust.

Everybody starts from the same base line of equal rights, justice in such cases would mean rewarding people in proportion to the scale and quality of their effort.

Most people would agree that although people should get the same reward for the same work, it would be fair and just to reward different kinds of work differently if we take into account factors such as the effort required, the skills required, the possible dangers involved in that work, and so on.

If we use these criteria we may find that certain kinds of workers in our society are not paid a wage which takes such factors sufficiently into account. For instance, miners, skilled craftsmen, or people in sometimes dangerous but socially useful professions like policemen, may not always get a reward which is just if we compare it to what some others in society may be earning.

RECOGNITION OF SPECIAL NEEDS

A third principle of justice which we recognise is for a society to take into account special needs of people while distributing rewards or duties.

This would be considered a way of promoting social justice. In terms of their basic status and rights as members of the society justice may require that people be treated equally.

But even non discrimination between people and rewarding them proportionately to their efforts might not be enough to ensure that people enjoy equality in other aspects of their lives in society nor that the society as a whole is just.

The principle of taking account of the special needs of people does not necessarily contradict the principle of equal treatment so much as extend it because the principle of treating equals equally could imply that people who are not equal in certain important respects could be treated differently

People with special needs or disabilities could be considered unequal in some particular respect and deserving of special help.

Physical disabilities, age or lack of access to good education or health care, are some of the factors which are considered grounds for special treatment in many countries.

It is believed that if people who enjoy very different standard of living and opportunities are treated equally in all respects with those who have been deprived of even the basic minimum needs to live a healthy and productive life, the result is likely to be an unequal society, not an egalitarian and just one.

In our country, lack of access to good education or health care and other such facilities is often found combined with

JUST DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES

To achieve social justice in society, governments might have to do more than just ensure that laws and policies treat individuals in a fair manner.

Social justice also concerns the just distribution of goods and services, whether it is between nations or between different groups and individuals within a society.

If there are serious economic or social inequalities in a society, it might become necessary to try and redistribute some of the important resources of the society to provide something like a level playing field for citizens.

Therefore, within a country social justice would require not only that people be treated equally in terms of the laws and policies of the society but also that they enjoy some basic equality of life conditions and opportunities.

This is seen as necessary for each person to be able to pursue his/her objectives and express himself.

In our country for instance, the Constitution abolished the practice of untouchability to promote social equality and ensure that people belonging to ‘lower’ castes have access to temples, jobs and basic necessities like water

Different state governments have also taken some measures to redistribute important resources like land in a more fair manner by instituting land reforms.

JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE

TWO GUIDING PRINCIPLES

First, is the principle of Equal liberty- each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty for others.

Second the Difference principle- Social and Economic inequalities are just only if they result in compensating benefits particularly for the least advantaged in a society

RAWLS ORIGINAL POSITION

The original position is a Hypothetical device for developing and examining the justice of societal principles and laws.

He argues that the only way we can arrive at a fair and just rule is if we imagine ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make decisions about how society should be organised although we do not know which position we would ourselves occupy in that society.

We do not know what kind of family we would be born in, whether we would be born into an ‘upper’ caste or ‘lower’ caste family, rich or poor, privileged or disadvantaged.

Rawls argues that if we do not know, in this sense, who we will be and what options would be available to us in the future society, we will be likely to support a decision about the rules and organisation of that future society which would be fair for all the members.

Rawls describes this as thinking under a ‘veil of ignorance’

He expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our possible position and status in society, each person would decide in the way they generally do, that is, in terms of their own interests.

But since no one knows who he would be, and what is going to benefit him, each will envisage the future society from the point of view of the worst-off.

It will be clear to a person who can reason and think for himself, that those who are born privileged will enjoy certain special opportunities. But, what if they have the misfortune of being born in a disadvantaged section of society where few opportunities would be available to them?

Hence, it would make sense for each person, acting in his or her own interest, to try to think of rules of organisation that will ensure reasonable opportunities to the weaker sections.

The attempt will be to see that important resources, like education, health, shelter, etc., are available to all persons, even if they are not part of the upper class.

The merit of the ‘veil of ignorance’ position is that it expects people to just be their usual rational selves: they are expected to think for themselves and choose what they regard to be in their interest.

Wearing the imagined veil of ignorance is the first step in arriving at a system of fair laws and policies. It will be evident that rational persons will not only see things from the perspective of the worst-off, they will also try to ensure that the policies they frame benefit the society as a whole.

Since no one knows what position they will occupy in the future society, each will seek rules that protect them in case they happen to be born among the worst-off. But it would make sense if they also try to ensure that their chosen policy does not also make those who are better-off weaker because it is also possible that they could be born into a privileged position in the future society

Such fairness would be the outcome of rational action, not benevolence or generosity.

Rawls therefore argues that rational thinking, not morality, could lead us to be fair and judge impartially regarding how to distribute the benefits and burdens of a society

PURSUING SOCIAL JUSTICE

If in a society deep and persistent divisions exist between those who enjoy greater wealth and property, and the power which goes with such ownership, and those who are excluded and deprived, we would say that social justice is lacking there

Justice does not require absolute equality and sameness in the way in which people live.

But a society would be considered unjust if the differences between rich and poor are so great that they seem to be living in different worlds altogether, and if the relatively deprived have no chance at all to improve their condition however hard they may work.

In other words, a just society should provide people with the basic minimum conditions to enable them to live healthy and secure lives and develop their talents as well as equal opportunities to pursue their chosen goals in society.

How can we decide what are the basic minimum conditions of life?

Various methods of calculating the basic needs of people have been devised by different governments and by international organisations like the World Health Organisation

But in general it is agreed that the basic amount of nourishment needed to remain healthy, housing, supply of clean drinking water, education and a minimum wage would constitute an important part of these basic conditions.

Providing people with their basic needs is considered to be one of the responsibilities of a democratic government

However, providing such basic conditions of life to all citizens may pose a heavy burden on governments, particularly in countries like India which have a large number of poor people.

Conflicting solutions to the problem of achieving equality

Even if we all agree that states should try and help the most disadvantaged members of the society to enjoy some degree of equality with others, disagreements could still arise regarding the best methods of achieving this goal.

Two methods are debated on this issue-

1. Promoting open competition through free markets would be the best way of helping the disadvantaged without harming the better off members of a society.

2.The government should take on the responsibility of providing a basic minimum to the poor, if necessary even through a redistribution of resources.

In our country these different approaches are being supported by different political groups who debate the relative merits of different schemes for helping marginalised sections of the population such as the rural or urban poor.

Free market vs state intervention

One of the main issues in economics is the extent to which the government should intervene in the economy. Free market economists argue that government intervention should be strictly limited as government intervention tends to cause an inefficient allocation of resources.

Supporters of free markets maintain that as far as possible, individuals should be free to own property and enter into contracts and agreements with others regarding prices and wages and profits.

They should be free to compete with each other to gain the greatest amount of benefit.

They believe that if markets are left free of state interference the sum of market transactions would ensure overall a just distribution of benefits and duties in society.

Those with merit and talent would be rewarded accordingly while the incompetent would get a lesser reward. They would maintain that whatever be the outcome of market distribution it would be just.

Those in favour of government intervention

Not all free market supporters today would support absolutely unregulated markets.

Many would now be willing to accept certain restrictions, for instance, states could step in to ensure a basic minimum standard of living to all people so that they are able to compete on equal terms

But they might argue that even here the most efficient way of providing people with basic services might be to allow markets in health care, education, and such services, to develop.

In other words, private agencies should be encouraged to provide such services while state policies should try to empower people to buy those services.

It might also be necessary for the state to give special help to the old and the sick who cannot compete.

But apart from this, the role of the state should only be to maintain a framework of laws and regulations to ensure that competition between individuals remains free of coercion and other obstacles.

The market, it is said, does not care about the caste or religion of the person; it does not see whether you are a man or a woman. It is neutral and concerned with the talents and skills that you have. If you have the merit, then nothing else matters.

Arguments in favour of free market

It gives more choice to the consumers- We can choose the rice we eat and the school we go to, provided that we have the means to pay for them. But regarding basic goods and services what is important is the availability of good quality goods and services at a cost people can afford.

Quality of services provided are much superior to those provided by government institutions- But the cost of such services may put them out of the reach of the poor Private business tends to go where business would be most profitable and hence free markets eventually tend to work in the interest of the strong, the wealthy and the powerful.

Freedom to innovate-

Because of competition the prices are kept low-

Goods and services are produced in most efficient way

ARGUMENTS AGAINST FREE MARKET

Free markets often exhibit a tendency to work in favour of the already privileged.

To ensure social justice the state should step in to see that basic facilities are made available to all the members of a society.

Free market activity can lead to a rise in the scale of income and wealth inequality

Increase in corruption in all sectors of society, which further increases the power of those with a lot of money and puts those without the money to bribe officials at a severe disadvantage

Growing unemployment

CONCLUSION

In a democratic society disagreements about issues of distribution and justice are inevitable and even healthy because they force us to examine different points of view and rationally defend our own views.

Politics is about the negotiation of such disagreements through debate.

In our own country many kinds of social and economic inequalities exist and much remains to be done if they are to be reduced. Studying the different principles of justice should help us to discuss the issues involved and come to an agreement regarding the best way of pursuing justice.

freedom class 11th political science

2022-01-31T09:56:00.024-08:00

CONTENTS

What is Freedom?

LIBERTY Vs FREEDOM

Why do we need Constraints?

Harm Principle

Negative and Positive Liberty

Freedom of Expression

NELSON MANDELA- IDEAL OF FREEDOM

“ I have fought against the white domination and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities”.

- Nelson Mandela’s autobiography- LONG WALK TO FREEDOM

- He talks about his personal struggle against the apartheid regime in South Africa.

- Apartheid was introduced in 1948 by the NP (National Party) which was an all-white government.

- It was a harsh system that gave little opportunities to non-white people and took away their basic human rights such as education, freedom of movement and rights to self-determination.

- For Mandela and his colleagues it was the struggle against such unjust constraints, the struggle to remove the obstacles to the freedom of all the people of South Africa (not just the black or the coloured but also the white people), that was the Long Walk to Freedom.

- For this freedom, Mandela spent twenty-eight years of his life in jail, often in solitary confinement.

For freedom Mandela paid a very high personal price.

He spent 27 years in jail, and most of that time was spent on Robben Island.

- During this time he had become an international symbol for the anti-Apartheid movement.

AUNG SAN SUU KYI

"Freedom from fear" -biography of her.

- Gandhiji’s thoughts on non-violence have been a source of inspiration for Aung San Suu Kyi.

-In July 1989, the military government of the newly named Union of Myanmar (since 2011, Republic of the Union of Myanmar) placed Suu Kyi under house arrest in Yangon (Rangoon) and held her incommunicado.

- The military offered to free her if she agreed to leave Myanmar, but she refused to do so until the country was returned to civilian government and political prisoners were freed.

- The National League for Democracy (NLD), which Suu Kyi had cofounded in 1988, won more than 80 percent of the parliamentary seats that were contested in 1990, but the results of that election were ignored by the military government (in 2010 the military government formally annulled the results of the 1990 election).

- Suu Kyi was freed from house arrest in July 1995, although restrictions were placed on her ability to travel outside Yangon.

- Aung San Suu Kyi’s published works included Freedom from Fear.

- She says, “for me real freedom is freedom from fear and unless you can live free from fear you cannot live a dignified human life”.

- We must not, her words suggest, be afraid of the opinions of other people, or of the attitude of authority, or of the reactions of the members of our community to the things we want to do, of the ridicule of our peers, or of speaking our mind.

- SHE GOT NOBLE PEACE PRIZE IN 1991

LIBERTY VS FREEDOM

We hear a lot around us that people appear to use the word liberty and freedom as synonyms of each other.

But there are some fundamental differences between these two concepts that must be understood.

Liberty comes from the Latin word “libertatem” which means “condition of a freeman”.

While freedom come from the English word “freodom” which means “state of free will”.

Liberty is power to act and express oneself according to one’s will while freedom is the power to decide one’s action.

Freedom is more concrete concept than liberty which is more associated with an individual’s connection with the state rather than with other individuals and circumstances.

State guarantees freedom through the liberty it grants to its citizens.

LIBERTY

Condition of a free man

Power to act

Free to do something

FREEDOM

State of free will

Power to decide

Free from something

The common feature between these two concepts is that both remain unconstrained, which means that their realization is free from any constrain. Further, both follow rightful or ethical conformity in terms of their realization.

WHAT IS FREEDOM?

First meaning of Freedom- it is said to exist when external constraints on the individual are absent.

In terms of this definition an individual could be considered free if he/she is not subject to external controls or coercion and is able to make independent decisions and act in an autonomous way

Freedom is also about expanding the ability of people to freely express themselves and develop their potential.

In this sense it is the condition in which people can develop their creativity and capabilities.

No individual living in society can hope to enjoy total absence of any kind of restrictions.

It becomes necessary then to determine which social constraints are justified and which are not justified should be removed.

GANDHI’S VIEWS ON SWARAJ

SWARAJ

Swaraj incorporates within it two words- Swa(Self) and Raj(Rule).

It can be understood to mean both the rule of the self and rule over self.

Swaraj, in the context of the freedom struggle as a constitutional and political demand and as a value at the social-collective level.

It is not just freedom but liberation in redeeming one’s self-respect, self-responsibility and capabilities for self-realization from institutions of dehumanization.

Gandhiji believed the development that follows would liberate both individual and collective potentialities guided by the principle of justice.

THE SOURCES OF CONSTRAINTS-

Restrictions on the freedom of individuals may come from domination and external controls. For example, colonial rulers over the people.

Some restrictions are imposed by the government through laws which embody the power of the rulers over the people. For example, the system of apartheid in South Africa.

Constraints on freedom can also result from social inequality. For example, caste system

Why do we need constraints?

Differences may exist between people regarding their ideas and opinions., they may have conflicting ambitions or they may compete for scarce resources.

There are numerous reasons why disagreements may develop in a society which may express themselves through open conflict.

We see people around us ready to fight for all kinds of reasons ranging from the serious to the trivial

Example- We see people around us ready to fight for all kinds of reasons ranging from the serious to the trivial. Rage while driving on the roads, fighting over parking spaces, quarrels over housing or land, disagreements regarding whether a particular film should be screened, all these, and many other issues, can lead to conflict and violence, perhaps even loss of life. Therefore every society needs some mechanisms to control violence and settle disputes.

Therefore every society needs some mechanisms to control violence and settle disputes.

But the creation of such a society requires that we be willing to respect differences of views, opinions and beliefs.

We need some legal and political restraints to ensure that differences may be discussed and debated without one group forcefully impose its views on the others.

Worse still, we may we confronted with attempts to bully or harass us so that we conform to their wishes. If so, we may want stronger support from law to ensure that my freedom is protected.

LIBERALISM

It is identified with tolerance as a value.

Liberals have often defended the right of a person to hold and express his/her opinions and beliefs even when they disagree with them.

Liberalism tends to give priority to individual’s liberty over values like equality.

Historically, it favored free market and minimal role to the state.

Present day liberalism acknowledges a role for welfare state and accepts the need for measures to reduce both social and economic inequalities.

HARM PRINCIPLE BY J S MILL

The principle is that the sole end for which mankind are warranted individually or collectively in interfering with the liberty of action of any of that number is self-protection that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to others.

The Harm principle holds that the actions of individuals should only be limited to prevent harm to other individuals.

According to Mill there are two types of actions- Self Regarding actions and Other Regarding actions.

Self Regarding Actions- those actions that have consequences only for the individual and nobody else. It means actions which affect himself/herself only are self regarding actions. Here the state has no business to interfere in the actions of those people

Other Regarding Actions- Those actions that affect the other persons, or harm him/her is called other regarding actions. It means that if your actions harm me then I need to protect myself.

Hence a soldier or policeman merely drunk is self‐regarding, a soldier or policeman drunk on duty is other‐regarding.

J S MILL says that since freedom is very important for human life so it should be constrained only in special circumstances.

The ‘Harm Cause’ must be serious.

If it is a minor harm then there can be a social disapproval but we cannot call law to interfere in that. For example, If somebody has played a loud music then we should not call police to interfere and stop the music. We should show society’s disapproval to it. There cannot a legal punishment for it.

John Mill calls for tolerance of different views, interests and principles to other people. But if it harms the other people then it should be dealt by law. For example, Hate campaigns, but we cannot ask for life imprisonment for those people.

There should be reasonable restrictions and reasonable punishment.

Reasonable restrictions means that punishment should not be in excess, not out of proportion of the action otherwise it would effect the general condition of freedom of society.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LIBERTY

POSITIVE

Positive liberty explains the idea ‘Freedom to’. It means freedom to work, freedom to write etc.

For this we need state because when state provides education then only we can read, write and learn.

This area is concerned where state can interfere and state interference here does not restrict freedom.

It enhances freedom

For example, Provision of positive conditions like education, health, employment etc

NEGATIVE

Negative liberty explains the idea ‘Freedom from’. It means freedom from state , family ,community etc

For this we don’t need state

This is the area where no authority can interfere. An individual can do whatever he/she wants to do.

It enhances the dignity of an individual.

For example, what clothes to wear, what to read etc.

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

One of the issues that is considered to belong to the minimum area of ‘non-interference’ is the freedom of expression. J.S.Mill set out good reasons why freedom of expression should not be restricted.

Freedom of expression is a fundamental value and for that society must be willing to bear some inconvenience to protect it from people who want to restrict it.

For free exchange of knowledge and free flow of ideas, there should be freedom to speak.

This is a very important freedom considering that many films, books, movies, plays etc are banned.

According to Voltaire, “I disapprove what you say but I will defend to death your right to say it.” It means that I may not agree with whatever you say but then you have the right to speak.

Some years ago Deepa Mehta, film maker, wanted to make a film about widows in Varanasi. It sought to explore the plight of widows but there was a strong protest from a section of the polity who felt that it would show India in a very bad light, who felt it was being made to cater to foreign audiences, who felt it would bring a bad name to the ancient town.

It was subsequently made elsewhere. Similarly the book Ramayana Retold by Aubrey Menon and The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie were banned after protest from some sections of society.

The film The Last Temptation of Christ and the play Me Nathuram Boltey were also banned after protests.

CAN WE CURB FREEDOM?

Banning is an easy solution for the short term since it meets the immediate demand but is very harmful for the long-term prospects of freedom in a society because once one begins to ban then one develops a habit of banning.

When should one ban and when should one not? Should one never ban?

Just for interest, in England anyone who is employed to work for the Royal household is constrained by contract (a constraint?) from writing about the inner affairs of the household. So if such a person were to leave the employment they would be unable to give an interview or write an article or author a book about the politics of the Royal household

solution

Constraints of different kind thus exist and we are subject to them in different situations. While reflecting on such situations we need to realise that when constraints are backed by organised social — religious or cultural — authority or by the might of the state, they restrict our freedom in ways that are difficult to fight against

However, if we willingly, or for the sake of pursuing our goals or ambitions, accept certain restrictions, our freedom is not similarly limited.

J.s. mill’s views on freedom of expression

According to JS Mill-

No idea is completely false. Mill says that no idea in this world is false. For example, if your parents tell you to go for higher studies they are not wrong, but if you do not want to go for higher studies then also you are not wrong because you have interest in music.

Truth does not emerge by itself. It is only through debates and discussion that truth emerges.

For example, discussion between parents and a young child can lead to this conclusion that the child will go for higher studies in music.

This conflict is important not only for past but for present and future also. Only when truth is exposed to constant criticism.

For example, If higher studies has not helped the child in his music then constant discussion will nullify the importance of higher studies in music.

We cannot be sure what we considered true is actually true. Ideas which were true at one point of time are false at another point of time. For example, higher studies were important but children can make career in music and by not going for higher studies

Netaji on freedom

Freedom is a word which has varied connotations and, even in our country, the conception of freedom has undergone a process of evolution.

By freedom I mean all round freedom, i.e., freedom for the individual as well as for society; freedom for the rich as well as for the poor; freedom for men as well as for women; freedom for all individuals and for all classes.

This freedom implies not only emancipation from political bondage but also equal distribution of wealth, abolition of caste barriers and social iniquities and destruction of communalism and religious intolerance.

This is an ideal which may appear Utopian to hard-headed men and women, but this ideal alone can appease the hunger in the soul.”

THANK YOU

South Asia and contemporary world

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WHAT IS SOUTH ASIA?

Meaning of South Asia -

the expressions of South Asia usually includes the following countries-

* Bangladesh

* India

* Nepal

* Bhutan

* Maldives

* Pakistan

* Srilanka.......

Geographical boundaries Himalaya in the north and the first Indian Ocean in the south the Arabian sea in the west and the bay of Bengal in the East.

South Asia stands for diversity in every sense and yet constitutes one of the important geo political space.

Important Question-

"democracy is an accepted norm in entire region of South Asia." how?

Despite the minded record of the democratic experience the people in all these countries share the aspirations for democracy. The following are the three arguments in support of this statement-

A) A survey was done recorded to know the attitudes of the people in the five big countries of South Asia. This server clearly showed that there was widespread support for democracy in all these countries.

B) Ordinary citizens including rich as well as poor are belonging to various religious considered the idea of democracy positively and assist the institutions of representative democracy. Two graphs based on interview clearly show that Trend.

C) These graphs show that the ordinary citizens prefer democracy over any other form of government.

D) They also think that democracy is suitable for their country. These eye opening findings blast the old myth that democracy would flourish and find popularity only in rich countries of the world. In this perspective the South Asian experience of democracy has enhanced the global concept of democracy.

THE MILITARY AND DEMOCRACY IN PAKISTAN

After Pakistan framed its first constitution,

1. General Ayub Khan took over the administration of the country and soon get himself elected. he had to give up office when there was popular revolt due to the dissatisfaction against his rule.

2. Once again of under General Yahya Khan's military rule, Pakistan faced the Bangladesh crisis, and after a war with India in 1971, East Pakistan broke away to emerge as an independent country called Bangladesh.

3. An Elected government under the leadership of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came to power in Pakistan from 1971 to 1977.

The Bhutto government was removed by general zia ul haq in 1977.

4. General Zia faced a pro democracy movement from 1982 onwards and an elected democratic government was established once again in 1988 under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto.

5. Pakistani politics centred around the competition between her party, the Pakistan's people party and the Muslim league.

6. This phase of elective democracy lasted till 1999 when the army stepped in again and general Pervez Musharraf removed prime minister Nawaz Sharif.

2001 general Musharraf got himself elected as the Prime minister of Pakistan.

Pakistan's failure in building a stable democracy

* It is mainly Jinnah's screwed and self centred mechanism in politics which sowed the seeds of separation/ factionalism first in India and then started harvesting its crop in Pakistan.

* It misguided several people through ambivalence in laws, system and constitution as well.Pakistan is now a merely a puppet in the hands of USA and other Western countries.

* In Pakistan the elected governments were frequently toppled due to social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy.

* Pakistan's conflict with India was given more power to the pro military groups, these military groups always condemned the political parties and democracy and also justified army's stay in power.

* The absence of Serious international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has certainly boosted the military to carry on its dominance.

The US and other Western countries have also supported the military authoritarian rule for their own political calculation. Western countries believe that military rule in Pakistan is more suitable to check global Islamic terrorism and to avoid the misuse of nuclear arsenal.

INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS

Agreements

1) The two countries have agreed to undertake the confidence building measures to reduce the risk of war.

2) A number of bus routes have been opened up between the two countries.

3) A train service have started operating between two countries.

4) No doubt efforts are being made to have a durable peace but there is a little possibility of friendly relationship because Kashmir continues to be the main problem between the two countries .

5) Pakistan is also responsible for terrorist activities in India such as Mumbai blast. such actions on the part of Pakistan obstacles in the way of friendly relation between the two countries.

Conflicts-

1. Kashmir issue:- After the partition, the two countries get into conflict over the fate of Kashmir.

in 1947 Pakistan invaded Kashmir and occupied a large portion of its territory.

India raised this issue in the security council of UNO.

A ceasefire was finally enforced between the two countries, But the tension between the two countries could not be checked,

Pakistan has not yet vacated the territory which they had occupied during the war.

In 1965 Pakistan again tried to capture Kashmir through military forces by the Indian forces failed its evil desire as there was a war between the two countries, which was brought to an end by the good efforts of USSR and taskent agreement was signed between the two countries in 1966.

India return all the territories back to Pakistan which they occupied during the war.

In 1971 again war broke out between the two countries over the issue of Bangladesh.

Pakistan was again defeated and a big part of its territory was separated to become the independent state of Bangladesh.

the PM of both countries Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Bhutto meet at Shimla and an agreement known as Simla agreement was signed between the two countries in 1972. the two States argued agreed to solve their problems in a peaceful and friendly manner.

Strategic issues

India's conflict with Pakistan is also over strategic issues like the conflict or control of Siachen glacier and over acquisition of arms.

Nuclear explosion:

In 1998 India conducted nuclear explosion in pokhran, Pakistan responded within a few days by craving out nuclear test in the chagai hills.

Government continues to be suspicious-

The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government for using a strategy of Low-key violence by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India.

Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided the pro- khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during the period 1985 to 1995.

Its spy agency interservice intelligence ISI is a light alleged to be involved in various anti India campaigns in India's north East., operating secretly throughout Bangladesh and Nepal.

the Government of Pakistan in return blames the Indian Government and its security agency for formenting trouble in the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan.

Sharing of river waters

Until 1960 they were locked in an fierce agreement over the use of river of the Indus basin.

in 1960 with the help of the the World bank india and pakistan signed the Indus water treaty which was survived to this day in spite of various military conflicts both are involved..

Minor disputes over control of resources in India at joining sir creek in the Rann of Kutch.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971.

it consisted of the partitioned areas of Bengal and Assam from British India. the people of this reason resented the domination of Western Pakistan and the imposition of the Urdu language.

East Pakistan begin protesting against West Pakistan reasons-

West Pakistan unfair treatment meted out to the Bengali culture and language of East Pakistan.

they also demanded East Pakistan does not have a representation in administration and a fair share in political power.

Struggle for-

Sheikh mujib ur Rahman led the popular struggle against West Pakistani domination and demanded autonomy for the eastern region.

In the 1970 election in the then Pakistan, the awami league led the sheikh Mujib won all the seats in East Pakistan and secured a majority in the proposed constituent assembly for the whole of Pakistan.

But the government dominated by the best Pakistani leadership refused to convene the assembly.

Sheikh mujib was arrested under the military rule of general Yahya Khan, the Pakistani army tried to suppress the mass movements of the Bengali people . Thousands were killed by the Pakistan army.

This led to a large scale migration into India, creating a huge refugee problem for India.

India supported the demand of the people of East Pakistan for their independence and help them financially and militarily.

This resulted in a war between India and Pakistan in December 1971 that ended in the surrender of the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan and the formation of Bangladesh as an independent country.

In 1972 Shimla agreement signed between India and Pakistan

Bangladesh's constitution and administration

Bangladesh drafted the constitution declaring faith in secularism democracy and socialism.

In 1975 Shaikh mujib got the constitution amended from the parliamentary to presidential form of Government.

He also abolished all parties except his own, the Awami league. this lead to conflicts and tensions, in a dramatic and tragic development, he was assassinated in a military uprising in August 1975.

The new military ruler, Ziaur-Rahman formed his own Bangladesh national party and won elections in 1979, he was assassinated and another military takeover followed under the leadership of LT. General H. M Ershad.

Then the people of Bangladesh soon rose in support of the demand for democracy. he allowed political activity on a limited scale. he also later elected as president for five years

Mass people protest made Ershad step down in 1990. Elections were held in 1991.

Since then representative democracy based on multi party election has been working in Bangladesh

Areas of cooperation between India and Bangladesh

1. Better economic relations:- Despite their differences India and Bangladesh do co-operate on various issues. Economic relations have improved considerably in the last 10 years.

2. Look East policy:- Bangladesh is a part of India's look East policy that wants to link up with South East Asia via Myanmar.

3. Cooperation in Disaster Management:- On disaster management and environmental issues, the two States have cooperated regularly.

DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN INDIA AND BANGLADESH

1. Sharing river waters:- The Government of India and Bangladesh have had differences over several issues like including the sharing of Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters.

2. Illegal immigration to India:- The Indian government has been unhappy with Bangladesh's denial of illegal immigrations to India.

3. It supports for anti- India Islamic fundamentalist groups, Bangladesh's refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to North eastern India.

4. Its decision not to allow export natural gases to India or allow Myanmar to do so through Bangladeshi territory.

Bangladeshi Government have felt that the Indian government behaves like a regional bully over the sharing of river waters, encouraging rebellion in the Chittagong hill tracts, trying to extract its natural gas and being unfair in trade.

Nepal(MONARCHY AND DEMOCRACY)

Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom in the past and then a constitutional monarchy in the modern period for many years.

Pro democracy movement was suppressed by king and the army.

But The king accepted the demand for a new democratic constitution in 1990 in the wake of a strong pro-democracy movement.

During the 1990s, the Maoist of Nepal where successful in spreading their influence in many parts of Nepal.

The believed in armed insurgence against the monarch and the ruling Elite. This led to a violent conflict between the Maoist guerrillas and the armed forces of the king.

There was a triangular conflict among the monarchist forces, the democratic and the maoist.

In 16 April 2002 the king abolish the parliament and dismiss the government does ending even the limited democracy that existed in Nepal.

In April 2006 there were massive, country-wide pro-democracy protest. The king was forced to restored the house of representatives that had been dissolved in April 2002 the largely non violent movement was led by seven party alliance, the Maoist and social activist.

Constitution of Nepal, 2015 says Nepal is a federal democratic and republic country.

RELATION BETWEEN INDIA AND NEPAL

AGREEMENT

THE TREATY BETWEEN THE TWO COUNTRIES ALLOW THE CITIZENS OF THE TWO COUNTRIES TO TRAVEL TO and WORK IN THE OTHER COUNTRY WITHOUT VISA AND PASSPORT.

RELATIONS ARE FAIRLY STABLE AND PEACEFUL.

TRADE, SCIENTIFIC OPERATION, COMMON NATURAL RESOURCES, ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND INTERLOCKING WATER MANAGEMENT GRIDS HOLDS THE TWO COUNTRIES TOGETHER.

There is a hope that the consolidation of democracy in Nepal will lead to improvement in the ties between both.

Disagreement

1. Indian government has often express displeasure at the worm relationship between Nepal and China and at the Nepal governments inaction against anti Indian elements

2. Indian security agencies see the maoists movement in Nepal as a growing security threat, given the rise of naxalite groups in various Indian states from Bihar in the north to Andhra Pradesh in the south

3. Nepal thinks that the Indian government interferes in its internal affairs has design on its river waters and hydroelectricity and prevents Nepal, a landlocked country, from getting easier access to the sea through Indian territory.

Important question- "By the ethnic conflict Sri Lanka has maintained political system and registered considerable economic growth and high level of human development". explain.?

Srilanka

Democratic political system-

Sri Lanka has retained democracy since its independence in 1948.

however ethnic issues with internal system or sovereignty for Sri Lanka has since the beginning brought bitterness.

Majoritarian democracy is existed there because of sinhalese majority duly supported by legal framework.

it is argued that about 2 lakhs Sri Lankan Tamils and Tamils of Indian origin were excluded from privileges and representation in government. since 1948 I.e the year when Sri Lanka could attend to freedom from the British.

Sinhalese ideology is that the section of tribe claims absolute right. on the land of Sri Lanka and looks down upon Sri Lankan Tamils and other Tamils in Row to taste the realm of citizenship not so long since 1948 provided with them, both of this fractions are become of inequality and mal-administration to provide all South Indian peoples citizenship without any hard parameters.

That mal- administration at Government level perhaps due to sinhalese biased ideology reach at the prime in 1987 when Indian government was pressurized by her people to send their peacekeeping forces.

it was mistook in violence of sovereignty and a gross trespass or interference with Sri Lanka's internal affairs matters especially by National list Sinhalese presently privilege to rule over Sri Lanka Tamils and Tamils of Indian origin who developed their Tamil Eelam (demand of a separate state) for both these tribes still discriminated in the matters of citizenship since date back 1948.

Economic growth

as per human development report 2006,Sri Lanka GDP per capita in 2004 was 4390 Dollars( viz in purchasing party per capita in US dollars).

GDP per capita global level is 8833 US dollar. it is 4775 US dollars in an average of developing countries and that of South Asia (seven countries) is 3072 US dollars.

Human Development is the ultimate outcome or accomplishment of system and rational teaching that keeps economic growth subservient to human development.

it's actually is a single particle to the cluster of other features of HDI like life expectancy at birth, adult literacy, combined grow school enrollment, infant mortality rate, prevalance of TB, under nourished population ratio, population living under one US dollar per day and access to improve sanitation.

Sri Lanka stands ahead India in terms of life expectancy at birth 74.3 /1000, adult literacy rate 92.7%, gross enrolment ratio 63% ,gross per capita US dollar 4319 per month infant mortality rate 12 undernourished population ratio 22% a little bit higher rate than India that is 20% population living under 1 US dollar 5.6 rulers and urban as to improve sanitation 97 and 93% respectively.

Developments in srilanka

After it independence, politics in Sri Lanka ( it was then known as ceylon) was dominated by forces that represented the interest of the majority Sinhala community.

There were hostile to a large number of Tamil who had migrated from India to Sri Lanka and settle there , this migration continued even after independence. the Sinhala Nationalists thought that Sri Lanka should not give concession to the Tamils because Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala people only.

The neglect of Tamil concern led to militant Tamil nationalism, from 1983 onwards, the liberation tigers of Tamil eelam LTTE has been fighting an armed struggle with army of Sri Lanka and demanding Tamil eelam or an separate country for the Tamils of Sri Lanka. the LTTE control the northestern parts of Sri Lanka.

The Sri Lankan problems involved people of Indian origin, and there is a considerable pressure from the Tamil people in India to the effect that the Indian governments should protect the interest of the Tamils in Sri Lanka.

In 1987 the Government of India signed and Accord with Sri Lanka and send troops to stabilize relations between the Sri Lankan Government and the Tamils.

eventually the Indian army got into a fight with the LTTE, however intervention by government of India was not liked by the Sri Lanka. On account of this the Indian peace keeping force was pulled out of Sri Lanka without attending its objective in 1989.

Presently, the Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland are trying to bring the warring groups back to negotiations in Sri Lanka. the future of island hinges on the outcome of the talks.

Sri Lanka's achievement in HDI-

In spite of the ongoing conflict Sri Lanka has registered considerable economic growth and high level of human Development.

Sri Lanka was one of the first developing countries to contain the rate of population growth there.

it is the first country in the region to liberalise the economy, and it has had the highest per capita income, gross domestic product(GDP) for many years right through the civil war.

despite the ravages of internal conflicts it has maintained a democratic political system.

Relations between India and Sri Lanka

The difficulties in the relationship between the governments of India and Sri Lanka are mostly over ethnic conflict in the Island Nations.

Indian leaders and citizens find it impossible to remain neutral when Tamils are politically unhappy and being killed.

After the military intervention in 1987, the Indian government not prefers a policy of disengagement visa-a-vis Sri Lanka's internal troubles.

India signed a free trade agreement with Sri Lanka with strength and relations between the two countries. India help it post Tsunami reconstruction in Sri Lanka has also brought the two countries closer.

India- Bhutan(Relationship)

India has very special relation with Bhutan.

there is no major conflict between the two countries.

Bhutan has taken against action against the guerrillas and militants from North eastern India.

India gives development aid to Bhutan particularly in hydroelectricity projects.

India remains the Himalayan kingdoms biggest source of development aid.

India's relation between Maldives

India ties with the Maldives remain warm and cordial.

In November 1988, when some Tamil machineries from Sri Lanka attack the Maldives , the Indian airforce and Navy reacted quickly to the Maldives' request to help stop the invasion.

India has also contributed towards the island's economic development, tourism and fisheries.

Nepal and Bhutan had disagreement in the past over the migration of ethnic Nepalese into Bhutan.

Bangladesh and Myanmar have had disagreement in the past over the migration of ethnic rohingya as into the Myanmar

Bangladesh and Nepal have had some differences over the future of the Himalayan river water.

The major conflicts and differences, though, are between India and the others, partly because of the geography of the region, in which India is located centrally and is therefore the only country that borders the others.

Peace and cooperation

The states of South Asia recognise the importance of cooperation and friendly relationship.

SAARC:

the South Asian association for regional cooperation is a major regional initiative by South Asian States to evolve corporation through multilateral means.

it begin in 1985 yet due to continuous political differences, SAARC has not much success.

SAARC members signed the South Asian free trade agreement which promised the formation of free trade zone for whole of South Asia.

SAFTA was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1st January 2006.

SAFTA AIMS at lowering trade tariffs to 20% by 2007.

Following countries have given its effect-

India has executed bilateral agreements with Bhutan Nepal and Sri Lanka .

by virtue of SAARC, India and Pakistan are practicing CBMs to bring normalcy in relations.

both countries are attending summits held by SAARC regularly.

Limitations

USA and China's undue interference with internal affairs of SAARC continues has almost created deadlocks.

Few member due to their self centred approach understand SAARC's efforts only favourable to India as she may invade their markets and influence their societies and politics especially Pakistan.

Important question-

How external powers influencing bilateral relations in South Asia?

No reason exist in isolation.

it is influenced by outside powers.

China and us are key players in South Asian politics.

America has been influencing bilateral relations in South Asian politics since the end of cold war in the following ways-

The US has good relation with both India and Pakistan since the end of cold war .

It works as a moderator in Indo Pak relation

Economic reforms and liberal economic politics in both the countries have increased the American participation.

A large number of people from South Asia are working in USA and this gives America an added stake in the future of regional security and peace.

Problems of south east countries

Conflicts in reasons

borders and water sharing disputes remain unsolved

south-east reason suffers from insurgency ethnic strife and conflicts on resource sharing.

south-east stands for diversity in every sense and constitutes one political space

rivalary, coop hopes Despair, mutual suspicion and trust coexist

all south east Nations share aspiration for democracy which is not common in West Asia, South East Asia.

Important questions-

How external powers influencing the bilateral relations in South Asia?

China and the United States remain key players in South Asian politics. Sino-Indian relations have improved significantly in the last ten years, but China’s strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant.

The demands of development and globalisation have brought the two Asian giants closer, and their economic ties have multiplied rapidly since 1991.

American involvement in South Asia has rapidly increased after the Cold War. The US has had good relations with both India and Pakistan since the end of the Cold War and increasingly works as a moderator in India-Pakistan relations.

Economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both countries have greatly increased the depth of American participation in the region.

The large South Asian diasporas in the US and the huge size of the population and markets of the region also give America an added stake in the future of regional security and peace.

IMPORTANT WORDS TO KNOW-

GEO POLITICS- Geo politics refers to the association of countries who are bound with each other geographically and their interest are also intellect with each other politically and economically.

BILATERAL TALKS- those talks involving the two countries without any other meditation.

SEVEN PARTY ALLIANCE- analyse of seven parties in Nepal which also demanded and end to Monarch.

LTTE- the liberations tigers of Tamil ilm in Sri Lanka which demanded is separate state for Tamils.

Thank you

EQUALITY- CLASS 11 NOTES

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Our constitution has granted right to equality under Article 14. but with this it has also given special provisions- like the backward community of society needs to be given reservations so that they can enjoy the right to equality.

For example: if everybody has been given the equal right to compete in exams, and all sections of community share the fruits of education. but backward communities were excluded in the past. So post independence, India came out with reservations to bring them on an equal platform.

WHY DOES EQUALITY MATTERS?

1. Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal that has inspired and guided human society for many centuries.

2. It is implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human beings to be the creation of God.

3. As a political ideal the concept of equality invokes the idea that all human beings have an equal worth regardless of their colour, gender, race, or nationality. It maintains that human beings deserve equal consideration and respect because of their common humanity.

In the eighteenth century, the French revolutionaries used the slogan ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ to revolt against the landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy

The demand for equality was also raised during anti-colonial liberation struggles in Asia and Africa during the twentieth century.

It continues to be raised by struggling groups such as women or dalits who feel marginalised in our society. Today, equality is a widely accepted ideal which is embodied in the constitutions and laws of many countries.

Yet, it is inequality rather than equality which is most visible around us in the world as well as within our own society.

FACT SHEET ON GLOBAL INEQUALITIES

- The richest 50 individuals in the world have a combined income greater than that of the poorest 40 crore people.

- The poorest 40 per cent of the world’s population receive only 5 per cent of global income, while the richest 10 per cent of the world’s population controls 54 per cent of global income.

- The first world of the advanced industrial countries, mainly North America and Western Europe, with 25 per cent of the world population, owns 86 per cent of the world’s industry, and consumes 80 per cent of the world energy.

- On a per capita basis, a resident of the advanced industrial countries consumes at least three times as much water, ten times as much energy, thirteen times as much iron and steel and fourteen times as much paper as someone living in a developing country like India or China

- The risk of dying from pregnancy related causes is 1 to 18 in Nigeria but 1 to 8700 in Canada.

- The industrial countries of the first world account for nearly two-thirds of the global emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels. They also account for three-quarters of emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxide that cause acid rain.

- Many industries known for their high rate of pollution are being shifted from the developed countries to the less developed countries

PARADOX RELATED TO EQUALITY IN SOCIETY

Almost everyone accepts the ideal of equality, yet almost everywhere we encounter inequality.

We live in a complex world of unequal wealth, opportunities, work situations, and power

It is a question of this kind that make equality one of the central theme of social and political theory.

What is equality?

Equality is about ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and talents.

It is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability.

Equality recognises that historically certain groups of people with protected characteristics such as race, disability, sex and sexual orientation have experienced discrimination.

The commitment to the ideal of equality does not imply the elimination of all forms of differences.

It merely suggests that the treatment we receive and the opportunities we enjoy must not be pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.

For instance, if a child born in a slum is denied nutritious food or good education through no fault of his/her own, it may appear unfair to us.

EQUALITY OF OPPURTUNITIES

The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.

This means that in a society people may differ with regard to their choices and preferences.

They may also have different talents and skills which results in some being more successful in their chosen careers than others.

But just because only some become ace cricketers or successful lawyers, it does not follow that the society should be considered unequal.

TYPES OF INEQUALITY

NATURAL-

Natural inequalities are those that emerge between people as a result of their different capabilities and talents

Natural inequalities are considered to be the result of the different characteristics and abilities with which people are born

These kinds of inequalities are different from socially-produced inequalities which emerge as a consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the exploitation of some groups in a society by others.

SOCIAL

Social inequalities on the other hand are those created by society.

Certain societies may, for instance, value those who perform intellectual work over those who do manual work and reward them differently.

They may treat differently people of different race, or colour, or gender, or caste. Differences of this kind reflect the values of a society and some of these may certainly appear to us to be unjust

EXAMPLES OF INEQUALITIES-

Examples of inequalities that were proposed to be natural but now seems unfair

Socially produced inequality- Certain societies may, for instance, value those who perform intellectual work over those who do manual work and reward them differently

Thought to be natural inequality -Black people in Africa were considered by their colonial masters to be of lesser intelligence, child-like, and better at manual work, sports and music. This belief was used to justify institutions like slaver This belief is to justify the institution of slavery

Thought to be natural equality- women were for long described as ‘the weaker sex’, considered timid and of lesser intelligence than men, needing special protection.

Socially produced-denying women equal rights could be justified. These complexities make it difficult to use this distinction as a standard by which laws/policies of a society can be assessed

Another problem which arises with the idea of natural differences is that some differences which could be considered natural need no longer be seen as unalterable.

For instance, advances in medical science and technologies have helped many disabled people to function effectively in society.

Today, computers can help blind people, wheel chairs and artificial limbs can help in cases of physical disability, even a person’s looks can be changed with cosmetic surgery.

The famous physicist Stephen Hawking can hardly move or speak but he has made major contributions to science. It would seem unjust to most people today if disabled people are denied necessary help to overcome the effects of their disability or a fair reward for their work on the grounds that they are naturally less capable.

THREE DIMENSIONS OF EQUALITY-

POLITICAL

SOCIAL

ECONOMIC.

POLITICAL EQAULITY

These are rights which are considered necessary to enable citizens to develop themselves and participate in the affairs of the state.

We know that considerable inequality can exist even in countries which grant equal rights to all citizens. These inequalities are often the result of differences in the resources and opportunities which are available to citizens in the social and economic spheres.

For this reason a demand is often made for equal opportunities, or for ‘a level playing field’.

SOCIAL EQUALITY

Political equality or equality before the law is an important first step in the pursuit of equality but it often needs to be supplemented by equality of opportunities.

While the former is necessary to remove any legal hurdles which might exclude people from a voice in government and deny them access to available social goods, the pursuit of equality requires that people belonging to different groups and communities also have a fair and equal chance to compete for those goods and opportunities.

For this, it is necessary to minimize the effects of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain minimum conditions of life to all the members of the society — adequate health care, the opportunity for good education, adequate nourishment and a minimum wage, among other things

Where equality of opportunity does not exist a huge pool of potential talent tends to be wasted in society.

In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes not just from lack of facilities but from some of the customs which may prevail in different parts of country, or among different groups. Women, for instance, may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance in some groups, or there may be social prohibitions regarding their taking part in certain kinds of activities, or they may even be discouraged from obtaining higher education.

The state should make policies to prevent discrimination or harassment of women in public places or employment, to provide incentives to open up education or certain professions to women, and other such measures.

ECONOMIC EQUALITY

In simple terms, economic equality is about a level playing field where everyone has the same access to the same wealth.

At the simplest level, we would say that economic inequality exists in a society if there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes.

HOW DO WE MEASURE INEQUALITY?

At the simplest level, we would say that economic inequality exists in a society if there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes

Another way could be to estimate the number of people who live below the poverty line

Absolute equality of wealth or income has probably never existed in a society.

Most democracies today try to make equal opportunities available to people in the belief that this would at least give those who have talent and determination the chance to improve their condition.

With equal opportunities, inequalities may continue to exist between individuals but there is the possibility of improving one’s position in society with sufficient effort.

FEMINISM

Feminism is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men.

Feminists are those men and women who believe that many of the inequalities we see in society between men and women are neither natural nor necessary and can be altered so that both women and men can lead free and equal lives.

According to feminists, inequality between men and women in society is the result of patriarchy.

This term refers to a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.

Patriarchy is based on the assumption that men and women are different by nature and that this difference justifies their unequal positions in society.

Feminists questions this way of thinking by making a distinction between “sex” i.e. biological difference between men and women, and “gender” which determines the different roles that men and women play in society.

For instance, the biological fact that only women can become pregnant and bear children does not require that only women should look after children after they are born. Feminists show us that much of the inequality between men and women is produced by society and not by nature.

Patriarchy produces a division of labour by which women are supposed to be responsible for “private” and “domestic” matters while men are responsible for work in the “public” domain.

Feminists question this distinction by pointing out that in fact most women are also active in the “public” domain. Despite this “double burden” as feminists term it, women are given little or no say in decisions taken in the public domain.

MARXISM VS LIBERALISM

Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labour, productivity, and economic development and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favour of communism.

Marx was an important nineteenth century thinker who argued that the root cause of entrenched inequality was private ownership of important economic resources such as oil, or land, or forests, as well as other forms of property.

He pointed out that such private ownership did not only make the class of owners wealthy, it also gave them political power

Such power enables them to influence state policies and laws and this could prove a threat to democratic government

Marxists and socialists feel that economic inequality provides support to other forms of social inequality such as differences of rank or privilege.

Therefore, to tackle inequality in society we need to go beyond providing equal opportunities and try and ensure public control over essential resources and forms of property.

Liberals uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources and rewards in society.

They believe that while states may have to intervene to try and ensure a minimum standard of living and equal opportunities for all, this cannot by itself bring equality and justice to society

Competition between people in free and fair conditions is the most just and efficient way of distributing rewards in a society.

As long as competition is open and free, inequalities are unlikely to become entrenched and people will get due reward for their talents and efforts.

For liberals the principle of competition is the most just and efficient way of selecting candidates for jobs or admission to educational institutions.

For instance, in our country many students hope for admission to professional courses and entry is highly competitive

From time to time, the government and the courts have stepped in to regulate educational institutions and the entrance tests to ensure that everybody gets a fair and equal chance to compete. Some may still not get admission but it is considered to be a fair way of distributing limited seats.

Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic and social inequalities are necessarily linked. They maintain that inequalities in each of these spheres should be tackled appropriately.

The problem for liberals is not inequality as such, but unjust and entrenched inequalities which prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.

SOCIALISM

Socialism refers to a set of political ideas that emerged as a response to the inequalities present in, and reproduced by, the industrial capitalist economy.

The main concern of Socialism is how to minimise existing inequality and distribute resources justly. They favour some kind of government regulation, planning and control over certain key areas such as education and health care.

In India the eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought.

Lohia argued that each of these inequalities had independent roots and had to be fought separately and simultaneously.

He did not speak of revolution in the singular. For him struggle against these five inequalities constituted five revolutions.

Inequality between man and woman

Inequality based on skin colour

Caste-based inequality

Colonial rule of some countries over others

Economic inequality

Revolution for civil liberties against unjust encroachments on private life

Revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of weapons in favour of Satyagraha

These were the seven revolutions or Sapta Kranti which for Lohia was the ideal of socialism.

HOW CAN EQULAITY BE PROMOTED?

Establishing formal equality

The first step towards bringing about equality is, of course, ending the formal system of inequality and privileges.

Social, economic and political inequalities all over the world have been protected by customs and legal systems that prohibited some sections of society from enjoying certain kinds of opportunities and rewards.

Poor people were not granted the right to vote in a large number of countries. Women were not allowed to take up many professions and activities. The caste system in India prevented people from the ‘lower’ castes from doing anything except manual labour

Attainment of equality requires that all such restrictions or privileges should be brought to an end.

Since many of these systems have the sanction of law, equality requires that the government and the law of the land should stop protecting these systems of inequality.

The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Our Constitution also abolishes the practice of untouchability.

Most modern constitutions and democratic governments have formally accepted the principle of equality and incorporated it as identical treatment by law to all citizens without any regard to their caste, race, religion or gender.

Equality through differential treatment

Formal equality or equality before law is necessary but not sufficient to realise the principle of equality.

Sometimes it is necessary to treat people differently in order to ensure that they can enjoy equal rights.

Certain differences between people may have to be taken into account for this purpose. For instance, disabled people may justifiably demand special ramps in public spaces so that they get an equal chance to enter public buildings.

Or women working in call centres at night may need special protection during the journey to and from the centre so that their equal right to work may be protected. These should not be seen as infringements of equality but as enhancement of equality.

Some countries have used policies of affirmative action to enhance equality of opportunity. In our country we have relied on the policy of reservations

Affirmative action

Affirmative action is based on the idea that it is not sufficient to establish formal equality by law.

When we wish to eliminate inequalities that are deeply rooted, it is necessary to take some more positive measures to minimise and eliminate entrenched forms of social inequalities. Most policies of affirmative action are thus designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.

Affirmative action can however take many forms-

1. preferential spending on facilities for disadvantaged communities

2. scholarships and hostels

3. to special consideration for admissions to educational institutions and jobs.

In our country we have adopted a policy of quotas or reserved seats in education and jobs to provide equality of opportunity to deprived groups, and this has been the subject of considerable debate and disagreement.

The policy has been defended on the ground that certain groups have been victims of social prejudice and discrimination in the form of exclusion and segregation. These communities who have suffered in the past and been denied equal opportunities cannot be immediately expected to compete with others on equal terms.

Therefore, in the interest of creating an egalitarian and just society they need to be given special protection and help.

Although policies of affirmative action are supported for making the society more equal, many theorists argue against them. They question whether treating people differently can ever lead to greater equality.

Critics of positive discrimination, particularly policies of reservations, thus invoke the principle of equality to argue against such policies.

They contend that any provision of reservations or quotas for the deprived in admissions for higher education or jobs is unfair as it arbitrarily denies other sections of society their right to equal treatment.

They maintain that reservations are a form of reverse discrimination and they continue with the practices that the principle of equality questions and rejects.

Equality requires that all persons be treated alike, and when we make distinctions between individuals on the basis of their caste or colour, we are likely to reinforce caste and racial prejudices. For these theorists, the important thing is to do away with social distinctions that divide our society.

Consider the following situations. Is special and differential treatment justified in any of the following?

Working women should receive maternity leave.

A school should spend money to buy special equipment for two visually challenged students.

Geeta plays brilliant basketball, so the school should build a basketball court for her so that she can develop her skills further.

Jeet’s parents want him to wear a turban in school, and Irfan’s parents want him to pray on Friday afternoon, so the school should not insist that Jeet should wear a helmet while playing cricket, and Irfan’s teacher should not ask him to stay back for extra classes on Friday.

Many of these issues relating to the pursuit of equality have been raised by the women’s movement.

In the nineteenth century women struggled for equal rights. They demanded, for instance, the right to vote, the right to receive degrees in colleges and universities and the right to work — that is, the same rights as the men in their society

However, as they entered the job market they realised that women required special facilities in order to exercise these rights. For instance, they required some provision for maternity leave and crèches in the workplace.

Without special considerations of this kind, they could not seriously compete for jobs or enjoy a successful professional and personal life. They needed, in other words, sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights as men.

As we deliberate on issues of equality and examine whether different treatment is warranted in a particular case, we need continuously to ask ourselves whether differential treatment is essential to ensure that a set of people can enjoy the same rights as the rest of society.

Caution must, however, be exercised to see that differential treatment does not yield new structures of dominance and oppression, or become a means for some dominant groups to reassert special privileges and power in society.

Differential treatment is intended and justified only as a means to promoting a just and egalitarian society.