Lila Ram Paudel

Lila Ram Paudel: Computer fundamentals Objective & Subjective Quest...

2014-04-04T08:38:00.001+05:45

Lila Ram Paudel: Computer fundamentals Objective & Subjective Quest...: Which of the following languages is more suited to a structured program? A.PL/1 B.FORTRAN ...

Computer fundamentals Objective & Subjective Question- Answers

2014-04-03T11:23:00.002+05:45

Which of the following languages is more suited to a structured program?

A.PL/1

B.FORTRAN

C.BASIC

D.PASCAL*

E.None of the above

A computer assisted method for the recording and analyzing of existing or hypothetical systems is

A.Data transmission

B.Data flow*

C.Data capture

D.Data processing

E.None of the above

The brain of any computer system is

A.ALU

B.Memory

C.CPU*

D.Control unit

E.None of the above

What difference does the 5th generation computer have from other generation computers?

A. Technological advancement*

B. Scientific code

C. Object Oriented Programming

D.All of the above

E.None of the above

Which of the following computer language is used for artificial intelligence?

A. FORTRAN

B. PROLOG*

C. C

D.COBOL

E.None of the above

The tracks on a disk which can be accessed without repositioning the R/W heads is

A.Surface

B.Cylinder*

C.Cluster

D.All of the above

E.None of the above

Which of the following is the 1's complement of 10?

A.01*

B.110

C.11

D.10

E.None of the above

A section of code to which control is transferred when a processor is interrupted is known as

A.M*

B.SVC

C.IP

D.MDR

E.None of the above

Which part interprets program instructions and initiate control operations.

A.Input

B.Storage unit

C.Logic unit

D.Control unit*

E.None of the above

The binary system uses powers of

A.2*

B.10

C.8

D.16

E.None of the above

A computer program that converts assembly language to machine language is

A. Compiler

B. Interpreter

C. Assembler*

D. Comparator

E. None of the above

The time required for the fetching and execution of one simple machine instruction is

A. Delay time

B. CPU cycle*

C. Real time

D. Seek time

E. None of the above

The time for which a piece of equipment operates is called

A. Seek time

B. Effective time*

C. Access time

D. Real time

E. None of the above

Binary numbers need more places for counting because

A. They are always big numbers

B. Any no. of 0's can be added in front of them

C. Binary base is small*

D. 0's and l's have to be properly spaced apart

E. None of the above

Which access method is used for obtaining a record from a cassette tape?

A. Direct

B. Sequential*

C. Random

D. All of the above

E. None of the above

Any type of storage that is used for holding information between steps in its processing is

A. CPU

B. Primary storage

C. Intermediate storage*

D. Internal storage

E. None of the above

A name applied by Intel corp. to high speed MOS technology is called

A. HDLC

B. LAP

C. HMOS*

D. SDLC

E. None of the above

A program component that allows structuring of a program in an unusual way is known as

A. Correlation

B. Coroutine*

C. Diagonalization

D. Quene

E. None of the above

The radian of a number system

A. Is variable

B. Has nothing to do with digit position value

C. Equals the number of its distinct counting digits*

D. Is always an even number

E. None of the above

The section of the CPU that selects, interprets and sees to the execution of program instructions

A. Memory

B. Register unit

C. Control unit*

D. ALU

E. None of the above

Which type of system puts the user into direct conversation with the computer through a keyboard?

A. Real time processing

B. Interactive computer*

C. Batch processing

D. Time sharing

E. None of the above

The term referring to evacuating the content of some part of the machine is known as

A. Dump*

B. Enhancement

C. Down

D. Compiler

E. None of the above

A single packet on a data link is known as

A. Path

B. Frame*

C. Block

D. Group

E. None of the above

The process of communicating with a file from a terminal is

A. Interactive

B. Interrogation*

C. Heuristic

D. All of the above

E. None of the above

A common boundary between two systems is called

A. Interdiction

B. Interface*

C. Surface

D. None of the above

The examination and changing of single bits or small groups of his within a word is called

A. Bit

B. Byte

C. Bit manipulation*

D. Bit slice

E. None of the above

Which computer has been designed to be as compact as possible?

A. Mini

B. Super computer

C. Micro computer*

D. Mainframe

E. None of the above

Which method is used to connect a remote computer?

A. Device

B. Dialup*

C. Diagnostic

D. Logic circuit

E. None of the above

How many bit code is used by Murray code for TELEPRINTER machines.

A. 4

B. 5*

C. 9

D. 25

E. None of the above

The symbols used in an assembly language are

A. Codes

B. Mnemonics*

C. Assembler

D. All of the above

E. None of the above

The 2's complement of a binary no. is obtained by adding.....to its 1's complement.

A. 0

B. 1*

C. 10

D. 12

E. None of the above

A systems programming language for microcomputers in the Intel family is

A. PL/C

B. PL/CT

C. PL/M*

D. PLA

E. None of the above

A datum that indicates some important state in the content of input or output is

A. Sequence

B. Sentinel*

C. SIO

D. Sibling

E. None of the above

Which is a non-standard version of a computing language?

A. PROLOG

B. APL

C. Army*

D. PL/1

E. None of the above

Which of the following is still useful for adding numbers?

A. EDSAC

B. ENIAC

C. Abacus*

D. UNIVAC

E. None of the above

The average time necessary for the correct sector of a disk to arrive at the read write head is _____

A. Down time

B. Seek time

C. Rotational delay*

D. Access time

E. None of the above

A number that is used to control the form of another number is known as

A. Map

B. Mask*

C. Mamtossa

D. Marker

E. None of the above

A general purpose single-user microcomputer designed to be operated by one person at a time is

A. Special-purpose computer

B. KIPS

C. M

D. PC*

E. None of the above

ASCII stands for

A. American standard code for information interchange*

B. All purpose scientific code for information interchange

C. American security code for information interchange

D. American Scientific code for information interchange

E. None of the above

Which device of computer operation dispenses with the use of the keyboard?

A. Joystick

B. Light pen

C. Mouse*

D. Touch

E. None of the above

The microcomputer, Intel MCS-80 is based on the widely used Intel

A. 8080 microprocessor*

B. 8085 microprocessor

C. 8086 microprocessor

D. 8082 microprocessor

E. None of the above

Which is a machine-oriented high-level language for the GEC 4080 series machines.

A. LOGO

B. SNOBOL

C. Babbage*

D. ALGOL

E. None of the above

A program that is employed in the development, repair or enhancement of other programs is known as

A. System software

B. Software tool*

C. Applications program

D. Utility program

E. None of the above

Any storage device added to a computer beyond the immediately usable main storage is known as

A. Floppy disk

B. Hard disk

C. Backing store*

D. Punched card

E. None of the above

Which output device is used for translating information from a computer into pictorial form on paper.

A. Mouse

B. Plotter*

C. Touch panel

D. Card punch

E. None of the above

The list of coded instructions is called

A. Computer program*

B. Algorithm

C. Flowchart

D. Utility programs

E. None of the above

1. UNIVAC is Universal Automatic Computer, There are no computers with the name as in other options. UNIVAC was the first general purpose electronic digital computer designed for commercial use, produced by Universal Accounting Company of John Mauchly and J.P.Eckert in 1951.

2. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory, There are no objects with the name as in other options. CD-ROM is a non-volatile optical data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact disk, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. The standard 12 cm diameter CD-ROM store about 660 megabytes.

3. ALU is Arithmetic Logic Unit, ALU is a unit in Central Processing Unit in a computer system that is responsible for arithmetic calculations and logical operations. Apart from ALU, the CPU contains MU (Memory Unit) and CU (Control Unit).

4. VGA is Video Graphics Array, VGA is a type of Graphics Adapter. Graphic Adapter is an electronic board that controls the display of a monitor. This device helps the motherboard to work with the monitor and in VGA and SVGA the last letter ‘A’ stands for ‘Array’ whereas in MDA, CGA, MCGA the last letter ‘A’ stands for ‘Adapter’.

5. IBM 1401 is Second Generation Computer, IBM 1401 is a Second Generation Computer and is the first computer to enter Nepal in 2028 BS for census. Government of Nepal had brought this computer on rent and later purchased for data processing in Bureau of Statistics. After this computer, another ICL 2950/10, a British computer, was purchased by the fund of UNDP and UNFPA for the census of 2038 BS is second computer in Nepal.

6. MSI stands for Medium Scale Integrated Circuits, After the invention of IC chips the development of computers plunged into next phase. Small Scale Integration and Medium Scale Integration (SSI and MSI) were used in third generation of computers and Large Scale Integration and Very Large Scale Integration (LSI and VLSI) are being used in fourth generation of computers. People are now expecting ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) Circuits to be used for fifth generation computers.

7. The capacity of 3.5 inch floppy disk is 1.44 MB, Microfloppy disks (3.5 inch) if it is high density (MF2HD) can store 1.44 MB and if it is low density (MF2DD), it can store 720 KB. Mini Floppy disks (5.25 inch) if it is high density (MD2HD) can store 1.2 MB and low density (MD2DD) stores 360 KB of data.

8. The first computer introduced in Nepal was IBM 1401, IBM 1401, a second generation computer was brought in Nepal by the Government of Nepal paying One Lakh and twenty five thousands per month to use in the census in 2028 B.S. Before this computer, Nepal was using a calculating device called Facit for statistical tasks.

9. WAN stands for Wide Area Network, There are three different classes of computer network namely, Local Area Network (LAN) that covers a small geographical area such as a room, a building or a compound; Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) that has a citywide coverage; and Wide Area Network (WAN) that covers the whole globe or beyond the globe.

10. MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Reader, Explanation: MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader) is kind of scanner that can scan and identify the writing of magnetic ink. This device is used in banks to verify signatures in Checks.

11. EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, EBCDIC is an 8-bit binary code for larger IBMs

primarily mainframes in which each byte represent one alphanumeric character or two decimal digits. 256 characters can be

coded using EBCDIC.

12. BCD is Binary Coded Decimal, BCD is a binary coded notation in which each of the decimal digits is expressed as a 8-bit

binary numeral. For example in binary coded decimal notation 12 is 0001 0010 as opposed to 1100 in pure binary.

13. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASCII is a code which converts characters

letters, digits, punctuations and control characters such as Alt, Tab etc – into numeral form. ASCII code is used to

represent data internally in micro-computers. ASCII codes are 7 bits and can represent 0 to 127 and extended ASCII are 8

bits that represents 0 to 255.

14.EDSAC is first generation of computer: IBM-1401, CDC-1604 is second generation computer. ICL-2900 is a fourth generation

computer. EDSAC is important in the development of computer since it was the first computer to use John von. Neumann’s

Stored Program Concept. It used 3000 vacuum tubes and computers with vacuum tubes are of first generation computers.

15. Chief component of first generation computer was Vacuum Tubes and Valves, Transistors were used for second generation

computers and integrated circuits in third generation. First generation computers used vacuum tubes and valves as their main

electronic component. Vacuum Tubes were invented by Lee DeForest in 1908.

16. FORTRAN is Formula Translation, FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is one of the earlier High Level programming languages used

to write scientific applications. It was developed by IBM in 1956.

17. EEPROM stand for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory There are three types of ROM namely, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM. PROM can’t be reprogrammed, EPROM can be erased by exposing it in high intensity ultraviolet light and EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed electrically. It is not needed to be removed from the computer to be modified.

18. Second Generation computers were developed during 1956 to 1965. Second generation computers used transistors as their

main electronic component. Transistor was invented by Bell Lab Scientists John Burdeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley

in 1947 and won the Nobel Prize in 1956 but it was not used in computers till 1956. The second generation continued until the implementation of IC chips invented by Jack Kilby in Texas Instruments in 1958.

19. The computer size was very large in First Generation. It is obvious that computers developed with more power, eliability,

speed and smaller sizes due to the enhancement of technology. First generation computers used 1000s of vacuum tubes that

required lot of space made them gigantic in size. Single transistor could replace 1000 vacuum tubes and a single IC chip replaced 1000s of transistors made computers smaller and more speedy.

20. Microprocessors as switching devices are for Fourth Generation computers. Microprocessors further revolutionized the development of computers. Personal microcomputers were possible due to the microprocessors. The first microprocessor called

Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel Corporation in 1971. Microprocessors are used in the computers of fourth generation computers.

Processor

2014-03-28T07:47:00.001+05:45

Similarities and differences between the Pentium 4 and the Celeron chips :

Celeron processor is a good and cheaper alternative to Pentium II, Pentium III and Pentium 4 microprocessors when the top performance is not required, and microprocessor and desktop price is important. The Celeron processors are based on the same core as more expensive Pentium-branded processors, but usually lack in some features such as L2 cache size and bus speed. Since the Celeron processor family spans three generations of x86 microprocessors, the differences between Celeron and Pentium processors vary depending on the generation.

• Core - The Celeron chip is based on a Pentium 4 core.

• Cache - Celeron chips have less cache memory than Pentium 4 chips do. A Celeron might have 128 kilobytes of L2 cache, while a Pentium 4 can have four times that. The amount of L2 cache memory can have a big effect on performance.

• Clock speed - Intel manufactures the Pentium 4 chips to run at a higher clock speed than Celeron chips. The fastest Pentium 4 might be 60 percent faster than the fastest Celeron.

• Bus speed - There are differences in the maximum bus speeds that the processors allow. Pentium 4s tend to be about 30 percent faster than Celerons.¬

When you sort all this out and compare the two chips side by side, it turns out that a Celeron and a Pentium 4 chip running at the same speed are different beasts. The smaller L2 cache size and slower bus speeds can mean serious performance differences depending on what you want to do with your computer. If all you do is check e-mail and browse the Web, the Celeron is fine, and the price difference can save you a lot of money. If you want the fastest machine you can buy, then you need to go with the Pentium 4 to get the highest clock speeds and the fastest system bus.

Deference Between Pentium and core processor

The difference between a Pentium 4 and a duo core processor is that a Pentium four only has one mode for a processor thus making it slower, the duo core processor has 2 modes for processing.

Pentium History

Intel debuted the original Pentium processor in 1993, and the device bears little similarity to the ever-more-powerful processors that would follow. The successive Pentium Pro, Pentium 2, Pentium 3 and Pentium 4 processors were among the most popular processors of the 1990s, with competition from AMD devices. Other processors using the Pentium name included the Pentium D, Pentium M and newer Pentium Dual-Core families. The processors have seen use in desktop as well as laptop machines.

Core History

Intel introduced the Core brand in 2006 as a replacement for the Pentium M line of processors, and the initial devices shared much of the same technology with the current Pentium-branded offerings. Follow-ups to the original include the Core Solo, Core Duo, Core 2 Quad, Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7 processor families. Starting with the Core 2, Core products were available for both laptop and desktop computers.

Pentium vs Core i3

The Pentium is probably the most popular line of Intel processors but it has been cast of the limelight due to the appearance of the newer Core line. But with the introduction of the Pentium G6950 and the Core i3 5xxx series, which are both Clarkdales, the need to identify the differences between them arises again. To be quick about it, the Pentium is basically identical to the i3 but with certain features disabled to differentiate it from the i3 and make it fit the price range of a low-end model.

For starters, the Pentium only has 3MB of L3 cache memory while the i3 has 4MB. More cache directly translates to lesser main memory accesses, which is much slower compared to cache memory. Controllers on the Pentium are also slower compared to those found on the i3. The memory controller of the i3 supports 1066Mhz and 1333Mhz modules while the Pentium would supports 1066Mhz and would automatically scale down the 1333Mhz module you put in. This is also the case when it comes to the graphics controller of the both processors. Whereas the i3 graphics controller runs at 733Mhz, that of the Pentium is only able to run at 533Mhz.

Also on the integrated graphics aspect, the Pentium lacks support for the Intel Clear Video HD Technology. This technology covers the playback of video and includes such features as dual video decode for Blu-ray, deep color and extended gamut, and other high-end options for video playback. All this can be found on the i3.

Lastly, hyper-threading is disabled in the Pentium but not in the i3. Hyper-threading allows the operating system to see each core as two virtual cores. While the Pentium is seen by the operating system as having two cores, the i3 is seen as having four due to hyper-threading. Hyper-threading is known to provide performance improvements in applications that are optimized for multi-threading, where the tasks are broken up and pieces are assigned to different cores.

What is Dropbox ?

2013-07-23T11:57:00.002+05:45

Dropbox

Dropbox is a file hosting service operated by Dropbox, Inc., that offers cloud storage, file synchronization, and client software. Dropbox allows users to create a special folder on each of their computers, which Dropbox then synchronizes so that it appears to be the same folder (with the same contents) regardless of which computer is used to view it. Files placed in this folder also are accessible through a website and mobile phone applications.
Dropbox, Inc., was founded in 2007 by Drew Houston and Arash Ferdowsi, as a Y Combinator startup company.
Dropbox provides client software for Microsoft Windows,Mac OS X, Linux, Android, iOS, BlackBerry OS and web browsers, as well as unofficial ports to Symbian,Windows Phone etc.

Dropbox is a home for all your photos, docs, videos, and files. Anything you add to Dropbox will automatically show up on all your computers,phones and even the Dropbox website — so you can access your stuff from anywhere.

System requirements to run Dropbox?

Dropbox desktop application

The Dropbox application runs on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux operating systems. To run the Dropbox application on your computer we recommend:

At least 512MB of RAM
An amount of free space on your computer equal to the amount you want to store on Dropbox
Windows 2003, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 and 8 (32- and 64-bit)
Mac: OS X Tiger (10.4) or later
Ubuntu 7.10+ and Fedora Core 9+. Make sure your partition is mounted with support for extended attributes (xattrs). Also see the advanced section below for Nautilus/GNOME integration requirements

Dropbox website

You can transfer and download files using the Dropbox website from any modern browser. The Dropbox website works best on:

Internet Explorer 8+.
All recent versions of Google Chrome
Safari 3+
Firefox 3+
Opera 9+

Dropbox on mobile phones

Dropbox is also accessible via several mobile devices:

iPhone App

iPhone (any model) or iPod Touch
iOS 5 or later
All video features require an iPhone 3GS or later model
An Apple ID to access the App Store

iPad App

An iPad
iOS 5 or later
An Apple ID to access the App Store

Android App

Android OS 2.1 (Eclair) or higher

BlackBerry App

BlackBerry OS 4.5 and up.
Music playback is supported on devices with BlackBerry OS 4.6 and up.
Video/audio format support varies depending on device and OS version. Read more about video/audio support from the BlackBerry website

Mobile browser

The mobile-optimized version of Dropbox should work on any web browser. Simply bookmarkhttp://m.dropbox.com

Source https://www.dropbox.com/help/

SKY DRIVE OVERVIEW

2013-07-08T11:32:00.002+05:45

SKY DRIVE OVERVIEW

With SkyDrive, you get 7 GB of free storage in the cloud to store your files and photos, sync across all your computers, and even edit and collaborate on Office documents. You can access the latest version of your files from any computer or phone—no cables or USB flash drive necessary.

Share photos and files through email, by sending a short link in a text message, or by posting them to a social network, your website or blog right from SkyDrive. There's also a desktop app for SkyDrive that creates a folder on your PC or Mac that syncs with your cloud folder and lets you access files on your PC remotely.

History

On its launch, SkyDrive, known as Windows Live Folders at the time (with a codename of SkyDrive), was provided as a limited beta available to a few testers in the United States. On August 1, 2007, the service was expanded to a wider audience. Shortly after, on August 9, 2007 the service was renamed Windows Live SkyDrive and made available to testers in the United Kingdom and India. As of 22 May 2008 SkyDrive was available to 62 countries and regions. On December 2, 2008, the capacity of an individual SkyDrive account was upgraded from 5 GB to 25 GB, and Microsoft added a separate entry point called Windows Live Photos which allowed users to access their photos and videos stored on SkyDrive. This entry point allowed users to add "People tags" to their photos, download photos into Windows Photo Gallery or as a ZIP file, as well as viewing EXIF metadata such as camera information for the photos uploaded. Microsoft also added full-screen slide show support for photos using Silverlight.
SkyDrive was updated to "Wave 4" release on June 7, 2010, and added support for Office Web Apps, offering versioning support. In this update, due to the discontinuation of Windows Live Toolbar, the ability to synchronise and share bookmarked Web links between users via SkyDrive has also been discontinued. However, users are still able to use Windows Live Mesh to synchronise their favorites between computers, although the "cloud" storage component of the bookmarked Web links is no longer available. This feature replaces the previous Windows Live Favorites service.
In June 2010, users of Office Live Workspace, released in October 2007, were migrated to Windows Live Office. The migration included all existing workspaces, documents, and sharing permissions. The merger of the two services is a result of Microsoft's decision to merge its Office Live team into Windows Live back in January 2009, as well as several deficiencies with Office Live Workspace, which lacked high fidelity document viewing and did not allow files to be edited from within the web browser. Office Live Workspace also did not offer offline collaboration and co-authoring functionality – instead documents were "checked out" and "checked in," though the service did integrate with SharedView for real-time screen sharing.
On June 20, 2011, Microsoft overhauled the user interface for SkyDrive, built using HTML5 technologies. Microsoft also doubled the file size limit from 50 MB to 100 MB per file, as well as adding new features such as caching and hardware acceleration, support for HTML5 videos, Quick views, cleaner arrangement of photos, infinite scrolling. This update also brought together the different entry points for SkyDrive, such as Windows Live Photos and Windows Live Office, into one single interface. Files and folders shared with a user, including those in Windows Live Groups are also accessible in the new interface. On November 29, 2011, Microsoft updated SkyDrive to make sharing and file management easier, as well as HTML5 and other updates. This update also allowed users to see how much storage they had (and how much they had used), a feature that had been removed in the previous update as part of the redesign.
On December 3, 2011, Microsoft released a SkyDrive for iOS app, and a SkyDrive for Windows Phone app, which are available in the App Store and Windows Phone Marketplace respectively. On April 22, 2012, Microsoft released a SkyDrive desktop app for Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and OS X users which allows them to synchronize files on SkyDrive, much like Windows Live Mesh, as well as allowing users to "fetch" files on their computer via the web browser. In addition, SkyDrive also provided additional storage available for purchase, and reduced the free storage space for new users to 7 GB (from 25 GB). Existing users were offered a free upgrade offer to retain their 25 GB of free storage. The updated SkyDrive also supports files up to 2 GB in size (uploaded via the SkyDrive desktop app). The update also brought additional features such as Open Document Format (ODF) support, URL shortening services, and direct sharing of files to Twitter.
On August 14, 2012, Microsoft announced a new update for SkyDrive which brought changes and improvements to SkyDrive.com, SkyDrive for Windows desktop and OS X, and the SkyDrive API as part of Live Connect. For SkyDrive.com, the updates brought a new "modern" design for the web service consistent with Outlook.com, and along with the UI update the service also received improvements such as instant search, contextual toolbar, multi-select in thumbnail view, drag-and-drop files into folders, and sorting improvements. For the SkyDrive for Windows desktop and OS X applications, the update brought new performance improvements to photo uploads and the sync experience. The update also improved the SkyDrive API with the removal of file type restrictions, ability to upload images in their full resolution, as well as a new SkyDrive file picker for opening and saving files. On August 28, 2012, Microsoft released a SkyDrive app for Android on Google Play store. On September 18, 2012, Microsoft also introduced a recycle bin feature on SkyDrive and announced that SkyDrive will support the creation of online surveys via Excel Web App.

( Source : wikipedia.org)

SkyDrive on the web

Free your files! Access, store, and share your photos and files from your PC or Mac, phone, tablet or any other device with SkyDrive on the web. Create, upload, or access files with a couple of clicks.

Keep everything at your fingertips:

You can customize the way your SkyDrive looks on the web.
Share photos and files on SkyDrive.com.
Customize your SkyDrive privacy settings so you share only what you want with the people you choose.
SkyDrive on your computer
When you download the SkyDrive desktop app on your PC or Mac, your desktop SkyDrive folder is automatically created. Any file or photo you put in this folder will be automatically synced to your other computers that have SkyDrive. And, you can still access your files on your phone. You'll also be able to get files from that machine even if you forgot to add them to your SkyDrive.

Go to the SkyDrive apps page and click Windows desktop or Mac to download the SkyDrive desktop app.

Getting started is simple:
- Drag and drop files into your SkyDrive folder to automatically upload them to your cloud storage account. A green checkmark will appear when your file has finished uploading. Whenever you save an updated version of the file, SkyDrive will automatically update your folder with the latest version of the file.
- With the desktop app, you can sync your entire SkyDrive on that computer, or you can choose single folders to sync. If you want to later change which folders are synced, right-click the SkyDrive desktop icon () in the notification area at the far right of the taskbar. (You might need to click Show hidden icons first to see the icon.) Then click Settings, and then click the Choose folders tab.
- Fetch files from your Windows PC remotely (from a separate Windows PC), even if they’re not saved to your SkyDrive account, as long as it's connected to the Internet. To turn on fetch, right-click the SkyDrive desktop icon () in the notification area at the far right of the taskbar. (You might need to click Show hidden icons first to see the icon.) Then click Settings, and then check the Let me use SkyDrive to fetch any of my files on this PC option.
  
  And of course, you can still get to your files anytime from any computer by signing in to SkyDrive.com

Source : windows.microsoft.com

Google Drive Overview

2013-05-13T09:14:00.006+05:45

Overview of Google Drive

Google Drive is a file storage and synchronization service provided by Google, released on April 24, 2012, which enables user cloud storage, file sharing and collaborative editing. Google Drive is now the home of Google Docs, a suite of productivity applications that offer collaborative editing on documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and more. Rumors about Google Drive began circulating as early as March 2006. Files shared publicly on Google Drive can be searched with engines like Open Drive

Google Drive lets you store and access your files anywhere -- on the web, on your hard drive, or on the go. Here’s how it works:

Go to Google Drive on the web at http://www.drive.google.com.
Install Google Drive on your computer or mobile device.
Throw your files in Google Drive. It’s right there on your device.

Now your files go everywhere you do. Change a file on the web, on your computer, or on your mobile device and it updates on every device where you’ve installed Google Drive. Share, collaborate, or work alone: your files, your choice.

Store the first 5 GB of your stuff for free.

When your Google Drive grows, get another 25 GB of space (or more!) starting at $2.49 per month.

Access everything in your Google Drive from all your devices.

Your files are always waiting for you at drive.google.com, but you can also get them straight from your computer, Smartphone, and tablet. Install Google Drive on multiple devices and Google Drive makes sure they’re all the same.

Keep files synced. Just connect to the web – it's pretty much automatic.

Any time your device has Internet access, it checks in with Google Drive. That ensures your files and folders are always up to date. Change something on one device and it changes everywhere.

Stop emailing attachments. Start sharing.

Google Drive lets you choose exactly who – friends, family, colleagues – gets your files. You don’t need email attachments anymore. Just share your file, folder, or Google Doc from any device.

Keep collaborating!

Do you collaborate with others in Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides? Google Drive lets you continue to create, access, and collaborate in a version-free world.

Supported file formats

Google Drive viewer allows one to preview the following file formats:

· Image files (.JPEG, .PNG, .GIF, .TIFF, .BMP)

· Video files (WebM, .MPEG4, .3GPP, .MOV, .AVI, .MPEGPS, .WMV, .FLV)

· Text files (.TXT)

· Markup/Code (.CSS, .HTML, .PHP, .C, .CPP, .H, .HPP, .JS)

· Microsoft Word (.DOC and .DOCX)

· Microsoft Excel (.XLS and .XLSX)

· Microsoft PowerPoint (.PPT and .PPTX)

· Adobe Portable Document Format (.PDF)

· Apple Pages (.PAGES)

· Adobe Illustrator (.AI)

· Adobe Photoshop (.PSD)

· Autodesk AutoCad (.DXF)

· Scalable Vector Graphics (.SVG)

· PostScript (.EPS, .PS)

· Fonts (.TTF, .OTF)

· XML Paper Specification (.XPS)

· Archive file types (.ZIP and .RAR)

Data safety and privacy

In a cloud environment, data security issues and national interests mean that on-line document storage (e.g. electronic mail), and processing (e.g. Gmail) can be unsuitable for use by governments or commercial organizations. Especially so where sensitive data (e.g. electronic mail) or confidential data is being stored, edited or shared on systems and infrastructure that are outsourced (e.g. by senior US government officials to Google) and shared with many other organizations, individuals, users. (e.g. the Internet.)

1. In a mid-2011 attack on Google from Jinan, China, (a city with a military command center), the passwords were stolen for the Gmail accounts of hundreds of senior US government officials. The Gmail address and password would have given the attackers the ability to access other areas of Google for these user accounts (Apps, Docs, etc.,) Other systems where the username and password pair were the same could also have been accessed. Also, some systems using a password recovery feature could be accessed. (If a password is forgotten a new one is sent to the registered email address. See Password notification email.)

2. On 10 March 2009, Google reported that a bug in Google Docs had allowed unintended access to some private documents. Google believed that 0.05% of all documents stored via the service were affected by the bug, and claims the issue has now been fixed.

3. Google has a close relationship with the US intelligence agencies and provides information to intelligence agenciesaround the world upon request via established protocols (e.g. RIPA in the UK). Google is primarily a US company, and therefore, to protect national interests, some non-US citizens may have their safety or privacy compromised as a result of using Google Drive and other Google services.

Some of the issues that have to be considered to see if Google Drive is "enterprise-ready" include

· Encryption of data in transit and storage

· Service Level Agreements (regarding electronic discovery and incident management)

· Audit trails for users and administrators

· Data Segregation and Data Isolation

Google provides optional free two-factor authentication for greater account security.To log in, users must provide a short random code sequence sent to their phones via SMS or generated by the Google Authenticator app for Android or iOS. In addition, Google has switched to using secure sockets layer communication (HTTPS) by default, preventing common man-in-the-middle attacks.

( Please use the free Google Drive service up to 5 GB storage for secure your data and backup)

computer memory & Software Overview

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Memory

Memory refer to computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer memory includes internal and external memory.

Internal memory

The internal memory is accessible by a processor without the use of the computer input-output channels. It usually includes several types of storage, such as main storage, cache memory, and special registers, all of which can be directly accessed by the processor.

Cache memory : A buffer, smaller and faster than main storage, used to hold a copy of instructions and data in main storage that are likely to be needed next by the processor and that have been obtained automatically from main storage.
Main memory (Main Storage) : addressable storage from which instructions and other data may be loaded directly into registers for subsequent execution or processing.

Storage capacity of the main memory is the total amount of stored information that the memory can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes. Each address identifies a word of storage. So the capacity of the main memory depends on the number of bits allowed to address. For instance, a computer allows also 32-bit memory addresses; a byte-addressable 32-bit computer can address 2³² = 4,294,967,296 bytes of memory, or 4 gigabytes (GB). The capacity of the main memory is 4 GB.

The main memory consists of ROM and RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is made ON.

External Memory

The external memory holds information too large for storage in main memory. Information on external memory can only be accessed by the CPU if it is first transferred to main memory. External memory is slow and virtually unlimited in capacity. It retains information when the computer is switched off and is used to keep a permanent copy of programs and data.

Hard Disk: is made of magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded. The capacity of a hard disk is possibly 20 GB, 30 GB, 40 GB, 60 GB or more.
Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system.
Optical Disk : With every new application and software (includes sounds, images and videos) there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage medium. There are two commonly used categories of optical disks: CD with the approximate capacity of 700MB and DVD with the approximate capacity of 4.7GB.
Memory Stick (Flash card, flash drive): a removable flash memory card format, with 128MB, 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB , 4 GB or more capacities.

Input-Output Devices

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly the computer after processing, gives output through other devices called output devices.

Common input and output devices are: Speakers, Mouse, Scanner, Printer, Joystick, CD-ROM, Keyboard, Microphone, DVD, Floppy drive, Hard drive, Magnetic tape, and Monitor. Some devices are capable of both input and output.

Input Devices

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices.

Keyboard: -

This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter. It also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. You must press correct combination of keys to input data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.

Mouse: -

Mouse is an input device that is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse.

Scanner:

The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back.

Output Devices

Monitor: The most popular input/output device is the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive massages from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer system and is connected to the computer by cable. It can be color or monochrome. It is controlled by an output device called a graphics card. Displayable area measured in dots per inch, dots are often referred to as pixels. Standard resolution is 640 by 480. Many cards support resolution of 1280 by 1024 or better. Number of colors supported varies from 16 to billions
Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed for different types of applications.

Buses

Bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer components inside a computer or between computers. Bus can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards or cables together. The buses are categorized depending on their tasks:

· The data bus transfers actual data.
· The address bus transfers information about where the data should go.
· The control bus carries signals that report the status of various devices.

Programs and Programming Languages

Programs

A computer program is an algorithm written for a computer in a special programming language.

Programming languages

A programming language is an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer. It is defined through the use of syntactic and semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning respectively.

Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely.

There are large number of programming language in use. We can identify three type of programming languages : machine languages, assembly languages, high-level languages.

Machine Languages

Machine code or machine language is a system of instructions and data directly executed by a computer's central processing unit. Machine code is the lowest-level of abstraction for representing a computer program. Instructions are patterns of bits with different patterns corresponding to different commands to the machine. Machine code has several significant disadvantages : very difficult for a human to read and write, a program written on one computer cannot run on a different computer, so it cannot be used to write large program or program intended to run on different machines.

Assembly Languages

An assembly language is a low-level language for programming computers. It implements a symbolic representation of the numeric machine codes and other constants needed to program a particular CPU architecture.

This representation is usually defined by the hardware manufacturer, and is based on abbreviations (called mnemonics) that help the programmer remember individual instructions, registers, etc. An assembly language is thus specific to a certain physical or virtual computer architecture.

A utility program called an assembler, is used to translate assembly language statements into the target computer's machine code.

Although assembly is more friendly than machine code, use of assembly offer several disadvantages, for instance, each type of computer has its own assembly language or programming assembly requires much time and effort.

Hence, assembly language is not use to write large programs. However, there are some computer application, such as in writing program that control peripherals, assembly is still a necessity.

High-level languages

A high-level programming language is a programming language that, may be more abstract, easier to use, or more portable across platforms.

Examples: Pascal, C, Visual Basic, SQL, . . . .

Such languages often abstract away CPU operations such as memory access models and management of scope.These languages have been implemented by translating to machine languages.

There are two types of translators

Compileris a program that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine language)

Interpreteris a program that translates and executes source language statements one line at a time.

Domain Analysis

Often the first step in attempting to design a new piece of software, whether it be an addition to an existing software, a new application, a new subsystem or a whole new system, is, what is generally referred to as "Domain Analysis". The more knowledgeable they are about the domain already, the less the work required. Another objective of this work is to make the analysts who will later try to elicit and gather the requirements from the area experts or professionals, speak with them in the domain's own terminology and to better understand what is being said by these people. Otherwise they will not be taken seriously. So, this phase is an important prelude to extracting and gathering the requirements.

Software Elements Analysis

The most important task in creating a software product is extracting the requirements. Customers typically know what they want, but not what software should do, while incomplete, ambiguous or contradictory requirements are recognized by skilled and experienced software engineers. Frequently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk that the requirements are incorrect.

Specification

Specification is the task of precisely describing the software to be written, possibly in a rigorous way. In practice, most successful specifications are written to understand and fine-tune applications that were already well-developed, although safety-critical software systems are often carefully specified prior to application development. Specifications are most important for external interfaces that must remain stable.

Software architecture

The architecture of a software system refers to an abstract representation of that system. Architecture is concerned with making sure the software system will meet the requirements of the product, as well as ensuring that future requirements can be addressed. The architecture step also addresses interfaces between the software system and other software products, as well as the underlying hardware or the host operating system.

Implementation (or coding)

Reducing a design to code may be the most obvious part of the software engineering job, but it is not necessarily the largest portion.

Testing

Testing of parts of software, especially where code by two different engineers must work together, falls to the software engineer.

Documentation

An important (and often overlooked) task is documenting the internal design of software for the purpose of future maintenance and enhancement. Documentation is most important for external interfaces.

Classification of Computer Software

The software is divided to System Software and Application Software with each having several sub levels.

System software is the low –level software required to manage computer resources and support the production or execution of application program.

Application software is software program that perform a specific function directly for the end user.

System Software includes

Operating Systems software
Network Software : network management software, server software, security and encryption software, etc.
Database management software
Development tools and programming language software: software testing tools and testing software, program development tools, programming languages software
Etc.

Application Software includes

General business productivity applications : software program that perform a specific function directly for the end user, examples include : office applications, word processors, spreadsheet, project management system ,etc.
Home use applications : software used in the home for entertainment, reference or educational purposes, examples include games, home education etc.
Cross-industry application software : software that is designed to perform and/or manage a specific business function or process that is not unique to a particular industry, examples include professional accounting software, human resources management, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, etc.
Vertical market application software : software that perform a wide range of business functions for a specific industry such as manufacturing, retail, healthcare , engineering, restaurant, etc.
Utilities software : a small program that performs a very specific task. Examples include : compression programs, antivirus, search engines, font, file viewers, voice recognition software, etc.

computer system

2013-05-05T14:42:00.000+05:45

Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that performs calculations on data, presenting the results to humans or other computers in a variety of (hopefully useful) ways. The computer system includes not only the hardware, but also software that are necessary to make the computer function.
    Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including the digital circuitry, as distinguished from the computer software that executes within the hardware.
    Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some task on a computer system
    Computer Organization
General Model of a Computer
A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make.
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.The storage unit performs the following major functions: - All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.- Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer. In order to carry out the operations mentioned above, the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into several units for its operation.

CPU (central processing unit) : The place where decisions are made, computations are performed, and input/output requests are delegated
Memory: stores information being processed by the CPU
Input devices : allows people to supply information to computers

Output devices : allows people to receive information from computers
Buses : a bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer components inside a computer

The basic function of a computer is program execution. When a program is running the executable binary file is copied from the disk drive into memory. The process of program execution is the retrieval of instructions and data from memory, and the execution of the various operations.The cycles with complex instruction sets typically utilize the following stages :
          Fetch the instruction from main memory
        The CPU presents the value of the program counter (PC) on the address bus. The CPU then fetches the instruction from main memory via the data bus into the Memory Data Register (MDR). The value from the MDR is then placed into the Current Instruction Register (CIR), a circuit that holds the instruction so that it can be decoded and executed.
          Decode the instruction
        The instruction decoder interprets and implements the instruction.
          Fetch data from main memory
        Read the effective address from main memory if the instruction has an indirect address. Fetch required data from main memory to be processed and placed into registers.
          Execute the instruction
        From the instruction register, the data forming the instruction is decoded by the control unit. It then passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to calculate the result and writing the result back to a register. A condition signal is sent back to the control unit by the ALU if it is involved.
          Store results
        The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an output device. Based on the condition feedback from the ALU, the PC is either incremented to address the next instruction or updated to a different address where the next instruction will be fetched. The cycle is then repeated.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is the brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.CPU has four key parts

Control Unit
Arithmetic & Logic Unit
Registers
Clock

          Arithmetic Logic Units (ALU)
        The ALU, as its name implies, is that portion of the CPU hardware which performs the arithmetic and logical operations on the binary data .The ALU contains an Adder which is capable of combining the contents of two registers in accordance with the logic of binary arithmetic.
          Control Unit
        The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
          Registers
        Registers are temporary storage units within the CPU. Some registers, such as the program counter and instruction register, have dedicated uses. Other registers, such as the accumulator, are for more general purpose use.
          Clock
        A circuit in a processor that generates a regular sequence of electronic pulses used to synchronize operations of the processor's components. The time between pulses is the cycle time and the number of pulses per second is the clock rate (or frequency). The execution times of instructions on a computer are usually measured by a number of clock cycles rather than seconds. The higher clock rate, the quicker speed of instruction processing. The clock rate for a Pentium 4 processor is about 2.0, 2.2 GHz or higher

Computer Processor

2013-05-03T08:49:00.000+05:45

Computer Processor History Details:

1971 - Intel 4004

» It was designed by Federico Faggin and Ted Hoff of Intel and Masatoshi Shima of Busicom, and it was launched on November 15,1971.
» It consisted of 2300 transistors with pMOS technology.
» The total number of instructions were 46. The designed clock speed was 1 MHz while only 740 kHz was achieved.

It was the first microprocessor and it was used in the Busicom 141-PF calculator.

1972 - Intel 8008

» Also known as MCS-8, it was launched in April 1972.
» It was developed by Victor Poor and Harry Pyle of CTC, and Ted Hoff, Faggin, Stanley Mazor and Hal Feeney from Intel.
» It was made up of 3500 transistors. However, it was slower than its predecessor 4004.
» The clock speed was 0.5 MHz with the total number of instructions being 48.

For the first time it was used in personal computers, Micral and SCELBI.

1974 - Intel 8080

» Launched in April 1974, it was developed by Faggin, Mazor and Masatoshi Shima.
» The clock speed increased to 2 MHz, it was built on nMOS technology and used 6000 transistors.
» The major development was the separation of address (16-bit) and data (8-bit) bus. It also supported 256 I/Os.

It was used in the computers MITS Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080. Space Invaders (arcade video game) also used 8080 as the main processor.

1974 - Motorola 6800

» This processor developed by Motorola had no I/O ports.
» Memory-mapped input-output were used as I/Os.
» The clock speed was only 2 MHz with the instruction set consisting of 72 instructions.
» It was for the first time that HCF (Halt and Catch Fire) opcode was used, that made the processor unresponsive to any interrupts till it was reset.

HCF is a self-test feature developed for the first time by Motorola.

1977 - Intel 8085

» Unlike the other processors developed so far, this one was also used as a microcontroller working on +5V supply.
» It was the first time that von Neumann architecture was used.
» It was built with 6500 transistors and used nMOS technology.
» The instruction set consisted of 256 instructions.

The radiation-hardened version was used in NASA and ESA space expeditions.

1978 - Intel 8086

» The designed clock speed was 10 MHz.
» The development team for architecture consisted of Stephen P. Morse and Bruce Ravenel. Logic was designed by Jim McKevitt, John Bayliss, and William Pohlman was the project manager.

This was first used in the microcomputer Mycron 2000.

1979 - Intel 8088

» 8088 was based on the new HMOS technology and was launched on 1 July.
» It came in 40-pin DIP as well as PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier) package.
» However, the data path was only 8-bit. The designed frequency was 10 MHz.

The original IBM PC was based on 8088.

1987 - SPARC

» This processor was developed by Sun Microsystems.
» It had a clock speed of 40 MHz.
» It was made up of 1.8 million transistors with 256 IO pins.

Fujitsu's K Computer is ranked number 1 in the world's fastest 500 supercomputers as per TOP500 list ratings. It used SPARC.

1991 - Am386

» This AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) processor had striking resemblance to the Intel 80386 version x86 processors.
» With a clock speed of 40 MHz and 32-bit data bus, the processor was a competitor to Intel.

The excellent performance of AMD's floating point unit made it the second best choice (after Intel) for many manufacturers.

1993 - Pentium Processor

» The Pentium family started with the launch of the P5 processor.
» It came in two models - 510-pin version with 60 MHz clock speed and 567-pin version with a clock speed of 66 MHz.
» Launched on March 22, it was built with 3.1 million transistors.
» This 32-bit processor was the most advanced processor used in many computers that were manufactured at that time.

It was the first superscalar x86 microarchitecture that could execute two instructions simultaneously, thus speeding up the processor and reducing computing time.

1995 - Pentium Pro

» This was the first processor of the Pentium II series.
» This latest entrant came in an unconventional MCM (ceramic multi-chip module) 387 pins packaging.
» With a clock speed of 200 MHz, it was built to run in quad as well as dual processor configurations.
» About 5.5 million transistors were used to build this processor.
» It did not have an MMX instruction set.

This processor was used in ASCI Red that delivered teraFLOP (one trillion floating-point operations in one second) performance.

1997 - Pentium II

» Launched on 7 May, the Pentium II family had a vast range of processors to offer.
» The clock speed was increased gradually with every model launched to up to 450 MHz.
» Unlike the traditional processors, this one came in a slot or socket module. This made it easy for the computer manufacturers to use it in a limited space.
» Various processors were launched under this family:

Klamath (233 and 266 MHz)
Deschutes (333 MHz)
Pentium II Overdrive (300 or 333 MHz)
Tonga (First mobile Pentium II)
Dixon (Considered to be the fastest Pentium II)

It had a removable heatsink/fan combination that reduced the problem of heat dissipation.

1999 - Pentium III

» This Pentium II successor was launched on 26 February.
» The advancement from the previous model was the addition of the SSE instruction that accelerated the floating point calculations.
» On the similar lines as Pentium II, this processor was launched in Celeron (Low-end version) and Xeon (High-end version).
» The list of processors under this family are:

Katmai: Clock speed of 450 MHz and uses 9.5 million transistors
Coppermine: Clock speed of up to 1 GHz
Coppermine T: Only Coppermine model with an integrated heatsink (IHS)
Tualatin: Clock speed up to 1.4 GHz and 0.13 µm process

PSN (Processor Serial Number) was introduced in the manufacturing process that created the processor's unique identity, which was the first instance.

1999 - Athlon

» AMD launched Athlon on June 23. It was built using 37 million transistors and achieved a clock speed of about 800 MHz.
» It was packaged in a unique PGA (Pin Grid Array) 453-pin packaging.
» Athlon was a legitimate competitor to Intel Pentium III because it was faster.
» It was the first processor to reach the speed of 1 GHz.

Enhanced 3DNow! was first introduced, which increased the speed up to 2-4 times.

2000 - Pentium IV

» Intel's new single core processor family in the market was the Pentium IV processor that achieved a clock speed between 1.3 GHz to 3.08 GHz.
» The 423-pin processor came in an OLGA (Organic Land Grid Array) and PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) type packaging.
» The processors under this family are:

Willamette: Clock speed of 1.4 and 1.5 GHz and 180 nm process
Northwood: Clock speed up to 2.2 GHz and 130 nm die
Pentium 4-M: Built for Mobile use with TDP of 35 watts
Mobile Pentium 4: Built for laptop use with increased bus speed of 33 MHz
Gallatin: Die of 130 nm and an added 2 MB level 3 cache
Prescott: Die of 90 nm and hyper-threading that speeds up processes such as video editing
Prescott 2M: Clock speed of 3.8 GHz and 90 nm process
Cedar Mill: Die of 65 nm

The NetBurst architecture was first used in the processors under this family.

2003 - Pentium M

» This processor was a mobile single-core processor from Intel.
» It was designed with a clock speed of 2.26 GHz.
» Two processors were developed under this family, namely:

Banias: Clock speed of 1.7 GHz and TDP of 24.5 watts
Dothan: Die of 90 nm and clock speed of 2.1 GHz; TDP is reduced to 21 watts

This processor was used for the first time in Intel Carmel notebook under Centrino brand.

2006 - Core 2

» Intel Core 2 brand, launched on July 27, 2006, was also known as E6320.
» The clock speed was achieved up to 3.5 GHz.
» The processors launched under this family were single-core, dual-core and quad-core.
» The processor has been dropped from the price list since 2011.
» The processors under this brand for desktops are:

Conroe: Die of 65 nm (dual)
Allendale: Die of 65 nm (dual)
Wolfdale: Die of 45 nm (dual)
Conroe XE: Die of 65 nm (dual)
Allendale XE: Die of 65 nm (quad)
Wolfdale XE: Die of 45 nm (dual)
Kentsfield: Die of 65 nm (quad)
Yorkfield: Die of 45 nm (quad)

» The processors under this brand for laptops are:

Merom: Die of 65 nm (dual)
Penryn: Die of 45 nm (dual)
Merom XE: Die of 65 nm (dual)
Penryn XE: Die of 45 nm (quad and dual)
Merom-L: Die of 65 nm (single)
Penryn-L: Die of 45 nm (single)

The processor was capable of saving battery power by lowering the clock speed.

The Latest

The microprocessor technology has come a long way since the launch of 4004. The chip size has reduced, the clock speed has increased and the caches have further increased. The latest processors that have achieved this are:

Sandy Bridge

This Intel microarchitecture-based products were launched in 2011. It has achieved a 32-nanometer die manufacturing. It includes Intel Quick sync that is a hardware support for video encoding and decoding. There is also an improved 256-bit/cycle ring bus connect that interconnects the different parts of the processor. The transistor count used in this processor reaches up to 2.27 billion. This is the successor to the Nehalem microarchitecture family that achieved 45 nm manufacturing. The clock speed designed is 3.6 GHz. Intel recalled 67-series motherboards that had Cougar Point Chipset due to some hardware issue. The series under this family are:

Pentium: Clock speed up to 3.0 GHz
Celeron: Clock speed up to 3.0 GHz
Core i3: Clock speed up to 2.5 GHz
Core i5: Clock speed up to 3.4 GHz
Core i7: Clock speed up to 3.3 GHz
Core i7 Extreme: Clock speed up to 3.8 GHz

It has a vPro feature that can delete the information on a hard disk and the commands for this can be sent through 3G signals, Ethernet or Internet.

Ivy Bridge

An amazing 22-nm die processor named Ivy Bridge was announced by Intel in 2011, but it was introduced in the market on April 29, 2012. Reduced die is possible due to the use of the 3D (tri-gate) transistors. The 3D transistors reduce the power consumption to almost 50% less than the 2D ones. It also includes special support for PCI Express and also better graphics with DirectX 11. The clock speed is about 3.80 GHz. They are reported to have 20ºC higher temperature than Sandy Bridge. The desktop models under this family are:

Core i3 Series: Clock speed up to 3.4 GHz
Core i5 Series: Clock speed up to 3.8 GHz
Core i7 Series: Clock speed up to 3.5 GHz

The mobile models for under this family are:

Core i3 Series: TDP of 14W
Core i5 Series: TDP of 14W
Core i7 Series: TDP of 14W to 45W

CD/DVD INFORMATION

2013-04-26T10:17:00.004+05:45

History of CD/DVD

The first disc that could be written and read by optical means (using light as a medium) was developed by James T. Russell. In the late 1960s, Russell created a system that recorded, stored, and played audio/video data using light rather than the traditional contact methods, which could easily damage the disks during playback. Russell developed a photosensitive disc that stored data as 1 micron-wide dots of light and dark. The dots were read by a laser, converted to an electrical signal, and then to audio or visual display for playback.

Russell's own company manufactured the first disc player in 1980, although the technology never reached the marketplace until Philips and Sony developed the technology. In late 1982, Philips and Sony released the first of the compact disc (CD) formats, which they then called CD-DA (digital audio). In the years since, format has followed format as the original companies and other industry members developed more adaptations of the original specifications.

Digital Versatile disc (DVD) had its beginning in 1994, when two formats, Super disc (SD) and Multimedia CD (MMCD) were introduced. Promoters of the competing technologies failed to reach an agreement on a single standard until 1996, when DVD was selected as a convergence format. DVD has, in the few years since, grown to include variations that do anything that CD does, and more efficiently. Standardization and compatibility issues aside, DVD is well-placed to supplant CD.

Development of the Compact Disc, CD-ROM, DVD and Blu-Ray

1841: French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy proposed Sampling Theorem, which was used in the conversion of audio into digital format.
1842: An analytical engine for storing and performing calculations developed by Charles Babbage, a British mathematician and inventor.
1854: George Boole, a British mathematician, published theoretical concept used in digital circuits.
1855: Phono-autograph, a device used to record vibrations on a carbonized paper, was invented by Leon Scott de Martinville, a French printer-turned-inventor.
1877: Thomas Edison, an American inventor and scientist, invented the phonograph, an earlier version of the gramophone.
1887: Edison’s Wax Cylinder Phonograph replaced by the first ever audio disc, which was invented by American Emile Berliner.
1915: First 10-inch 78 rpm gramophone record introduced.
1922: The concept of time sampling in communication introduced by John Renshaw Carson.
1928: Technology used for today’s audio CDs proposed and proved in theory by Harry Nyquist, a Swedish physicist.
1937: Alec Reeves, a British scientist, invented pulse-code modulation technology, which is still being used in audio CDs today.
1947: Magnetic tape recorders introduced in US markets.
1948: Claude Shannon, American mathematician and “Father of Information Theory”, published Mathematical Theory of Communication, which contributed significantly to CD technology.
1949: 7-inch 45 rpm records introduced in the US markets.
1950: Richard Hamming, an American mathematician, published Theory of Error Detection and Corrections, an important document for the manufacturing of error-free CDs.
1958: Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments introduced the integrated circuit.
1960: Laser technology introduced by Theodore Maiman and used for data storage in CDs. Irving Stoy Reed and Gustave Soloman invented the Reed Solomon code, an algebraic error-correcting and detection code, which was used for reading and encoding CDs.
1965: James Russell, an American inventor, introduced the concept of optical digital recording and playback.
1967: 12-bit PCM digital audio recording demonstrated at NHK Technical Research Institute, Japan. The audio was recorded onto a high grade video tape.
1969: The idea of a compact disc was born in the mind of Klass Compaan, a Ducth physicist.
1970: A glass disc prototype that was readable by laser was created by Klass Compaan and Pete Kramer at Philips.
1971: Intel produced the microprocessor.
1972: First color prototype of the compact disc produced by Kramer and Compaan.
1975: Research on laser and optical disc technology started by Sony.
1977: Philips began researching laser and optical disc technology.
1976: Demonstration of an optical digital audio disc by Sony.
1978: Sony demonstrated an advanced version of optical digital audio disc with playing time of 150 minutes.
1979: Philips launched compact disc.
1980: CD-DA format introduced by Philips and Sony, and standards were laid down in the Red Book.
1981: First test CD created in Hannover, Germany by the Polydor Pressing Operations plant.
1982: Manufacturing of CDs began on a large scale in a factory.
1982: First ever album on a CD released by Sony, which was Billy Joel’s 52nd Street.
1983: CD players and discs hit the market in the US and the rest of the world.
1984: Advanced technology to store and retrieve data from CD-ROM introduced.
1985: CD-ROM drives introduced in the US and world markets. Dire Straits became the first artist to sell a million copies on CD.
1986: CD-I, the interactive CD concept, was introduced.
1987: The first Video CD (VCD) format created for storing and playing video and audio.
1988: The concept of CD-R, a recordable CD, was born.
1990: Philips and Sony created a recordable CD called the CD-R.
1991: CD-I format created and launched in the market.
1996: DVD technology hit the world, through the collaboration of leading computer companies such as Sun, Apple, Dell, and many more.
1997: DVD released in the market, sidelining CDs. Rewritable CDs and CD-RW introduced in the market.
1999: Super Audio CD is released by Sony and Philips as a higher quality digital audio recording.
2000: DVD-Audio is released as a competitor to Super Audio CDs, neither of which achieved much success on the mass market.
2000: The DVR Blue prototypes are unveiled, later to become known as Blu-Ray discs.
2003: The first consumer available Blu-Ray player is released in Japan by Sony.
2008: Sales for large label CDs drops 20% due to rising popularity of MP3 audio.

Optical track
Optical track is a recording unit of data on the disc. The information stored on CD-ROM is arranged according to certain rules, and is shaped like an "Optical track", called "light rail" in spiral shapes. The data from the directory inside the CD-ROM (TOC, Table of Contents) is recorded in the starting address of the number of consecutive logical sectors of an Optical track. The audio CD in a song is corresponding to a light rail, therefore, there are many light rails. CD-ROM light rails are at most 99 in number.

The minimum length of Optical tracks
The minimum length of each light rail is indicated by Time: 4 seconds, or 300 sectors.
This value is sometimes referred to as "threshold." Less than 4 seconds, light rail, if it can not be used as light rail, it might be a "bad Optical track"

Pit and land
The depression part on the Optical track is called information pit and the flat part is called land. Pit and land are used to record information.

CD-R disc has been pressed with spiral groove, known as the "pre-groove", instead the pit of optical track. When burning, CD-R disc in a trench in an organic dye laser irradiation, the formation of bubbles, this is the "pit". Bubbles, once formed, will not be able to restore the status quo, therefore, CD-R can only be written once.

EFM (Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation)
These "pit" and "land" is the signal after "8-14 coded modulation" (EFM, Eight to Fourteen Modulation), plus three interval code could access code to form inside the burning to disc. This treatment can guarantee the accuracy of reading the signal.

When the laser head of CD-ROM drive reads the data, the "pit" and "land" reflection coefficient is not the same, but they are read as "0" and only the "pit", "land" conversions is read as "1". The length of Pit" and "land" decides the number of"0". 8-bit data have two or more of the "1", CD-ROM accesses can not be achieved. To this end, two consecutive "1" between the use of at least two "0", up to 10 "0" separated them. EFM is to extract the 14-bit data and 256 does not appear for two consecutive "1" of data (access code) and the 8-bit data correspond. In order to avoid the adjacent two data channels being two yards, "one" and therefore the channel between the plus three yards combined yards (DVD using two combined yards), the formation of 17-channel code. This channel code can be used directly for burning CDs. Reading the disc, it will be 17 yards through the channel decoding system to be converted to 8-bit binary data.

The capacity of CD
The amount of data stored in the disc is the capacity of CD. It is usually measured in MB. A standard CD-R disc is used to record data, its capacity is 650MB. But now they have large capacity, for example, 700MB.
The capacity of CD can also be represented by time. In the standard speed, the standard capacity is defined as 74 minutes.
High-capacity CD can play 80-minutes (equivalent to 700MB). There are also two kinds of rare large-capacity CDs for 90 minutes and 99 minutes.

CD-R is used to indicate the capacity in two ways, such as the disk shall be marked "74 minutes, 650MB". Actually, the time is accurate, but with the "MB" of representation, it is right when the disc is used as a data disc, but as other types of discs used, its capacity will be more than 650MB.

Here we would like to set audio CD, data CD, and video CD as examples, their capacity of sectors are 2352, 2048, 2236 byte and their capacity would be:
Audio CD: 74×60×75×2352÷1024÷1024=746.93(MB)
Data CD: 74×60×75×2048÷1024÷1024=650.39(MB)
Video CD: 74×60×75×2336÷1024÷1024=741.85(MB)

Hard disk

2013-04-26T07:46:00.004+05:45

History of Hard Disk Drive

Hard disks were invented in the 1950s. They started as large disks up to 20 inches in diameter holding just a few megabytes. They were originally called "fixed disks" or "Winchesters" (a code name used for a popular IBM product). A hard disk drive consists of a motor, spindle, platters, read/write heads, actuator, frame, air filter, and electronics.

The first computer with a hard disk was IBM’s RAMAC, which was used during the 1960 Olympics to calculate sports results. A bit later, in 1962, removable disk packs were developed – a forerunner of the floppy disk. In 1964, the CRC algorithm was introduced. It provided greater security by checking and comparing data before and after it was written to the disk. In 1971, the first 8-inch diskettes came onto the market.

But it wasn’t until the middle of the 1980’s that people began to use hard disks in more standard PC’s, and since then development has surged ahead. The capacity of a standard hard disk has actually become a thousand times greater in the period 1990-2000.

The standard user’s need for disk space (e.g. for digital photos, video and music) has grown in step with this, so that 120-250 GB of disk space or more is normal in many PC’s – a figure which will double over the next few years.

Hard disks are constantly being developed which have greater capacity and speed (the two go together, as we shall see), and there is therefore a constant need for new types of hard disk controllers. The companies leading the development are Maxtor, Western Digital, IBM/Hitachi and Seagate.

The frame mounts the mechanical parts of the drive and is sealed with a cover. The sealed part of the drive is known as the Hard Disk Assembly or HDA. The drive electronics usually consists of one or more printed circuit boards mounted on the bottom of the HDA.

How Hard Disk Works?

Data on a hard disk is stored in microscopic areas called magnetic domains on the magnetic material. Each domain stores either a 1 or 0 value. Similar to a floppy disk, a hard disk records its data in concentric circles or tracks, which are numbered from the outermost edge to the innermost edge of the platter. These tracks are further subdivided into smaller units called sectors which typically store 512 bytes of data each. Zoning may be needed to further optimise the data storage as the outer circumference would normally pack more sector units than the inner circumference.

When a command is made to store some data on a disk, the following chain of events occurs:
The data flows into a cache where it is encoded using special mathematically derived formulae, ensuring that any subsequent errors caused by noise can be detected and corrected.
Free sectors on the disk are selected and the actuator moves the heads over those sectors just prior to writing. (The time it takes the actuator to move to the selected data track is called the "seek" time.)
Once over the data track, the heads must not write the data until the selected free sectors on that track pass beneath the head. This time is related to the rotation speed of the disk: the faster the speed, the shorter this "latency" period.
When it's time to write, a pattern of electrical pulses representing the data pass through a coil in the writing element of the recording head, producing a related pattern of magnetic fields at a gap in the head nearest the disk. These magnetic fields alter the magnetic orientations of bit regions on the disk itself, so the bits now represent the data.

When a command is made to read some data on a disk, a similar process occurs in reverse. After consulting the table of stored data locations in the drive's electronics, the actuator moves the head over the track where the chosen data is located. When the correct sectors pass beneath the head, the magnetic fields from the bits induce resistivity changes in the sensitive MR or GMR materials located in the reading elements within the head. These elements are connected to electronic circuits, and the current flowing through those circuits change with the resistivity changes. The current variations are then detected and decoded to reveal the data that had been stored on the disk.

First Hard Disk in the World

World's First Hard disk - At this time I will show the first hard disk weighing more than 1 ton, a very historic thing in the tech world as well as in the world of IT (Information Technology), Curious any kind of capacity, price, and speed? The picture below is the first hard disk, which was launched in September 1956 with the IBM 305 RAMAC title. The storage capacity of 5 Mb hard drive and is the first computer using a hard disk drive. Heavy hard disk is more than 1 ton.

Specifications:
IBM 305 RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) 1956
1. Capacity: 4.8 MB
2. rotational speed: 1,200 rpm
3. Rent: $ 3,200 per month (1957)
4. Business users first: Chrysler's Mopar Division (1957)
5. The number of units that have been produced: over 1000 units by year 1961

Types of Hard Disks

There are few different types of hard disks, but other than its physical size, the different type of interfaces of the hard disk is main difference.

1. IDE : Integrated Drive Electronics. IDE drives are also known as PATA drives( Parallel advance technology attachment )
2. SATA : Serial advance technology attachment
3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). SCSI is pronounced as scuzzy.
4. SAS : Serial Attached SCSI

IDE PATA Drive

IDE PATA Drive Cable

IDE / PATA (Integrated Drive Electronics Drive / Parallel Advance Technology Attachment Drive)

IDE/PATA Drives have usually 40 pins.
IDE/PATA Drives offer 133 MB/sec transfer rate.
It sends 8 bit data at a time.
PATA Cables are used to connect PATA HDD. Two drives can be connected in a single pata cable. One as master and other as slave. The configuration of master and slave is done by different combination of jumpers in the HDD.

SATA DRIVE

SATA Drive Cable

SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment Drive)

SATA Drives have usually 7 pins, 4 pins in pair of two for sending and receiving data and rest 3 pins are grounded.
SATA Drives offers generally 300MB/sec transfer rate.
It sends data bit by bit.
SATA Cables are used to connect SATA HDD. Only one drive can be connected in a single sata cable.

SCSI Disk Drive

SCSI Data Cable

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface Drive)

SCSI Drives have usually 50 to 68 pins.
SCSI Drive offers generally 640MB/sec transfer rate.
This drives are hot swappable.
SCSI cables are used to connect SCSI HDD. Maximum of 16 drives can be connected in a single scsi cable. Each hdd have a 8 bytes hexadecimal code known as WWN (world wide name) for its identification in the cable.

SAS(Serial Attached SCSI Drive)

SAS Data Cable

SAS(Serial Attached SCSI Drive)

SAS Drives generally offers 805 MB/sec transfer rate.
This drives are hot swappable.
SAS Cables are used to connect SAS Drives. Maximum of 128 drives can be connected in a single sas cable.

Microsoft windows History

2013-04-25T08:06:00.002+05:45

Microsoft Windows History:

Year

Event

1983

Bill Gates announces Microsoft Windows November 10,1983.

1985

Microsoft Windows 1.0 is introduced in November 20, 1985 and is initially sold for $100.00.

1987

Microsoft Windows 2.0 was released December 9, 1987 and is initially sold for $100.00.

1987

Microsoft Windows/386 or Windows 386 is introduced December 9, 1987 and is initially sold for $100.00.

1988

Microsoft Windows/286 or Windows 286 is introduced June, 1988 and is initially sold for $100.00.

1990

Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released May, 22 1990. Microsoft Windows 3.0 full version was priced at $149.95 and the upgrade version was priced at $79.95.

1991

Following its decision not to develop operating systems cooperatively with IBM, Microsoft changes the name ofOS/2 to Windows NT.

1991

Microsoft Windows 3.0 or Windows 3.0a with multimedia was released October, 1991.

1992

Microsoft Windows 3.1 was released April, 1992 and sells more than 1 Million copies within the first two months of its release.

1992

Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.1 was released October, 1992.

1993

Microsoft Windows NT 3.1 was released July 27, 1993.

1993

Microsoft Windows 3.11, an update to Windows 3.1 is released December 31, 1993.

1993

The number of licensed users of Microsoft Windows now totals more than 25 Million.

1994

Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.11 was released February, 1994.

1994

Microsoft Windows NT 3.5 was released September 21, 1994.

1995

Microsoft Windows NT 3.51 was released May 30, 1995.

1995

Microsoft Windows 95 was released August 24, 1995 and sells more than 1 Million copies within 4 days.

1995

Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack 1 (4.00.950A) is released February 14, 1996.

1996

Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 was released July 29, 1996.

1996

Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950B) aka OSR2 with FAT32and MMX support is released August 24, 1996.

1996

Microsoft Windows CE 1.0 was released November, 1996.

1997

Microsoft Windows CE 2.0 was released November, 1997.

1997

Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950C) aka OSR2.5 is released November 26, 1997.

1998

Microsoft Windows 98 was released June, 1998.

1998

Microsoft Windows CE 2.1 was released July, 1998.

1998

In October of 1998 Microsoft announced that future releases of Windows NT would no longer have the initials of NT and that the next edition would be Windows 2000.

1999

Microsoft Windows 98 SE (Second Edition) was released May 5, 1999.

1999

Microsoft Windows CE 3.0 was released 1999.

2000

On January 4th at CES Bill Gates announces the new version of Windows CE will be called Pocket PC.

2000

Microsoft Windows 2000 was released February 17, 2000.

2000

Microsoft Windows ME (Millennium) released June 19, 2000.

2001

Microsoft Windows XP is released October 25, 2001.

2001

Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2002) for Itanium systems is released March 28, 2003.

2003

Microsoft Windows Server 2003 is released March 28, 2003.

2003

Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2003) for Itanium 2 systems is released on March 28, 2003.

2003

Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003 is released on December 18, 2003.

2004

Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005 is released on October 12, 2004.

2005

Microsoft Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is released on April 24, 2005.

2005

Microsoft announces it's next operating system, codenamed "Longhorn" will be named Windows Vista on July 23, 2005.

2006

Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista to corporations on November 30, 2006.

2007

Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista and Office 2007 to the general public January 30, 2007.

2009

Microsoft releases Windows 7 October 22, 2009.

2012

Microsoft releases Windows 8 October 26, 2012.

new year subhakamana

2013-04-12T09:30:00.003+05:45

आउदै गरेको नयाँ वर्ष मेरा सुभचिन्तक, साथीभाई तथा आफन्त एबम सम्पूर्ण देशविदेशमा बस्नुहुने नेपाली दाजुभाई तथा दिदीबहिनीहरुमा नया उमङ्ग, नयाँ नयाँ अवसर तथा सफलताको साथ बितोस आगामी दिन हरुमा सधै सफलताले शिखर चुमोस भन्ने कामना साथ नया बर्ष २० ७ ० को सुभकामना अर्पण गर्दछु .

लीलाराम पौडेल
info.lilaram@gmail.com

कम्प्युटरको Speed बढाउने Tips

2013-04-12T07:52:00.000+05:45

तपाईंको कम्प्युटरको Speed बढाउने Tips हरु :

१       सर्बप्रथम कम्प्युटर खोल्ने बित्तिकै कुनै पनि Application चाँड चांडै नखोल्नुस् ,
         पहिला राम्रो सँग PC लाई Bootup हुन दिनुस् ।
२     कुनैपनि Application बन्द गरी सके पछि आफ्नो Desktop लाई एक पल्ट Refresh गर्नुस् यसले तपाईंको कम्प्युटरको
        Ram मा जम्मा भएको Unused फाइलहरु Remove हुन्छ । ३    आफ्नो कम्प्युटरमा सके सम्म Wallpaper को Use नै नगर्नुस् र यदि गर्नुनै छ भने ठुलो साइजको Image लाई
       Use नगर्नुस् ।
४    आफ्नो Desktop मा धेरै Unnecessary Shortcut हरुलाई नराख्नुस् र सके सम्म Desktop लाई Clean नै राख् नुस् ।
       Desktop मा फोटो तथा Music को फाइलहरुलाई पनि Save नगर्नुस् ।
५     Recycle Bin लाई बेला बेलामा Empty गरी राख् नुस् । तपाईंले Delete गर्नु भएको फाइलहरु Recycle Bin मा जम्मा भई
        राखेको हुन्छ र तपाईंको कम्प्युटरको Harddrive को ठाउँ यसले लीइ राखेको हुन्छ ।
६    temporary internet files and Temporary Fileलाई बेला बेलामा Delete गरी राखनुस् ।
         (RUN-Type "%temp%" to find temporary file & to fine temporary internet file :

Open Internet Explorer by clicking the Start button , and then clicking Internet Explorer.
In the Settings dialog box, click View files.
Click the Tools button, and then click Internet Options.
Click the General tab, and then, under Browsing history, click Settings.

To delete temporary Internet files
It's a good idea to delete temporary Internet files periodically to free hard disk space.

Open Internet Explorer & Click the Tools button, and then click Internet Options.
Click the General tab, and then, under Browsing history, click Delete.
In the Delete Browsing History dialog box, do one of the following:

- In Internet Explorer 8, select the check boxes for the information you want to delete, click Delete, and then click OK.
- In Internet Explorer 7, click the individual type of information you want to delete. You can also click Delete all to remove all temporary files. When you're finished, click Close, and then click OK.)

७     आफ्नो कम्प्युटरलाई प्रत्येक २ २ महिनामा Defragment गर्नुस् । यसले तपाईंको कम्प्युटरको Harddrive मा धेरै
       खाली ठाउँ बनाउछ र Program हरु Fast चल्छन ।
८    आफ्नो कम्प्युटर लाई जहिले पनि २ वा २ भन्दा बढीमा partitions गर्नुस् र सके सम्म Software हरुलाई दोस्रो वा
       तेस्रो Drive मा Instal गर्नुस् । सके सम्म C Drive लाई खाली नै राख् नुस् ।
९   जब तपाईंले नयाँ Software हरु Instal गर्नु हुन्छ त्यो Software को Tray Icon लाई Disable गर्नुस् , यि Icon हरुले
    तपाईंको कम्प्युटरको RAM को Use गरी राखेका हुन्छन र कम्प्युटर Slow हुन सक्छ र Software का starting
    the application automatically Option लाई पनि Disable गर्न नभुल्नु होला । यस्ता Option हरुलाई तपाइले
    software हरु Instal गरी सके पछि उक्त Software को Tools मा गएर पनि Disable गर्न सक्नु हुन्छ ।
१० आफ्नो कम्प्युटर लाई धुलो बाट पनि सके सम्म बचाउनुस् , किन भने धुलोले तपाईंको कम्प्युटरका Cooling
      Fan हरुलाई जाम गरी दिन सक्छ यसले कम्प्युटर अनावश्यक रुपमा तातो हुन सक्छ र कम्प्युटर Slow हुने वा
      Down हुन   सक्छ ।
१ १ कम्प्युटरमा अनावश्यक startup Program हरु ले सिस्टम लाई load दिई slow हुने तथा अनावाश्येक hang प्रोब्लेम
     हुन्छ त्यस problem बाट छुटकारा पाउन निम्न step fallow गार्नुहोस :
    Goto Run and type "msconfig"
    then goto startup tab
   disable unnessary program from startup.

"यि ११ वटा साधारण Tips हरुलाई बिचार पुर्याउनु भयो भने तपाईंको कम्प्युटर तुलनात्मक रुपमा पहिले भन्दा धेरै Speed
मा चल्न सक्छ ।"

Computer Virus & Anti-virus

2013-04-09T08:32:00.001+05:45

Computer Virus:

Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer to another and to interfere with computer operation.

The first computer virus, called "Creeper", was written by Bob Thomas in 1971.
The virus would display the message, "I'm a creeper, catch me if you can!" and messed with people's printers.
It was written as a security test to see if a self-replicating program could be written (although technically it didn't self-replicate).
To stop "Creeper", the first ANTI-virus was created. The anti-virus was called "Reaper".

Rich Skrenta, who invented the "Elk Cloner" virus in 1981 for Apple 2, said that he did it as a "practical joke".
Since then, people do it for a variety of reasons. Some are malicious and want to damage or destroy people's computers. Some do it as a joke. Some are trying to get at your personal financial data.

What do computer viruses do?

Many computer viruses are stopped before they can start, but there is still an ever growing concern as to what do computer viruses do and the list of common computer virus symptoms. A computer virus might corrupt or delete data on your computer, use your email program to spread itself to other computers, or even erase everything on your hard disk.
Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in email messages or instant messaging messages. That is why it is essential that you never open email attachments unless you know who it's from and you are expecting it.
Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files.
Computer viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be hidden in illicit software or other files or programs you might download.

The Types Of Computer Viruses

1. Boot Sector Virus
2. File Infection Virus
3. Multipartite Virus
4. Network Virus
5. E-mail Virus
6. Macro Virus

Boot Sector Viruses

Viruses that aim at the boot sector of a hard drive are infecting a very crucial component of the boot process. The boot sector holds critical information that controls the hard drive and also the part of the operating program that is in charge of the whole boot process. These types of computer viruses go a long way toward the assurance they will be successful in their mission by absolutely loading into the system memory while the boot cycle is starting.

Unlike other viruses the boot virus does not affect files, instead it goes after the drive itself on which the virus is saved and this is part of the reason that it is no longer as big a threat as it used to be. Since the advent of cds and dvds and the drives that carry them it is not possible to infect the programs that they carry. In the days of floppy drives the virus could spread quite quickly from computer to computer via the disks but since it is not possible to infect a cd or dvd this virus has become almost a non threat. Another reason this types of computer viruses have become less common is that now operating systems stand guard over the boot sector and that makes it very hard for the virus to have any effect.

File Virus

File viruses are coded so that they will attach themselves to exe files, compressed files like zip files and driver files. The can be set into actions when the program they are attached to is started. Then after the virus is set into motion it will attach itself to other programs and system files and start along it's intended path for which it was written. So you see it is a two prong approach. First depending on the types of computer viruses it will duplicate and then go about its intended mission. The virus will search through the programs in the system and find places to infect with the code and then it will activate when that program is run next time. It will continue to duplicate until it is all over the computer and probably any computer that is attached to the original system.

Often these viruses will harbor special code that causes them to be activated when certain events take place. The event often is a date or some other trigger event that is easily defined on any computer system you may have.

Multipartite Viruses

That which has been termed the multipartite virus are the types of computer viruses that are both a file virus and a boot sector virus. They enter the computer via various sorts of media and then embed themselves in the system memory. They then go into the hard drive and infect the boot sector. Once installed in the boot sector these types of computer viruses infect executable files and spread themselves in the system.

This is another virus that has past its prime for various reasons but in times past these types of computer viruses were responsible for many infections because they combined characteristics of two different viruses into one.

Network Viruses

A virus that is especially made for networks is uniquely created to quickly spread throughout the local area network and generally across the internet as well. Most of the time is moves within shared resources like drives and folders. Once it finds entry into a system it will search for vulnerable computers in the network and likewise infect that system and do the same again and again always on the hunt for new vulnerable systems.

E-Mail Viruses
Most of the time a e-mail virus is one of those types of computer viruses that is generally a macro virus and it will multiply itself by seeking out the other contacts in a e-mail address book and then send itself to those addresses in hopes that they will activate the virus too. Thus it spreads over and over again exponentially. There are even times an email virus can spread by only previewing it in the mail client. One that was very successful in spreading worldwide was the ILOVEYOU virus and it was destructive too.

Macro Viruses

Macro viruses as the name implies, will infect files of programs that use macros in the program itself. The most common of these are the Microsoft Office files created in Excel spreadsheets, Word documents, Access databases, Powerpoint presentations and these type of files from AmiPro and Corel Draw and others.

These types of computer viruses are programmed using the language that the application understands and not in the language of the operating system thus they are operating in a way that is independent of the operating system so it can infect any kind of system be it Mac, PC or even Linux just as long as the computer is running the application that understands the macro virus. As the macro language has become more and more powerful the threat of these types of computer viruses has graduated to more critical types of computer viruses. These viruses have been around since 1995 and the first was found to infect Microsoft Word but now have moved to other programs and they number in the thousands.

Trojan Horse:
A trojan horse program has the appearance of having a useful and desired function. While it may advertise its activity after launching, this information is not apparent to the user beforehand. Secretly the program performs other, undesired functions. A Trojan Horse neither replicates nor copies itself, but causes damage or compromises the security of the computer. A Trojan Horse must be sent by someone or carried by another program and may arrive in the form of a joke program or software of some sort. The malicious functionality of a Trojan Horse may be anything undesirable for a computer user, including data destruction or compromising a system by providing a means for another computer to gain access, thus bypassing normal access controls.

Worms:
A worm is a program that makes and facilitates the distribution of copies of itself; for example, from one disk drive to another, or by copying itself using email or another transport mechanism. The worm may do damage and compromise the security of the computer. It may arrive via exploitation of a system vulnerability or by clicking on an infected e-mail.

Memory Resident Viruses:
Memory Resident Viruses reside in a computers volitale memory (RAM). They are initiated from a virus which runs on the computer and they stay in memory after it's initiating program closes.

Rootkit Virus:
A rootkit virus is an undetectable virus which attempts to allow someone to gain control of a computer system. The term rootkit comes from the linux administrator root user. These viruses are usually installed by trojans and are normally disguised as operating system files.

Polymorphic Viruses:
A polymorphic virus not only replicates itself by creating multiple files of itself, but it also changes it's digital signature every time it replicates. This makes it difficult for less sophisticated antivirus software to detect.

Logic Bombs/Time Bombs:
These are viruses which are programmed to initiate at a specific date or when a specific event occurs. Some examples are a virus which deletes your photos on Halloween, or a virus which deletes a database table if a certain employee gets fired.

The First Computer Programmer

2013-03-29T10:52:00.001+05:45

The First Computer Programmer

Born: London, England, December 10, 1815

Died: London, England, November 27, 1852

Analyst, Metaphysician, and Founder of Scientific Computing

Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the poet Lord Byron. She was taught by Mary Somerville, a well-known researcher and scientific author, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in June 1833. Babbage was an English mathematician, who first had the idea for a programmable computer.
In 1842 and 1843, Ada translated the work of an Italian mathematician, Luigi Menabrea, on Babbage's Analytical Engine. Though mechanical, this machine was an important step in the history of computers; it was the design of a mechanical general-purpose computer. Babbage worked on it for many years until his death in 1871. However, because of financial, political, and legal issues, the engine was never built. The design of the machine was very modern; it anticipated the first completed general-purpose computers by about 100 years.
When Ada translated the article, she added a set of notes which specified in complete detail a method for calculating certain numbers with the Analytical Engine, which have since been recognized by historians as the world's first computer program. She also saw possibilities in it that Babbage hadn't: she realised that the machine could compose pieces of music. The computer programming language 'Ada', used in some aviation and military programs, is named after her.

news

2013-03-29T08:02:00.000+05:45

अहिलेसम्मकै भयानक साइबर आक्रमण, विश्वभरकै इन्टरनेट सुस्त(साइवर आक्रमण)

इन्टरनेट जगतमा ह्याकरहरुले अहिलेसम्मकै गम्भीर आक्रमण गरेपछि विश्वभरकै इन्टरनेटको निकै सुस्त भएको छ । साइवर विज्ञहरूका अनुसार ह्याकहरुले गरेको यो आक्रमण अहिलेसम्मकै सबैभन्दा ठूलो आक्रमण हो ।
यो आक्रमण एण्टी स्पामका लागी काम गर्ने र वेवपेजहरू होस्टिङ गर्ने कम्पनीबीच भएको विवादका कारण उक्त आक्रमण भएको बताइएको छ । यसबाट विश्वव्यापी रुपमा धेरै प्रयोगमा आएका विभिन्न इन्टरनेट सेवामा असर पुगेको र इन्टरनेट ब्यांकिङ तथा इमेल सेवा प्रभावित हुने बताइएको छ ।यस आक्रमणको सम्बन्धमा अनुसन्धानका लागी पाँच देशका प्रहरी समेत लागिसकेको बताइएको छ ।
बेलायती सरकारका अनुसार ह्याकरहरूले जसरी इन्टरनेटको गतिलाई काटेका छन् त्यो विधीलाई डिस्ट्रिब्युटेड डिनाइल अफ सर्भिस’ भनिन्छ । यसमा जुन ठाऊँमा आक्रमण गर्नुपर्ने हो या जुन ठाऊँको इन्टेरनेट सुस्त बनाउनुपर्ने त्यहाँ धेरै ट्राफिकहरू पठाइन्छ, जसले गर्दा वेवपेजहरू खुल्न निकै समय लाग्छ या ती वेवपेजहरू खुल्न नै सक्दैनन् ।
यस आक्रमणमा लण्डन र जेनेभामा रहेको गैर सरकारी संगठन ‘स्प्यामहस’ को ‘डोमेन नेम सिस्टम (डिएनएस) सर्भर’लाई निशाना बनाइएको छ । यी सर्भर भनेको वेवपेजहरूको नामलाई इन्टरनेटमा जोड्ने काम गर्छ । यदी यसलाई रोक्न नसकेको धेरै नै क्षति हुन सक्ने बाताईएको छ ।
movies

Hardware

2013-03-25T10:06:00.003+05:45

What is Hardware?

Your PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some of those components, like Windows XP, and all your other programs, are software. The stuff you can actually see and touch, and would likely break if you threw it out a fifth-story window, is hardware.

Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But those of you who have a desktop system, like the example shown in Figure 1, probably have most of the components shown in that same figure. Those of you with notebook computers probably have most of the same components. Only in your case the components are all integrated into a single book-sized portable unit.

The system unit is the actual computer; everything else is called a peripheral device. Your computer's system unit probably has at least one floppy disk drive, and one CD or DVD drive, into which you can insert floppy disks and CDs. There's another disk drive, called the hard disk inside the system unit, as shown in Figure 2. You can't remove that disk, or even see it. But it's there. And everything that's currently "in your computer" is actually stored on that hard disk. (We know this because there is no place else inside the computer where you can store information!).

The floppy drive and CD drive are often referred to as drives with removable media or removable drives for short, because you can remove whatever disk is currently in the drive, and replace it with another. Your computer's hard disk can store as much information as tens of thousands of floppy disks, so don't worry about running out of space on your hard disk any time soon. As a rule, you want to store everything you create or download on your hard disk. Use the floppy disks and CDs to send copies of files through the mail, or to make backup copies of important items.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

There's too much "stuff" on your computer's hard disk to use it all at the same time. During the average session sitting at the computer, you'll probably use only a small amount of all that's available. The stuff you're working with at any given moment is stored in random access memory (often abbreviated RAM, and often called simply "memory"). The advantage using RAM to store whatever you're working on at the moment is that RAM is very fast. Much faster than any disk. For you, "fast" translates to less time waiting and more time being productive.

So if RAM is so fast, why not put everything in it? Why have a hard disk at all? The answer to that lies in the fact that RAM is volatile. As soon as the computer is shut off, whether intentionally or by an accidental power outage, every thing in RAM disappears, just as quickly as a light bulb goes out when the plug is pulled. So you don't want to rely on RAM to hold everything. A disk, on the other hand, holds its information whether the power is on or off.

The Hard Disk

All of the information that's "in your computer", so to speak, is stored on your computer's hard disk. You never see that actual hard disk because it's sealed inside a special housing and needs to stay that way. Unlike RAM, which is volatile, the hard disk can hold information forever -- with or without electricity. Most modern hard disks have tens of billions of bytes of storage space on them. Which, in English, means that you can create, save, and download files for months or years without using up all the storage space it provides.

In the unlikely event that you do manage to fill up your hard disk, Windows will start showing a little message on the screen that reads "You are running low on disk space" well in advance of any problems. In fact, if that message appears, it won't until you're down to about 800 MB of free space. And 800 MB of empty space is equal to about 600 blank floppy disks. That's still plenty of room!

The Mouse

Obviously you know how to use your mouse, since you must have used it to get here. But let's take a look at the facts and buzzwords anyway. Your mouse probably has at least two buttons on it. The button on the left is called the primary mouse button, the button on the right is called the secondary mouse button or just the right mouse button. I'll just refer to them as the left and right mouse buttons. Many mice have a small wheel between the two mouse buttons, as illustrated in Figure .

The idea is to rest your hand comfortably on the mouse, with your index finger touching (but not pressing on) the left mouse button. Then, as you move the mouse, the mouse pointer (the little arrow on the screen) moves in the same direction. When moving the mouse, try to keep the buttons aimed toward the monitor -- don't "twist" the mouse as that just makes it all the harder to control the position of the mouse pointer.

If you find yourself reaching too far to get the mouse pointer where you want it to be on the screen, just pick up the mouse, move it to where it's comfortable to hold it, and place it back down on the mousepad or desk. The buzzwords that describe how you use the mouse are as follows:

Point: To point to an item means to move the mouse pointer so that it's touching the item.
Click: Point to the item, then tap (press and release) the left mouse button.
Double-click: Point to the item, and tap the left mouse button twice in rapid succession - click-click as fast as you can.
Right-click: Point to the item, then tap the mouse button on the right.
Drag: Point to an item, then hold down the left mouse button as you move the mouse. To drop the item, release the left mouse button.
Right-drag: Point to an item, then hold down the right mouse button as you move the mouse. To drop the item, release the right mouse button.

The Keyboard

Like the mouse, the keyboard is a means of interacting with your computer. You really only need to use the keyboard when you're typing text. Most of the keys on the keyboard are laid out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Alternate). There are also some keys across the top of the keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3, and so forth. Those are called the function keys, and the exact role they play depends on which program you happen to be using at the moment.
Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad with the keys laid out like the keys on a typical adding machine. If you're accustomed to using an adding machine, you might want to use the numeric keypad, rather than the numbers across the top of the keyboard, to type numbers. It doesn't really matter which keys you use. The numeric keypad is just there as a convenience to people who are accustomed to adding machines.

Generation of Computer

2013-03-24T12:50:00.000+05:45

Generation

The First Generation: 1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube Years)

The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and often undependable. In 1946two Americans, PresperEckert, and John Mauchly built the ENIAC electronic computer which used vacuum tubes instead of the mechanical switches of the Mark I. The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum tubes, which took up a lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like light bulbs do. The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).

The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of computers. Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison and worked very similar to light bulbs. It's purpose was to act like an amplifier and a switch. Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly (switch). These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.

The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air conditioners. However even with these huge coolers, vacuum tubes still overheated regularly. It was time for something new.

The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (The Era of the Transistor)

The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum tube computer lasted, but it was no less important in the advancement of computer technology. In 1947 three scientists, John Bardeen,William Shockley, and Walter Brattain working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the vacuum tube forever. This invention was the transistor which functions like a vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and switch electronic signals.

There were obvious differences between the transisitor and the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller, and much cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors were made of solid material, some of which is silicon, an abundant element (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass. Therefore they were very cheap to produce. Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes. They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum tubes. Their use marked a new beginning for the computer. Without this invention, space travel in the 1960's would not have been possible. However, a new invention would even further advance our ability to use computers.

The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits - Miniaturizing the Computer)

Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the computer. However no one could predict that thousands even now millions of transistors (circuits) could be compacted in such a small space. The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon. Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments independently discovered the amazing attributes of integrated circuits. Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single chip vastly increased the power of a single computer and lowered its cost considerably.

Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can be placed on a single chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the size and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power. Most electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fiberglass that have electrical connections etched onto them -- sometimes called a mother board.

These third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a second. The size of these machines dropped to the size of small file cabinets. Yet, the single biggest advancement in the computer era was yet to be discovered.

The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (The Microprocessor)

This generation can be characterized by both the jump to monolithic integrated circuits(millions of transistors put onto one integrated circuit chip) and the invention of the microprocessor (a single chip that could do all the processing of a full-scale computer). By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers. Because electricity travels about a foot in a billionth of a second, the smaller the distance the greater the speed of computers.

However what really triggered the tremendous growth of computers and its significant impact on our lives is the invention of the microprocessor. Ted Hoff, employed by Intel (Robert Noyce's new company) invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer. The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers. It led, however, to the invention of personal computers, or microcomputers.

It wasn't until the 1970's that people began buying computer for personal use. One of the

earliest personal computers was the Altair 8800 computer kit. In 1975 you could purchase this kit and put it together to make your own personal computer. In 1977 the Apple

IIwas sold to the public and in 1981 IBM entered the PC (personal computer) market.

Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium^® Processors and now we know how it all got started. The computers of the next generation will have millions upon millions of transistors on one chip and will perform over abillion calculations in a single second. There is no end in sight for the computer movement.

History of Computer In Nepal

2013-03-24T11:07:00.000+05:45

History of computer in Nepal

There is not a long history of computers in Nepal.Nepal hired some types of calculators and computers for it's census calculation.Following list shows it's history in Nepal.· In 2018 BS an electronic calculator called "Facit" was used for census.· In 2028 BS census IBM 1401 a second generation mainframe computer was used.· In 2031 BS a center for Electronic Data Processing ,Later renamed to National Computer Center(NCC),was established for national data processing and computer training.· In 2038 BS ICL 2950/10 a second generation mainframe computer was used for census.· Now-a-days probably each and every institutions,business organizations,communication centers,ticket counters etc are using computers.

The history of computer in Nepal is not that old since Nepal has not given any contribution in the development of evolution of computer. It was in 2028 B.S. when HMG brought IBM 1401 (a Second Generation computer) on rent for Rs. 1 lakhs and 25 thousand per month to process census data. Later the computer was bought by National Computer Center (NCC). In 2038 B.S., a fourth generation computer was imported with the aid of UNDP and UNFPA from England for 20 lakhs US dollars. Its name was ICL 2950/10. This computer had 64 terminals and it is kept in museum now.

At that time British Government helped to develop manpower of NCC. In the meantime Nepalese students went to India, Thailand and USA for the computer education themselves. In 2039 B.S., microcomputers such as Apple, Vector, Sins, etc were imported by private companies and individuals. Many private companies like Computer Consultancy (CC), Management Information Processing System (MIPS), Data System International (DSI), etc were established. Such private companies started selling computers and training people in other to produce manpower in Nepal itself.

Nowadays, computers with faster processing and larger storage are found cheaply in Nepalese market. Students are given computer education from school level. At present Computer Association of Nepal (CAN) is the governing body of nepal.

Now the world is progressing much more in science and technology. This is the 21st century where the demand of the technology is more. Information technology made the world smaller and smaller because people can access the whole world from one part of the world. They can shop and get information of the world with one click.

Our country Nepal is quite developing in Information Technology. Nowadays in Nepal different college have started teaching information technology courses to the students. From these courses, student can compete with the international market in IT field. Nowadays, from class II computer education are given to the students in some schools. But the education system of our country is aged. The courses that have been collapsed from the international market are being used in our schools and colleges.

To participate in international market, our education system should be changed and the new system should be raised. From class II to Bachelor level students get bored learning all this history, generation, computer system, and other replicating courses. The market based computer course should be taught in the schools and colleges, so that the unemployment problem can be solved to some extent. If the students get the market based IT course then they can even work in single PC at home and they can earn for their own.

We want to suggest the IT education system of Nepal should be changed and new course should be started which helps the students like us to established our own IT career and work for the country and the unemployment problem of the country can be solved somehow by the youth of the country. Some universities should provide the online graduation course so that student can work while studying. Some of our college say that the student can study in morning class and work in day but after joining the college the morning classes run up to 12PM-2Pm and who will give part time job to those student who have to work and study by the money collected by their work. If such colleges run the online courses, student can learn the course while they are free from the work. We should change the education system of Nepal. If student cannot get the market based courses, how can they work in the market though the course they have learned. So we have to think about that unless the education system of the Nepal is modified, the economic and social status of the country cannot build up.

2013-03-22T15:28:00.001+05:45

B.ed. Research help source

2013-03-19T11:35:00.000+05:45

Please Click this link to go Help resource for B.ed. Population Field study Preliminary part and Reference part help:
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Thank you
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M.ed. Population help source

2013-01-26T11:28:00.002+05:45

http://lilaram.wordpress.com/notes/m-ed-pop-help-sources/

Please fallow this link to receive help files
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शिक्षक सेवा आयोगद्वारा खोलिएको नयाँ दर्खास्तको विवरण

2013-01-09T11:11:00.000+05:45

शिक्षक सेवा आयोगद्वारा खोलिएको नयाँ दर्खास्तको विवरण

परीक्षाको किसिम: लिखित र अन्तर्वार्ता

परीक्षा केन्द्र : सम्बन्धित जिल्ला शिक्षा कार्यालयले तोकेकाकेन्द्रहरु

परीक्षा दस्तुर : माध्यमिक तहका लागि रु. ७००।-, निम्नमाध्यमिक तहका लागि रु ४००।- प्राथमिक तहकालागि रु. ३००।- र समावेशीका लागि प्रति थप समूह माध्यमिक तहकालागि रु. ३००।- निम्नमाध्यमिक तहका लागि रु. २००।- र प्राथमिक तहका लागि रु. १५०।-

दरखास्त दिने स्थान : सम्बन्धित जिल्ला शिक्षा कार्यालयहरु

दरखास्त दिने अन्तिम मितिः २०६९।१०।२५ गते सम्म र दोब्बर दस्तुरले ०६९।११।०३ गतेसम्म

लिखित परीक्षा हुने मिति : माध्यमिक तह : २०७० जेष्ठ ९ गते बिहान ८:०० बजे

निम्नमाध्यमिक तह : २०७० जेष्ठ १० गते बिहान ८:०० बजे

प्राथमिक तह : २०७० जेष्ठ ११ गते बिहान ८:०० बजे

अन्तर्वार्ता लिखितपरीक्षाको नतिजा प्रकाशन भएको समयमा अन्तर्वार्ताको मिति, समय र स्थान उल्लेख गरिनेछ ।

आवश्यक न्यूनतम शैक्षिक योग्यता र तालिम

क) माध्यमिक तहका लागि

· सम्बन्धित विषयमा स्नातक तह वा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरी शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तिमा दश महीने तालिम लिएको ।

· सामाजिक अध्ययन विषयको हकमा स्नातक तह वा सो सरह उत्रीण गरी शिक्षा विषयमा दश महीने तालिम प्राप्त गरेको व्यक्ति उम्मेदवार बन्न सक्नेछ ।

· स्वास्थ्य जनसंख्या तथाबातावरण विषयमा उम्मेदवार बन्न स्वास्थ्य वा स्वास्थ्य र शारीरिक वा जनसंख्या विषयमा स्नातक तह वा सो सरह उत्रीण गरी शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तिमा १० महीने तालिम प्राप्त गरेको हुनु पर्नेछ ।

· कुनै व्यक्तिले शिक्षाशास्त्रसङ्कायतर्फस्नातक तह उत्रीण गरेको भए यस प्रयोजनको लागि तालिम प्राप्त गरेको मानिनेछ ।

· अन्य संकायबाट स्नातकतह पूरा गरी एकवर्ष बि.एड. गरेको व्यक्तिले शुरुमास्नातक गरेको वा एकवर्ष बि.एड. गरेको मध्ये आफूले राजेको कुनै एक विषयमा उम्मेदवार बन्नसक्नेछ ।

ख) निम्नमाध्यमिक तहका लागि

· सम्बन्धित विषयमा प्रवीणता प्रमाणपत्र तहवा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरी शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तिमा दश महीने तालिम पूरा गरेको ।

· गणित/विज्ञान विषयमा उम्मेदवार हुनकालागि विज्ञान संकाय वा अन्य संकायबाट गणितर विज्ञान दुवै विषयहरुमा प्रमाणपत्र तह वा सो सरहको योग्यता हासिल गरी शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तिमा १० महीने तालिम पूरा गरेको ।

· दर्ुइसय पूर्णाङ्कको शिक्षासम्बन्धी विषय लिई प्रवीणता प्रमाणपत्र तहवा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरेको भए तालिम प्राप्त मानिनेछ ।

· सामाजिक अध्ययन विषयका हकमा प्रमाणपत्र तह वा सो सरह उत्रीण गरी शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तिमा दश महीने तालिम प्राप्त गरेको व्यक्ति उम्मेदवार बन्न सक्नेछ ।

· शिक्षा शास्त्र संकायबाट प्रमाणपत्र तहवा सो सरह उत्रीण गरेको भए तालिम प्राप्त मानिनेछ ।

ग) प्राथमिक तहको लागि

· प्रवीणता प्रमणपत्र तहवा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरेको र शिक्षा विषयमा कम्तीमा दश महीने तालिम लिएको माध्यमिक शिक्षा उत्रीण परीक्षामा चारसयपूर्णाङ्कको शिक्षा विषय लिई सो परीक्षा उत्रीण गरेको दर्ुइसय पूर्णाङ्कको शिक्षासम्बन्धी विषय लिई प्रवीणता प्रमाणपत्र तह वा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरेको ।

घ) स्थायी अध्यापन अनुमतिपत्र प्राप्त गरेका महिला तथा अपाङ्ग व्यक्तिहरु तालिम नभए पनि यो एक पटकको लागि उम्मेदवार बन्न सक्नेछन् ।

द्रष्टब्य

१. दरखास्त फाराम सम्बन्धित जि.शि.का.बाट प्राप्त गर्न वा आयोगको वेबसाइट www.tsc.gov.np बाट डाउनलोड गर्न सकिनेछ । दरखास्त फाराममा आवश्यक विवरण भरी तोकिएका कागजातसहित साधारण फाइलमा उम्मेदवारको नाम, थर , विज्ञापन नं., तह, खुला र समावेशी भए समावेशीको किसिमलेखी फाइलमा नत्थी गरी बुझाउन सकिने छ वा ब्द्ध र्साईजको पेपरमादिइएको साइजमा फरक नपारी फोटोकपि/ कम्प्युटर टाइपगरी बुझाउन सकिने छ । तर हातले उतार गरी लेखेको दरखास्त फारामलाई मान्यतादिइने छैन ।

२. दरखास्त फाराम साथ पेश गर्नुपर्ने कागजातहरु

· नेपाली नागरिकताको प्रमाणपत्रको प्रतिलिपि

· शैक्षिक योग्यता र तालिमका प्रमाणपत्रहरु -ट्रान्स्िक्रप्ट र चारित्रिक प्रमाणपत्र) काप्रतिलिपि -सम्बन्धित पदकालागि चाहिने न्यूनतम शैक्षिक योग्यता र तालिमको मात्र)

· अध्यापन अनुमतिपत्रको प्रतिलिपि

३. दोब्बर दस्तुरको म्यादलाई शैक्षिक योग्यता र तालिम प्राप्त गर्ने अवधिको प्रयोजनका लागिगणना गरिने

छैन ।

४. लिखित परीक्षामा उत्रीणपरीक्षार्थीहरुले अन्तर्वार्ता दिनआउँदा शैक्षिक योग्यता, तालिम र नागरिकताको प्रमाणपत्रको सक्कलै प्रमाणपत्र अनिवार्य रुपमा पेश गर्नुपर्ने छ ।

५. सहयोगी लेखक माग गर्ने उम्मेदवारले लिखित परीक्षा शुरु हुनुभन्दा कम्तिमा सात दिन अगावै सम्बन्धित जि.शि.का.मा सप्रमाण निवेदन दिनुपर्नेछ, अन्यथासहयोगी उपलव्ध गराइने छैन ।

६. समावेशी पदमा समेत उम्मेदवार बन्नेव्यक्तिहरुले दरखास्त फारामको पहिलो पेजमा उल्लेख भएका विभिन्न समूहमध्ये कुन कुन समूहमा उम्मेदवार बन्ने हो सो कुरा स्पष्ट रुपमा खुलाउनु पर्नेछ र सोका लागि आवश्यक पर्ने कागजात अनिवार्य रुपमापेश गर्नुपर्ने छ । समावेशी समूहको आदिवासी/जनजाति, मधेशी, दलित समूहमा उम्मेदवार हुने व्यक्तिले कुनै एक पदका लागि भएको विज्ञापनमा कुनै एक समूहको उम्मेदवारका रुपमा मात्र प्रतिस्पर्धा गर्नसकिनेछ ।

७. दरखास्त दिने अन्तिम मितिभित्र निर्धारित शैक्षिक योग्यता हासिल गरीसकेको हुनुपर्ने र शैक्षिक योग्यता प्रदान गर्ने निकाय वा विश्वविद्यालयबाट प्राप्त हुने प्रमाणपत्र वालव्धाङ्क विवरण -ट्रान्स्िक्रप्ट) र चारित्रिक प्रमाणपत्रको प्रतिलिपि अनिवार्य रुपमा पेश गर्नुपर्ने छ ।

८. कुनै उम्मेदवारले झुट्टाविवरण/कागजात पेश गरेको कुरा पछि थाहा हुन आएमा त्यस्ता उम्मेदवारको दरखास्त स्वीकृत भइसकेको भए पनि जुनसुकै बखत रद्द गरी कानुनबमोजिम कारवाही गरिनेछ ।

९. विज्ञापन भएको एक महीनासम्ममा जिल्ला शिक्षा कार्यालहरुबाट थप माग प्राप्त भएमा सो समेत विज्ञापित पदमासमावेश गरिनेछ ।

१०. उल्लेखित परीक्षाहरुको पाठ्यक्रम आयोगको वेबर्साईट www.tsc.gov.np बाट प्राप्त गर्न सकिनेछ ।

११. समावेशीतर्फका उम्मेदवारहरुले पेश गर्नुपर्ने थप कागजातहरु

क) आदिवासी/जनजातिको सम्बन्धमा नेपाल आदिवासी/जनजाति उत्थान राष्ट्रिय प्रतिष्ठान ऐन, २०५८ मा सूचीकृत भएको जातिको हकमा सोही सूचीको प्रतिलिपि आधारमा र सोही ऐनमा सुचीकृत भएको जातिभित्र एकभन्दा बढी थरहरु भएमा सम्बन्धित स्थानीय निकायको प्रमुखको सिफारिशमा प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारीबाट त्यसरी सूचीकृत भएको जातिभित्रको थर हो भनी प्रमाणित भएको कागजात ।

ख) तर्राई मधेशमा बसोबास गर्ने मधेशी, आदिवासी/जनजाति, दलित, पिछडा वर्ग वा अल्पसङ्ख्यक मुसलमानसमुदायका सम्बन्धमा नेपालसरकारले नेपाल राजपत्रमा सूचना प्रकाशन गरी तोकेबमोजिमको संस्थाबाट तर्राईमधेशमा बसोबास गर्ने मधेशी, आदिवासी/जनजाति, दलित, पिछडा वर्ग वा अल्पसङ्ख्यक मुसलमान समुदाय भनी प्रमाणित भएको कागजात र त्यसरी नतोकिएको भएमासम्बन्धित स्थानीय निकायको प्रमुखको सिफारिशमा प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारीबाट तर्राई मधेशमा बसोबास गर्ने मधेशी, आदिवासी/जनजाति, दलित, पिछडा वर्ग वा अल्पसङ्ख्यक मुसलमान समुदाय भनी प्रमाणित गरेको कागजात ।

ग) दलितका सम्बन्धमा राष्ट्रिय दलित आयोगबाट सूचीकृत भएको जातिको हकमा सोही सूचीको आधारमा र सो आयोगबाट सूचीकृत भएको जातिभित्र एकभन्दा बढी थरहरु भएमा सम्बन्धित स्थानीयनिकायको प्रमुखको सिफारिशमा प्रमुख जिल्ला अधिकारीबाट त्यसरी सूचीकृत भएको जातिभित्रको थर भनी प्रमाणित भएकोकागजात ।

ग) अपाङ्गका हकमा स्वीकृत चिकित्सकको सिफारिशमा समाजकल्याण परिषदबाट अपाङ्गता प्रमाणित भएको कागजात ।

घ) पिछडिएको क्षेत्रका सम्बन्धमा अछाम, कालिकोट, जाजरकोट, जुम्ला, डोल्पा, बझाङ, बाजुरा, मुगु र हुम्ला जिल्लामा स्थायी बसोबास उल्लेख गरी उक्त जिल्लाहरुबाट प्राप्त गरिएको नागरिकताको प्रमाणपत्र तथा सम्बन्धित गाउँविकास समिति वा नगरपालिकाबाट दरखास्तदिँदाका बखतसम्म सोही स्थानमा स्थायी बसोबास भएको भनी प्रमाणित गरेको कागजात ।

१२. उम्मेदवारको यस सूचनामा उल्लेख भएका कुराहरुको अतिरिक्त शिक्षक सेवा आयोग नियमावलीको नियम१० बमोजिमको अयोग्यता नभएको हुनुपर्ने छ ।

१३. दरखास्त फारामसाथ पेशगरिएका प्रमाणपत्रका प्रतिलिपीहरु उम्मेदवार स्वयमले प्रमाणपत्रको पछाडिपट्ट सक्कलबमोजिम नक्कल ठिक छ भनी प्रमाणित गरेको हुनर्ुपर्नेछ ।

१४. कार्यरत शिक्षकले पाउनेछुट र सुविधा

· स्वीकृत स्थायी शिक्षक दरबन्दीमा अस्थायीनियुक्ति भई सेवामा रहेका शिक्षकहरु -लियन समेत) को हकमा माध्यमिक शिक्षावा सो सरहको परीक्षा उत्रीण गरी वा ४०० पूर्णाङ्क वा शिक्षा विषयमा १० महीनेे तालिम प्राप्त गरेको भए पनि आफू कार्यरत रहेको जिल्ला र तहमा प्राथमिक शिक्षकको पदमा उम्मेदवार हुनसक्नेछ ।

· स्थायी नियुक्ति भईबहालवाला शिक्षकको रुपमाकाम गरिरहेका शिक्षकहरुलाई यो एक पटकका लागि उम्मेदवार बन्न तालिम आवश्यक पर्ने छैन ।

· स्थायी शिक्षकका लागिकुनै पनि तहमा र अस्थायी शिक्षकका लागिकाम गरिरहेको तहमाउम्मेदवार बन्न उमेरको हद नलाग्ने ।

यो सुविधा लिन माथि उल्लेख गरिएका अस्थायी शिक्षकहरुले आफ्नोनियुक्ति पत्र र जिल्ला शिक्षा कार्यालयबाट दरखास्तदिंदाका बखतसम्म काम गरिरहेको व्यहोराप्रमाणित भएको कागजात अनिवार्य रुपमापेश गर्नुपर्ने छ ।

१५. निम्नलिखित व्यक्तिहरुलाई उम्मेदवार बन्नउमेरको हद लाग्ने छैन ।

· संवत् २०५२ सालमा प्रकाशित विज्ञापनबमोजिम स्थायी रुपमा शिक्षकको पदपर्ूर्ति हुँदाअस्थायी शिक्षकबाट हट्नगएका व्यक्तिहरु ।

· आधारभूत तथा प्राथमिक शिक्षा परियोजनाअर्न्तर्गत अस्थायी शिक्षकका रुपमा नियुक्त भई कार्यरत शिक्षकहरु

· २०६१/०६२ सालको विज्ञापनबमोजिम शिक्षक पदपर्ूर्ति गर्दा शिक्षक पदबाट हटेका व्यक्तिहरु

Source : www.tsc.gov.np

Nepali Funny Ukhan Tukka

2012-12-24T14:48:00.002+05:45

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मुर्ति चोर लाई पशुपति न गुहेश्वरी ।
बाहुन को टुप्पी एन्टेना न एरियल ।
कस्ता कस्ता आन्दाेलनमा गए नपत्याउनेहरु घरमा ।
Which Bull No Horn, That Bull Horny (जुन गोरु को सिङ छैन तेस्को नाम तिखे ।)
राजाको मति १२ बर्ष प्रजातन्त्रमा राखे पनि बाँङ्गाको बाँङ्गै ।
खाई न पाई दौरामाथि टाई ।
नपाउनेले के पायो काक्रोलाई चियामा चोबेर खायो ।
आजकालका केटी स्टाइलको भारी
टाउकोमा भने डिस्को गर्ने जुम्राको ढाडी ।
आमा बाबुलाई समस्या टार्न गार्हो
छोराछोरीलाई भने स्टाईल नै प्यारो
श्रीमती कति बाठी
बोका स्टाईलको केश काटी
तोङ्बा तान्ने छोरालाई ईन्द्रको बाउ चन्द्र आए पनि छेक्न सक्दैन् ।
प्रेमिकाले छोडेको कहिले कहिले
लभलेटर लेख्छन् आहिले
घिच्न जान्दैनन् पकाउनेलाई दोष ।
दाह्रि हेरि शेभ गर्नु ानुहार हेरि प्रेम गर्नु ।
आमा पनि ब्युटी छोरि पनि ब्युटी
बाउले गर्नु पर्ने चुलाको ड्युटी
जुत्ताको माला लगाएको नेता छाला देख्दा तर्सन्छ ।
प्रशासनमा घुसखोरी
जनता बोल्दैनन् मुख फोरी ।
जेठी बुढीको राम्रो कुरा तितो
कान्छीको चाहिँ झटारो नै मिठो ।

Year	Event

1983	Bill Gates announces Microsoft Windows November 10,1983.
1985	Microsoft Windows 1.0 is introduced in November 20, 1985 and is initially sold for $100.00.
1987	Microsoft Windows 2.0 was released December 9, 1987 and is initially sold for $100.00.
1987	Microsoft Windows/386 or Windows 386 is introduced December 9, 1987 and is initially sold for $100.00.
1988	Microsoft Windows/286 or Windows 286 is introduced June, 1988 and is initially sold for $100.00.
1990	Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released May, 22 1990. Microsoft Windows 3.0 full version was priced at $149.95 and the upgrade version was priced at $79.95.
1991	Following its decision not to develop operating systems cooperatively with IBM, Microsoft changes the name ofOS/2 to Windows NT.
1991	Microsoft Windows 3.0 or Windows 3.0a with multimedia was released October, 1991.
1992	Microsoft Windows 3.1 was released April, 1992 and sells more than 1 Million copies within the first two months of its release.
1992	Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.1 was released October, 1992.
1993	Microsoft Windows NT 3.1 was released July 27, 1993.
1993	Microsoft Windows 3.11, an update to Windows 3.1 is released December 31, 1993.
1993	The number of licensed users of Microsoft Windows now totals more than 25 Million.
1994	Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.11 was released February, 1994.
1994	Microsoft Windows NT 3.5 was released September 21, 1994.
1995	Microsoft Windows NT 3.51 was released May 30, 1995.
1995	Microsoft Windows 95 was released August 24, 1995 and sells more than 1 Million copies within 4 days.
1995	Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack 1 (4.00.950A) is released February 14, 1996.
1996	Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 was released July 29, 1996.
1996	Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950B) aka OSR2 with FAT32and MMX support is released August 24, 1996.
1996	Microsoft Windows CE 1.0 was released November, 1996.
1997	Microsoft Windows CE 2.0 was released November, 1997.
1997	Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950C) aka OSR2.5 is released November 26, 1997.
1998	Microsoft Windows 98 was released June, 1998.
1998	Microsoft Windows CE 2.1 was released July, 1998.
1998	In October of 1998 Microsoft announced that future releases of Windows NT would no longer have the initials of NT and that the next edition would be Windows 2000.
1999	Microsoft Windows 98 SE (Second Edition) was released May 5, 1999.
1999	Microsoft Windows CE 3.0 was released 1999.
2000	On January 4th at CES Bill Gates announces the new version of Windows CE will be called Pocket PC.
2000	Microsoft Windows 2000 was released February 17, 2000.
2000	Microsoft Windows ME (Millennium) released June 19, 2000.
2001	Microsoft Windows XP is released October 25, 2001.
2001	Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2002) for Itanium systems is released March 28, 2003.
2003	Microsoft Windows Server 2003 is released March 28, 2003.
2003	Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2003) for Itanium 2 systems is released on March 28, 2003.
2003	Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003 is released on December 18, 2003.
2004	Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005 is released on October 12, 2004.
2005	Microsoft Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is released on April 24, 2005.
2005	Microsoft announces it's next operating system, codenamed "Longhorn" will be named Windows Vista on July 23, 2005.
2006	Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista to corporations on November 30, 2006.
2007	Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista and Office 2007 to the general public January 30, 2007.
2009	Microsoft releases Windows 7 October 22, 2009.
2012	Microsoft releases Windows 8 October 26, 2012.

Lila Ram Paudel

Lila Ram Paudel: Computer fundamentals Objective & Subjective Quest...

Computer fundamentals Objective & Subjective Question- Answers

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The First Computer Programmer

Born: London, England, December 10, 1815

Died: London, England, November 27, 1852

Analyst, Metaphysician, and Founder of Scientific Computing

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