Would you ask a newly married couple on their honeymoon for marriage advice? Probably not with a straight face.

But that’s what it felt like when a small group of seminary students asked me to be their internship mentor during my second year of full-time teaching.

With my feet barely past the starting line of my now two-decade run as a seminary professor, I started taking on interns. Though I had personally been on the receiving end of profound and life-changing mentoring from high school through seminary, I found transitioning from mentee to mentor to be more challenging than that of going from doctoral student to professor.

Ill-equipped and unsure, I was hesitant to impart wisdom I didn’t think I had to students who were literally just a few years younger than I. This wasn’t a case of imposter syndrome. No. I was an imposter.

Young fool that I was, I took on that handful of interns anyway. At least I let that first batch of students know I didn’t know what I was doing. We would have to learn together. And we did.

The following are some of the crucial things that the Lord has taught me about mentoring students who are trying to sort out their vocations.

1. Weigh one-on-one vs. small group mentoring

As a newbie at mentoring, the first decision I had to make was whether I should do one-on-one or small group mentorship.

Both have biblical and historical precedence. Moses had his Joshua, Elijah his Elisha, Paul his Timothy. But David also had his mighty men, Jesus had his twelve, and the Apostle John left behind a group of pastors to carry the torch well into the second century. I couldn’t really say one approach was necessarily more historically anchored or in accordance with Scripture than the other.

Each approach has strengths and weaknesses.

• On the positive side, the one-on-one approach can create a long-lasting bond of friendship between mentor and mentee. It makes a safe space for deep, personal, individualized advising. It allows the mentee to experience a genuinely unique relationship with the mentor. And it may be the best option for smaller programs, departments, or institutions.
• On the negative side, one-on-one mentorship limits multiplication in discipleship to one at a time. It reduces the mentee’s exposure to a diversity of perspectives and personalities. And it can reinforce an individualistic approach to character growth.

Though I’ve engaged in limited one-on-one discipleship over the years, I’ve come to prefer small group mentoring of about three to five mentees at a time. There are several reasons for this.

1. A small group of about three to five students can nurture some of the relational skills difficult to address in the classroom—things like conflict resolution, consensus-building, community care, crisis management, and teamwork.
2. Each member comes to the group with unique questions, concerns, problems, and needs. Working through these as a team can be as much a learning experience for the mentor as for the mentees. As a result, members can learn as much from each other as they do from their mentor.
3. Group members can develop lifelong relationships—sometimes even lifelong ministry partnerships—that may outlive the mentor–mentee relationship.

Of course, if any of my mentees need to meet one-on-one, mine is an open door. So, the small group mentoring approach can incorporate, when needed, the strengths of the one-on-one approach.

2. Embody an incarnational approach to mentoring

From a theological perspective, mentoring can—and should—be the most incarnational ministry we do as educators.

Pause here for a moment. Because it’s the twenty-first century, I need to remind everyone what “incarnational ministry” isn’t. Simply put, if you can’t get bruised doing it, it’s not incarnational. By definition, incarnational mentoring means meeting in the flesh.

I want my mentees to lock in, not dial in. Effective mentoring requires life-on-life community. Real, in-the-flesh, personal presence.

In this vein, space matters. The warmer, less formal the environment, the better. An office space is fine if that’s all you have available. But a coffee shop, a cozy lounge, or a home? Way better. Coffee and an occasional meal don’t hurt. For-fun team-building events and ministry activities can also embody the incarnational mentoring experience.

I know the incarnational approach to mentoring has huge implications for the constant push to maximize online and virtual tools for education. For the record, I’m not opposed to these kinds of modalities. Technology has given us the ability to do some amazing things in the realm of theological education we could never have imagined before. But as leaders, we must value transformation as much as information, character development as much as curricular completion, heart knowledge as much as head knowledge. So, we must acknowledge the inherent limitations of non-incarnational means of connection.

This may upset a few, but unless there’s a crisis like a global pandemic, I don’t do mentorships by video.

3. Run meetings with care

So, how do I run mentorship meetings?

Each semester, I schedule weekly one-hour group meetings at a time “mutually inconvenient for everyone.” And everyone is expected to attend. Yes, everyone misses a meeting here or there. Even the mentor. But weekly, on-time attendance is vital.

Also, what’s said in the mentorship meeting stays in the mentorship meeting. This discretion allows members to be honest and vulnerable. It also carves out a safe space for me as the mentor to expose future ministers to the often stressful, sometimes frustrating, and occasionally heartbreaking realities of Christian life and ministry.

While I don’t want to turn them into jaded cynics, I also don’t want any of my mentees to launch into ministry with unrealistic expectations. They need to know ministry isn’t always a walk in the park. Sometimes it’s maneuvering through a minefield. The work of ministry is good, yes; but it also has its share of bad and ugly. For this reason, I let them see the joys and the struggles, the victories and the defeats.

4. Give enough quantity time for quality time

When I first started taking on mentees, I had to decide the terms of the mentorship: not only how often and how long to meet, but also how long the mentorship itself would last and what we actually did in those meetings. I experimented with a few different approaches.

Once I did a single-semester internship with a student whose name I have since completely forgotten. I think it was James, but it could have been John. I literally don’t remember. If that sounds horrible and impersonal, that’s my point. For me, one semester was just too short to get to know someone personally and to invest in them meaningfully.

Now brace yourself: I also learned that a whole year wasn’t quite enough. After one year, I’m just getting to know my mentees enough to build meaningful relationships.

I have since settled on a two-year mentorship model, and I’ve never looked back. The first year establishes the foundation of the relationship. The second year often results in great conversations addressing real life questions, issues, and challenges. In that second year, we harvest the fruit of trust planted and nurtured in the first year.

During those two years, my students wrestle with various facets of ministry calling and preparation—not just whether God is calling them into vocational ministry but which vocational ministry God is calling them into. Because of the deeper roots and taller branches grown in the two-year mentorship, our relationships can often continue to grow through changing seasons of ministry.

The two-year mentorship also relieves the pressure of trying to make every single weekly meeting a life-transforming experience. Some weeks we may discuss actual problems they’re facing in pastoral ministry. Other weeks we may debate theological questions that come up in class. Maybe we’ll talk about the prospect of PhD or DMin studies. We could hold a mock ordination interview, discuss a social or political issue, or even argue about the latest Star Wars movie.

All my mentees have been in my home. They have my phone number to text or call any time. Most have kept in touch over the years. They reach out to me for continued shepherding and advice. Some have even become colleagues and partners in ministry.

Bottom line: The two-year mentorship allows enough “quantity time” for “quality time” to occur. But even then, it has its limits.

5. Know your own limits

While I have one foot in church, where I’ve served as a member and leader, I’m primarily an academic serving as a full-time professor. Considering my own experience, I can mostly give my mentees a taste of the academician’s life. I let them in on the behind-the-scenes of institutional politics. They experience the life cycle of research, writing, and publishing projects. And they get to help me work through my own challenges as a professor. These are my strengths.

But I have limits.

I can’t give my mentees pulpit experience. They won’t gain hands-on experiences doing baptisms, communion, weddings, and funerals. And while we can and do talk through issues at their churches, they’ll never be able to sit through elder or deacon meetings with me to see how to work with leadership.

In short, I can’t be all things to all people. But I can be the right thing for specific people. Then, in the context of those relationships, I’m able to draw on my own experiences to help them navigate the obstacles in their journey toward fulfilling their ministry calling.

Paying the price and reaping the rewards

This leads to a surprising aspect of my two-year mentorship: it’s para-curricular. That means it doesn’t appear in the seminary catalog, doesn’t show up on the student’s transcript, and doesn’t get assessed or evaluated by accreditors. It costs the student nothing but time. And it doesn’t factor into my official responsibilities as a professor. (Read: I don’t get paid to do it.)

Why do I do it? I do it because I love my students. I do it because I love the body of Christ in which those students will one day serve. I do it because it reflects the priorities and passions of our Lord, who had his five hundred disciples, yes. But he also had his twelve. And his three.

Having engaged in two-year group mentorship for about two decades, I have the privilege of looking back and seeing the fruit of my labors. Some of my former mentees have gone on to pastoral ministry or missions—what I half-jokingly call “real ministry.” Others are teaching in Christian schools. Many have continued into PhD programs and are now laboring in Christian academia, hopefully discipling their own mentees. Some have transitioned out of ministry but continue to labor for the kingdom as faithful spouses, parents, and church members.

Since those first uncertain and unsteady steps onto the twisted path of mentoring, often through trial and error, I gained several insights along the way. My prayer is that current or future ministry mentors at academic institutions find some of the lessons I learned helpful as you seek to shepherd students discerning their own calls to ministry.

Share your thoughts

What are the best practices for professors to mentor their students for ministry? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Resources for further reflection

• Svigel, Michael. Let the Wise Hear!: Devotions for Thriving in Theological Studies. Published by the author, 2024.

Related content

• Learning by Doing: How to Train Seminary Students for Ministry
• Where Have the Timothys Gone? 4 Ways to Address the Minister Drought
• 8 Ways to Gain Ministry Experience While in Seminary
• Developing a Teaching Philosophy: A Guide for Theological Educators
• The Importance of Theological Education | Albert Mohler

Our family cat Buttercup is a hunter par excellence. Almost daily she deposits a kill on our back porch, be it a mouse, bird, mole, squirrel, chipmunk, or even rabbit. (I have joked with my wife that we don’t need a dog, we already have a watch-cat, and she is fierce!) When I regard Buttercup’s latest offering, I often instruct one of our boys to go and dispose of it in the woods. Nature tells us that it is not right to leave a corpse out in the open.

But how best to do so, particularly when it is a person? A loved one?

In what follows, I will cover some of the history behind this debate and explore what the Bible says about both cremation and burial. I will argue that only burial gives specific witness to the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body.

What is cremation?

Cremation is a process that uses intense heat (1400–1800 °F) to incinerate a body. After the body has been vaporized and reduced to bone fragments, these fragments are then pulverized into a sand-like powder. The final step involves placing the “cremains” in a container and returning them to the surviving family.

The word “cremate” is actually a sanitized version of the crass “burning a corpse.”

What is the history of cremation?

Early Christianity

While there were a few exceptions (notably the Hebrews), cremation was a common practice in the ancient world. That rapidly changed, however, with the spread of Christianity in the Roman empire. As Francis Schaeffer explains, “Gradually Christianity came to Roman Avenches. We know this by studying the cemetery of that time—the Romans burned their dead, the Christians buried theirs.”¹ In some respects, the care with which early Christians disposed of their dead through the burial process would not have gone unnoticed in the pagan world.

The vast majority of the Church Fathers had an unfavorable view of cremation. Early Christians often went to enormous lengths to ensure that their dead received proper burial, fighting for burial rites even in the midst of Roman persecution. Likewise, there was little debate in the medieval church: Cremation was championed by pagan societies and religions such as Hinduism.

Recent history

It was not until the late nineteenth century that cremation came into view once again. In 1874, the first cremation society in England was formed. In 1876, the first cremation in America took place. In 1877, cremation in Italy was legalized. From these early successes, cremation slowly gained traction in the ensuing decades. It is noteworthy that the growing legitimacy of the practice happened in tandem with assaults upon the Christian faith from secular philosophy, scientific materialism, and an increasingly liberal church.

In 1963, the Vatican lifted its historic ban on cremation. Many Protestant denominations followed by publicly expressing openness to the practice. A consensus started to emerge among evangelical Christians that since the Bible nowhere explicitly condemns cremation, it is not a sin and thus permissible.

Cremation has now become the mode of choice for disposing of the remains of the deceased. In 1960, just 3.6 percent of American corpses were cremated. Today, the number is 63 percent. By 2040, that figure will probably be around 78 percent.

For most of the last two thousand years, burial was the standard practice in the Western world. Why the change? For many, it is economic. Cremation is generally less expensive. A friend of mine, living in a large city on the West Coast, where space is at a premium, told me that burial didn’t even occur to his parents as an option. It is far too expensive. In densely populated countries like Japan, the cremation rate is already 99 percent. Additionally, we live in an increasingly secular culture. People are more inclined to trade in pragmatic rather than religious considerations.

Modern reception

While at one time, cremation was considered strange and even pagan, today it is normative, and Christians have largely followed the trend. Having officiated many funerals over the past twenty years as a minister, I have watched more and more Christians opt for cremation over burial.

A blog post by John MacArthur represents the common pro-cremation argument:

Obviously any buried body will eventually decompose (Eccles. 12:7). So cremation isn’t a strange or wrong practice—it merely accelerates the natural process of oxidation. The believer will one day receive a new body, thus the state of what remains of the old body is unimportant.

He adds,

What we need to focus on as Christians is not how to dispose of our earthly bodies, but that one day new bodies will be fashioned for us like our Lord’s glorious resurrection body.

These arguments have been convincing, and now most see the question of burial or cremation within the realm of Christian freedom. Since the Bible is largely neutral on the subject, we must leave it to the individual or the family to decide for themselves—so goes the thinking.

Study Assistant searches reliable resources to get answers to your questions about burial and cremation. Try Logos for free!

What does the Bible say about cremation?

Having traced some of the history of cremation, we now turn our attention to Scripture itself.

Burning bodies

While the Bible contains dozens of references to God’s people burying their dead, references to cremation are scant. Nonetheless, in Old Testament Israel, we find that burning bodies by fire was a sign of God’s judgment. Consider the following examples:

• Under Mosaic law, fire was prescribed as judgment for sexual transgressions: “If a man takes a woman and her mother also, it is depravity; he and they shall be burned with fire, that there may be no depravity among you” (Lev 20:14).
• Similarly, a priest’s daughter who profaned herself through sexual immorality “shall be burned with fire” (Lev 21:9).
• In a clear pronouncement of God’s judgment, Achan and his family were executed for stealing items from Jericho that were under the divine ban. The Lord turned from his “burning anger” only after they were stoned and burned with fire (Josh 7:25–26).
• After the sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, offered “strange” fire that the Lord had not authorized, “fire came out from before the Lord and consumed them, and they died before the Lord” (Lev 10:1–2).
• Likewise, fire came out from the Lord and consumed 250 men who offered incense in rebellion against his appointed leadership (Num 16:35).
• On another occasion, when the Israelites were complaining before the Lord, “the fire of the Lord burned among them and consumed some outlying parts of the camp” (Num 11:1).

Perhaps the most well-known “cremation” account follows the deaths of Saul and Jonathan after they were mutilated by the Philistines (1 Sam 31:8-13). The men of Jabesh-gilead captured the bodies and burned them before burying their bones. There is debate regarding the original Hebrew of this passage, and at best, this event was descriptive, not prescriptive. It is likely that this was an attempt to protect the bodies of Saul and Jonathan from suffering further dishonor.

Burying bodies

What about burial?

On dozens of occasions, burial is referenced in Scripture as the appropriate means of dealing with the dead. The first burial in the Bible was in Genesis 23, where Abraham took great pains to ensure his wife, Sarah, was properly buried. Abraham was later buried in this same cave (Gen 25:10). Several more burials are recorded in Genesis (Gen 35:19, 29; 49:31; 50:14). It is particularly instructive that God himself buried Moses (Deut 34:5–6). In the New Testament, notable examples include John the Baptist (Mark 6:29) and Stephen (Acts 8:2).

Some may be surprised to learn that Ananias and Sapphira were given proper burial after God struck them down for their deceit (Acts 5:1–11). Yet this is consistent with the arc of Scripture, given that even a criminal who was put to death was afforded the right to be buried under Old Testament law (Deut 21:22–23).

The most famous example in the Bible was undoubtedly Jesus’s burial. The Apostle John records how Joseph of Arimathea, with the help of Nicodemus, prepared Jesus’s body with seventy-five pounds of myrrh and aloes before laying him in a tomb (John 19:38–42). Looking back a few decades later, Paul declared,

For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures. (1 Cor 15:3–4)

From its infancy, the church has held these three climactic events—Jesus’s death, burial, and resurrection—at the center of our faith and profession.

From this brief biblical survey, we can begin to see why many Christians through the ages might have favored burial over cremation.

How does burial witness to our faith?

Although the Bible nowhere commands burial or prohibits cremation, the following reasons support burial as a Christian preference.

Their central idea: Burial offers compelling testimony to the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body. In the same way that Jesus was raised to life on the third day, every Christian has the firm conviction that one day they will be raised with Christ to see him face to face. Burial proclaims such a hope in the resurrection of the dead.

1. The sacredness of the body

From Genesis to Revelation, the Bible has an overwhelmingly positive view of the body. Every person is created in the image of God (Gen 1:27). Paul says of Christians, “Your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit … so glorify God in your body” (1 Cor 6:19–20). Jesus promises believers that he will return in glory not so that they will eternally dwell in the “higher realm of the soul,” but to wipe away every tear and gain ultimate victory over death through the resurrection of the body (Rev 21:4).

God did not create humanity as disembodied souls. Rather, he made us a composite of soul and body and called us to live in such a way that honors him with our bodies (Eph 5:3–5). Christians do not view the body as just a shell or container for the soul. Likewise, we should not view a corpse as “mere tissue” to be disposed of in an efficient manner. At least in some sense, that body is still a person (John 20:13).

There is an obvious violence that happens in cremation that forgoes our normal care for the body. Thus, one could argue that cremation devalues the goodness of the body.

When I was eight years old, a neighbor accidentally ran over our dog. That summer day, my dad took us kids and we helped dig a grave for Duke on the edge of our property, complete with a grave marker. How Dad handled this, including the care he showed our beloved dog, greatly aided the grieving process. I can only imagine how traumatized I would have been had he taken Duke and burned his body.

What you believe about the body will inevitably affect how you treat the body, in life and in death (Phil 1:20).

2. The body as buried seed

The Bible is rich with imagery, some of which contributes to this discussion. Jesus said, “unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit” (John 12:24). In a word, his death ushers in life.

Paul picked up on this teaching when saying,

What you sow does not come to life unless it dies. And what you sow is not the body that is to be, but a bare kernel, perhaps of wheat or some other grain. … So it is with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable; what is raised is imperishable. It is sown in dishonor; it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness; it is raised in power. It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body. (1 Cor 15:36–37, 42–44)

In accord with sowing a seed, burying a body holds the hope of something better—much better!—arriving later. As Donald Howard explains, only burial makes sense of these verses. “Burning simply cannot fit into the analogy. Seed is not burned to germinate; it is sown into the ground. Burial of the body is an expression of faith in its later being raised in the same likeness.”²

3. Christian death as “sleep”

A common expression used to designate burial places is “cemetery,” meaning, “sleeping place.” This is fitting given that the Bible frequently uses sleep as a figure of speech for physical death (Ps 13:3; Dan 12:2; John 11:11–14; Acts 7:60; 1 Cor 15:18).

Christians have traditionally understood that when a loved one is “laid to rest,” they “sleep” in expectation of one day “waking” for the resurrection (1 Thess 4:15–16). There is a sense in which the dead in Christ are not simply dead—not annihilated—but, like Jairus’s daughter, they are “sleeping,” awaiting their resurrection (Luke 8:52–55).

4. The Bible’s use of fire

Fire is a remarkable element with countless uses (just try to imagine a world without fire). When it comes to how the Bible uses the imagery of fire, it can point to different things like purification through trials (Mal 3:2–3) and a sign of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:3).

But far and away the most common sign for fire is God’s wrath and judgment. Jesus warned of the “hell of fire” (Matt 5:22) and the “unquenchable fire” (Mark 9:43). The use of fire to consume the body is viewed in Scripture as a sign of contempt, whether here on earth through the burning of bodies or in the afterlife in the “lake of fire” (Rev 20:15).

In sum, the general direction of the Bible would seem to discourage cremation and favor burial as the proper means for treating our dead.

What about those already cremated?

Does cremation mean that a person can’t be raised? Will they somehow be ineligible for the resurrection? If a body is incinerated, how could it possibly be resurrected? But all bodies eventually disintegrate, including those that are buried.

God is God. Nothing is too difficult for him (Jer 32:17). For any resurrection to happen, a great miracle must occur, and we can all trust God to sort out the details. In the same way that our Lord can raise the bodies of countless martyrs who were burned at the stake or fed to the lions, so too your cremated loved one who trusted Christ. There is no need to fear.

The choice of burial or cremation is not about how best to facilitate the resurrection. That is God’s prerogative. The choice is about what best symbolizes and testifies to our Christian hope in the power of the gospel and the resurrection of the body. People are watching you and, believe it or not, you can have enormous influence simply by your faith in Christ. That influence extends to how you die. Paul declared, “as it is my eager expectation and hope that I will not be at all ashamed, but that with full courage now and always Christ will be honored in my body, whether by life or by death” (Phil 1:20; emphasis mine).

Conclusion

The way that we deal with bodies after death should aim to honor Christ. It should reflect the Christian’s deep hope in the resurrection. “As death is the last opportunity any of us will have to testify to God’s truth, what is more fitting than that our passing should focus on the unique and distinctive doctrine of the resurrection of the body?”³

The people of God have always had a forward-looking faith. They knew that they were citizens of a “better country” (Heb 11:16; Phil 3:20). Joseph even gave instruction that his bones should not remain buried in Egypt. Why? He was convinced that a much better inheritance awaited him and all God’s people (Gen 50:25; Exod 13:19; Josh 24:32; Heb 11:22).

In a joyful yet sorrowful way, burial testifies to that hope in the resurrection when body and spirit will be reunited. Death does not have the final word (Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 15:55–57). Amen!

Share your thoughts

How does the Bible inform cremation practices? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Daniel Stegeman’s suggested resources

• Howard, Donald W. Burial or Cremation: Does It Matter? Banner of Truth Trust, 2001.
• Jones, David W. “To Bury or Burn? Toward an Ethic of Cremation.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 53, no. 2 (2010): 335–47.

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• What Is Christian Ethics? How Scripture Shapes Our Moral Lives
• You Are Your Body: Human Beings as Embodied Persons
• He Is Risen—So What? 20 Things Jesus’s Resurrection Accomplished
• Bioethics from Embryo to Deathbed: Right, Wrong, and Healthcare
• What Does It Mean to Be Human? Theological Anthropology

If God is good, why is there so much suffering?

Most of us have probably sought explanations for suffering in light of our faith in God, or else evil may have contributed to our doubts about God’s existence. If you have spent any extended amount of time thinking about these questions, you are exploring the problem of evil, a term that refers to analyzing challenges that the existence of evil causes for various religions.

What is the problem of evil? Technically, we would do well to speak of multiple problems of evil. Each religion may face unique challenges (is karmic suffering really just, as Hinduism suggests? Is evil an illusion, as some Buddhists claim?), but this article will consider the problem of evil in Christianity in three forms.

1. The logical problem of evil is a philosophical attempt to argue that a theistic God cannot exist if evil exists.
2. The evidential problem of evil argues that a specific kind or example of evil makes God’s existence improbable.
3. The existential problem of evil names the experiences that a sufferer wrestles with which might undermine faith in God.
   

This article will briefly consider how Christians respond to these problems and will evaluate responses against Scripture. Though the problem of evil is one of the bigger challenges to Christian faith, my hope is that this brief article shows that it need not destroy Christian faith in God or abolish hope in his defeat of evil.

1. The logical problem of evil

The logical problem of evil argues that it is logically impossible for God to exist if evil exists. Technically, there are a variety of logical problems of evil, each moving from a particular characterization of God to the argument that evil entails God does not exist as so characterized.⁴

Consider an example of the logical problem of evil. We might encounter the following argument:

1. If God exists, God is perfect Creator.
2. A perfect Creator would not decrease the perfection of the world by creating.
3. Evil is an imperfection that exists in the world.
4. The world’s perfection would have decreased if God’s act of creating added evil, an imperfection, to the perfect existence of God.
5. Therefore, a perfect Creator God must not exist.⁵ Or so this argument goes.

There are four common approaches to challenging a logical problem of evil, assuming the argument contains no logical fallacy. I will illustrate each by returning to the problem of evil based on God being perfect Creator.

1. We might object to the characterization offered. Perhaps God is not a perfect Creator, so the argument fails. But this strategy will not work for our sample argument given the clear teaching of Scripture which depicts God as perfect Creator (e.g., Gen 1–2).
2. We might object to the “generic theism” of most logical problems of evil. Typically, the arguments name a few divine attributes but without much theological analysis. Perhaps a theologically robust explanation of creation or of perfection defeats the argument.⁶ For example, if perfection requires God to maximize his glory, then perhaps creating a world with sin will allow God’s glory to be better displayed through his defeat of evil than would creating a world without evil. God is a perfect Creator, so he creates a world that maximizes the display of his glory.
3. We might object to one of the premises of the argument. In this case, the argument claimed that the world diminished in perfection when God created a world capable of evil. However, this assumes that God is part of “the world,” which does not adequately express the transcendence of a God who exceeds space, time, matter, and so forth. God did not diminish the perfection of the world. There was no world, and then God created one.
4. Finally, we might object to the starting point of the argument.⁷ Why not begin with the premise that a perfect Creator would have a good reason to create a world capable of evil? This premise, with the observation that our world has evil, would lead us to conclude that there must be a good reason for this world to have evil.

Each of these examples could produce an extended debate of arguments and counterarguments. However, the basic strategies show you how to address the logical problem of evil in any form.

The most well-known and discussed forms of the problem of evil begin by characterizing God as all powerful and all good. This version was used by David Hume and others, but in modern philosophy it is associated with J. L. Mackie. Mackie poses the problem as follows:

According to traditional theism, there is a god who is both omnipotent (and omniscient) and wholly good, and yet there is evil in the world. How can this be? … If we add the at least initially plausible premises that good is opposed to evil in such a way that a being who is wholly good eliminates evil as far as he can, and that there are no limits to what an omnipotent being can do, then we do have a contradiction. A wholly good omnipotent being would eliminate evil completely; if there really are evils, then there cannot be any such being.⁸

Each of the four strategies listed above has been used against Mackie’s argument, but the following two objections are the most famous. Each criticizes one of Mackie’s premises.

Study Assistant searches reliable resources to get answers to your questions about the problem of evil. Try Logos for free!

The soul-making theodicy

A theodicy is a defense of God in light of the problem of evil that explains why he is justified in allowing evil. The soul-making theodicy denies that a wholly good God would eliminate all evil, for evil serves some good purpose. This approach explains that struggle, suffering, and other evils are necessary to mold souls into their highest form.

John Hick offers the most famous soul-making theodicy. He appeals to Irenaeus of Lyons, arguing that a proper theological view of creation is one in which evil and good are mixed to provide an opportunity for human spiritual and moral advancement.⁹ Hick explains how things that we call evil are important for our personal growth. Physical pain is important for biological purposes, helping us to avoid danger but also serving to develop our ability to navigate our environment. Without the pains associated with hunger or exposure to the elements, we would have no need to work to develop our minds or invent technologies.¹⁰ Suffering of all kinds prompts us to love others, for the highest form of love requires bearing one another’s burdens.¹¹ Similarly, suffering prompts us to develop virtues like courage and justice. These outcomes justify God allowing evil to exist, Hick claims.

There is some limited evidence for the soul-making theodicy in Scripture. There are clear biblical examples where God has turned evil into good outcomes (famously, Gen 50:20). Much of the support for the soul-making theodicy is found in Paul, though we will find that such biblical support is incomplete.

Often Christians appeal to Romans 8:28 in a manner that mirrors the soul-making theodicy: “And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose” (Rom 8:28). This verse could suggest that everything that happens is for our good in the end. However, this might be an over-ambitious interpretation, for “all things” could refer to all kinds of things, and not universally to each individual thing. For example, when 1 Corinthians 2:15 says the spiritual man understands all things, it does not imply omniscience, and Colossians 1:20’s claim that Christ reconciles all things to God may not indicate universal salvation.

As we turn to consider Paul’s theology more broadly, we see that Paul presents two varieties of suffering:¹²

• Redemptive suffering brings about spiritual benefits as we share the sufferings of Christ (2 Cor 1:5; Phil 3:10).
• Tragic suffering is depicted as an enemy (1 Cor 15:26) and contrasted with our future hope (Rom 8:18).

It is wise to be cautious. Paul appeals to human sin as the ultimate explanation of death and suffering (Rom 5:12). Whatever redemptive suffering exists is because God’s work accompanies suffering, but it is likely going too far to make suffering, as such, redemptive.¹³ Only God saves, and part of his saving work is defeating suffering and death as evils depicted in Pauline literature as tragic.

The biblical support for the soul-making theodicy, then, is limited, given that there is no evidence that all evil is intended for or used for human good. This alone is a serious critique of the soul-making theodicy. But I will consider two further concerns (though the debate is far more expansive):

1. The soul-making theodicy relies on a consequentialist ethic where the end justifies the means. Yet, Christian ethicists usually reject doing evil actions to produce a good result. At the very least, we could ask whether the soul-making theodicy’s ethical assumptions align with what the Bible teaches about God’s character and ethics.
2. The soul-making theodicy instrumentalizes people. Rather than the well-being of a sufferer being a goal, that sufferer becomes a means to the well-being of others who might develop character in response to the sufferer.¹⁴

One of the biggest objections to the soul-making theodicy asks why evils of the magnitude of the bubonic plague or Auschwitz were necessary. Why did God need to use such severe suffering to bring about our moral formation?¹⁵ In the end, the soul-making theodicy drives us to consider the evidential problem of evil.

The free will defense

The second famous response to Mackie’s version of the problem of evil is the free will defense (or theodicy). This response rejects the premise that an omnipotent God could eliminate all evil if God also wanted to create a world with free persons in it. It argues that free will includes the possibility of evil, but the goods that arise from free will justify the suffering that accompanies it.

Augustine of Hippo is associated with the free will theodicy, which argues that free will is the reason why God allows evil to exist.¹⁶ Alvin Plantinga is associated with the free will defense, which does not claim to know why God allows evil with certainty. Instead, it merely attempts to show that free will could be a justifiable reason for God to allow evil, thereby defeating Mackie’s version of the logical problem of evil.

According to Plantinga, omnipotence only means that God can create possible worlds, i.e., those worlds that can logically or actually exist. God could not create impossible worlds, for example, where triangles had four sides.¹⁷ Plantinga considers the idea of “transworld depravity,” which refers to a condition where a person would be significantly free and would do moral wrong with respect to some act in all possible worlds. If transworld depravity is an essential or necessary property of all truly free human beings, then it would not be possible for God to create a world with free human beings that included no evil.¹⁸ Any world with free humans would include sin and evil. Plantinga does not insist that transworld depravity is true, but the possibility that it is true is sufficient to show one logically possible reason why God might allow evil.

Freedom is important to bring about moral goods like love and the virtues, so it may be that freedom is good enough to justify God creating a world in which evil arises from free will. This would refute Mackie’s claim that an omnipotent God could fully eliminate evil by providing one possible reason why this may not be the case.

At this point, the observant reader might remember the moral objections to the soul-making defense, where a good outcome may not justify the means. Does this concern apply to the free will defense? The free will defense and the soul-making theodicy are slightly different. The soul-making theodicy suggests that God uses evil for good purposes, claiming that evil is thereby justified. The free will defense says that God causes something good, which has an inescapable evil associated with it. In the free will defense, God is not using evil to bring about good. Rather, he is causing good which unavoidably results in humans causing evil.¹⁹

Philosophically, the free will defense is largely seen as a successful response to Mackie’s version of the logical problem of evil. It shows one logically consistent explanation for why an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God would allow evil.

Is the free will defense biblical? In one sense, the answer must be no, for the Bible nowhere says that the good of free choice explains why God permits evil. However, in a more broad sense, the biblical narrative fits the free will defense. Genesis 3 depicts sin entering creation through the choice of Adam and Eve, and Romans 5:12–21 depicts evils like sin and death as the result of the one sin of Adam. The doctrine of original sin could fit with the free will defense. Since we are only considering a defense, which poses a possible answer, and not a theodicy that claims certainty, this may suffice.

Some object to the theology of freedom that Plantinga uses, which is overtly libertarian in a manner rejected by some theologians. In other words, humans are free with respect to an act if they are able to do or not do an act.²⁰ Many traditional understandings of the doctrine of sin deny this power with respect to evil actions. However, while many Protestants would deny that humans have libertarian freedom with respect to sin today, most would allow the possibility that Adam was able to avoid sin.

A second objection to Plantinga focuses on natural evil. Moral evil arises from free human action, but natural evils like earthquakes or plagues apparently come from features of the universe, not from human choices. A robust narrative of the fall may link natural evil to the moral evil of Adam’s sin (as in Rom 5:17 and 8:20–21), but Plantinga also explains that natural evil might arise from demonic freedom. That possibility alone suffices to fit natural evil with the free will defense, even if the ultimate explanation for natural evil is different.²¹ By considering specific varieties of evil, we are again being drawn to consider the evidential problem of evil.

Anti-theodicy

Finally, we must consider those who object to theodicy altogether. Anti-theodicy is an approach that rejects the quest to identify explanations for evil and suffering altogether.

In part, this approach emerges because of pastoral problems that can arise from theodicies. Some theologians have argued that theodicy is problematic and should be avoided. For example, John Swinton names three problems that emerge from theodicy. Theodicies can:

1. “Rationalize evil”: For example, the soul-making theodicy might lead us to accept an injustice as a necessary part of our moral improvement rather than something to resist.
2. “Silence the voice of the sufferer”: When someone is given an explanation for their suffering, they might feel as if they cannot grieve or express anger, leading them to bottle up their emotions.
3. “Become evil in themselves”: If evil is rationalized or sufferers are silenced, it may cause more suffering, adding evil to evil.²²

It may be sufficient to recognize that theodicy is not appropriate for the existential problem of evil, when suffering is personal. In such contexts, abstract philosophical answers can cause the problems Swinton identifies. If you are asked why God allows evil, it would be wise to seek some context for the question rather than offer a quick theodicy that may face Swinton’s three problems. Because of the potential harms of theodicy, others object to using theodicy in any context, insisting on anti-theodicy.

The Bible may provide further reasons for anti-theodicy. For instance, advocates of anti-theodicy often appeal to the book of Job to explain their concerns. Job’s assertions are fairly consistent throughout the book. God has caused Job’s suffering (e.g., Job 9–10; 19:7–9) and Job claims innocence (e.g., Job 9:21; 27:5–6). Job laments that the human plight is misery (e.g., Job 7:1–10; 12:5–25; 14:1–6). Yet Job’s “expressives change remarkably.” He begins with cursing (Job 3:1) but soon moves from this to increasing expressions of hope (e.g., Job 16:18–17:1).²³ Job also shifts from calling for a neutral arbiter (Job 9:33) to seeking a witness to verify his innocence (Job 16:19), to finally asking for a defender or avenger who shall facilitate Job seeing God (Job 19:25–27).²⁴

In other words, Job has taken advantage of a unique opportunity not evident in many other religions. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, dispute with God was permitted, not met with instant divine judgment.²⁵ In fact, given the presence of psalms of lament and imprecatory psalms in the canon, Jews and Christians were encouraged to voice their anger, grief, despair, and frustration to God. Perhaps the main lesson from Job is that continuing honest communication with God is more important than offering a logical explanation for suffering.

2. The evidential problem of evil

Where the logical problem of evil argues that it is impossible for God to co-exist with evil, the evidential problem of evil makes more meager claims. It merely argues that certain kinds of evil make God’s existence improbable.

The argument of Paul Draper will illustrate the problem well. Draper considers three basic kinds of evil:

1. Moral agents experience biologically useful pain (e.g., pain that helps life survive by alerting of danger). Draper says God would need a moral reason for this pain, such as pain building character in the soul-making defense. After all, he could create life that did not need pain. He argues this pain is more likely to emerge from an indifferent universe than from a good God.
2. Non-moral agents also experience biologically useful pain. Draper says this would be probable in an evolutionary universe, but since there could be no moral benefit to this pain (non-moral agents don’t have character to build), this would be unlikely in a universe made by God.
3. Sentient beings experience pain that is not biologically useful. Draper says that both theism and an indifferent universe could explain this pain fairly easily.

Draper concludes that the “hypothesis of indifference,” that the universe is a product of impersonal forces, is a more probable hypothesis given the existence of these three kinds of pain.²⁶

Responses to the evidential problem of evil

There are two basic strategies Christians use to respond to the evidential problem of evil.

Offensive strategies typically make a case for the existence of God that can counterbalance the evidential problem of evil by providing evidence that God’s existence is probable.²⁷ For example, pain may make theism less probable, but the complexity of the universe may make theism more probable through the teleological argument.

Defensive strategies merely attempt to show that a given evidential argument is not successful in showing that theism is improbable. One defensive strategy focuses on arguing that human beings are unlikely to know the reasons why God might allow certain pains or evils, which makes it impossible to determine the probability that God might allow a specific kind of evil. One such defensive strategy is named skeptical theism. If we affirm that God exceeds human understanding (e.g., Isa 55:8–9; 1 Cor 2:11), then we do not have reason to think that we would always understand why God allows certain kinds of evil. Thus, probabilistic arguments are unreliable.²⁸

Theodicy and the cross

One theological response to the evidential problem of evil focuses on the cross.

Marilyn McCord Adams has focused on what she calls “horrendous evils”: those extreme instances of suffering like brutal torture which make it doubtful that a person’s life could be good for them overall.²⁹ While one might appeal to the good of free will to explain why creation, on a global scale, is better off with evil than without, to the person who suffers horrendous evil the benefits of suffering on a global scale may seem irrelevant to the catastrophic suffering experienced.

In response to such situations, Adams focuses on how “God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself” (2 Cor 5:19). In the incarnation, the Son was subjected to the horrendous evil of betrayal, bodily torture, public humiliation, and grave injustice. By identifying with such “ruinous” suffering, God “integrates” such suffering “into the participant’s relationship with God.” Not even horrendous evil can cause separation from God (Rom 8:31–39). Our personal relationship with God culminates in our seeing him face to face, an “incommensurate good.”³⁰

The crucifixion does not mean that horrendous evils are a good or necessary thing for encountering God, but it does mean that God enters even the worst forms of suffering to allow us to encounter him as a perfect good that can heal all wounds. Through the cross, no evil is capable of making a life impossible to redeem—which brings us finally to the existential problem of evil.

3. The existential problem of evil

Both logical and the evidential forms of the problem of evil are philosophical, but the existential problem of evil is a more personal and spiritual problem. This version of the problem of evil describes the experience of someone who doubts God’s existence or experiences anger toward God or hopelessness as a result of suffering or of witnessing someone else’s suffering. Because it is so personal, the existential problem of evil should be treated differently than the logical and evidential problems.

In the above discussion of anti-theodicy, we considered John Swinton’s list of problems that theodicy may cause. These problems are especially likely in the context of the existential problem of evil. The point should be obvious if you imagine visiting a friend whose child just died of leukemia and offering them a syllogism explaining the free will defense. However, we may not always recognize the personal reasons that may lead someone to express the problem of evil.

Given these concerns, John Swinton advocates developing a “practical theodicy,” an approach which fosters practices of hope and healing with a goal of restoring “right relationship with God, self, and others.”³¹ Such theodicy may not explain why evil happens as much as provide opportunities for faith to persist despite suffering, grief, or pain.

Lament and evil

One example of practical theodicy is lament, a genre in Scripture, represented especially by the Psalms and Lamentations, through which grief, doubt, pain, and other emotions are expressed to God.

Lament can provide a practical help against evil because it gives voice to the community’s grief, names horrors and trauma in a way that calls for justice, and fosters hope for restoration.³² When churches provide spaces for lament through regular Sunday worship, grief support groups, memorial services, and in pastoral counseling, the expression of lament can be a means of healing or a way to gather support for the pursuit of justice.

How not to respond to suffering

While the theological framework of the cross may help us think about evil conceptually, we must be careful regarding how we use such conceptual frameworks. When someone is having a traumatic experience, four common responses may shut down grief and close off the sorts of open communication with God that the book of Job encourages. Undermining grief may cause more long-term trauma, so it is best to avoid:

1. Trivialization: minimizing an experience of suffering or evil by downplaying pain or emotional struggle (e.g., “It’s not as bad as it seems”)
2. Particularization: treating the harm experienced by the sufferer as less important or serious than other kinds of pain (e.g., “It could be worse”)
3. Spiritualization: offering a spiritual slogan that prevents grieving (e.g., “Just bear your cross”)
4. Universalization: reducing a specific loss or harm to a general human experience (e.g., “We all suffer in our own ways”)³³

Though each person and conversation is different, often these responses prevent healthy grieving or expressions of pain in a manner that could cause long-term problems. Avoiding these patterns contributes to a helpful practical theodicy.

Conclusion

The problem of evil in its various forms is one of the more substantive challenges to the Christian faith. This survey of the problem in its three forms certainly does not exhaust the conversation, but it does show viable Christian responses that prevent the problem of evil from destroying Christian faith.

Several basic strategies for responding to specific versions of the logical problem of evil are fruitful in defending Christian convictions, and the soul-making theodicy and free will defense make progress in explaining why God might allow evil, though in the end anti-theodicy may be a wiser approach. The evidential problem of evil faces serious problems in its methodology, particularly its assumption that we would understand God’s reasons for anything.

In the end, most of our attention should be directed toward the existential problem of evil—the personal sufferings we face daily—as we seek to support those who grieve without further harming them through unwise appeals to theodicy. Our response to evil must therefore be guided by the Spirit who gives wisdom to discern when to offer a rational answer and when to join in lament with those who suffer.

Share your thoughts

What is the best response to the problem of evil? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Glenn Butner’s suggested resources for further study

Meister, Chad. Evil: A Guide for the Perplexed. Second edition. Bloomsbury, 2018.

Additional resources

Related content

• What Is Evil—Biblically? What the Bible Says about Good & Evil
• Why Do Good People Do Bad Things? The Problem of Free Will
• From Genesis to Judgment: Original Sin Fully Explained
• What Is Sin? Is Your Definition Missing the Mark?
• Christian Apologetics: Truth, Love, and Faith Conversations

Jerusalem, for most people, refers primarily to a real city in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. Also known as Zion, this city is mentioned many times in the Bible.³⁴

But the name Jerusalem is also associated with another location in the Bible.

In his letter to the Galatians, the Apostle Paul contrasts earthly Jerusalem with a “Jerusalem that is above” (Gal 4:26). The author of Hebrews also mentions a “heavenly Jerusalem” (Heb 12:22). Strikingly, this heavenly Jerusalem reappears in the final chapters of Revelation, where the Apostle John sees a “new Jerusalem” descend from heaven to a “new earth” (Rev 21:1–2, 10; cf. 3:12).

What are we to make of this?

Jerusalem as God’s earthly residence

In the Old Testament, the city of Jerusalem stands apart from all other locations.

After God dramatically redeems the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, the people sing of how he will “plant them” on a “mountain” where he will dwell in the “sanctuary” which he has established (Exod 15:17).³⁵

This expectation of residing with God on a holy mountain is partially fulfilled after King David captures Jerusalem from the Jebusites and transports there the ark of the covenant (2 Sam 6:1–19).³⁶ As the footstool of God’s heavenly throne (1 Chron 28:2; cf. Pss 99:5; 132:7), the ark signifies God’s majestic presence on earth.

God’s association with Jerusalem is confirmed by the building of an ornate palace/temple, which becomes his earthly residence (1 Kgs 6–8). After Solomon’s dedication of the newly constructed building, God’s glory fills the palace/temple as it did the tabernacle (1 Kgs 8:10–11; cf. Exod 40:34–35). By replacing the portable tabernacle with a palace/temple, Solomon makes Jerusalem God’s permanent home (e.g., Pss. 46:4; 48:8; 135:21). No other city experiences God’s presence in this way.

The presence of God transforms Jerusalem, making it a source of blessing to those who live or travel there as pilgrims to worship God (e.g., Pss 84:5–7; 128:5–6; 133:1–3; 134:3; 147:12–14).³⁷

As God’s holy mountain city, Jerusalem is “perfect in beauty” (Ps 50:2) and becomes an object of praise. The author of Psalm 48 declares:

Great is the Lord, and most worthy of praise,
in the city of our God, his holy mountain.
Beautiful in its loftiness,
the joy of the whole earth,
like the heights of Zaphon is Mount Zion,
the city of the Great King. (Ps 48:1–2; cf. Ps 125:1)

More significantly, the Israelites emphasize the mountain’s holiness due to God’s holy presence. Not surprisingly, God expects exemplary moral behavior from those who dwell there. As the Psalmist declares:

Who may ascend the mountain of the Lord?
Who may stand in his holy place?
The one who has clean hands and a pure heart,
who does not trust in an idol
or swear by a false god. (Ps 24:3–4; cf. Ps 15:1–5)

Unfortunately, despite being known as the city of God, Jerusalem’s residents live immorally. They break their unique covenant with God. Moses warned that disobedience would lead to exile (Deut 28:64–68).

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When the kings of Judah turn away from God, disastrous consequences follow. Despite the Davidic dynasty’s role in establishing Jerusalem as the city of God, the prophets announce God’s condemnation. Various prophets condemn the citizens of Jerusalem for their immorality (e.g., Isa 1:2–31; Jer 2:1–37; Ezek 5:8–12). In a notable parable illustrating God’s disappointment with their behavior, Isaiah compares Jerusalem’s residents to bitter grapes (Isa 5:1–5).

Eventually, through divine punishment, Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians in 586 BC. Ironically, challenging the belief that God would always safeguard Jerusalem, Jeremiah predicts that the Judaeans exiled to Babylon are safer than those left in Jerusalem. And, as the Prophet Ezekiel reveals, Jerusalem is so corrupted by idolatry that God can no longer dwell there.

A new Jerusalem anticipated

While Lamentations graphically reveals the devastating reality of God’s judgment against Jerusalem, all is not lost. Remarkably, the eschatological hope of the Old Testament centers on a new Jerusalem.³⁸

Against a backdrop of destruction and exile, the Old Testament prophets envisage a transformed Jerusalem where the nations will come for divine instruction, leading to universal peace (Mic 4:1–4; Isa 2:2–4). As Heath Thomas observes, “Zion becomes a symbol of new creation and redeemed humanity that lives before God without sin, death, or pain because God rules in its midst.”³⁹ Significantly, however, “in all this Jerusalem—the historical city—recedes into the background.”⁴⁰

In a series of oracles, Isaiah looks forward to a transformed world centered on a new Jerusalem that is highly prized by God (Isa 62:1–5, 12). Isaiah contrasts God’s rejection of a deeply corrupted Jerusalem with a future Jerusalem that is associated with a second creation that mirrors the creation of the heavens and the earth in Genesis 1. Strikingly, Isaiah describes how this new Jerusalem will be marked by harmony in the natural environment (Isa 65:25; cf. Isa 11:6–9).

Like Isaiah, the Prophet Ezekiel envisions a future Jerusalem on a holy mountain where God will reside (Ezek 40–48). Scholars see this vision as symbolic, discounting a literal fulfillment. For example, Daniel Block writes, “All in all Ezekiel’s scheme appears highly contrived, casting doubt on any interpretation that expects a literal fulfillment of his plan.”⁴¹ Ezekiel foresees a time when the Jerusalem sanctuary is undefiled and everything is holy (Ezek 43:12; cf. 43:6–11). To convey the otherness of this transformed city, Ezekiel’s vision notably depicts a river originating from the temple that revitalizes the Dead Sea’s lifeless waters (Ezek 47:1–12).

The city envisaged by Isaiah goes far beyond all that is achieved under the post-exilic restoration initiated by Cyrus, the king of Persia. While Isaiah portrays Cyrus as a gentile messiah who rebuilds the temple in a restored Jerusalem (Isa 44:28),⁴² still more significantly, Isaiah anticipates a future Davidic king who, as the “servant of the Lord,” will be a light to the nations (Isa 49:6) and will atone for the sins of others (Isa 53:4–12).

The rebuilding of Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile highlights that God’s plan to establish a holy city where he will dwell with his people remains intact. Starting with the rebuilding of the temple, the city’s reconstruction offers hope for the return of a Davidic king, as foretold by various prophets during the exile (see Jer 23:5–6; 33:14–26; Ezek 34:23–31; 37:24–28; cf. Zech 9:9–10).

While it is often assumed that the new Jerusalem envisioned by Isaiah and Ezekiel involves the transformation of the post-exilic Jerusalem, there are indications that the new Jerusalem will be inhabited by those who are resurrected from the dead. Using imagery of captives returning from exile, Isaiah describes “those the Lord has rescued” entering “Zion with singing” and enjoying “everlasting joy” (Isa 35:10). This refers to more than exiles returning from Babylon. Elsewhere, Isaiah speaks of how God “will swallow up death forever,” having prepared “a feast of rich food for all peoples” on his holy mountain (Isa 25:6–8). With confidence Isaiah proclaims:

But your dead will live, Lord;
their bodies will rise—
let those who dwell in the dust
wake up and shout for joy—
your dew is like the dew of the morning;
the earth will give birth to her dead. (Isa 26:19)

These expectations suggest that Isaiah has in view a city that far exceeds the Jerusalem of his day or anything that it could become through merely human actions. The same is true of Ezekiel’s vision of Jerusalem. In light of such expectations, Jewish writings from the intertestamental period express belief in an eternal, heavenly Jerusalem.⁴³ The same hope is also present in the New Testament.

The eternal, heavenly Jerusalem

Building on the Old Testament, New Testament writers emphasize the importance of Jerusalem’s role in God’s redemptive plan.

Significantly, attention shifts from the earthly city to a heavenly Jerusalem. Declaring him to be the promised Davidic king, the Anointed One, the Christ (i.e., Messiah), Jesus of Nazareth is central to this transition. While Jesus’s birth is associated with the “redemption of Jerusalem” (Luke 2:38), the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke emphasize Jesus’s public ministry in Galilee, suggesting that earthly Jerusalem is not the primary locus of the kingdom of God, contrary to the hopes of Jesus’s contemporaries. Matthew’s references to the “kingdom of heaven” also diminish the importance of the earthly Jerusalem, as does the Galilean ending of his gospel with its international perspective.

While Jesus’s death in Jerusalem is exceptionally important, it is striking that when Luke writes of Jesus’s journey to the city, he does not portray it as the final goal: “As the time approached for him to be taken up to heaven, Jesus resolutely set out for Jerusalem” (Luke 9:51). Jesus’s ascension to heaven takes precedence for it results in his enthronement as universal king at God’s right hand in the heavenly sanctuary (cf. Ps 110).

Highlighting Jesus’s ascension in Luke 24:50–53 and Acts 1:6–11, Luke notes that God moves from residing in the Jerusalem temple to dwelling through the Spirit in the followers of Jesus.⁴⁴ Importantly, consistent with Jesus’s prophecy that the temple will be destroyed (Matt 24:2; Mark 13:2; Luke 21:6), God transitions from living among his people to living within them, thereby reducing earthly Jerusalem’s significance as the holy city.

Although Jesus appreciates Jerusalem’s importance in God’s redemptive plan and shows concern for its people’s well-being, he highlights its rejection of God.⁴⁵ While welcomed as the “son of David,” his brutal death, provoked by the religious leaders, reveals the city’s hostility toward God. Under a new covenant established by Jesus, God’s plans for ransomed humanity involve a heavenly Jerusalem.

The Apostle Paul highlights this dramatic change of location in his letter to the Church of Galatia. He uses the story of Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar to illustrate a crucial contrast between the “present Jerusalem” and the “Jerusalem above” (Gal 4:21–31).⁴⁶ Additionally, he reminds the Church of Philippi that “Our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil 3:20).

The author of Hebrews also highlights the significance of “the heavenly Jerusalem,” calling it “the city of the living God” (Heb 12:22). He adds, “For here we have no lasting city, but we seek the city that is to come” (Heb 13:14). Linking this concept of a “city that is to come” to the patriarch Abraham, Hebrews states that Abraham, in faith, looked forward to “a better country, that is, a heavenly one” (Heb 11:16), and “to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God” (Heb 11:10). Though Abraham never lived in this city during his earthly life, the writer of Hebrews foresees a time when Abraham and his readers will dwell there together (cf. Heb 11:39–40).

Recalling the expectations in the book of Isaiah of a new creation involving a transformed Jerusalem, the Apostle John’s climactic vision in Revelation 21–22 depicts the descent of a heavenly city to a new earth. Highlighting its grandeur and splendor, this cosmopolitan Jerusalem hosts redeemed believers who experience abundant, eternal life in a world purged of all evil. Remarkably, as the goal of God’s redemption activity, the entire biblical story from the garden of Eden onward comes to a finale in this new Jerusalem.⁴⁷

For believers, the Bible emphasizes that our future hope does not lie in present-day Jerusalem, despite its past importance in the purposes of God. Rather, we look with confidence to the creation of a new Jerusalem where the resurrected followers of Jesus will experience life in all its fulness in the presence of their Savior and Lord.

Share your thoughts

How would you describe the role of Jerusalem in the Bible? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

T. Desmond Alexander’s suggested resources

• Fuller Dow, Lois K. Images of Zion: Biblical Antecedents for the New Jerusalem. New Testament Monographs 26. Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2010.
• Walker, Peter W. L., ed. Jerusalem Past and Present in the Purposes of God. Deo Gloria Trust, 1992.

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• The Promised Land & Beyond: How God Reclaims His Whole Creation
• Did Paul Allegorize Sarah & Hagar? | David deSilva on Galatians 4:21–31
• Heaven Invades Earth: Understanding the Symbolism & Purpose of the Tabernacle

Presbyterian and Reformed colleges, universities, and seminaries equip their students to fulfill what many Reformed Christians confess is their primary goal, which is “to glorify God, and to enjoy him forever.”⁴⁸ Within college and university contexts, this may mean preparing students for a broad variety of academic and professional pursuits in the humanities and the sciences. Seminaries offer biblical and theological education that prepares men and women for vocational ministry, with a particular focus on the ministry of Word and sacrament. Both types of institutions have a high view of the Bible and Reformed theology and seek to submit all of faith and life to God’s revealed will.

What makes a college, university, or seminary Reformed or Presbyterian?

Put simply, the common denominator between Reformed and Presbyterian colleges, universities, or seminaries is a commitment to Reformed theology.

But what is Reformed theology? Ligon Duncan describes it this way:

Reformed theology, representing the public, ecclesial, doctrinal convictions of a major branch of Protestantism, is a school of historic, orthodox, confessional Christianity that maintains and emphasizes the sovereignty of the triune God, the authority of Scripture, God’s grace in salvation, the necessity and significance of the church, and covenant theology.⁴⁹

For the purposes of this article, I highlight several aspects of Reformed theology:⁵⁰

1. Historic

Reformed theology finds its roots in historic orthodox Christianity and finds fuller expression in the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation, most famously in the theology of John Calvin.

2. Confessional

Reformed believers confess the faith that has been received and adopted by the church as it is documented in the Reformed confessions. The colleges, universities, and seminaries listed here have adopted the Three Forms of Unity (The Heidelberg Catechism, The Belgic Confession, and the Canons of Dort) and/or the Westminster Standards (The Westminster Confession of Faith and Larger and Shorter Catechisms) as their doctrinal standard.

3. Ecclesial

Reformed theology emphasizes the importance of the church. It highlights the church as the people of God, the instrument through which the Great Commission is fulfilled, outside of which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation. As Reformed institutions, the schools below have close (if not official) affiliations with various Reformed and Presbyterian denominations.

Reformed and Presbyterian are sometimes used interchangeably. Reformed and Presbyterian churches share a common theology and practice some version of Presbyterian polity. However, the terms can also serve to differentiate between the Continental (primarily Dutch) Reformed and Scottish Reformed (or Presbyterian) stream. The Continental Reformed stream finds contemporary expression in the United Reformed Churches in North America. The Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church in America represent the Scottish Reformed stream.

Notable Reformed and Presbyterian colleges and universities

The following list includes colleges, universities, and seminaries that identify as Reformed or Presbyterian. The list is refined using several criteria:

• This list includes institutions that continue to identify themselves as Reformed and/or have active affiliations with Reformed churches. There are other colleges, universities, and seminaries that have historically identified as Reformed but no longer do so, but these are not included here.
• The colleges on this list represent evangelical expressions of Reformed theology. Mainline institutions are not included.
• As mentioned above, each of the colleges and universities use either the Three Forms of Unity or The Westminster Standards as their confessional standard or are affiliated with churches who use them as such.
• The colleges listed here are found in the United States.
• The colleges, universities, and seminaries listed here possess accreditation that is recognized by the United States Department of Education.

1. Calvin University, Grand Rapids, MI

• Denomination: Christian Reformed Church
• Confessional standard: Three Forms of Unity
• Undergraduate tuition: $42,120/year
• Graduate tuition: $640–995/credit hour
• Enrollment: 3,681⁵¹
• Programs: associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s
• Online programs: microcredentials, certificates, and master’s degrees
• Athletics: NCAA Division III
• Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC). Several programs also possess specialized accreditations.
• Founded: 1876

Calvin University began as The Theological School, established to train ministers for the Christian Reformed Church. The school was renamed John Calvin Junior College in 1906 and began offering four-year degrees in 1920. Renamed Calvin University in 2019, the school offers over a hundred academic programs in the humanities, arts, and sciences.

2. Covenant College, Lookout Mountain, GA

• Denomination: Presbyterian Church in America
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Undergraduate tuition: $34,435/year
• Graduate tuition: $500/credit hour
• Enrollment: 1,100
• Programs: bachelor’s, master’s
• Online programs: N/A
• Athletics: NCAA Division III
• Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
• Founded: 1955

Originally located in Pasadena, California, the college later shared a campus with Covenant Theological Seminary in St. Louis before moving to its current location atop Lookout Mountain, Georgia, in 1964. With over twenty undergraduate majors in various disciplines and a master of arts in teaching program, the college seeks to “offer the world biblically grounded men and women equipped to live out extraordinary callings in ordinary places.”

3. Dordt University, Sioux Center, IA

• Denomination: Christian Reformed Church
• Confessional standard: Three Forms of Unity
• Undergraduate tuition: $38,200/year
• Graduate tuition: $405–710/credit hour
• Enrollment: 1,952
• Programs: associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s
• Online Programs: One undergraduate and seven graduate programs
• Athletics: NAIA
• Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC). Several programs also possess specialized accreditations.
• Founded: 1955

Dordt originated as Midwest Christian Junior College to train Christian school teachers. When it began offering four-year degree programs, the institution changed its name to Dordt College in honor of the 1618–1619 synod that produced the Canons of Dort. Dordt University now offers degree programs including agriculture, nursing, engineering, business, social work, criminal justice, construction management, international business, and more.

4. Erskine College, Due West, SC

• Denomination: Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Undergraduate tuition: $44,050/year
• Graduate tuition: $550/credit hour
• Enrollment: 803 (undergraduate)
• Programs: bachelor’s, master’s
• Online programs: Some online courses are available, but no fully online programs.
• Athletics: NCAA Division II
• Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
• Founded: 1839

Erskine College formed out of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church’s academy for men. Three institutions, including Erskine College, the Woman’s College of Due West, and Erskine Seminary, merged in 1927, resulting in a single institution known as Erskine College, with the seminary serving as its graduate school of theology. The college offers over twenty undergraduate majors in a variety of fields, in addition to a master of arts in Christian counseling.

5. Geneva College, Beaver Falls, PA

• Denomination: Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Undergraduate tuition: $34,130/year
• Graduate tuition: $699/credit hour
• Enrollment: 1,366
• Programs: associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s
• Online programs: Five bachelor of professional studies (BPS) degrees available online
• Athletics: NCAA Division III
• Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE). Several programs also possess specialized accreditations.
• Founded: 1848

Geneva Hall was founded in Northwood, Ohio, and named after one of the epicenters of the Reformed faith: Geneva, Switzerland. It moved to its present location north of Pittsburgh in 1880, where it became the site of the first recorded intercollegiate basketball game in 1893. The school now offers over a hundred undergraduate majors, online adult degree programs, and graduate degrees.

Notable Reformed and Presbyterian seminaries

6. Calvin Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, MI

• Denomination: Christian Reformed Church
• Confessional standard: The Three Forms of Unity
• Accreditation: Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 379
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in Bible and theology; MA in Christian leadership; MA in clinical mental health counseling; master of theological studies; master of theology; doctor of ministry
• Online programs: Yes
• Tuition: $595/credit for MDiv/MA/MTS; $889 for ThM
• Founded: 1876

Calvin Theological Seminary began as The Theological School for the training of ministers in the Christian Reformed Church. Calvin College (later Calvin University) became a distinct institution governed by a separate board in 1991.

7. Covenant Theological Seminary, St. Louis, MO

• Denomination: Presbyterian Church in America
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission (HLC), Association of Theological Schools (ATS); MA in counseling accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)
• Enrollment: 550
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in counseling; MA in biblical and theological studies; MA in ministry; MA in theological studies; master of theology; doctor of ministry
• Online programs: Yes
• Founded: 1956

Covenant Theological Seminary began as the ministerial training institution of the Bible Presbyterian Church in 1956 and originally shared its campus with Covenant College. Through a series of denominational mergers, the seminary came to be affiliated with the Presbyterian Church in America in 1982.

8. Erskine Theological Seminary, Due West, SC

• Denomination: Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC), and the Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 118
• Degree programs: master of divinity; master of practical ministry; MA in theological studies; master of theology; doctor of ministry
• Online programs: Yes
• Tuition: $550/credit master’s-level; $600/credit ThM and DMin
• Founded: 1837

Erskine Theological Seminary was established by the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church in 1837 for the preparation of ARP ministers. It merged with Erskine College and the Woman’s College of Due West in 1927, and serves as the college’s graduate theological school.

9. Knox Theological Seminary, Fort Lauderdale, FL

• Denomination: not denominationally affiliated
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: The Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 141
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in Christian and Classical studies; MA in biblical and theological studies; doctor of ministry
• Online programs: Yes
• Tuition: $670/credit for master’s-level; $755/credit for DMin
• Founded: 1989

Knox Theological Seminary, named after Scottish Reformer John Knox, was founded by Dr. D. James Kennedy under the oversight of Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church, a congregation of the Presbyterian Church in America.

10. Mid-America Reformed Seminary, Dyer, IN

• Denomination: not denominationally affiliated
• Confessional standard: The Three Forms of Unity and the Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: The Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 32
• Degree programs: master of divinity; master of theological studies
• Online programs: N/A
• Tuition: $290/credit
• Founded: 1981

Organized at an O’Hare Airport hotel in 1981, Mid-America Reformed Seminary operated in Orange City, Iowa, until 1995, when it moved to its campus in Dyer, Indiana, a suburb of Chicago. Because of its commitment to personal formation, the seminary intentionally limits enrollment.

11. Puritan Reformed Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, MI

• Denomination: Heritage Reformed Congregations
• Confessional standard: The Three Forms of Unity and the Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: The Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 501
• Degree programs: master of divinity; master of arts in biblical counseling; master of arts in religion; master of theology; doctor of ministry; doctor of philosophy
• Online programs: Yes
• Tuition: $275/credit for master’s-level, including ThM; $325/credit for DMin
• Founded: 1995

PRTS began under the leadership of Joel Beeke in 1995 when the seminary admitted four students from the Heritage Reformed Congregations. Its first class graduated in 1998, and the seminary moved to its present location in 2004.

12. Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, PA

• Denomination: Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards and the Testimony of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
• Accreditation: Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 91
• Degree programs: master of divinity; master of theological studies; doctor of ministry
• Online programs: some courses available.
• Tuition: $16,830/year (15 hours per quarter)
• Founded: 1810

The oldest of the seminaries on this list, Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary initially moved to wherever its professor served as a pastor: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Coldenham, New York; Northwood and Cincinnati, Ohio, and finally, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The seminary moved to its present location in 1923.

13. Reformed Theological Seminary

• Locations: Jackson, MS; Orlando, FL; Charlotte, NC; Washington, DC; Atlanta, GA; Houston, TX; Dallas, TX; New York City, NY; Sao Paulo, Brazil
• Denomination: not denominationally affiliated
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC); the Association of Theological Schools (ATS); MA in counseling accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
• Enrollment: 1,022
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in biblical studies; MA in theological studies; MA in religion; MA in counseling; MA in Christian counseling; master of theology; doctor of ministry⁵²
• Online programs: yes
• Tuition: $654/credit for master’s-level; $695/credit for ThM and DMin
• Founded: 1966

In response to concern over theological liberalism in the southern Presbyterian church and its theological institutions, Reformed Theological Seminary was established in Jackson, Mississippi, to prepare ministers committed to the inerrancy of Scripture and Reformed theology as articulated in The Westminster Standards. The seminary became a multi-campus institution in 1989 with the formation of a second campus in Orlando. It has since expanded to include multiple campuses and online programs.

14. Westminster Seminary California, Escondido, CA

• Denomination: not denominationally affiliated
• Confessional standard: The Three Forms of Unity and The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and the Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 108
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in biblical studies; MA in theological studies; MA in historical theology
• Online programs: N/A
• Tuition: $570/credit
• Founded: 1980

Founded in 1980 as a branch campus of Westminster Theological Seminary to serve students in the Western United States, the seminary became fully independent in 1982.

15. Westminster Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, PA

• Denomination: not denominationally affiliated
• Confessional standard: The Westminster Standards
• Accreditation: Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE) and the Association of Theological Schools (ATS)
• Enrollment: 1,183
• Degree programs: master of divinity; MA in religion; MA in theological studies; MA in counseling; master of theology; doctor of ministry; doctor of philosophy
• Online programs: yes
• Tuition: $53,000/year for residential MDiv and MAR programs; $675/credit for online and part-time residential students; $3,650/course for DMin; $4,350/course for ThM; $5000/course for PhD
• Founded: 1929

Westminster Theological Seminary was founded in 1929 when a group of professors exited Princeton Seminary over concerns of theological liberalism. J. Gresham Machen, John Murray, Cornelius Van Til, and others sought to preserve historic Reformed theology, continuing ministerial preparation in the spirit of Old Princeton.

What to look for in a Reformed or Presbyterian school

You should consider the following when considering which Reformed or Presbyterian school would best equip you for your calling:

1. Degree programs

For colleges and universities, does the school offer your desired program of study? How many courses are available to choose from within your desired major? Some colleges and universities offer greater selection and specialization than others within a field of study.

For seminaries, what is the makeup and curriculum of the program? For example, not all MDiv degrees are equal: some meet the ATS-required minimum of 72 credits, while many Reformed MDiv degrees offer 100+ credits. Does it include a solid combination of biblical studies (including Greek and Hebrew), systematic theology, and pastoral theology (preaching, evangelism, missions, counseling, etc.)?

2. Theological commitments

All of these colleges, universities, and seminaries fall into the evangelical sphere of the Reformed and Presbyterian world, but that does not mean that their theological approach is identical. Consider which best fits your theological commitments and—especially if preparing for pastoral ministry—denominational requirements.

3. Faculty

Consider who teaches at the institution. How many faculty members teach in the program in which you’re interested? Do their areas of interest and expertise align with yours, and have they demonstrated scholarship in those areas? If you plan to take online classes, are they taught by the school’s regular faculty or by someone else?

4. Enrollment

Inquire how many students are enrolled in your desired program and modality. The numbers cited above are accurate, but they include students in all programs, whether they are enrolled online or residentially.

5. Alumni

Who are some of the school’s alumni? Do they represent the kind of person you want to be shaped into?

6. Cost and financial aid

The list above demonstrates that schools assess different levels of tuition. Weigh affordability, but take into account the financial assistance available: a school with a higher published tuition rate may actually be more affordable after scholarships and grants are applied.

7. Accreditation

Accreditation makes good schools better by ensuring they hold themselves to a high standard within the commitments of their mission.

All the schools above hold institutional accreditation that is recognized by the US Department of Education. If you are going into a professional field like counseling or engineering, you’ll also want to ensure that the degree holds appropriate programmatic accreditation (e.g., CACREP for licensed mental health counseling, ABET for engineering). Appropriate accreditation provides assurance that your degree will be recognized as meeting educational requirements for licensure or for admission into higher-level academic programs.

8. Local churches

When considering any college, university, or seminary, you should give significant consideration to churches in the area. Is there a congregation that will minister faithfully to you, and where you can commit yourself to worship and service?

Conclusion

Reformed and Presbyterian schools prepare students for a variety of callings in service to Christ and his church, approaching education from a Reformed theological perspective that is grounded in Scripture. You don’t necessarily have to be a member of a Reformed church to attend a Reformed or Presbyterian school: If you want to engage in a deep study of Scripture, desire a stronger grasp of theology, and seek to be equipped to serve the triune God in all of life, then you can benefit from enrolling.

Share your thoughts

What are the top Presbyterian or Reformed schools? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

David Veldkamp’s suggested books on Reformed theology and education

• Brock, Frank. An Educated Choice: Advice for Parents of College-Bound Students. Baker, 2002.
• Lucas, Sean Michael. On Being Presbyterian. P&R, 2006.
• VanDixhoorn, Chad. Confessing the Faith: A Reader’s Guide to the Westminster Confession of Faith. Banner of Truth, 2014.

Related content

• What Is Reformed Theology? Its Roots, Core Beliefs & Key Leaders
• What Is Presbyterianism? Its History, Theology & Practices
• What Is Calvinism—and What Is It Not? A Simple Explanation
• 25 Reformed Theology Books Everyone Should Know
• What Are the Main Presbyterian & Reformed Denominations?

Contemporary theological—and even political—debates often center on the relationship between national Israel and the church. While vital, these discussions belong to a much broader motif: the identity and development of the people of God across Scripture. Biblical theology traces this overarching theme across redemptive history, revealing how God forms, redeems, and dwells with his covenant community throughout the narrative of Scripture.⁵³

In this article, we will trace how this central theme unfolds, moving from Adam and creation to Abraham and his promised offspring, through the nation of Israel and its Davidic hope, to its culmination in Christ and his church.

The people of God from creation to Israel

Adam, multiplication, and the promised seed

In terms of historical progression, the story of the people of God and humanity begins with creation. The case can be made, however, that the theme of the people of God begins before time, when God, who is eternal, self-sufficient, and who has life and fullness in himself (aseity), decrees there will be a people, chosen by the Father, redeemed by the Son as the appointed covenant mediator, and the recipients of the applied work of Christ by the Holy Spirit. These particular people are objects of grace. The “covenant of redemption” (pactum salutis) or eternal decree (John 6:37–40; Eph 1:4–14; 2 Tim 1:9; Titus 1:2) is worked out through history as God redeems a people for himself for his own glory and pleasure.

At creation, God made mankind in his own image and likeness, signifying their intrinsic value and their representative role over creation as royal sons and daughters. Adam is made to have dominion over the created order, and he is to extend the boundaries of the garden—God’s presence, rule, glory—to the ends of the earth.

Adam is the son of God (Luke 3:38; Gen 5:1–3), and it is here that the seed or offspring theme begins (and takes on further development after the fall with the conflict between the seed of the woman and seed of the serpent; Gen 3:15). Associated with the theme of blessing (Gen 1:28), Adam is to be fruitful and to multiply.

Adam, as the image of God, the offspring of God, is the covenantal head of humanity and functions as a prophet, priest, and king.

• As God’s vice-regent, Adam is to extend God’s rule by subduing the earth. His royal role is exemplified by naming the animals (Gen 2:19–20; cf. Ps 8:3–6).
• As a priest, Adam is to keep and cultivate the garden of Eden (Gen 2:15; see also Num 3:7–8), serving in the garden sanctuary/temple, ministering in the presence of God.
• Adam also has a prophetic role, receiving God’s word in the form of commands and warnings in Genesis 2:16–17. Prophets share God’s word to others, and so Adam is to communicate God’s revelation to Eve and their children.

Adam and Eve’s disobedience and fall are catastrophic, rupturing their relationship with God and resulting in curses and death, including exile from Eden and from God’s presence. In a post-fall world, the seed/offspring theme now features two distinct lines: there is the seed of the woman, a people who receive God’s grace and forgiveness tied to the promised, singular “seed of the woman,” a deliverer who will undo the curse and obey God perfectly (Gen 3:15; 5:29; 22:17–18; 24:60; 49:8–12), and the seed of the serpent, a people marked by rebellion, rejecting and opposing the Lord God and his offspring.⁵⁴

The image of God is marred and defaced but not lost. The aftermath of the fall reveals that faith marks the people of God as they look to the Lord and his promises (e.g., Eve in Gen 4:1; Abel in Gen 4:4; Heb 11:4).

Later Adam-like characters appear, recapitulating Adam’s role and status. The seed of the woman is a typological pattern and develops in the lives of Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and eventually Israel.⁵⁵ These ectypes or installments of Adam foreshadow the singular seed or last Adam, the Christ.

For example, after the flood, a form of de-creation, humanity restarts with Noah. Noah and his family live in a kind of re-creation as God sustains the creation order and structures but now in view of sin. The Noahic covenant continues the creation covenant, stressing that humans will fulfill Adam’s image-son role (Gen 9:1–17), however much Noah’s disobedience reveals he is not the seed of promise (Gen 9:18–28). Nevertheless, God’s command to Adam to “be fruitful and multiply” and his blessing to Noah is reiterated (Gen 9:1, 7; cf. Gen 1:28). God’s promises, including the seed/offspring theme, continues through Noah and his son, Shem.

Abraham and the promise of offspring

The people of God theme takes on a particular and universal outlook with Abraham and the Abrahamic covenant.

Once again, as with Adam, God blesses Abraham (Gen 12:1–3) and the calling to “fruitfulness” and “multiplication” are repeated (Gen 17:2, 6). God’s covenant with Abraham features four elements:

1. Abraham’s offspring will be innumerable as the dust of earth (Gen 13:16; 28:14) and the stars of the sky (Gen 15:5; 22:17; 26:4),
2. Abraham will become a great and special nation to God (Gen 12:2),
3. Abraham’s descendants are promised the land of Canaan (Gen 12:7; 13:15; 15:18; 17:8; 22:17; 24:7; etc.), just as Adam was given a place (the garden of Eden), and
4. Abraham and his seed are the means by which all the families or nations of the earth will be blessed (Gen 12:3; 17:4–6; 18:18; 22:18; Gal 3:8; etc.).

Once again, a defining characteristic of the people of God is faith in the Lord and his promises, just as Abraham is a man of faith (Gal 3:9).

God’s response after the judgement on the “kingdom” of man, Babel (Gen 11), is his saving initiative in Abraham. Adam’s role, the promised seed, and God’s plan for creation will be fulfilled in Abraham and his seed.

At this point in the storyline of Scripture, we observe multiple aspects to the offspring/seed of Abraham.

1. Abraham has some biological offspring who are not part of the special, natural progeny who receive the covenant promises. Ishmael and the sons of Keturah (Gen 25:1–4), for example, are physical descendants of Abraham, but not part of the special, biological offspring of promise. The Abrahamic promises, the seed theme, will pass on to Isaac, not Ishmael, and to Jacob, not Esau.
2. Abraham’s special biological offspring (through Isaac, Jacob) will become a great nation (Israel) and will inhabit the promised land (Gen 17:7; 35:12).
3. But at another level, this great nation is not an end to itself, it will be the means whereby a singular offspring/seed will come to fulfill Adam’s role, overcome the curse, and bring about true fruitfulness and blessing. The use of singular pronouns and verbs in Genesis 22:17–18 and 24:60 (cf. Gen 3:15; זֶרַע [“seed”] can function as a collective singular noun) draw attention to this special, singular, and third offspring of Abraham. This “seed” will inherit the “gates of his enemies”—a place far more expansive than the promised land of Canaan (cf. Rom 4:13; Matt 5:5; Heb 11:13–16). Moreover, this special, singular offspring of Abraham will fulfill Adam’s commission to extend God’s rule, the kingdom of God, to the ends of the earth.
4. Therefore, within the narrative of Genesis itself, the Abrahamic promises present Abraham as the head of a single nation but also look forward to him becoming the father of a multitude of nations. God’s blessings reach out to all nations and, in view of the promised seed of the woman (Gen 3:15), indicate that these blessings to the nations will be fulfilled through a singular, special offspring of Abraham (Gen 17:4–6; 49:8, 10; Ps 72:17; Isa 9:6; Gal 3:16). There is a sense then of a fourth seed as Abraham’s fatherhood encompasses people from different tribes and nations who follow in the footsteps of Abraham’s faith, who likewise depend on God’s provision for sin (Gen 22:8). Those blessed in Abraham become spiritual offspring of Abraham (Eph 2:11–21; Gal 3:26–29).

Israel as offspring of Abraham and a corporate Adam

The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, multiplication, and seed/offspring move from Adam to Noah, to Abraham, and then to Isaac and Jacob (Gen 26:2–4, 24; 28:3–4, 13–15). Notably, it is Jacob who is renamed “Israel” (Gen 32:28), and his twelve sons become the twelve tribes of Israel.

Through the exodus and the establishment of the Mosaic/Sinai covenant, the nation of Israel takes center stage. Indeed, the first stage of the Abrahamic covenant—Abraham having a great name and being made a great nation—arrives in the formation of Israel, the corporate seed of Abraham (Ps 105:6; Isa 41:8; 51:2; Jer 33:26). The people of God, first associated with the patriarchs, now takes on a national, corporate dimension.

Moreover, the nation of Israel also takes on the status and roles of Adam. Israel, like Adam, is called God’s son (Exod 4:22; Deut 14:1; Jer 31:20) and considered the children of God (Isa 1:2, 4; Hos 1:10; 11:1). The themes of blessing, fruitfulness, and multiplication move from Adam to the patriarchs and continue in and through Israel (see Gen 17:2; 28:3; 35:11; 47:27; 48:3–4; Exod 1:7; Lev 26:9; Deut 7:13; 30:9; Ps 107:38; Isa 51:2). God’s presence was manifested to Adam in the garden and similarly, but in a mediated way, God’s dwelling presence is manifested to Israel also through the mobile tabernacle and later in the Jerusalem temple. Israel is a corporate Adam.

Additionally, Adam’s original roles as prophet, priest, and king are exemplified within Israel’s leadership structure.

• Provisions are made for kings ruling over Israel (Deut 17:14–20), but in a broader sense Israel was to have dominion by subduing the promised land and ruling over her enemies.
• While the priestly class would arise from the line of Aaron, broadly Israel was to be a priestly nation, being ceremonially clean, devoted to the Lord, and possessing a holy land fit for God’s dwelling in their midst (Exod 15:15–17). Israel’s corporate calling is to be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod 19:6).
• Adam’s prophetic role is recapitulated as Israel received God’s Word and Mosaic/Sinai law-covenant to be an obedient and covenant-keeping people so that they may be a light to the nations (Deut 4:5–8; 26:16–19; 2 Kgs 19:19; Isa 37:20).

Rather than resembling the pagan nations and their wicked practices, Israel was to be separate, devoted, and holy to the Lord, demonstrating steadfast faith and love. Israel was to further distinguish themselves from the gentiles through circumcision, Sabbath, and food laws. The whole sacrificial system was to remind the people of God that without the shedding of blood there could be no forgiveness or atonement for sin. The locus of the people of God at this stage of redemptive history is the nation of Israel, and Israel will be the channel for the blessings to the nations. The fact that gentiles such as Rahab (and presumably her family; Josh 2) and Ruth (Ruth 1:16–17) became part of the nation of Israel preview the Abrahamic blessings to the nations. Ultimately, the means of resolving the problem of sin and death caused by the first Adam comes through Israel.

Through the Old Testament (OT), Israel’s benefits and privileges as the people of God are clear:⁵⁶ They receive the oracles and covenants of God (Exod 2:23–25; 6:1–8; Rom 3:1–2; 9:4–5); Israel is God’s treasured possession (Deut 7:6) and the elect, covenant nation based solely on God’s sovereign choice (Deut 4:37; 7:7; 10:15; Jer 33:24). Israel’s covenantal relationship to God is pictured with nuptial imagery as Israel is called the wife or bride of Yahweh (Isa 54:5; Jer 2:2; 31:32). They are also his flock and the Lord is their shepherd (Ezek 34; Ps 77:20; Isa 40:11; Ps 100:3).

Yet, while Israel is called to worship God alone, to exclusively serve him as God’s servant, the nation proves repeatedly that while they may be Abraham’s natural, special offspring corporately, many Israelites are not Abraham’s offspring spiritually.

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Exile, the Davidic covenant, and Israel’s restoration

Throughout the rest of the OT, Israel fails to live up to her calling as the chosen people of God. Rebellion, idolatry, and faithlessness characterize much of Israel’s history. On the one hand, Israel did become a great nation, numbered as the stars of heaven (Deut 1:10; 10:22; 1 Chron 27:23; Neh 9:23), the sand on the sea (1 Kgs 4:20), and as the dust of the earth (2 Chron 1:9). Under Joshua’s leadership, they did occupy the promised land (Josh 11:23; 14:15; 21:43–45; 23:14–15), and to a greater degree during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:21; cf. 4:24–25). However, Israel was wayward. The book of Judges depicts Israel doing whatever was right in their own eyes. Later, during the history of the united and divided monarchies, the people of Israel continue to swerve from following Yahweh and prove to be covenant breakers and transgressors of the law.

The result was covenant curses rather than covenant blessings. On account of their brazen disregard for God and his law, Israel (Northern Kingdom) and Judah (Southern Kingdom) were handed over to the Assyrians and Babylonians. The latter exile featured the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

Despite Israel’s history of failure, hope remains. The Balaam oracles (Num 22–24) present Israel in language reminiscent of Eden and the exodus (Num 24:5–6) and reaffirm the Abrahamic promise of blessing and cursing (Num 24:9; 23:8; cf. Gen 12:3) and the promise of the seed/offspring (Num 23:10; cf. Gen 12:2; 13:16; 28:14). According to Balaam, the last days will feature an individual Israelite seed who will become exalted, exert universal rule, and triumph over his enemies (Num 24:7–9, 17–19; cf. Gen 12:3; 27:29; 49:9–10).

This future hope ties in with the rise of David to the throne. David and the Davidic covenant mark a significant development in the storyline of the Bible and the people of God. The Adamic themes of blessing and fruitfulness, the Abrahamic promises, the covenant obedience and loyalty that is to be reflected in the image of God, the seed who crushes the head of the serpent and brings renewal, narrow down to a Davidic son and royal representative. Scripture presents David as another Adam, an individual who embodies and represents Israel, for he also is a son of God (2 Sam 7:14), a prophet, priest, and most importantly a king who will have an everlasting dynasty.⁵⁷ Moreover, there is a tight relationship between the Abrahamic and the Davidic covenants, as the Abrahamic promises move through the nation of Israel to this royal Davidic son, for a kingdom will be established for David’s “seed” (2 Sam 7:12; 1 Chron 17:11–14; Ps 89:3–4, 28, 36; cf. 132:10–12; Jer 33:21). The great name and nation promised to Abraham are directed through David (2 Sam 7:9; 1 Chron 17:8; cf. Gen 12:2), as are the promises of place/land (2 Sam 7:10; cf. Gen 12:7; 15:18; 17:8; Deut 11:24). Additionally, David observes that this covenant is a charter for humanity (2 Sam 7:19),⁵⁸ indicating that a future Davidic king will mediate the blessings to the nations and establish God’s rule over the world through his obedience, and therefore fulfill Adam’s commission in the garden (cf. Ps 89:23–29; 110:1–7). A future Davidic king will be the special, singular offspring of Abraham and the seed of the woman.

Unfortunately, the Davidic kings also failed. The law-covenant held the promise of life (Lev 18:5), but the Davidic kings did not keep the law. They trusted in other gods and were captive to their own sin. Some reform efforts did occur under Davidic kings such as Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah, but generally the kings led Israel and Judah to disobedience and idolatry.

Nevertheless, God will fulfill his purposes and promises, and through his prophetic messengers he projects hope in the aftermath of exile. Israel’s future restoration and return from exile is tied to the prophecy of the new covenant (Jer 31:29–40; Ezek 36:22–38; 37:11–28) and the coming of a faithful, true Davidic king. This messiah figure is known as the servant of the Lord, who identifies with Israel (Isa 7:14; 9:6–7; 11:1–10; 42:1–9; 49:1–13; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12; 55:3; 61:1–3; Jer 23:5–6; 33:14–26; Ezek 34:23–24; 37:24–28; Dan 7:11–14). This coming king will ratify the new covenant and usher in God’s saving reign among the nations, providing for the full forgiveness of sins through his atoning work (Isa 52:13–53:12) and producing an obedient people who have the law written on their hearts. This future Davidic king will be anointed with the Spirit to deliver Israel and be a witness to the nations, and he will pour out the promised Holy Spirit on God’s people, another significant feature of Israel’s restoration hopes (e.g., Isa 32:15–18; 44:3–5; 59:21; Ezek 36:26–30; 37:1–14; Joel 2:28—3:3; Zech 12:10).

How are Israel’s restoration promises important for understanding the people of God? Again, there are glimpses in Israel’s history of gentiles being counted among God’s people by joining the nation of Israel and sharing Abraham’s faith (e.g., Rahab, Ruth). The eschatological vision of the Latter Prophets reveal that Israel’s future restoration is integrated with the ingathering of the nations—the incorporation of gentiles into a restored Israel, becoming part of the latter-day people of God, the new covenant community. The coming Davidic king and servant will be a light to the nations and “a covenant for the people” (Isa 42:6–7; 49:6, 8). The scope of his work includes not just a reconciled remnant from Israel but also the salvation of people among the nations. This suffering servant/Israel makes atonement for the many, bearing the transgressions of many nations (Isa 52:14; 53:11). Based on his sacrificial work, he will have spiritual offspring (Isa 53:10–11; cf. 45:25; 59:21) and generate priestly servants (Isa 54:17; cf. 61:6), among whom are covenant-faithful foreigners (Isa 56:1–8). Paul Williamson correctly observes that “gentiles in the eschaton will be considered part of true Israel (Ps 87) and faithful servants of Yahweh (Isa 56:6–7)—even in the most consecrated role imaginable: priests and Levites (see 66:20–21).”⁵⁹ Similar hopes of gentile incorporation into the end-time people of God are expressed in other prophetic writings (see Jer 3:16–4:4; Amos 9:11–15; Mic 4:1–3; Zech 8:7–8, 20–23). Harkening back to the garden of Eden (Isa 51:2–3; Ezek 36:35, 47:1–12; Joel 2:3; Zech 14:8–11), the dwelling of God’s people in God’s place, there is prophetic hope of how the promised land will one day expand well beyond Palestine. Such is fitting for the universal rule of the Davidic son of God, for he will fulfill his mission of expanding the presence of God to the ends of the earth and will extend the Abrahamic blessings to the nations by enlarging the Abrahamic tent (cf. Gen 15:18 and Ps 72:8; Ps 72:9–17; cf. Gen 28:14 and Isa 54:1–3).

In summary, Israel as a nation is the people of God but a mixed community of believers and unbelievers. However, this chosen nation is the means that the promised “seed of the woman” (Gen 3:15), the virgin-conceived child (Isa 7:14), would come to reverse the effects of the fall and triumph over the serpent.

Jesus: last Adam, seed of Abraham, and true Israel

The story of the people of God continues in the New Testament but is now centered on the birth and arrival of the promised king. The eternal Son of God takes on a full humanity, becoming the incarnate Lord, Immanuel (“God with us”). Jesus is the king of the Jews (Mic 5:2; Mark 15:2, 9, 12) and Lord over all. Jesus is the royal deliverer of and through Israel, the seed of the woman who saves his people from their sins (Matt 1:21). The return from exile, the new exodus, and the new covenant promises all arrive with the coming of Christ.

Further, notice how the themes associated with the people of God, the nation of Israel, come to fruition and fulfillment in Jesus.

1. Jesus is the last Adam, the first man of the new creation

In Adam all are cursed and die, but under Christ’s covenant headship is life, grace, justification, righteousness, and new creation (Rom 5:12–21; 1 Cor 15:21–23, 45). Adam had failed to take dominion, but Jesus is the eschatological Son of Man (Dan 7:13–14) and he inaugurates the kingdom of God and takes dominion through his suffering, death, and ascension (cf. Dan 7:14, 27 and Matt 26:64; 28:18–20; John 1:51; 12:23; Acts 7:55–56). In Jesus we have the true image of God (Col 1:15; Heb 2:5–18). In Jesus we see what true humanity is supposed to be: loving God and loving neighbor, exemplifying faithfulness and obedience to God, exuding true worship of God in every way, and living without sin.

2. Jesus is the true singular offspring/seed of Abraham

He fulfills the Abrahamic covenant (Gal 3–4; esp. 3:13–18, 22; Acts 3:25–26; Rom 4:13–17; cf. John 8:56, 58). Luke presents the birth of Jesus as the fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham (Luke 1:54–55, 72–73). The promises of offspring, land, and blessings to the nations come about in Jesus. Abraham’s family and true children, the genuine people of God, are those in union with Christ (Rom 2:25–29; 4:9–22; Gal 3:6–9, 26–29; Heb 2:14–18). The promised land comes over in the NT in themes of inheritance and a new heaven and earth, but even here the promise hinges on the person and work of Christ (Gal 3:18; Rom 4:13; Matt 5:5; Heb 4:1–11; 11:8–16; 1 Pet 1:4; Eph 1:11; 6:3).

3. Jesus is the true Israel who fulfills the role, calling, and vocation of national Israel

Israel, as another Adam, is God’s son (Exod 4:22), and yet Israel’s sonship and exodus point forward typologically. For example, Matthew 2:15 cites Hosea 11:1 to show that Jesus is the true son of Israel and that the return from exile commences in his own exodus from Egypt. Moreover, Jesus embodies Israel as the “beloved son” in his baptism and reception of the Holy Spirit (Matt 3:15–17; Luke 3:21–22). The temptation narrative (Matt 4:1–11) also signifies that Jesus is the obedient son and representative of Israel, for he rebuffs Satan’s temptations, successively recapitulating Israel’s wilderness wanderings. Israel is God’s “firstborn son,” echoing Isaac’s status over his older brother Ishmael, but this anticipates Jesus, the true Israelite to whom the status of “firstborn of all creation” and “firstborn from the dead” belongs (Col 1:15, 18).

The Isaianic servant, discussed above, who is called “Israel” and yet restores Israel, who proclaims justice and freedom from sin, and who is a light to the nations, is none other than Jesus Christ. The pattern of servanthood, stretching from Moses to David, characterizing Israel and in general the people of God, is now fulfilled in Jesus (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30; cf. Luke 1:69; Heb 3:5–6). Jesus is the light to the nations (Luke 2:32; Acts 26:23), the one who releases captives and proclaims good news (Luke 4:16–21; cf. Isa 61:1–2; 58:6). Jesus is the suffering servant and fulfills the servant’s (Israel’s) mission by his atoning death (Isa 53; cf. John 1:29; Rom 4:23–25; 8:32; Gal 1:4; 1 Pet 1:19; Heb 5:5–10; 7:12–8:12).

Jesus is the ultimate prophet, priest, and king, which look back to Israel and Adam.

• As the Word and final disclosure of God, Jesus is the ultimate prophet (John 1:1–18; Heb 1:1–3).
• Tied to his role as the suffering servant, Jesus is the great high priest, the fulfillment of the temple (Matt 12:6; John 2:19–22; 4:20–24; Heb 10:19–22), and through his work on the cross he brings to an end the Passover, the sacrificial system, and the Levitical priesthood (e.g., 1 Cor 5:7; John 1:29, 36; 19:36; 1 Pet 1:19; Heb 5:5–10; 7:12–8:6; 9:1–10:22).
• The Davidic covenant climaxes in Jesus. The kingdom of God arrives in Jesus’s ministry and, via his death and resurrection, Jesus is now seated as the Davidic king, enthroned upon his ascension (Luke 1:31–33; Acts 2:32–36; Eph 1:9–10; Phil 2:9–11; cf. Ps 2 in Acts 4:25–26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5; note also Rom 1:3–4).

Jesus is also the true vine, unlike the fruitless vine of Israel (John 15:1–6; Ps 80:8–18). The end times project a healthy, fertile vine (Jer 31:5; 32:15; Hos 14:4–9) tied to Israel’s restoration hopes that will spring up through a royal, messianic figure or “Son of Man” (see Ps 80:8, 14, 15, 17). Jesus is the Messiah, but he is also the vine (John 15), representing Israel, and truly produces fruit-bearing branches. The theme of fruitfulness continues, and that fruit can only come if one abides in Christ (John 15:5).

4. Christ fulfills all the biblical covenants

Jesus is the last Adam and first man of the new creation, which goes back to the creation and the Noahic covenants, and explains how Jesus fulfills the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants. But Israel’s national covenant (Mosaic or Sinaitic) is also fulfilled in Christ (Matt 5:17–20). Through his obedience and priestly work (see Heb 7:11–12), the law-covenant reaches it goal and end (Rom 10:4; 1 Cor 9:20–21; Gal 3:15–4:7). Furthermore, the new covenant prophecies are crucial for Israel’s restoration and the hope of a transformed people of God. Jesus ratifies the new covenant through his atoning sacrifice (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; Rom 11:27; 1 Cor 11:25; Heb 7:22; 8:6–13; 9:15–18; 10:15–22). The coming of the Holy Spirit, a new covenant prophecy to Israel (Ezek 36:27; 37:14; Zech 4:6; Joel 2:28–32) is fulfilled when Jesus pours out the Spirit on his people (Luke 3:16–17; John 7:28–39; 20:21–23; Acts 2; 10:44–48; Gal 3:1–6; Eph 1:13–14). The new covenant people of God are now sealed and indwelled by the Holy Spirit in a way that the OT saints were not.

The church: the new covenant people of God

How are we to understand the people of God in light of the coming of Christ? While the OT culminates in Christ, the story of the people of God continues and takes shape for both Jews and gentiles. Jesus establishes his church comprised of all those who are his followers and disciples, a people united to him by faith.

The coming of Christ marks a significant shift in redemptive history as the church is the end-time people of God (1 Cor 10:11), the heavenly, Spirit-empowered, new covenant community (Eph 2:5–6; Col 1:12–14; Heb 12:22–24). The church is God’s new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15) and new humanity in Christ (Eph 2:15).⁶⁰ The church is multiethnic and transnational, unlike Israel of the OT, and while some in Israel were not truly spiritual offspring of Abraham, every new covenant believer has the law written on the heart. The church, then, is not equivalent to Israel, but indirectly related to Israel and recipients of Israel’s Old Testament promises and hopes through Jesus.

How does the Bible apply the language of Israel to the church? Find key verses along with a synopsis with Smart Search. Try Logos for free!

The NT unpacks the new covenant people of God in a variety of ways.

1. The twelve disciples symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel and represent the remnant, the renewed Israel reconstituted around Jesus

Jesus’s selection of twelve disciples is not arbitrary. These twelve apostles are sent to the lost sheep of Israel (Matt 10:5–15). The gospel goes out to national Israel. Jewish people first. In the missionary activity in the book of Acts, with Pentecost and the coming of the Spirit, the disciples’ gospel proclamation moves from Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria, indicating the restoration and reconstitution of geographical Israel (cf. Acts 8:1–25), and then proceeds to the outcasts (Acts 8:26–40; cf. Isa 56:3, 5) and the gentiles (Acts 10). The kingdom of God has arrived in Jesus, and kingdom citizens are being formed by those who receive and embrace Christ, whether Jew or gentile.

2. Many of the descriptions and characteristics of OT Israel are now applied to the church

But the comparison is not in a one-to-one fashion or in a manner of simple replacement. An escalation has occurred with the people of God, and this fact is all bound up with the coming of Christ.

• Israel is the “assembly” of the Lord in the OT (Deut 4:10; 9:10; 1 Chron 28:8), and this term is applied to the church in Christ (Matt 16:18; 1 Cor 11:18).
• Israel is the flock and sheep of Yahweh, but with Jesus, he is the good shepherd (John 10) who lays down his life for his sheep, his followers (John 10:11, 14–16). The OT prophecy of a new David coming to shepherd and rescue the flock (Ezek 34:10–16, 23–25) has come to pass and consists of a messianic, multiethnic flock (John 10:16, 26).
• Israel was the bride of Yahweh (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14–20), but now in Christ, the church is the Lord’s bride (2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:32) through union with Christ.
• Israel went through the exodus but the church is the people of the new exodus. For example, 1 Peter 2 applies Exodus 19:6 to the church. According to Peter, through the new exodus in Christ (Isa 43:20–21; Hos 2:15, 23; cf. Exod 19:1–6), the church is the fulfillment of OT Israel in being the elect race, holy nation, and the people (1 Pet 2:9–10; cf. Deut 4:20; 14:2; Heb 2:7; 4:9) set aside for God’s special possession. The church is now God’s people (1 Pet 2:10) because of their faith-union with the eschatological cornerstone that has been laid in Zion (Ps 2:6), Jesus Christ.⁶¹

3. The church has a new identity, nature, and newness through Jesus

As the new covenant community, the church is a transformed people, possessing the Holy Spirit, and is now, in Christ, constituted as Abraham’s spiritual seed by exercising a faith like Abraham’s (Gal 3–4; Rom 4). As those indwelled by the Spirit, the theme of fruitfulness now continues in the church as Christians bear the fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22–24; cf. Col 1:10; John 15:16). Further, while OT Israel had the temple, the church is God’s new temple in Christ (1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21–22; 1 Pet 2:5) and through Christ, they have direct access to the Father as they are already citizens of the heavenly city-temple (Eph 2:18, 19; cf. Phil 3:20; Gal 4:26). The church is the “Israel of God” (Gal 6:16) because they are the people of the new creation (Gal 6:15; 2 Cor 5:17). Therefore, not only is the church the recipient of God’s promises through his grace, but the church is the people of God that remains forever (Rev 21–22). The influx of the nations and their wealth to Israel’s temple is fulfilled (Rev 21:24–26) in the end in the heavenly city where God dwells. Through Christ, the people of God enjoy the tree of life with its fruit, dwelling in the presence of God and the Lamb where death has no place (Rev 22:1–5) and the curse is no more.

Conclusion

The structure of biblical revelation through the unfolding covenants constrains us to see the theme of God’s people moving from Adam and the patriarchs to Israel and finally culminating in Christ and the church. The centrality of Christ is crucial as he shows us with his perfect and sinless life what true humanity is in his worship, devotion, and obedience to the Lord. Israel’s identity, role, and vocation are recapitulated in him. The typological persons, events, and institutions—such as Adam, the seed theme, the nation of Israel, David, the exodus—all find fulfillment in Christ and derivatively in the new covenant community, the people united to Christ by the cross, the church. Those in Christ are children of God through faith, born of God (John 1:12–13), and these saints are more than conquerors through Christ, for nothing can separate them from the love of God in Christ Jesus (Rom 8:37–39).

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Brent Parker’s suggested resources for further study

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The ultimate destination of believers is not our immortal souls experiencing disembodied bliss among the angels in some kind of cloud-like cathedral where we sing “10,000 Reasons” ten thousand times. If that’s your view, then you need to read Revelation 21–22, 2 Peter 3, and finish off with a dose of N. T. Wright’s Surprised by Hope and God’s Homecoming.

In biblical perspective, the ultimate destiny of God’s people is for God to dwell with them in the new creation, the marriage of the new heavens and new earth, the day when God fills all things in every way (1 Cor 15:28). A place, I imagine, where God’s holiness radiates like the sun, joy fills the atmosphere like oxygen, and wondrous anthems of praise will forever bless and celebrate the Lamb who took away our sins and made all things new.

What will we do there? If the book of Revelation is anything to go by, then worship will be a huge part of life in the new creation. However—and I’m thinking here of children who are terrified that eternity sounds like one long church service—we will do more than worship in song. If we are attentive to the testimony of Scripture, we learn the saints will “reign” with Jesus over the new creation! The people of God in their glorified estate will participate in the exercise of God’s sovereignty over the new creation in order to deal with the unfinished business of the old order and to further the renewal, peace, love, and glory of the new creation.

If this is new to you, it shouldn’t be, since—as we’ll see—this picture of God reigning with or through humans is sown into the biblical picture. It is (almost) everywhere.

Humanity as kings of creation

First, consider Genesis 1, where humans are created to be custodians and curators of creation:

And God said, “Let us make humankind in our image and according to our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of heaven, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every moving thing that moves upon the earth.” So God created humankind in his image, in the likeness of God he created him, male and female he created them. And God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it, and rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of heaven, and over every animal that moves upon the earth.” (Gen 1:26–28 LEB)

As I’ve argued elsewhere, the “image of God” is not a quality humans possess. It is rather a royal status given to humans, a calling, with brings with it tasks to fulfill the creation mandate spelled out in Genesis 1:26–28. Humans are God’s image in the way that one might be appointed manager of a Chick-fil-A restaurant. Humans are called to important responsibilities, from farming chickens to cultivating entire ecosystems, as part of our divinely authorized vocation.

As we will see, humanity was made and called to be kings and priests of God’s creation. Even with the fall of humanity into sin and the curse infesting the natural world that the fall introduced, that human vocation has not been lost. Even amidst moral and natural evils, humans are still the caretakers of creation, a role that climaxes in the exalted Jesus, and will be fully and finally perfected in humanity in the new creation.

The idea of the image of God is rehearsed so memorably in Psalm 8:

what is mankind that you are mindful of them,
human beings that you care for them?
You have made them a little lower than the angels
and crowned them with glory and honor.
You made them rulers over the works of your hands;
you put everything under their feet:
all flocks and herds,
and the animals of the wild,
the birds in the sky,
and the fish in the sea,
all that swim the paths of the seas. (Ps 8:4–8 NIV)

You see here the same idea. Humans might be lower than the angels in terms of powers and heavenly access, yet they have received a majestic calling to be God’s regents over the world: subduing it, serving it, preserving, protecting it, like a royal family caring for their estate and all its inhabitants.

Israel as a kingdom of priests

What Adam and Eve were in Eden, Israel was meant to be in Canaan: a kingdom of priests (Exod 19:5-6), providing a paradigm of what humanity is supposed to look like before the nations of the world. God’s purposes for humanity were telescoped into and concentrated within Israel. Israel was meant to model, as best they could, what it meant to be in covenant relationship with God, worshipping the creator rather than the creature, even as they cared for the land with law, sabbath, Jubilee, and wisdom.

Israel did not always live up to this paradigm. They often imitated the worst of the nations, and they did not succeed in fulfilling the creation mandate themselves. In fact, it went so bad that much later, after the destruction of the temple and sacking of Jerusalem in AD 70, a Jewish seer would complain to God that Israel was meant to be ruling over the “beasts” (i.e., the pagan nations), and yet it was the beasts who were ruling over Israel.

All this I have spoken before you, O Lord, because you have said that it was for us that you created this world. As for the other nations that have descended from Adam, you have said that they are nothing and that they are like spittle, and you have compared their abundance to a drop from a bucket. And now, O Lord, these nations, which are reputed to be as nothing, domineer over us and devour us. But we your people, whom you have called your firstborn, only begotten, zealous for you, and most dear, have been given into their hands. If the world has indeed been created for us, why do we not possess our world as an inheritance? How long will this be so? (2 Esdras 6:55–59 NRSVue)

This is kind of like saying we are meant to be the zoologists and zookeepers, but the animals have risen up and have taken over the zoo and have stuck us in cages to be tormented!

One like a Son of Man

So what is the solution to this problem? Does God tell humanity that they bombed out on their job, so the vocation of ruling over creation should be given to angels or even ants (after all, ants are industrious rather than indolent; see Prov 6:6)?

No, the solution to this problem is not to abandon the project of Adam’s progeny and the holy nation fulfilling this human vocation to rule righteously on God’s behalf. Rather, what is needed is a new Adam, a renewed Israel, a true humanity who will fulfill this royal and priestly task. Enter Daniel’s Son of Man.

Now Daniel 7 and the Son of Man is a huge hornet’s nest of interpretive debate that I do not want to kick over right now. Suffice to say, Daniel has a vision about four pagan kingdoms who each oppress, afflict, and tear pieces off God’s people (i.e., the saints of the Most High). God’s ultimate answer to them is the “one like a Son of Man,” a heavenly figure with both angelic and human qualities who represents God’s reign, God’s anointed king, and God’s holy people.

The human-like figure approaches the Ancient of Days, then we read:

In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed. (Dan 7:13–14 NIV)

In the interpretation of the vision, we are told:

The four great beasts are four kings that will rise from the earth. But the holy people of the Most High will receive the kingdom and will possess it forever—yes, for ever and ever. (Dan 7:17–18 NIV)

After the fourth beast and the arrogant little horn has been defeated, then:

But the court will sit, and his power [the arrogant horn’s] will be taken away and completely destroyed forever. Then the sovereignty, power and greatness of all the kingdoms under heaven will be handed over to the holy people of the Most High. His kingdom will be an everlasting kingdom, and all rulers will worship and obey him. (Dan 7:26–27 NIV)

The vision promises that despite these pagan kingdoms eating their fill of Israel’s flesh, one day they will be defeated and the heavenly enthronement of the one like a Son of Man will be mirrored in the nations of the world, paying obeisance and obedience to the renewed people of God.

Jesus as the messianic solution

Daniel 7 was given a messianic interpretation in the Dead Sea Scrolls from Qumran, in the parables of 1 Enoch, and of course in the early church. Many times in his career, Jesus emphasized his “authority” as the “Son of Man” (Matt 9:6; John 5:27) as well as the Son of Man’s enthronement and prerogative to exercise judgment (Matt 16:28; 19:28–30; 24:30; 26:64). Accordingly, in their messianic interpretation of Israel’s Scriptures, the early church identified Jesus as the ultimate king in the manner of Psalm 2 and the ultimate human being in the manner of Psalm 8 (see Heb 1:5; 2:5–9).

Jesus was raised with a glorified physical human body. Not an angelic body, but a human body fit for eternity. Thus, when Jesus is exalted to the right hand of the Father, he does not lay aside his humanity like a person disrobing themselves of a monkey-suit from a Halloween costume party. No, he retains his glorified humanity. Forever.

What this means is big, huge, absolutely astounding. It means that God’s purpose for humanity—to have a human at the helm of the universe, for there to be a faithful human prime minister for cosmic affairs, for there to be a human mediator and regent for the world—is now at last true. Jesus fulfills the human vocation of Genesis 1:26–28 and Psalm 8:6. He is the Son of Man who receives dominion, power, and glory. He is the Davidic king and Melchizedekian high priest who brings order to the world and holiness to creation.

Whereas the first Adam sinned, and consequently sin reigned in death (Rom 5:12), now, because of the obedience of the new Adam, “grace might reign to the life of the age to come, through Jesus the Messiah, our Lord” (Rom 5:21 NTFE).

The church as God’s renewed people

It is in that reign of grace that the church exercises its vocation to reign beside the risen and exalted Lord Jesus.

This is why Jesus implied that his disciples would participate in his messianic reign over a renewed Israel:

Jesus said to them, “Truly I tell you, at the renewal of all things, when the Son of Man sits on his glorious throne, you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.” (Matt 19:28 NIV)

This “judging” could either be the exercise of judicial authority over Israel or, somewhat like Israel’s famous judges, the leading of the nation in the times ahead. In either case, the disciples will have prominent positions over a restored Israel in the age to come.

It is for such reasons that Paul admonished the Corinthians for squabbling over petty disputes in pagan courts when they are supposed to be readying themselves to preside over a tribunal that will hold fallen angels to account! “Don’t you realize that we will judge angels? So you should surely be able to resolve ordinary disputes in this life” (1 Cor 6:3 NLT).

In Paul’s list of trustworthy sayings for Timothy to remember, he said, “If we endure hardship, we will reign with him” (2 Tim 2:12 NLT).

Turning to the book of Revelation, we see all the above Scriptures, promises, and themes come together. The whole prophecy looks forward to a day when “The world has now become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he will reign forever and ever” (Rev 11:15 NLT). In that reign of Jesus, there is room made for many deputies. In John’s vision of the heavenly worship of the Lamb, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders sing a song praising how Jesus has “made them a kingdom and priests to our God, and they will rule on earth” (Rev 5:10 CEB). In the “millennium,” the martyrs “came to life and reigned with Christ for a thousand years” and “they will be priests of God and of Christ, and they will reign with him for a thousand years” (Rev 20:4, 6 CSB). Then, in one of the final scenes of the book, as we find descriptions of the new creation, we are told, “Night will be no more; people will not need the light of a lamp or the light of the sun, because the Lord God will give them light, and they will reign forever and ever” (Rev 22:5 CSB).

We will reign with him forever!

Consider what this means.

Eternity will be far more than a hymn-fest. Oh, there will be hymns and songs of praise to our God and his Messiah, but we will do far more than that.

• We will preside in judgment over fallen angels.
• We will be leaders over a renewed people of God.
• We will be kings (and queens) over a new creation and priests over a reconciled universe.

We will be custodians and curators of the new heavens and the new earth, just as God had intended for Adam. This finds its fulfillment in the new Adam who is himself the firstborn of many brothers and sisters. We will participate in the dominion which the exalted Jesus established and perfected, and the church triumphant will reign with her Lord forever. The government of the universe will be upon the shoulders of the Lord Jesus (Isa 9:6), and the burden of such government will be shared with and even delegated to the kingdom of priests who accompany him in his sovereign glory (Exod 19:5; Rev 5:10).

We will be singing in heaven, but we will be singing as we put our shoulder to the wheel of our new creation labors, singing in the reign we share with the Lord Jesus!

Share your thoughts

How does our future vocation to reign alongside Christ shape your present hope? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Resources for further study

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The origin story of the church is both profound and simple. Jesus died in our place and was raised from the dead (1 Cor 15:1–4). He appeared to his disciples, commissioned them to make more disciples (Matt 28:18–20), and then empowered them by his Spirit to do so (Acts 1:8).

That group of disciples was small enough to fit into a single room when they gathered together in Acts 1:12–26. Under the leadership of the apostles, they prayed and carefully discerned their next steps.

Acts 2 describes that monumental day during the Feast of Pentecost. While worshipping together in the upper room of a home in Jerusalem, the Spirit descended upon the disciples in power. Peter preached his famous sermon and thousands of people found Jesus and flooded into this new movement.

The church outgrew the upper room, but that growth came with the pain of division and fragmentation. And the church has continued both to grow and fragment ever since.

Jesus clearly wants his church to grow, or he wouldn’t have commanded us to “make disciples of the nations” (Matt 28:19). And Jesus also clearly wants church unity, or he wouldn’t have prayed for it so passionately (John 17:11, 20–23). In fact, on the edge of death, unity occupied the heart and mind of Jesus.

Jesus’s prayer for our unity

Jesus prayed for his disciples, and he prayed “for those who believe in me through their word” (John 17:20). Anyone who has heard the apostles’ teaching and believed in Jesus is included in this prayer. It involves every single person who has put her faith in Jesus in the last two thousand years, including you and me.

Just before the cross, Jesus prayed for us, and the first thing on his heart in that moment was our unity.

May they all be one, as you, Father, are in me and I am in you. May they also be in us, so that the world may believe you sent me. I have given them the glory you have given me, so that they may be one as we are one. I am in them and you are in me, so that they may be made completely one, that the world may know you have sent me and have loved them as you have loved me. (John 17:21–23)

We need to take unity seriously because Jesus took it seriously. He didn’t treat it as something optional. Unity, according to Jesus, isn’t just for the health of the church (though it certainly is). Jesus also notes that our unity is to be a witness to the broader world. Our capacity to be unified as the people of God is deeply missional.

Jesus wanted his people to demonstrate a unity that could somehow faintly mirror the Trinity: “So that they may be one as we are one” (John 17:22). So when Jesus was praying, he was thinking of a oneness so perfect that theologians have struggled to define it, or even to describe it. And he was praying with full knowledge that his people would often struggle for anything resembling such unity.

The church’s need for unity

John was paying attention. It shouldn’t surprise us. John was close to the heart of Jesus, both literally and figuratively. On the night before the crucifixion, John “was reclining close beside Jesus” (John 13:23). This physical closeness expressed the love Jesus had for John. He was called “the one Jesus loved” (John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20).

John certainly had told and preached the story of overhearing Jesus pray many times before. But John didn’t actually write down the biographical account of Jesus’s life until fifty or more years later. By that time, the church had experienced profound growth, deep suffering, and tragic divisions.

John’s Gospel was one of the last books of the New Testament to be written. And this early history wasn’t a pristine era of unified innocence. Divisions started almost immediately. From the Greek-speaking widows getting overlooked in Acts 6, to the Corinthians picking teams: “‘I belong to Paul,’ or ‘I belong to Apollos,’ or ‘I belong to Cephas,’ or ‘I belong to Christ’” (1 Cor 1:12).

So in John 17, Jesus wasn’t praying with rose-colored glasses, and John wasn’t writing from a place of youthful idealism. Jesus knew what would happen, and John knew what had happened. And yet unity was so critically important that Jesus pleaded with the Father for it, and John made sure we all would know about that prayer.

In that sense, when John drew out the emphasis on unity in Jesus’s prayer, he was not only giving a historical account of what had happened. He was also giving a prophetic account of something he believed Jesus longed for the church to live into. Likewise, when Luke described the unity of the early believers in Acts, he was both describing a quality he observed and a hopeful ideal that they might continue to embody. Both John and Luke wanted us to read their words and reflect on the unity of the early church, not to make us long for “the good ol’ days” but to help us lean into the unity which the gospel makes possible.

The Bible’s concept of unity

The Bible’s view of unity is not sameness or uniformity. We see this clearly in John’s vision of the throngs of worshippers before the throne of the Lamb in Revelation 7. Those, John sees, are both united and yet still different from one another, that is, from every tribe and tongue (Rev 7:9; cf. 5:9). The gathered assembly is both fully unified in worship of Jesus and yet made up of incredibly diverse peoples.

Unity requires differences that are transcended in something beyond those differences. Jesus roots our unity in a transfer of glory (John 17:22) and his own indwelling within us (John 17:23). In other words, unity is rooted in the life that Christians share in Christ. Christians are united because we have been reconciled to God through Jesus and adopted into one family by the Spirit.

Paul makes this source of unity clear in Ephesians 4, grounding unity in the realities we share in Christ:

There is one body and one Spirit—just as you were called to one hope at your calling—one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all and through all and in all. (Eph 4:4–6)

Christians are already united in Christ, yet we are commanded to be “making every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit” (Eph 4:3).

This effort assumes difficulty. It presupposes struggle. Unity does not happen automatically. Christians are sinners saved by grace who still disagree, misunderstand, and hurt one another. Unity takes work. In other words, we don’t achieve unity. Instead, we receive unity in the gospel, and then we live into it.

Unity does not require the absence of disagreement but a bond deeper than the disagreement. Believers remain brothers and sisters even when closeness varies. And as church history has unfolded, those relationships have taken quite a few twists and turns.

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Christianity’s growth—and fragmentation

As we have seen, the church never experienced a season of pure unity. Divisions and disagreements emerged within the lifetimes of the apostles and continue to the present day.

For example, in the persecutions that broke out before the acceptance of Christianity by Rome, bitter disagreements existed between Christians as to whether believers should evade persecution or meet it head-on. In the fourth century, churches divided over the teachings of a man named Arius, who argued that Jesus was a created being and not fully God. In response, the church agreed on a summary of apostolic teaching formalized in the Nicene Creed.

As the Roman world began to splinter, so did the church. In Eastern Christianity, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), the Assyrian, Coptic, Armenian, and Syrian churches splintered off in the fifth century. Not long after, the first fissure between Eastern and Western Christianity appeared, eventually culminating in the Great Schism of 1054.

Western Christianity’s divides came later but were no less significant. In the fourteenth century, rival popes jockeyed for power. The sixteenth century birthed the dawn of the Protestant Reformation. These “Protestants,” such as Martin Luther, didn’t initially want to split from Rome. But they quickly had no choice.

Different Protestants in turn had different visions for church life. The splintering of the many denominations we see today was fully in motion.

Why so many denominations?

As Christianity has continued to grow and fragment, billions of people now claim to follow Jesus across nearly fifty thousand denominations.⁶² Yet generally, their differences can be poured into four distinct “buckets.”

Of the four buckets, each of the following is sequentially less “weighty” than the last. Imagine the first bucket being filled to the brim with water, and the fourth, the practical bucket, being filled only a fraction of the way. This would make the first bucket much “heavier” than the last one. That said, some buckets are functionally filled with more weight than others at different points for different groups.

1. Theology

For instance, Protestants separated from Catholics over fundamental theological issues, such as salvation by grace through faith alone and the Bible as our sole infallible authority.

In terms of theological differences, we can define three levels of importance:

1. Essential beliefs are doctrines that all Bible-believing Christians share, regardless of denomination or context. A person or group who doesn’t believe in the Trinity, the authority of Scripture, or the deity of Christ is simply not Christian. We are one in Christ with all Christians who share these essential beliefs. We are not united with those who don’t.
2. Convictional beliefs often shape denominational distinctions. These second-level doctrines might be specific practices of baptism or beliefs about the role of sovereignty and free will in salvation. Christians are still one in Christ despite such differences, but we typically end up in different denominations because of them.
3. Preferential beliefs are important but often allow room for disagreement within denominational traditions and even within individual local churches. A typical example is eschatology, or another could be how loud the music is during worship.

2. Structure

These differences center around church polity. For example, I teach twice a year at Wycliffe Hall at the University of Oxford, an evangelical Anglican institution. Anglicans have bishops, while other groups might have presbyteries or congregational rule. Christians who disagree about how to structure the church have ended up organizing themselves into different types of denominations.

3. Culture

These can be more neutral differences—or more negative ones. For example, during the Jim Crow era, black members of the Assemblies of God (then overwhelmingly white) separated and formed their own denomination, the Church of God in Christ. Many denominations within the United States were formed over racial tensions of this sort. That said, many have become remarkably diverse today, with beautiful reconciliation, as we have seen between the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ.

4. Practice

Style of worship and the importance of established rituals and traditions create some diversity. Christians who differ on very practical things tend to cluster together with others of a similar mindset.

Pursuing gospel partnership

We are one with all actual Christians, even if we might be out of relationship with them in certain ways. Yet as we identify these differences, we can begin to navigate them and move toward fruitful gospel partnership and unity.

My youngest daughter recently sat down with my wife Donna and me. She nervously told us she had something to tell us. (We held our breath.) She explained that she loved us and the Lord, and she was becoming Anglican. Donna and I looked at each other, exhaling with relief. We said, “If this is your long-awaited rebellion against your parents, we will gladly take it!” We agree on the essentials, and we thank God for what he is doing in Anglican churches that share the essentials, even if they differ with us on some convictions.

On the other hand, some parts of some denominations deny essential doctrines. Yet many of those denominations still have people within them who are genuine Christians. We live in a messy and broken world, and the church isn’t immune.

So, when we walk with others, we must do so “with all humility and gentleness, with patience, bearing with one another in love, making every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace” (Eph 4:2–3). Humility means that we don’t need to win every argument. Gentleness is strength under the Spirit’s control. Patience means slowing down to love imperfect people. Bearing with one another means sometimes literally putting up with one another.

What we have in common is far greater than what separates us. We already have unity in Christ, and we’re called to lean into that unity. It requires effort and spiritual sweat, in hope that Jesus will finally and fully reunite his church from every place and people around his throne (Rev 5:9; 7:9).

Share your thoughts

How would you define unity according to the Bible? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Resources for further reflection

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• How Can Churches Across Town Partner Together?

What do you picture when you hear the word “prophet”? Do you imagine someone forecasting the future using the formula: “The Lord says …”? Do you think of figures like Martin Luther King Jr. giving his “I Have a Dream” speech and working toward racial equality? Or perhaps you only picture ancient prophets whose prophecies were fulfilled long ago and have since faded in our modern age?

How can one title stir up so many different images?

Prophets are associated with hearing the Lord’s word for the future, speaking into situations of injustice, and calling for change. As we better understand who the prophets were, the prophecies they gave, the role of prophecy in the Old and New Testament, and the value of a biblical theology of prophecy, we will better recognize what prophets and prophecy mean for us today.

Who were prophets?

First, let’s consider who the prophets were, their role within society, their calling by God, and the future elements of their messages.

1. A prophet’s role in society

In the ancient world, prophets served an important social role, whether we are describing the prophets of Israel or those of the pagan nations. It was believed that the gods/God spoke through prophets to give messages to the king and the people.

At times, prophets served an official role in the king’s court. Among the biblical prophets, we can see the unique relationship between kings and prophets in examples like Nathan to King David (2 Sam 7, 12), Elijah to King Ahab (1 Kgs 17–19), and Isaiah to King Ahaz and King Hezekiah (Isa 7, 38). Prophets were located in a unique space because unlike all other people who were below the king in society, prophets had the role of speaking from God to the king, putting them in a position alongside—and in some cases over—the king, whether the king liked that truth or not. While this was part of the official role of the prophet, it did mean that sometimes an angry king would injure or even kill a prophet. Accordingly, prophets in these formal roles often had a plan for prophetic succession (e.g., Elijah to Elisha).

In other cases, the prophets served in an unofficial capacity, working other professions. These included, for instance, Amos, Ezekiel, and John the Baptist. In such cases, the prophet was called directly by God from other kinds of work (e.g., Amos was a shepherd and arborist, Ezekiel was likely a priest). While John the Baptist spoke against the king as official prophets did, he lost his life because of it (Matt 14:1–12; Mark 6:14–27; Luke 9:9). Amos almost died in his encounter with the priest Amaziah (Amos 7).

Some prophets wrote biblical books (e.g., Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah). Others did not write books of prophecy themselves, but are described by others in biblical books, such as Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, and Elisha. The earliest biblical prophet, Moses, sits in the middle of these two categories. While Moses did not write an entire prophetic book that bears his name, he did write extensively, including writing down God’s messages in Exodus and Numbers, speaking or writing an extended speech and some poetry in Deuteronomy, and even composing a psalm (i.e., Ps 90).

These Old Testament prophets help to point to the New Testament prophets. John the Baptist is a prophet compared to Elijah (Luke 1:16–17) and Jesus is compared to Moses (Acts 3:17–23). Neither Jesus nor John wrote books themselves, but the Gospel authors wrote about them and their prophetic words and actions. Recently, scholars have explored the way that the Apostle Paul also seems to be represented as a prophet for three reasons: his visionary experiences, his use of Old Testament prophetic language and imagery to describe his mission, and his work in prophetic discernment in the early church, particularly at the Church of Corinth. Revelation represents another written prophetic book that is named for what it is rather than the author (“the revelation”). In Revelation, John at Patmos wrote down his visions and the words he received from God.

In the ancient world, the prophet’s role was distinct from the priest’s. Both prophets and priests acted as mediators between the people and God (and the king and God). Yet prophets uniquely received God’s word to share with the king and the people, and they also shared the people’s and king’s requests to God. In comparison, the priests performed the necessary ritual steps to draw the people and king back to God. The roles of prophets and priests had related purposes. Through the prophet’s message from God, the people and king were encouraged to return to God and stop their acts of injustice, pursuing righteousness. This would allow the people to come before God via the priests to perform the rituals in an effective way leading to true worship. This is why false priests and prophets are often found condemned together in the Bible because both of their roles were essential to having a good relationship with God and maintaining justice in society.

2. A prophet’s calling by God

Biblical prophets were not self-appointed. They were explicitly called by God, as we see with Amos (Amos 7:14–15), Jeremiah (Jer 1:4–5), and Isaiah (Isa 6). We sometimes hear their reluctance about God calling them. Isaiah declares that he is a man with unclean lips (Isa 6:5), but accepts God’s call after he is cleansed (Isa 6:5–8). Jeremiah is worried he is too young, yet eventually becomes God’s prophet (Jer 1:6–9). Both Isaiah’s and Jeremiah’s mouths are touched by God so that they can speak his words to the people.

The prophets were called by God to champion obedience to the covenant and warn against disobedience. The goal of the prophet was to share God’s words, calling the king and people to return to their commitment to worship God and no other gods and to love their neighbor. The prophets have a combination of hopeful promises and fearsome words of judgment, because God wants the people to know the consequences of failing to return to him. Yet this shows part of the character of God. He refuses to judge the people without first warning them (Amos 3:7) and is constantly using the prophets to remind the people of who they truly are.

The two key callings of the prophets come from the dual commands that are at the heart of the law: Love God and love your neighbor. These dual commands are reflected in the ten commandments (Exod 20). Jesus refers to these as the greatest commandments on which every other hangs (Matt 22:37–40). The prophets frequently point to the connection between worship and justice. They call the people to return to the true worship of God and care for their neighbors (e.g., Isa 58; Mic 6:8; cf. Jesus’s call to the Pharisees in Matt 23).

Besides calling the king and people back to God’s covenant, the prophets explain why things are happening the way that they are. In times of prosperity, prophets explain how God has helped the people. In times of suffering, prophets offer God’s words about the reasons for their suffering and his desire to transform it. In both cases, prophets point to God’s sovereignty amidst whatever circumstances the people are in: God has the power to bring blessings and to lift people out of their suffering.

God empowers prophets by his Spirit to do their prophetic work. Luke 4 offers a helpful picture of how this resonates from the time of Isaiah to the time of Jesus. In Luke 4:14–30, Jesus reads Isaiah 61 in the temple. Isaiah 61 describes God’s Spirit’s empowering the prophet “to proclaim good news to the poor … to proclaim freedom for the prisoners … recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor” (Luke 4:18–19). Each of these proclamations and actions focuses on different groups who were marginalized in Jesus’s time: the poor, prisoners, the blind, the oppressed. Jesus says that “Today this Scripture is fulfilled in your hearing” (Luke 4:21). Through the power of God’s Spirit, Jesus will do the work that the prophets of Isaiah’s time hoped for. Yet that very work creates tension between Jesus and the leaders of his time. Besides the Spirit’s empowerment of the prophet, the Holy Spirit also is key to discerning whether prophecy is true or not, as we will see below.

3. A prophet’s future visions and promises

Besides receiving direct words from God, prophets also were at times given visions of the future. While our tendency is to think that the Old Testament prophets were talking about the distant future, it was far more common for these visions to concern the imminent “future.” The goals of these visions, like the prophet’s descriptions of God’s potential blessings or judgment, were to encourage the people toward present change. Biblical scholars often describe this as forthtelling, as opposed to foretelling. Prophets were not first and foremost sharing visions and words about a time that the people would never see (foretelling), but instead were speaking forth about changes to their specific current situation (or a situation that was soon to come).

Yet this did not limit the prophet’s messages to only his time. It was common in Jewish thought that what God did once, God would do again and even more. Because of this, earlier prophecy was read again and again into new situations, sometimes generations later. For example, Ezekiel 34 speaks of wicked shepherds, a title for leaders of his time, and of God as the shepherd who will undo their treacherous actions (Ezek 34). Ezekiel’s imagery addresses the specific issues that caused the Babylonian exile and how God will respond. Zechariah 11 builds on Ezekiel 34’s shepherd imagery to describe a foolish and wicked shepherd who will not tend to God’s sheep. Zechariah is describing the leaders of his time after the return from exile and their future judgment.

John 10’s description of Jesus as the Good Shepherd uses language from Ezekiel 34 and Zechariah 11. Jesus equates himself with the God of Ezekiel 34 who acts against the wicked shepherds and protects his sheep. John 10 uses Zechariah 11 when speaking of the violent actions of the shepherds. Using Ezekiel and Zechariah, John shows how the original messages of these prophets speak not only to their own time and situations, but they become a way of understanding who Jesus is centuries later. This is a helpful way to think about what “fulfillment” means: The original prophecy had meaning in its time and is then filled up to fullness in later uses.

The combination of how prophets push toward social change and their experiences of future visions is why today we may have two or more very different pictures of who prophets are. When we point to Martin Luther King Jr. as a prophet, we are pointing to the prophetic work of social justice, just as the prophets called the people back to God’s covenant. When we point to modern prophets who hear God’s word and see visions, we are pointing to the future aspect of a prophet’s work.

What was prophecy?

There were many types of prophecy in the ancient world. We see prophecy throughout the Old and New Testament, but also in the cultures surrounding them. Prophecy also includes prophetic actions like sign-acts and has overlap with a related genre called apocalypse. Judging between true and false prophecy was essential. Thankfully, the Bible offered guidelines for how to do this.

1. Types of prophecy

Prophecy was common in the ancient world, just as prophets were. We have evidence of this throughout the ancient Near East and in Greco-Roman cultures. For example, the Egyptian prophecy of Neferti legitimated the king, and we have numerous records of seers who received divine revelation. Prophecy is also found in Old Akkadian, Old Babylonian, and Neo-Assyrian languages with examples like the Mari letters and Nineveh oracles to King Esarhaddon. Such prophecy points to comparisons between these ancient Near Eastern prophesies and Old Testament prophecy. The Greco-Roman social context surrounding the New Testament also included prophecy such as Delphic and Didymean oracles. While these prophesies are notably different than the prophecy found in the New Testament, they also show some striking similarities. Studying these prophecies in neighboring regions and cultures helps us discern what types of prophecy were common in the ancient world.

Biblical prophecy is of many types and purposes. As noted above, prophets often experienced visions and dreams. These visions may include elements of their past, present, and future situations. Frequently, imagery of past events such as creation in Genesis 1–2, or the exodus or wilderness wanderings in Exodus and Numbers, provide the foundations to speak about future warning or hope. For example, Ezekiel 37’s vision of God breathing life back into dry bones is based on God’s breath of life when forming human beings in Genesis 2:7. For Ezekiel, this vision offers a future hope that God’s people will be restored after their horrible experiences in Babylonian exile.

At times, these visions include heavenly encounters such as the angelic messengers in Zechariah and Revelation, and may include a theophany scene. Theophany, coming from the Greek θεός (theos; “God”) and φαίνειν (phainein; “to appear, show”), are times when God appears in front of someone. Isaiah 6, Ezekiel 1, and Revelation 4 are examples of these prophetic moments, each revealing who God is, what God wants to do, and how the prophet should participate in God’s work.

Oracles are common to prophecy. An oracle is direct communication from God to a prophet in order to share God’s word with others. In the Bible, oracles may have titles like “a word from the Lord” or may be described with “the Lord says.” These oracles come in a wide variety of types. Scholars at times divide oracles into three types:

1. oracles of salvation,
2. judgment, and
3. repentance.

These in turn have subdivisions, such as oracles of personal vs. communal repentance. Oracles can also be organized by their literary genre. In the Minor Prophets alone we see poetic oracles (e.g., Joel), oracles against the nations (e.g., Amos, Obadiah, Zephaniah, Zechariah), and woe oracles (e.g., Habakkuk).

Some prophecy includes narration. This can include elements of biography, such as Isaiah and his children or Hosea and his family. Prophetic narrative can describe interactions between the prophet with God, the king, and the people. Some prophecy includes extensive narrative (such as Isaiah and Jonah), while other prophecy contains very little narrative (such as Joel and Obadiah).

2. More than words: prophetic actions and prophetic genre

Prophecy is about more than words and visions. It can also describe and explain prophetic actions. For example, sign-acts are actions that demonstrate God’s message. These physical enactments place the prophet in the role of the people (or of God) in a given message. Ezekiel’s notable sign-acts include creating a model of the siege of Jerusalem (Ezek 4:1–3), laying on his right and left sides for a number of days to indicate the duration of judgment (Ezek 4:4–8), ingesting small amounts of water and bread to mirror Jerusalem’s famine (Ezek 4:9–17), and cutting his beard and hair with a sword and burning the hair to represent attacks on Israel by sword and fire (Ezek 5:1–4). Jesus’s prophetic actions at times align with a specific message, such as withering a fig tree to demonstrate the power of prayer (Matt 21:18–22). John’s Gospel describes Jesus’s actions such as turning water into wine in John 2 as “signs,” similar to Ezekiel’s sign-acts.

Prophecy’s unique blend of poetry and prose also sets it apart as literature. For example, the poetry of Hosea 2 is surrounded by narration in Hosea 1 and 3, and Isaiah’s prophecy shifts from narrative sections to poetic prophecy (e.g., Isa 39–40). In the New Testament, narration about Jesus’s prophecy and prophetic actions are placed alongside Jesus’s prophetic poetry and parables, as in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7 and in many of the parables of the kingdom throughout the Gospels.

The form of prophecy develops across time and shifts into another genre similar to prophecy that is called apocalyptic. Scholars chart the development from biblical prophetic literature through to the exilic period into the early developments of proto-apocalyptic literature in the post-exilic period (e.g., Zechariah, Joel), and finally into the full development of the apocalyptic in the time leading up to Jesus. Apocalyptic literature has characteristics that overlap with prophecy, such as heavenly encounters, theophanies, visions and dreams, vivid imagery, and all with theological purpose. Apocalypticism distinguishes itself by:

• being a planned work with numbers having specific meanings,
• dualism such as temporal dualism (the age to come vs. this present age), spatial dualism (above vs. below, heavens vs. the earth), ethical dualism (good vs. evil),
• fantastical imagery (e.g., multi-horned beasts),
• frequently an anonymous author in the broader ancient world (not in Revelation where John at Patmos is the stated author),
• sealed up for a future time to be revealed (but in Revelation these seals are opened), and
• frequently used to address situations of theodicy (understanding justice amidst suffering).

In the New Testament, not only is Revelation an apocalyptic book, but the Gospels depict Jesus in ways that resonate with apocalyptic themes. Paul’s stories and theology show strong apocalyptic elements. Peter and Jude also include apocalyptic style and themes. While some try to clearly differentiate the apocalyptic from the prophetic, it is more helpful to see them on a continuum of development, where prophecy builds towards apocalypticism and remains essential throughout the New Testament.

3. True and false prophets and prophecy

Both the Old and New Testament distinguish between true and false prophets and the prophecy they give. False prophets can be found saying “peace, peace where there is no peace,” treating the deep wounds of sin lightly (Jer 6:14) in order to keep the king and people happy. In comparison, true prophets speak God’s word, even when it may endanger their own lives (Amos 7:10–17; Mic 2:6–11).

Prophecy was also judged by whether the prophet’s prediction, which he claimed was from God, came true and whether that message was consistent with what God had said and done before (Deut 18:21–22). This also indicates the timing of predictive prophecy was generally focused on the prophet’s own time, when the people could see whether the prediction actually came true.

The New Testament points to the problem of false prophets and priests. Jesus’s critiques of the priests and leaders echo many of the Old Testament prophet’s language and themes when differentiating true and false prophets (e.g., Jesus’s woes against the leaders in Matt 23). When speaking to the Church of Corinth, Paul encourages discernment around true and false prophecy with the standard of faith, hope, and love (1 Cor 12–14). First John 4 also encourages a similar discernment between false and true prophecy that is tested by whether they are proclaiming that Jesus came in the flesh and comes from God.

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What was the message of the prophets?

While prophets like Moses and Elijah appear in other parts of the Old Testament, the specific part of the Old Testament that we call “prophetic literature” is divided into two groups: Major and Minor Prophets. The Major Prophets include:

• Isaiah
• Jeremiah
• Ezekiel
• Daniel

The Minor Prophets are:

• Hosea
• Joel
• Amos
• Obadiah
• Jonah
• Micah
• Nahum
• Habakkuk
• Zephaniah
• Haggai
• Zechariah
• Malachi

We can organize the messages of these prophets in two ways:

1. Chronologically: how prophetic messages respond to their specific historical situations
2. Thematically: how prophetic messages are full of recurring theological themes

1. Prophetic messages considered chronologically

Approaching these prophetic messages chronologically helps us to better see how the specific historical circumstances directly informed these messages. When we organize prophetic messages chronologically, certain trends arise.

i. Pre-exilic prophets

Pre-exilic prophets of the eighth century BC, such as Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, Micah, and Zephaniah, were writing when the nation of Israel was divided into two kingdoms: the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Meanwhile, Assyrian power was growing and the threat of Assyrian attack was imminent. Both the leaders of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms aligned themselves with foreign nations to protect themselves, even as these two kingdoms fought each other. Alongside seeking the aid of foreign nations, Israel as a nation began worshipping foreign idols.

Thus, the prophetic messages of pre-exilic prophets

• focused on the nation of Israel’s idolatry, at times comparing it to adultery (e.g., Hosea),
• indicted Israel for seeking foreign aid instead of trusting God (e.g., Isaiah, Hosea),
• anticipated the Northern Kingdom’s destruction by Assyria due to their many sins (e.g., Amos, Zephaniah), and
• spoke of what true worship would look like instead (e.g., Micah).

ii. Exilic prophets

In the years that followed between the eighth and sixth centuries BC, the Assyrians did destroy the Northern Kingdom of Israel, leaving the Southern Kingdom of Judah vulnerable. In the sixth century BC, the growing power of Babylon led to their conquest of Judah, destruction of the Jerusalem temple, and the capture of Jewish leaders and the elite into exile in Babylon.

The messages of exilic prophets like Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Habakkuk, and Obadiah focus on the pain, isolation, and the loss of the temple, as well as the identity connected with this. These prophetic messages

• ask questions about God’s justice in the face of this suffering, longing to understand why this happened (e.g., Habakkuk),
• provide stories of these prophets standing firm in the face of persecution (e.g., Jeremiah, Daniel) and speaking difficult truths to God’s people (e.g., Ezekiel),
• include oracles against the nations that call for justice via God’s judgment of those who have hurt Israel (e.g., Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah), and
• offer extended inspiring pictures of God’s comfort, restoration, and transformation, picturing a coming anointed one/Messiah (Isaiah), lands redeemed (Jer 32), the temple rebuilt (Ezek 41–48), life restored (Ezek 37), and the Spirit poured out on the people (Joel 2).

iii. Post-exilic prophets

Eventually the Babylonians were overtaken by the Persians. Unlike Babylon and Assyria, who conquered by extreme violence and took people into exile, the Persians allowed the conquered people to return to their homelands and have a modicum of self-governance and freedom to observe their own religion. Thus, the Israelite people were allowed to return from Babylon to their homeland. Yet not all of the promises of earlier prophets were fully realized yet.

The post-exilic prophets’ messages

• helped the people to adapt to this return (e.g., Haggai, Zechariah),
• gave explanations of how God would ultimately fulfill his previous promises (e.g., Haggai, Zechariah, Joel),
• called the people to rebuild the temple (e.g., Haggai),
• encouraged the people to repentance to avoid the judgment of previous generations (e.g., Joel, Jonah, Malachi), and
• offered a future hope that the nations would turn to God (e.g., Zech 2, 8).

iv. New Testament prophecy

By the time the Gospels begin, the Greeks have conquered the Persians and then the Romans conquered the Greeks. By Jesus’s time, Rome rules the nation of Israel.

The prophetic messages of the New Testament include

• John the Baptist and Jesus continuing to call for repentance while showing concern for the people under foreign rule,
• Paul, as a kind of apocalyptic prophet, speaking to the needs of the growing early church, and
• Revelation giving an apocalyptic prophetic message of hope to address the circumstances of a persecuted Christian community.

2. Prophetic messages considered thematically

Thinking thematically about these prophetic messages offers us insight into who God is, what he wants to do, and how the people should respond. Theological themes flow from the Old Testament prophets to the New Testament prophets.

i. Repentance and return

Both Old and New Testament prophets have calls for repentance and the people’s return to God. The prophets call the people to return to the heart of the law to love God and love each other, to care for the most vulnerable, and to care for the land. These messages emphasize the need for holiness and righteousness (right-related-ness) to reflect God’s holiness and righteousness.

• The Hebrew word שׁוב (“return”) is used extensively throughout Hosea to emphasize this message.
• Isaiah speaks of God as “the Holy One of Israel” calling the people to repentance and holiness.
• Ezekiel builds on the language of Leviticus. Ezekiel is made hard like a stone so that he can speak to hardhearted people, offering them a new heart and spirit from God.
• John the Baptist stands in the tradition of Old Testament prophets announcing the coming Messiah and calling for repentance.
• Luke emphasizes the role of the Spirit in cultivating holiness similar to Isaiah.

ii. Justice and societal change

As noted above, Old Testament prophets connected worship and justice (e.g., Isa 58; Mic 6).

This theme continues in the New Testament in Jesus’s combination of blessings and warnings (e.g., the woes in Matt 23, “what you do to the least of these you do to me” [Matt 25:40–45]). Worship and justice are also combined in the climatic vision in Revelation 21–22.

iii. Theodicy

As mentioned above, a key element to the prophets’ messages in the exilic period was responding to why God allowed the exile to happen. This is part of a larger question about why God allows suffering to happen in general.

• Exilic prophets like Jeremiah and Ezekiel address these questions, and their responses are foundational to Revelation.
• Revelation focuses on addressing theodicy as the Christian community experiences persecution through a vision of justice and ultimate restoration.

iv. New creation and new exodus

The foundational stories of creation and exodus become patterns for prophetic hope in the Old Testament.

• Isaiah builds on the exodus story to speak of a new exodus (e.g., Isa 40).
• Ezekiel uses the imagery of creation to speak of a new creation with the valley of dry bones (e.g., Ezek 37).

The New Testament builds on these Old Testament prophetic themes.

• Mark’s Gospel uses Isaiah to speak of a new exodus through Jesus.
• Paul’s letters are full of new creation language (e.g., 2 Cor 3:2–6:3; Gal 5:1–6:18).
• Revelation’s ultimate vision in Revelation 21–22 uses creation imagery to speak of the new creation through Christ’s second coming.

v. Kingship and kingdom

The theme of God as the Great King is central throughout the prophets of the Old and New Testament. The human king is intended to be dependent on God.

• Post-exilic prophets picture God’s lead as Great King (e.g., Isa 6, God as king; Dan 7, the Son of Man enthroned beside God’s throne; Zech 9, God as coming king and defender of his people).
• The New Testament builds on this theme through Jesus’s proclamations about the kingdom of God and his depiction of himself as king (e.g., John 12’s use of Zech 9).
• Revelation enters the throne room of God as king to worship him (e.g., Rev 4’s use of Isa 6).

vi. Day of the Lord

The Day of the Lord describes a time when God will act decisively with judgment and transformation. This theme emerges in Isaiah and throughout the Minor Prophets. The New Testament further develops this theme as part of anticipating Jesus’s second coming.

vii. God’s salvation to the whole world

One of the themes of biblical prophecy is how God will deal with the foreign nations.

• Biblical prophecy is built on the foundational stories of the Israelite people and their covenant with God. When God calls Abraham, he not only uniquely blesses the Israelite people as chosen ones, but intends to bless the nations through them (Gen 22:15–18).
• Yet as the nations inflict terrible wrongs against the Israelite people, prophets speak oracles against them. These oracles against the nations are common in pre-exilic and exilic prophetic literature (e.g., Amos 1 against Tyre and cities of Philistia; Joel 3 against Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Egypt, and Edom; Obadiah against Edom, Nahum against Nineveh; Isa 13–23, Jer 46–51, and Ezek 25–32 against many nations).
• After the exile and Israel’s return to their land, hope for the nations’ repentance and turn towards God emerges (e.g., Zech 2:11; 8:20–23). The New Testament shares in this vision for the nations through Jesus as hope for the nations (Luke 2:22–39), Paul’s gentile mission, and Revelation’s vision of all nations worshipping God (Rev 7:9–12).

viii. Restoration and shalom

Throughout the prophetic messages, themes of restoration and the return to shalom (wholeness and peace) employ vivid imagery (e.g., Jeremiah’s redeemed land, Ezekiel’s transformed temple and new spirit/heart, Hosea 14’s plant imagery). The New Testament builds on these images to speak of ultimate restoration and return to shalom in Jesus’s first and second coming depicted in the Gospels and in Revelation.

What is a biblical theology of prophecy?

Biblical theology explores theological questions by starting with the Bible, tracing biblical themes across the Bible to reveal the character of God, his relationship to humans and his creation, what God wants to do in the world, and the responses of human beings and God’s creation to God. Our exploration of prophetic theological themes throughout the Old and New Testament is a start at cultivating a biblical theology of prophecy.

A biblical theology of prophecy shows how prophecy shapes our understanding of who the triune God is: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

• For example, Hosea uses imagery of God as Husband and Father to speak of God’s relationship with Israel. John’s Gospel uses this imagery of God as Father extensively. For instance, the Father shows his love for the world in sending his Son (John 3:16).
• Daniel 7 describes the Son of Man enthroned beside the Ancient of Days (a title for God). John’s Gospel uses Daniel’s language to speak of Jesus as the coming Son of Man (John 1:51).
• Luke 4 builds on Isaiah 61’s depiction of God’s Spirit empowering the prophet to speak of Jesus’s mission.

In this way, a biblical theology of prophecy traces who God was in Israel and the early church’s past, who God is in Israel and the early church’s present, and promises who God will be to them (and to us!)

As we discussed above, the prophets were commonly forthtelling messages about the near future to the people, yet these messages were considered equally prophetic for later generations. Prophets built on the prophecies of previous prophets within the Old Testament as well as from the Old to the New Testament. Tracing these stages of prophetic fulfillment via biblical theology allows us to see the consistent character of God and God’s continuing work from generation to generation. We can see this prophetic development in examples such as comparisons between the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53 and depictions of Jesus in the Gospels as Messiah and as prophet, priest, and king, building on Old Testament prophecy.

A biblical theology of prophecy helps us better understand how the role and purpose of the prophets are fulfilled (given additional fulness) in Jesus. While Moses experienced God’s presence in the burning bush (Exod 3) and the pillar of cloud and fire (Exod 13:17–22), Jesus is God’s presence with us! While prophets received God’s word to share with the people, Jesus is the Word who became flesh and dwelt among us (John 1:14). The prophets knew who God was because of his messages to them and to the people. Jesus knew the Father because he and the Father are one (John 10:30; 17:21). Jesus is God and, when he makes God known, he is sharing directly from the triune God. A biblical theology reveals how these prophetic trajectories lead towards who Jesus is and what he does among God’s people.

A biblical theology of prophecy also allows us to see how the continuing work of prophecy informs what we think prophecy is and does. For example, Jesus’s discussion of the Holy Spirit’s continuing work after Jesus’s death in John’s Gospel (John 14–16) and Jesus’s anticipated second coming in Revelation indicate that not all biblical prophecies are already fulfilled. Revelation 21:4 uses the promise of Isaiah 25:8 that “He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death” to speak of an anticipated time when there will be no more “mourning or crying or pain.” We still await this promise with expectation when Jesus comes again. Revelation 22 builds on other parts of Old Testament prophecy to describe the fulfillment of all of the promises given to God’s people: return, restoration, new creation, the fullness of God’s presence with us, the elimination of poverty, suffering, wars, and death, and the hope of a bridal feast with the triune God.

Why does prophecy matter today?

The themes and theology of biblical prophecy continue to hold meaning for today. As we await the prophecies of the Old and New Testaments to be completely fulfilled, we can learn lessons about how God wants us to live in these times between Jesus’s first and second coming.

1. Worship and justice

Old and New Testament prophets encourage us to return to true worship. The prophets link this to the need for meaningful and just relationships with one another and the world around us in light of our relationship with God. Both worship and justice matter.

As the prophets demonstrate, revelation of the truth, even when it is hard to hear, leads to reconciliation with God and each other. This in turn leads to holiness and righteousness. When we embrace the truth of God’s prophetic messages, we allow God to cleanse us and set us apart for his purposes (holiness) as well as to empower us through his Spirit to live lives in right relation with him and those around us (righteousness).

This may look like cultivating a connection between the worship practices in our churches and our care for those most vulnerable around us. This may look like getting to know our neighbors and investing in their lives as part of our worship of God.

2. Theodicy

Biblical prophecy offers hope in the midst of suffering. In the same way that the Old Testament prophets spoke into the suffering of their times, and Revelation spoke to persecuted early Christians, today we need hope in a world filled with despair.

A biblical theology of prophecy helps us avoid overly idealistic perspectives that pretend the world is already fixed. But it also guards us from falling into pessimistic despair for what has not yet been fixed, as though there is nothing we can say or do. Instead, biblical prophets provide an already-not-yet hope: God is already at work to change things, but he isn’t done yet.

We can live this out in practice by caring for those who are suffering today. This can include visiting those who are sick, the elderly, and those struggling with other kinds of distress. We can also work toward changing the systems that lead to different forms of suffering in our world.

3. New creation and new exodus

The prophets remind us that, just as God created in Genesis and freed his people in Exodus, we live as new creations who have experienced a new exodus. Further, we live as part of God’s new creation with anticipation of the fullness of our transformation in the future.

We follow Paul’s encouragement (building on Isaiah) about what it means to be a new creation, embracing our freedom in Christ. Paul encouraged the Church of Corinth to be a community characterized by faith, hope, and love rather than greed, selfishness, and arrogance. Remembering our own new creation and new exodus can help us create churches shaped by these virtues.

4. Kingship and kingdom

A biblical theology of prophecy reminds us that we live as part of God’s upside-down kingdom during the Day of the Lord today! This vision points to the new way the Spirit was released that allows us to live Spirit-filled lives. In this kingdom, we find strength in weakness and hope in despair. We are encouraged to care for “the least of these” in our society.

5. Salvation for the whole world

Exploring a biblical theology of prophecy helps us remember God’s desire for his kingdom to be enacted throughout the entire world. God’s message from the start was to bless the nations. Prophecy in both the Old and New Testaments encourages a missional vision for the nations to be transformed through God’s love. Jesus as the Great Prophet models what this kind of love-in-action looks like, exemplifying what the kingdom looks like in mission.

6. Restoration and true shalom

Finally, understanding that we live in God’s already-not-yet kingdom helps us work toward restoration and true shalom, realizing that these goals can only be fully fulfilled in Jesus’s second coming. Yet we are still active participants in this restoration when we work to restore broken relationships today and seek wholeness (shalom) in our homes, neighborhoods, cities, and world.

Share your thoughts

How would you define prophecy and the role of the prophets in Scripture? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Beth Stovell’s recommended resources for further study

Related content

• The Day of the Lord: How a “Day of Darkness” Offers Future Hope
• What’s Typology? Patterns of Creation in Redemptive History
• The Spirit of the Lord Is upon Me: How This Prophecy Applies to Jesus
• The Kingdom of God: The Great Unfolding Drama of Salvation
• The Olivet Discourse: Second Coming Prophecy or Prophetic Warning against Jerusalem?

This piece will explain best practices for one-on-one discipleship, but before we get there, we must first lay out the importance of discipleship.

Jesus’s leadership plan

At the age of thirty, Jesus of Nazareth embarked on a mission that would change, not the world, but the entire cosmos. But Jesus did not do it alone. He began by discipling twelve men.

In his classic book, The Master Plan of Evangelism, Robert Coleman explains how Jesus gives us the greatest leadership development plan in history. Jesus began by spending a majority of his time building up twelve ordinary men, men who would take the reins when his time on earth came to an end.⁶³ These same men, ancient witnesses claim, turned the world upside down (Acts 17:6).

Using the message entrusted to them, and empowered by the Holy Spirit, their ministry reached the globe. In their hands, Christianity officially arrived on the world stage.

The discipleship mandate

Jesus’s parting words for us in Matthew center on the call to discipleship. In the Great Commission, Jesus commands us to “Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations” (Matt 28:19–20).⁶⁴ The imperative in the Greek is “make disciples” (μαθητεύω). For the rest of human history, until Jesus comes back, the purpose of the church is to make disciples, as opposed to, say, just believers.

Sometimes the Great Commission is paraphrased as though Jesus were saying, “As you go, make disciples.” In Matthew 28:19, “go” is a participle. However, it functions as an attendant circumstance participle, meaning it is so closely connected to the main verb that it carries the force of the command. That is why our major modern translations rightly render Jesus’s words, “Go and make disciples.”

That distinction is important. Jesus is not calling us merely to disciple people whenever life happens to present an opportunity. He is commissioning us to intentionally give ourselves to the work of making disciples. Discipleship happens in the ordinary course of life, but it is never meant to be accidental.

At the same time, that intentional work unfolds in the real circumstances of life. Paul’s relationship with Timothy gives us a beautiful picture of this. Paul tells Timothy, “You, therefore, my son, be strong in the grace that is in Christ Jesus. What you have heard from me in the presence of many witnesses, commit to faithful men who will be able to teach others also” (2 Tim 2:1–2). Timothy had received something from Paul, and Paul expected him to intentionally pass it on to others.

But Timothy received more than Paul’s teaching. He also saw Paul’s life. Paul later writes, “But you have followed my teaching, conduct, purpose, faith, patience, love, and endurance, along with the persecutions and sufferings that came to me in Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra” (2 Tim 3:10–11). Timothy watched Paul follow Christ through fruitful ministry, hardship, persecution, endurance, and suffering. He did not simply hear Paul explain the Christian life. He saw Paul live it.

That is an important part of one-on-one discipleship. We intentionally invite another person to walk with us, close enough to see what faithfulness looks like in the various seasons of our lives. Discipleship should not cease because life becomes inconvenient, painful, or complicated. In many ways, those are the moments when a younger believer has the opportunity to see most clearly what it means to trust Christ.

Paul tells Timothy elsewhere to “preach the word; be ready in season and out of season” (2 Tim 4:2). While that command specifically concerns Timothy’s ministry of preaching, the principle reminds us that faithfulness to Christ is not reserved for ideal circumstances.

There may never be a perfectly convenient time to disciple someone. There will always be responsibilities, interruptions, fruitful seasons, barren seasons, joys, disappointments, and suffering. Yet Christ’s commission remains.

So we go intentionally, we make disciples purposefully, and we allow those disciples to see us follow Jesus faithfully wherever obedience to him takes us.

Experiencing discipleship relationships

As I prepared to write this article, I asked several people to reflect on their past discipleship relationships with mentors. Their experiences included both meaningful joys and difficult moments. The reflections below offer a helpful window into what can strengthen—or hinder—a discipleship relationship and provide important considerations for your own discipleship journey:

Joys

• Being invited into the life of a mentor. Many would call this “life on life,” walking alongside an older/wiser Christian, and learning as they experience life with them.
• Feeling “seen,” known, and not condemned. Jesus modeled this perfectly. He fully knew his disciples. He knew their strengths, their potential, but also their weaknesses. Yet he loved them passionately.
• Being trusted, which leads to lasting spiritual growth. Leaders trust those who are under their care. This trust gives the learner confidence to grow and excel.
• Intentional questions that challenge reflection. Jesus asked his followers challenging questions to help them see their own hearts (e.g., Matt 8:23–27; 16:13–20; Mark 4:35–41; 8:27–30; Luke 8:22–25; 9:18–20), but also to know him more deeply. Great disciple leaders ask those in their care the right questions to stimulate thought and growth.

Pains

• Formulaic, “motions-only” meetings. Many disciple leaders report a lack of intentionality and creativity when meetings took place.
• Lack of listening or empathy. It’s difficult to connect when someone doesn’t understand where you are coming from, or if they always seem to have the answer without listening to you. The quickest way to gain someone’s trust is to lend your ears to their concerns and thoughts.
• Disconnect between study and daily life. Do the lessons connect to life? How do the lessons help young disciples become more like Jesus? Do the lessons help give them spiritual tools to overcome life’s challenges and sin in their lives? If not, rethink what you’re sharing.
• Scheduling conflicts (e.g., kids, work, etc.). It hurts when the person we are looking to for guidance doesn’t make us a priority. Let your disciples see they are a priority in your life.

Best practices for the church today

Knowing Jesus’s call to make disciples, and remembering the relationship between Paul and Timothy, what are some tips for the church today in disciple-making, specifically when it comes to one-on-one discipleship?

Below are some best practices I want to leave with you:

1. Invite a younger disciple into your life

Let them see how you live and how you steward your life. Let them see how you navigate the ups and downs. One of the most impactful moments in a discipleship relationship was seeing my former disciple leader navigate a life-changing illness, pastor a church, and prepare for marriage. I got to see how he modeled Jesus in his suffering and steadfastness as life threw its challenges. Invite your disciples in.

2. Listen to their stories, concerns, and struggles before you speak

Some of the best moments of giving encouragement and wisdom to younger disciples were when I let them share without interruption. During that time, I am listening and discerning how God might call me to respond. James 1:19 tells us to “quick to listen, slow to speak.” This is paramount in discipleship relationships.

3. Mix up the flow and format

Not every meeting needs to be a Bible study. Sometimes it can be lunch. Or simply going to an event together. Have fun with your disciples. Their observing your walk also involves letting them see how you have fun.

4. Give them responsibility

Part of maturing in Christ is being entrusted with tasks or leadership responsibilities. If you are a leader in your church or in some area of ministry, allow your disciple to lead something. Empower them to grow and step up. Jesus did this frequently with his disciples (e.g., Matt 10; Mark 6:7–13; Luke 10:1–16), and if they failed, he was there to pick them up (e.g., Matt 17:14–20; Mark 9:14–29; Luke 9:37–43). Give your disciples a task or responsibility.

5. Correct them, don’t crush them

Our disciples are not perfect. They will fail. They will make mistakes and have sin struggles. Encourage, rebuke, exhort, but don’t destroy them with words. Being a disciple leader is like being a shepherd, and shepherds don’t beat the sheep. They won’t recover if you do. Correct, sternly if necessary, but give them a chance to get it right. Jesus often rebuked Peter (Matt 16:23; Mark 8:31–33) and even knew he would reject him (Matt 26:31–35; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:31–34; John 13:36–38). Yet Jesus restored him and called him back to leadership (John 21:15–19).

Keep going

In closing, may the Lord continue to grant you grace and wisdom. Disciple-making is a joy. What a blessing it is to see how God can use you to help others mature in their faith. Just as Jesus poured into twelve ordinary men who went on to change the world, he is calling us to pour into others. Accept the call, and know that as you do, Jesus is with you until the end.

Share your thoughts

What have you found most helpful in one-on-one discipleship settings? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Other articles on disciple-making

• What Is the Great Commission—& Is It Even for Me?
• How the Great Commission Echoes the Old Testament
• How the Bible Defines Discipleship: 12 Core Elements
• What Are the Best Books on Discipleship?
• Deep Discipleship in a Digital Age: Rethinking Church, Ministry & Life Together in an Online World

Resources for further reflection

The Power of One-on-One: Discovering the Joy and Satisfaction of Mentoring Others

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Disciple Making Is . . .: How to Live the Great Commission with Passion and Confidence

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Replicate: How to Create a Culture of Disciple-Making Right Where You Are

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Growing in Discipleship

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Growing One Another: Discipleship in the Church

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1-2-1 Discipleship

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Transforming Discipleship: Making Disciples a Few at a Time

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Deep Discipleship: How the Church Can Make Whole Disciples of Jesus

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As someone who has done lots of home improvement projects in the past few years, I have come to realize how valuable proper tools are. But as with most jobs, there isn’t one tool that works on every project. The right tool makes all the difference—as well as understanding how to use it properly! As the old saying goes, “Use the right tool for the right job in the right way.”

The same holds true for understanding biblical Greek words. The right tools in this case include lexicons (or lexica) and dictionaries.

Understanding Greek lexical tools

Before we look at some specific lexicons and dictionaries, let’s consider what they are and what they offer. We’ll also need to have some basic concepts in place to know how to use these powerful tools.

What’s the difference between a lexicon and a dictionary?

A lexicon is a type of dictionary, but it involves two languages, such as Greek and English, whereas a dictionary may deal with one language, such as English. Nonetheless, both lexicon and dictionary are terms commonly used for resources on biblical Greek words.

Both dictionaries and lexicons are used to understand the meaning of a word. Yet, whereas dictionaries often provide shorter, more general translation possibilities of a Greek word, a lexicon provides more detailed information, including examples of usage, a word’s evolution, and possibly even bibliographic entries for further study. The terms lexicon and dictionary are sometimes used interchangeably, but it is important to understand they have different aims.

What’s the difference between a gloss and a definition?

A lexicon often includes both definitions and glosses. A gloss (or translation gloss) is a possible translation for a given word; for example, one translation for the Greek word λόγος (logos) is “word,” although there are many other possible translations, including “statement,” “report,” or “matter.” On the other hand, a definition explains what a word means or how it functions without actually translating the word. Here’s an example definition for λόγος: “a communication whereby the mind finds expression.”⁶⁵ Another lexicon defines θεωρέω as follows: “to observe something with continuity and attention, often with the implication that what is observed is something unusual.”⁶⁶ The glosses for θεωρέω are “to observe,” “to be a spectator of,” “to look at.”

There are merits to both definitions and glosses: Definitions avoid confusion when a gloss is unfamiliar or archaic (such as the gloss “snood” for κατακάλυψις, which is a type of head covering). Yet definitions can be cumbersome, whereas glosses are usually easier to understand initially. However, a list of glosses can suggest that any gloss could be used as a possible translation of a Greek word. It is important to recognize that the meaning of a word depends on the context in which that word occurs. As we saw, there are dozens of possible translation glosses for λόγος; only context determines which is the most appropriate for a given clause.

How are lexicons and related resources written?

It is probably best to speak of “compiling” lexicons rather than writing them. It is well-established that many Greek lexicons have simply borrowed from older lexicons without critical appraisal of the accuracy of a given gloss. In some cases (such as understanding the conjunction πλήν as a more colloquial alternative for ἀλλά) inaccurate understandings of Greek words have been perpetuated for decades, even centuries!⁶⁷ Fortunately, some of these inaccuracies have been addressed in more recent works.

The approach to NT lexicography has evolved over many centuries, beginning with early “glossaries” of Greek words written in Latin. In the nineteenth century, many German lexicographers focused on the etymology (the origin and history of words) of words and how their meaning changed over time. Additionally, they sought to understand what these changes indicated about the culture and times of the biblical authors. As Michael Aubrey notes, these scholars “sought to bring together and articulate the social, cultural, and theological information that is associated with individual lexemes. They recognized that words are not self-contained phonetic vessels, but complex mental representations of human knowledge.”⁶⁸

Part of this approach is helpful since words must be understood in their textual, cultural, and historical context. But some attempts to get into the mind of the biblical author go beyond the lexical data. These issues are more pronounced in theological wordbooks (discussed below). Problems also arise when “significant theological claims” are made about a given lexeme and when those claims are believed to be present every time that lexeme occurs.⁶⁹ For example, λόγος does refer to the Incarnate Son of God, but certainly not every occurrence of λόγος in the NT has this reference. It is also important to understand that a word is not the same thing as a concept. For example, κληρονομία is often translated “inheritance,” but it is frequently associated with “eternal life” in the NT. So if you only searched for instances of κληρονομία in the NT, you would miss much about the concept of inheritance in the NT. Additionally, not every occurrence of κληρονομία in the NT is associated with eternal life.

Biblical Greek lexicons

Having gained a better understanding of some of these basic distinctions and their historical background, we can now survey some of the major lexicons and dictionaries for both the NT and the LXX.

We’ll begin with lexicons on biblical Greek.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (BDAG)

Perhaps the best known and most helpful NT lexicon is A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature.

This work was begun in German by Walter Bauer, who added numerous references to extrabiblical sources, especially in the fourth German edition. In 1957, William F. Arndt and F. Wilber Gingrich translated Bauer’s work into English, although they also expanded the volume considerably. The second edition of this English work incorporated additional research from Bauer, which continued to broaden the scope of the extrabiblical references. Frederick W. Danker took over for Arndt after the latter’s death in 1957; this second (1979) edition was commonly referred to as BAGD (Bauer-Arndt-Gingrich-Danker). The third edition of this work was published in 2001 (Chicago); it is commonly referred to as BDAG (Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich), reflecting Danker’s increased role in its production as well as the continued dependence upon Bauer’s work.

The third edition offers both definitions and glosses for Greek words. For example, the entry for ἐπίσκοπος begins with a definition followed by one possible gloss (in italics): “one who has the responsibility of safeguarding or seeing to it that something is done in the correct way, guardian.”⁷⁰ The entry continues by noting that this word referred to an “overseer” in the early church and offers extensive references to occurrences in extrabiblical Koine. It concludes with a bibliography for further study. The gloss “bishop” is noted as reflecting later ecclesial realities and thus to be avoided.

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BDAG is the source for the definition of λόγος given earlier. The entry for λόγος (three full pages of double columns with small font!) offers three main definitions (bolded) with multiple subcategories (including additional definitions and glosses) and extensive biblical and extrabiblical references and bibliography. References to the NT are helpfully bolded.

A word of caution, however, is in order about biblical references. The determination of which NT references are examples of given subcategories involves interpretation and exegesis. Thus it may be possible to find the same biblical reference in more than one part of an entry. This should caution users of the lexicon from simply appropriating the gloss assigned for a given biblical word uncritically. In many cases, we will agree with BDAG, but it is helpful to understand that the assignment of these biblical references can be subjective.

Even so, many features contribute to the indispensable value of BDAG. Although this lexicon is about $150, it is worth putting on your Christmas or birthday wish list! A related work is The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, also by Frederick W. Danker (Chicago, 2009). This helpful resource is not a substitution for BDAG, but it is a helpful quick reference. It also offers definitions and glosses, but has more limited references to the Greek NT and extrabiblical sources.

A Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (BDAG)

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The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament

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Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (Louw and Nida)

Another important tool is the Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains, edited by J. P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida.

Rather than an alphabetical listing of Greek words (as is the case for most lexicons, including BDAG), this lexicon classifies Greek words into ninety-three semantic domains (such as “Kinship Terms,” “Reconciliation,” “Forgiveness,” “Agriculture,” “Status,” and so on).

As noted, earlier lexicons and theological wordbooks sought to understand the “mindset” behind biblical Greek words, but as noted, this can lead to reading too much into a given word and importing that meaning into every occurrence of that word. The emerging field of lexical semantics was critical of these older approaches (and rightly so, in some cases). Instead, linguists sought to break words down into their various components (componential analysis) understood in contrast to other words. For example, a “human” could be a man, woman, boy, or girl, but an “adult” could only be a man or a woman.⁷¹ Such analysis led to the identification of the ninety-three semantic domains, which group related words together into small subdomains.

Looking back at the example of θεωρέω, this word is listed under three semantic domains: Domain 24 (Sensory Events and States; Subdomain A: See); Domain 32 (Understand; Subdomain B: Come to Understand); and Domain 90 (Case; Subdomain M: Experiencer). Our example definition above is listed under 24.14.

In addition to offering a definition and possible glosses, Louw and Nida’s work also offers “contextual notes,” which list scriptural examples or explain idioms. For example, in 90.79, they note that this use of θεωρέω is “normally in negative expressions indicating what one will not experience,” which helps to understand the use of θεωρέω in John 8:51.⁷²

This work is helpful for addressing a common mistake that Greek students often make, which is to think that all possible glosses for a given Greek word are equally possible every time that word appears in the NT or the LXX. Instead, Louw and Nida’s work shows how dependent words are on the context in which they appear. This work also makes it easier to consider options that biblical writers had in their lexical choices since we more easily see semantically related words.⁷³ Finally, subdomains make it easier to see synonyms (in nearby subdomains) and antonyms (in more distant subdomains) for a given word or group of words.

A benefit of this lexicon, then, is that you can more easily see how individual Greek words are organically connected with other words. This reflects the way that language users actually categorize words, something along lines of “words of a feather flock together.” People simply don’t organize the words that they know alphabetically! Yet people also don’t usually understand what a word is based on how it contrasts with another word (componential analysis). Instead, people often understand what a word means based on their experience with that word. For example, a person knows what a bird is because they’ve experienced one singing in their back yard. They aren’t thinking that a bird has certain components and lacks other ones.

A limitation of this work is that it can be difficult to use since the same Greek word can appear in more than one semantic domain. The work comprises two volumes. The first volume is organized around the ninety-three semantic domains. The second volume lists all NT Greek words alphabetically and then lists the domain(s) and subdomains where the word is discussed. This latter volume also offers a list of English words to access domains and a Scripture index keyed to domains.

Another limitation of Louw and Nida is that it is limited to the Greek of the NT. Even so, Louw and Nida’s work is very helpful for understanding biblical Greek words.

Drawing upon Louw and Nida is Mark Wilson’s Mastering Greek Vocabulary Through Semantic Domains. This compact volume follows the structure of the ninety-three semantic domains from Louw and Nida’s lexicon, but offers brief glosses (sometimes only one). It is a helpful way to visualize how “words of the same semantic domain flock together.”

Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains

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A Greek-English Lexicon (LSJ or LSJM)

A Greek-English Lexicon was originally edited by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, but a later edition (Clarendon, 1996) was updated by Henry Stuart Jones and Roderick McKenzie. This lexicon spans from the classical era to about AD 600, including vocabulary from the LXX and the NT.

This massive volume is particularly helpful for understanding the semantic development of a given word over a long time period. This can be helpful in some situations, but if we are focused on how first-century language users understood a specific work in a given context, this may not be as helpful. After all, most of us don’t intuitively think through centuries of a word’s historical development when we consider what that word means!

Even so, this work can be helpful in understanding hapax legomena (words that occur only once) or words whose background could still influence NT usage. For example, παρρησία was associated by Athenians with free speech, which is still reflected in some glosses for this word: “outspokenness,” “frankness.”

See also its abridgment, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (LSJI).

Liddell and Scott Greek–English Lexicon (LSJ)

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An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (LSJI)

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Customize the format of your lexicons in Logos for ease-of-use.

Biblical Greek lexicons focusing on the LXX

Several specialized lexicons have been developed for studying the vocabulary of the Septuagint (LXX).

A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (GELS)

The most comprehensive lexicon of the LXX is the one by Takamitsu Muraoka, A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (Peeters, 2009), covering the OT canon and the Apocrypha (deuterocanonical books). This work is based on the comprehensive textual work of the Göttingen edition of the LXX. Entries include various forms of words (e.g., various verb tenses forms, participles, passive forms) and definitions as well as glosses, which are illustrated by actual Greek texts (allowing users to see contextual connections) and biblical references. There are also references to cognates and some bibliographical works. Unique to this work is the addition of references to both synonyms and antonyms within the LXX corpus.

A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (LEH)

One of the most accessible lexicons for the LXX is the two-volume A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint, edited by Johan Lust, Erik Eynikel, and Katrin Hauspie, now in its third edition (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2016). The work is very concise and yet offers morphological analysis, biblical references (including the OT and Apocrypha), translation glosses (but no definitions) often following LSJM, some references to the Hebrew from which the Greek was translated, and bibliographic references for many entries (including some not found in GELS).

A Greek English Lexicon of the Septuagint, 3rd ed.

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The Greek of the Septuagint: A Supplemental Lexicon

As the title suggests, this work by Gary Alan Chamberlain (who collaborated on LEH) is not an exhaustive lexicon. It mainly supplements the LXX references in BDAG. Morphological information is offered, especially for less common forms, as well as biblical and extrabiblical references.

The Greek of the Septuagint: A Supplemental Lexicon

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Theological lexicons and dictionaries

As noted above, in addition to lexicons, there are numerous theological lexicons and dictionaries for the study of biblical Greek words.

The adjective “theological” before “lexicon” or “dictionary” is important. These works reflect the decades of (primarily German) scholarship that sought to understand the historical, cultural, and contextual associations in a given Greek word, often with the aim of understanding how the word could be understood theologically.

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT)

The most extensive theological dictionary is the ten-volume Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, and George Bromiley (Eerdmans, 1976). TDNT is the English translation of Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament, translated by Bromiley.

This massive work has detailed, extensive entries for more than 2,300 biblical Greek words. The volumes are organized alphabetically, although related words are discussed in single entries. For example, the entry for ἅγιος (“holy”) also includes subentries for ἁγιάζω (“I set apart”), ἁγιασμός (“consecration”), ἁγιότης (“moral purity”), and ἁγιωσύνη (“holiness”). (Numerous other related words are also listed in the opening paragraph.) This twenty-eight-page entry starts with ἅγιος, beginning with a brief discussion of the word in classical Greek and secular Hellenistic sources. This is followed by a seven-page discussion of ἅγιος in the OT (both the MT and LXX) and extrabiblical Jewish writings (e.g., Jewish apocryphal writings, Philo, and Josephus). The next three-page section focuses on rabbinic Judaism. Finally, there is a ten-page discussion of ἅγιος in the NT. Following the entry for ἅγιος is a two-page entry for ἁγιάζω, single-page entries for ἁγιασμός and ἁγιότης, and a half-page entry for ἁγιωσύνη. Such extensive treatment of one significant NT word is representative of other entries, some of which are much longer.

Multiple authors contributed to this massive work. Often, one entry will have multiple authors. This is understandable given the scope of this work, yet there can be an unevenness in the depth and theological perspectives represented in individual entries.

This work represents nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century German scholarship at its height. Yet, as noted above, this theological approach to lexical semantics has been criticized, particularly for the confusion of a word with an associated concept (such as κληρονομία and “eternal life”) and for trying to determine the “mindset” of biblical writers. These criticisms have led some to abandon TDNT. Yet TDNT offers vastly more background information than is found in BDAG or Louw and Nida, so dismissing it completely is a mistake. Instead, we can gain from the cultural and historical background and accompanying reflections while at the same time being cautious of some of the (at times sweeping) theological claims found in entries.

There is also an abridged, one-volume book (Eerdmans, 1985).

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament | TDNT (10 vols.)

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The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume (TDNTA)

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New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (NIDNTT)

The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology is a three-volume work edited by Colin Brown (Zondervan, 1979). The strength of this work is the breadth of scholars who contributed to it, such as J. I. Packer, F. F. Bruce, and D. A. Carson. Although a bit dated, many entries are worth consulting. Each entry covers classical (CL) usage, OT usage, and NT usage.

The main difficulty with this resource is its organization—entries cover related English words, such as “Abolish, Nullify, Reject.” The Greek verb discussed under this heading is καταργέω. The entry “Baptism, Wash” discusses three Greek verbs: βαπτίζω, λούω, and νίπτω. (This format follows the original design of Theologisches Begriffslexicon zum Neuen Testament, which focused on “theological concepts,” somewhat similar to semantic domains.) Its original publication was very difficult to use; fortunately, indexes were added as a fourth volume in 1986.

New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (4 vols.)

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New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis (NIDNTTE)

The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis (Zondervan, 2014) is the extensive revision of NIDNTT. This five-volume tool is the work of Moisés Silva, who updated and revised entries so extensively that the names of the original authors are not retained in individual entries.

The biggest revision reorganized entries into alphabetical order while still trying to retain the idea of concepts. Perhaps more importantly, NIDNTTE takes seriously the earlier criticisms of theological wordbooks and tries both to avoid those shortcomings and to incorporate more recent understandings of lexical semantics, such as the role that context plays in understanding a biblical Greek word. Silva describes this in terms of “collocation,” or how a word “combines with other lexical items.”⁷⁴ As the title indicates, this work is more focused on exegesis, considering how words function in a given context. This shifts the focus from the word itself to the context in which it appears and how it functions there.

Silva also draws heavily upon the semantic domains established by Louw and Nida, which is reflected in the “List of Concepts” that is found at the beginning of each volume. A dagger indicates which Greek word has the most extensive discussion and often the fullest bibliography. Somewhat following NIDNTT, each entry discusses Greek literature (GL; classical and extrabiblical Koine), Jewish literature (JL; MT, LXX, Philo, Josephus, and some apocryphal works), and the NT. Some basic revisions include corrections of inaccurate material and omissions of outdated discussions.

See also its one-volume abridgment, The Concise New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, edited by Christopher A. Beetham. This work is a valuable tool for quickly understanding the scope of a biblical word. It is more accessible than NIDNTTE and yet entries retain much of the essence of the longer entries in NIDNTTE.

New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, 2nd Edition | NIDNTTE (5 vols.)

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The Concise New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis

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Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament (EDNT)

Also sensitive to the criticisms of James Barr is the Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by Horst Balz and Gerhard Schneider (Eerdmans, 1990–93).

Unlike TDNT, EDNT covers all the vocabulary of the NT. Moving beyond a lexicon, EDNT offers interpretations of lexemes in selected contexts. The adjective “exegetical” is important since the aim of this dictionary is to understand how a word functions and what it means in a given context and not necessarily to offer the theological conclusions of TDNT.

Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament | EDNT (3 vols.)

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Theological Lexicon of the New Testament (TLNT)

The Theological Lexicon of the New Testament (Editions Universitaires, 1978, 1982) was published by Ceslas Spicq in French, with the English translation appearing in 1994 (Hendrickson).

This three-volume work is less extensive than the TDNT and focuses on contemporary papyri rather than drawing upon the extensive historical development of words from classical, MT, and LXX usage that characterizes TDNT (although Spicq does engage these sources). It is more synchronic, focusing on how words were used and understood in the first-century Koine context of the NT.

Unlike TDNT, this is the work of a single individual, which yields a more unified theological perspective. Although the work is organized basically alphabetically, entries often include related words. Spicq offers a select set of theologically significant NT words with an explicit theological aim that focuses on “the semantics and the religious and moral sense of the language of the New Testament.”⁷⁵

True to his aims, Spicq offers many theological and exegetical insights into various NT passages, which can be helpful for Bible study and sermon preparation.

Theological Lexicon of the New Testament | TLNT (3 vols.)

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Analytical lexicons

Analytical lexicons are probably better understood as parsing guides.

The Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament (Mounce)

The Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament, by William D. Mounce (Zondervan, 1993), arranges entries alphabetically by morphological form. The lexical form is bolded and is accompanied by limited glosses (and some definitions) and NT references. Each entry includes morphological analysis and principal parts for verbs. For example, the entry ἀποκτανθείς offers a complete parsing, biblical reference, and morphological analysis and indicates that this derives from ἀποκτείνω. The entry for ἀποκτείνω lists this verb’s principal parts, variant spellings, simple glosses, and biblical references with more detailed glosses.

The Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament

The Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, edited by Timothy Fribourg, Barbara Fribourg, and Niva F. Miller (Baker, 2000), also offers morphological analysis, biblical references, and more extensive definitions and glosses.

Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament (ANLEX)

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The Analytical Lexicon of New Testament Greek

The Analytical Lexicon of New Testament Greek, edited by Maurice A. Robinson, and Mark A. House (Hendrickson, 2012), offers more extensive historical background, some references to English translations, the theological significance for some words, and limited NT references. It offers complete parsing and morphological analysis.

Analytical Lexicon of New Testament Greek, rev. ed.

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The Analytical Lexicon to the Septuagint: A Complete Parsing Guide

The Analytical Lexicon to the Septuagint: A Complete Parsing Guide, by Bernard A. Taylor (Zondervan, 1994), does not include definitions or glosses and only provides complete parsing for Greek words in the LXX, arranged in alphabetical order.

Additional resources

If you have access to a good theological library, the following resources can sometimes be helpful for understanding biblical Greek words.

Zondervan Compact Greek Lexicon

A concise, hybrid volume worth considering is the Zondervan Compact Greek Lexicon, by Paul N. Jackson (Zondervan, 2025). This compact volume (slightly over 200 pages) lists lexemes alphabetically for both the Greek New Testament and the LXX, indicating the frequency of each word, and often providing verse references for less frequent words. Rather than merely listing possible glosses for a given word, glosses are divided into subcategories, sometimes summarizing the extensive entries in NIDNTT in only several lines of text. Relevant Greco-Roman and early church references are cited when necessary to indicate a word’s usage. Difficult, irregular forms are also listed with clear references to the lexical form.

The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament: Illustrated from the Papyri and Other Nonliterary Sources (Moulton and Milligan)

The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament: Illustrated from the Papyri and Other Nonliterary Sources, by James Hope Moulton and George Milligan (Eerdmans, 1980), is not an exhaustive lexicon, but rather a treatment of selective Greek NT words that seeks to incorporate extrabiblical information, particularly from discoveries of papyri and some inscriptions that were recent at the time when the work was compiled.

It is interesting to note that a given word, such as ἀποσπάω (“I pull, draw, lead away”) in Acts 20:30, does not imply violence but a “breach of contract” in some papyri. It is harder to know, however, how these extrabiblical sources illumine what Paul meant by this word. Even so, this resource can helpfully supplement our understanding of some biblical words.

See also the forthcoming revision of this work, Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament (Hendrickson, 2027).

Vocabulary of the Greek Testament

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The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek

The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek (Brill, 2015) includes references to Koine. For instance, the entry on λόγος has numerous references to the LXX and NT, including John 1:1 and Revelation 19:13. For frequent words, you are better served with BDAG or Louw-Nida. But for hapax legomena (words that occur only once in the Greek NT or only in the LXX), this dictionary can be helpful.

The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek (GE)

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A Patristic Greek Lexicon

A Patristic Greek Lexicon, edited by G. W. H. Lampe (Clarendon, 1961), is helpful for seeing how biblical Greek words evolved in the first centuries of the church. For example, the entry for ἐπίσκοπος discusses how this office differed from πρεσβύτερος (“elder”) and how the terms were understood in the early church.

A Patristic Greek Lexicon

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TL;DR: What’s the best biblical Greek lexicon?

So what’s the best biblical Greek lexicon?

• If I could only have one (gasp!), I would go with BDAG. It is the best single-volume work available.
• It would be great to supplement BDAG with Louw and Nida, if possible.
• If I could only have one theological dictionary, I would go with Beetham’s one-volume NIDNTTE.
• If I could only have one lexicon for the LXX, I’d go with L-E-H.
• Any of the analytical lexicons would be a helpful addition to one’s library.
• Of course, if your budget allows, the five-volume NIDNTTE is a wonderful tool to have around.

This handful of tools are the right tools for the job of understanding biblical Greek words!

Share your thoughts

What are the best Greek lexicons? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

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When we started the London Messianic Congregation in the 1970s, there were almost no books on Messianic Judaism. There are now thousands of Messianic congregations around the world, and hundreds of thousands who identify as Jewish disciples of Yeshua (Jesus). As for books, there are now a bewildering number. Some introduce the movement. Others study Scripture, Torah, Israel, prophecy, mission, apologetics, the Jewishness of Jesus, and the Jewish roots of Christian faith.

Why so many? Messianic Judaism is located at the convergence of several diverse streams: the church and the Jewish people, Judaism and Christianity, Israel and the nations, Torah and gospel, synagogue and church. A Jewish proverb says, “Where there are two Jews, there are three opinions.” For two thousand years, Messianic Judaism has represented a third opinion.

In broad terms, Messianic Judaism is a movement of Jewish disciples of Yeshua who confess him as Messiah and Lord while maintaining Jewish identity and connection with the Jewish people. Messianic Jews seek to live as Jews, as part of Israel, and as members of the body of Messiah.⁷⁶ Messianic Judaism affirms Yeshua as Messiah, Scripture as authoritative, Israel as continuing in God’s purposes, and Jewish identity as a covenantal gift rather than a problem. Many communities practice Sabbath, festivals, Hebrew prayer, Torah reading, and Jewish lifecycle customs.

So how can one set out to understand this old-new phenomenon? This article helps you build a small, balanced collection of resources. The books below do not all agree. Read together, they give pastors, students, and Bible readers a window into this simple-yet-complex reality—that there are Jewish people who accept Yeshua as their Messiah and continue to live as Jews.

The best Messianic Judaism books for beginners

1. David Rudolph and Joel Willitts, eds., Introduction to Messianic Judaism: Its Ecclesial Context and Biblical Foundations

For many readers, Introduction to Messianic Judaism is the best starting point. Its twenty-six essays cover Messianic Jewish history, worship, Scripture, tradition, ethics, outreach, women, Israel, organizations, and Jewish–Christian relations. It also gives biblical and theological foundations for Paul, Torah, ecclesiology, and hermeneutics.

Best for beginners, pastors, students, and Bible teachers.

2. David H. Stern, Messianic Judaism: A Modern Movement With an Ancient Past

David Stern’s Messianic Judaism is one of the first movement-defining books. First published as Messianic Jewish Manifesto, it argues for the theological and communal legitimacy of Messianic Judaism. Stern writes with passion and vigor. He addresses Jewish identity, Torah, the church, evangelism, Israel, and congregational life.

Best for foundational reading and understanding the movement’s popular vocabulary.

3. Jennifer M. Rosner, Finding Messiah: A Journey into the Jewishness of the Gospel

Jennifer Rosner’s Finding Messiah is personal, biblical, theological, and accessible. Rosner writes as a Jewish follower of Yeshua and a theological educator inviting Christian readers to rediscover the Jewishness of the gospel. She also introduces post-supersessionist theology. She shows how the Messianic movement challenges centuries of anti-Judaism in church teaching and demonstrates the significance of the Messianic movement as evidence of God’s ongoing covenant and election of Israel.

Best for thoughtful beginners, church groups, and devotional reading.

Messianic Jewish books for Bible study

4. David H. Stern, Complete Jewish Bible

The Complete Jewish Bible is not so much a new translation but a dynamic re-reading of the Bible from a Jewish and Messianic Jewish perspective. Stern presents Scripture in its Hebraic context, in accordance with its Jewish character so often lost or erased by other translations. Using terms such as Yeshua, Torah, Tanakh, Shabbat, and B’rit Hadashah, he invites readers to put themselves inside the Jewish background and worldview of the Scriptures.

Best for Bible reading, comparison, and Jewish texture.

Using Logos, compare it with other translations. For example, ask why one Bible says “law” and another says “Torah.” Ask what changes when “Jesus Christ” appears as “Yeshua the Messiah.” See what you think of the disciples’ names in Hebraic/Jewish style.

5. David H. Stern, Jewish New Testament Commentary

Stern’s Jewish New Testament Commentary has influenced how many Messianic Jews and Christians read the New Testament. It is not overly technical, but rather a running guide to Jewish issues in the New Testament: Hebrew idioms, rabbinic parallels, Torah questions, and the Jewish setting of early faith in Yeshua.

Best for preaching, teaching, and Jewish background.

6. The Jewish Annotated New Testament

The Jewish Annotated New Testament, now in its third edition (2026), uses the 2022 New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition (NRSVUE). Jewish scholars introduce each New Testament book, show how the book relates to the Judaisms of the period, and provide an annotated verse-by-verse commentary. It also includes more than fifty essays on Jewish-related topics such as “Mary in Jewish Tradition,” “Christology,” and “Messianic Judaism.”

7. Michael L. Brown, Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus

Michael Brown’s five-volume series is the major modern Messianic Jewish apologetics work. Brown addresses historical, theological, messianic-prophecy, New Testament, and traditional Jewish objections to belief in Jesus. He writes as a Jewish believer in Jesus with training in Semitic languages.

Best for apologetics, messianic prophecy, and advanced study.

Messianic Judaism books on Torah, feasts, and Jewish roots

8. Daniel C. Juster, Jewish Roots: Understanding Your Jewish Faith

Daniel Juster’s Jewish Roots represents the mainstream, charismatic, and evangelical orientation within Messianic Judaism. Juster introduces covenant, restoration, Israel, spiritual renewal, the biblical feasts, and the Jewish roots of Christian faith. His work helps Christians see that the gospel grows from Israel’s Scriptures and promises.

Best for Jewish roots, feasts, and group study.

9. Barney Kasdan, God’s Appointed Times: A Practical Guide for Understanding and Celebrating the Biblical Holidays

Barney Kasdan’s God’s Appointed Times is a popular and practical introduction to understanding and celebrating the biblical festivals from a Messianic Jewish perspective. Kasdan explains the feasts of Leviticus 23, Jewish customs connected with them, and their Messianic significance.

His companion book, God’s Appointed Customs: A Messianic Jewish Guide to the Biblical Lifecycle and Lifestyle, gives a similar and accessible guide to Messianic Jewish lifestyle.

Best for Passover, biblical feasts, worship, and discipleship.

Messianic Jewish books for advanced readers

10. Richard S. Harvey, Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology: A Constructive Approach

A movement as diverse as Messianic Judaism needs a map, and this writer’s Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology charts the field using the foundational categories in Jewish theology of God, Torah, and Israel. Harvey documents and offers suggestions for the further development of the movement. He shows that Messianic Judaism includes several types, including evangelical, charismatic, dispensationalist, postmissionary, rabbinic, Israeli, and others.

Best for theology, research, and movement analysis.

11. Mark S. Kinzer, Postmissionary Messianic Judaism: Redefining Christian Engagement with the Jewish People

Mark Kinzer’s Postmissionary Messianic Judaism is the most important work of modern Messianic Jewish theology. The still controversial “Five Points of Kinzerism” emphasize:

1. Israel’s irrevocable election and covenant: God’s covenant with the Jewish people is eternal, unconditional, and irrevocable.
2. The normative force of Jewish practice: Torah observance remains a divinely given, normative expression of covenant faithfulness.
3. The validity of rabbinic tradition: Rabbinic tradition is a valid and authoritative partner in understanding God’s revelation.
4. Bilateral ecclesiology: The Jewish people remain the people of God in partnership with the ekklesia of the nations.
5. National solidarity with Israel: Christians are called to love, stand with, and seek the flourishing of the nation Israel.

Kinzer pointedly asks: Can the church reject supersessionism while expecting Jewish believers in Jesus to disappear into a gentile Christian identity?

Best for ecclesiology, supersessionism, and Jewish–Christian relations.

12. Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, Israelology: The Missing Link in Systematic Theology

Arnold Fruchtenbaum’s Israelology is a major dispensational pre-millennialist Messianic Jewish treatment of Israel in Scripture and theology. Many Christian theologies discuss God, Christ, salvation, the church, and last things, but treat Israel as a background issue. Fruchtenbaum restores the place of Israel in systematic theology.

Best for Israel, prophecy, and systematic theology.

13. David Serner and Alexander Goldberg, Jesus-Believing Israelis: Exploring Messianic Fellowships

The result of a landmark survey of 280 Messianic Jewish congregations in Israel, this book describes the modern movement in the State of Israel, building on previous studies and incorporating detailed interviews with Messianic leaders. The Messianic movement is a global movement, and although numerically smaller, Messianic Jews are fully citizens of Israel, going through the education system, serving in the army, and living in the modern state of Israel with all the pressures it faces. This book surveys Israeli Messianic fellowships, including demographics, identity, theology, and congregational life.

Best for Israeli Messianic Judaism and contemporary research.

Other books relevant to Messianic Jewish concerns

Some books are not written by Messianic Jews but impact the way Jews and Christians understand the significance of Messianic Judaism:

• R. Kendall Soulen’s The God of Israel and Christian Theology remains a groundbreaking critique of supersessionism.
• Oskar Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik’s Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries explores Jewish followers of Jesus in the early centuries.
• Carol Harris-Shapiro’s Messianic Judaism: A Rabbi’s Journey Through Religious Change in America gives an outside Jewish assessment.
• Yaakov Ariel’s Evangelizing the Chosen People: Missions to the Jews in America, 1880–2000 provides key mission history.
• Rabbi Dan Cohn-Sherbok’s Messianic Judaism: A Critical Anthology is helpful for the history and theology of the modern movement.

A growing stream of Jewish and Christian scholars—such as Jennifer Rosner, Mark Kinzer, Mark Nanos, Daniel Boyarin, Paula Fredriksen, Anders Runesson, and Karin Zetterholm—has contributed to “Paul within Judaism” studies and reading New Testament writings as Jewish texts. For a helpful overview of this approach, see Karin Hedner Zetterholm and Anders Runesson, eds., Within Judaism? Interpretive Trajectories in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam from the First to the Twenty-First Century (Fortress Academic, 2023).

How to use Messianic Jewish books in Logos

Treat this list of books as a network of study aids. Use Logos to study key passages on Messianic Jewish identity, like Romans 9–11, Acts 15, Galatians, Matthew, Hebrews, or Ephesians. Compare translations, like Stern’s. Consult Messianic Jewish commentaries beside your major Christian commentaries.

In Logos’s Guides or Factbook, choose to organize your commentaries by denomination, such as “Messianic.”

Or use Logos’s Study Assistant to get answers from a specific set of resources in your library, like those representing a Messianic Jewish perspective. Try Logos for free!

Logos brings your resources into one searchable workspace. Consider exploring topics like “Torah,” “Israel,” “Yeshua,” “gentiles,” and “covenant.”

Logos also offers Messianic Jewish collections to help you build a library with resources of a Messianic Jewish perspective.

FAQs on Messianic Jewish books

What topics do Messianic Judaism books cover?

They often cover Yeshua, Torah, Israel, Jewish identity, the church, mission, apologetics, prophecy, feasts, and the Jewish roots of Christianity. They also address contested questions: evangelism, rabbinic tradition, gentiles in Messianic congregations, and the relationship between Messianic Judaism and traditional Judaism.

What books address Torah, feasts, prophecy, and Israel?

David Friedman’s They Loved the Torah: What Yeshua’s First Followers Really Thought About the Law (Messianic Jewish Publications, 2001) addresses Torah in different ways.

Juster and Kasdan introduce the feasts.

Brown and Fruchtenbaum address prophecy.

Kinzer, Soulen, Fruchtenbaum, and Serner and Goldberg discuss Israel and the Jewish people. Harris-Shapiro helps readers compare Messianic Judaism with traditional Judaism from an outside Jewish perspective.

Which books explain Yeshua from a Jewish perspective?

Read Stern’s Jewish New Testament Commentary, Brown’s apologetic volumes, Rosner’s Finding Messiah, and the Complete Jewish Bible.

Which books are foundational or popular?

Start with Stern’s Messianic Judaism, Rudolph and Willitts’s Introduction to Messianic Judaism, Kinzer’s Postmissionary Messianic Judaism, Harvey’s Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology, and Brown’s Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus.

For popular works, use Stern’s Complete Jewish Bible, Stern’s commentary, Brown’s apologetics series, and Kasdan’s festival guide.

Which books address misconceptions?

Rudolph and Willitts, Stern, Harvey, Brown, and Harris-Shapiro help correct common misconceptions. Messianic Judaism is not simply Christianity with Jewish customs. Nor is it one organization, one theology, or one view of Torah.

What is a Messianic Bible?

A Messianic Bible highlights the Jewish context of Scripture and often uses Messianic Jewish terms such as Yeshua, Torah, Tanakh, and Messiah. Stern’s Complete Jewish Bible is the best-known example.

Are there Messianic Jewish devotionals?

Yes. Many of the strongest works combine devotion, testimony, and theology. Rosner’s Finding Messiah is a good place to begin.

There are also many Messianic Jewish commentaries on the weekly Torah portion and books of the Bible. A commentary series, Reading the Bible after Supersessionism, includes several Messianic Jewish authors.

Where should I begin?

If you are new, begin with Rudolph and Willitts, Stern, Rosner, and the Complete Jewish Bible.

If you want Bible study, add Stern’s commentary and Brown.

If you want theology, read Harvey, Kinzer, Juster, and Rudolph.

If you want Israeli realities, read Serner and Goldberg.

Share your thoughts

What books would you recommend? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Explore Messianic Jewish Libraries

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• How Jesus Illuminates the Hopes of Hanukkah
• Did the Jews Kill Jesus? Challenging Anti-Semitic Interpretations
• Acts of Persuasion: Why Did Gentiles Convert to Christianity?
• How Will “All Israel” Be Saved? | Richard Lucas on Rom 11:26

Version 53 makes the Logos mobile app easier to navigate, brings Study Assistant to the passage you’re already studying, and lets you reshape a Reading Plan without throwing away everything you’ve already read.

Let’s get into it!

Watch the update

Prefer a video walkthrough? Product manager and longtime Logos user Mark Barnes will share everything you need to know about this update in a live session. There’s even time for a Q&A at the end, so stick around with your burning questions.

Sign up for the video walkthrough on August 27 or catch the replay.

Highlights at a glance

1. The mobile app is now easier to use: Navigate with a new layout built around how you actually read, study, and ask.
2. Explain and Ask, right from the passage: Easily open Study Assistant alongside the text you’re studying.
3. Change your mind? Change your Reading Plans: Edit your dates, days, and goals, now on mobile and web.
4. All your plans in one place, now on mobile: The Reading Plan Manager comes to your phone and tablet.
5. Simpler plan setup: One chapter per session is back, plus a table of contents to pick exactly what you want to read.

1. The mobile app is now easier to use

If you’ve ever opened Logos on your phone and spent a minute just trying to find a tool you wanted, this update is for you!

The mobile app now orients naturally around your activity in the app. The navigation bar has five options (Today, Ask, Read, Study, and More) so you can access what you need in one simple tap, rather than it being multiple menus deep.

• The central Read is where your books and features open. Once you’re in Read, tap the icon again to open and navigate between panels.
• Study is where you can find and open everything else from books to study tools. Recent presents whatever you had open last, and Pinned lets you keep your favorites within reach.
• More is now home for settings and preferences.

Your library, notes, and Reading Plans are all still there, now just easier to get to!

2. Explain and Ask, right from the passage

Logos goes incredibly deep. Yet that upside can have a downside: Knowing where to find a tool is sometimes challenging. We continue to make strides towards the best of both: depth with ease of use!

So to make things even easier, you can now launch Study Assistant from within a passage. Select the text you’re working on (or open Insights) and you’ll find two options: Explain and Ask. Either one opens Study Assistant in its own panel with your selection already attached. The Bible or book you were reading stays open right where you left it.

• Explain provides an explanation of that passage in its context without you having to copy and paste the passage or type out a request for a general explanation.
• Ask automatically brings the passage into Study Assistant. You can then ask your specific question, and Study Assistant will answer with that passage in view.

Study Assistant is a starting point for your study, not a replacement for it. Follow the citations, read the sources, weigh what they have to say, and keep digging for yourself. As always, answers stay anchored in relevant resources in Logos’s library rather than hallucinations and who-knows-what from the open internet.

On desktop and web, Explain and Ask live in the text selection and right-click menus.

Try it in your next study session.

Those not subscribed will get a limited number of Study Assistant uses per month.

3. Change your mind? Change your Reading Plans

Life changes. Your kids’ schedule shifts. You get busy and fall behind. Or maybe you decide to increase your reading.

Until now, changing a Reading Plan in Logos meant starting it over, losing every session you’d already read.

Not anymore. Open a Plan Details view and you can now change its dates, frequency, Bible version, and more. Logos keeps everything you’ve already read—or skipped—and recalculates only what’s left. For example:

• Drop the two mornings that no longer fit your schedule. Logos reshapes the remainder of your plan around the days you can.
• Easily switch from a “finish by a date” to “read 30 minutes a session” or to one chapter at a time.
• Move from a strict schedule to no schedule at all, and just read at your own pace.

Plan editing is brand new to mobile and web. Your editing controls match those in the plan creation wizard, so it works the same way everywhere.

Open a Reading Plan today.

Custom reading plan creation and editing is still desktop-only. Featured plans and Read Together plans can’t be edited.

4. All your plans in one place, now on mobile

The new Reading Plan Manager arrived on desktop and web last version. It’s the single hub for every plan you’re following. No more hunting for that book plan you started three months ago.

Now it’s on mobile too.

The Yours tab sorts your plans by where they stand:

• Today for what’s due
• Anytime for self-paced reading
• Later for what’s coming
• Archived for what you’ve set aside.

Each plan has a quick menu (⋮) to view details, share, duplicate, or restart.

The Explore Plans tab is where you can discover your next Reading Plan. Search and browse plans from your groups or start from a book in your library.

You can pull up the Reading Plan Manager from your Dashboard or straight from the navigation menu.

Open the Reading Plan Manager.

5. Simpler plan setup

Finally, we made two changes to the Reading Plan creation wizard, both based on user requests.

Reading plans that go chapter-by-chapter. Want to create a Reading Plan that has you reading one chapter per session (other than the Bible)? Choose “Whole book” on the Select a Portion screen and “One chapter per session” on the What Is Your Goal? screen.

Select from a book’s table of contents. If you only want to read part of a book, you can now view its actual structure and pick only those sections or chapters you want to read, instead of having to figure out and enter exact page numbers.

Start a plan now.

More updates

Some additional things worth knowing:

• Reading plan audio now stops at the end of your daily session instead of rolling past it, Read Later is back and lives in the Study tab, and the option to hide the reading plan margin ribbon is now in the web app as well as desktop.

Want to see all the under-the-hood updates and bug fixes? Take a look at the technical release notes. Reach out to our support team if you need help.

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As a theology professor, summers often allow me to shift my focus away from my classes.

Not this summer.

Like many educators, I’ve known in the back of my mind I need to consider making changes in my assignments because of one thing: AI. If you are in a similar spot, keep reading.

I argued early on in the AI education revolution that AI could help not only educators, but theologians too. While it is right to attend to the important concerns of originality and plagiarism, theological educators must also address a more productive issue: Do our assignments actually assess what is important?

Put more bluntly: AI exposed our overreliance on writing papers as the default proof of learning. For many of us, it is difficult to imagine a theology class that is not heavily reliant on papers. But we must. More importantly, we should. Theology will be better for it. The church will be better for it.

Our current dilemma is a blessing in disguise.

Table of contents

Shift from product to performance

A paper can be a proxy for reading, interpretation, memory, judgment, and synthesis. But AI is now very good at producing that proxy. What is needed now is a shift from an end product, like a research essay, to a shared experience of theological insight and informed wisdom in real time. The answer to AI is not paperless theology education. It is “paper-plus” pedagogy.

Theology is meant to be announced, prayed, preached, sung, debated, embodied, and practiced. John Webster’s insight has helped many budding and experienced theologians understand the necessity of “theological theology”: The nature of theology requires a presuppositional recognition that shapes the process and purpose of the theological task. The time is ripe to extend Webster’s wisdom toward theological pedagogy.⁷⁷ The AI revolution is forcing theological education to reattach itself to its proper purpose: forming students who can receive, interpret, confess, teach, pray, and embody Christian truth for the sake of the church and the world.

As I prepare for the fall semester, I am not planning to eliminate writing. I am planning to make writing one part of a broader ecology of assignments. Theological educators must remember that the modern research paper became dominant with the rise of the research university. Before that, theological and humanistic education included recitation, disputation, memorization, commentary, translation, preaching, and public speech.⁷⁸ These are clues to the way back to the future.

5 types of assignments AI can’t do for students

Below are five categories to consider as you create theology assignments AI cannot write.

1. Memory

Have students in theology classes memorize and recite a Bible verse, creed, catechism, or theological paragraph. After this, they explain one phrase and one pastoral implication.

You can calibrate the length of the passage and the expected level of precision as you see fit, although I recommend you neither set the bar too high nor too low. I’ve been a part of groups who unintentionally shamed memorization mistakes; I’ve also seen it happen when the bar is so low that it lost all of its benefit and intent. Since recitation is a public event and it is unlikely that younger people are used to this sort of thing, I’d encourage erring on the side of grace as they get used to it.

AI can generate commentary, but it cannot put the text into the student’s memory. Assignments like this make theological education better because students learn not merely to retrieve Christian truth, but to carry it with them into prayer, teaching, counsel, worship, and witness.

2. Dialogue

These assignments involve students speaking during class. They are not reciting something they memorized (like above) but speaking extemporaneously and responsively.

First, assign a theological question in a disputed form. For example: “Should Christians describe salvation primarily as forgiveness, healing, liberation, union with Christ, or adoption?”

Next, have students prepare a “prep card” prior to class. A prep card is a one-page, or even half-page, set of notes they can use to support their claim, which is essentially a short speech. The card could include: a theological claim, a primary source or biblical text, one supporting reason, one objection, one distinction, one pastoral implication, and one question they still have. Then, during class, assign students one of six roles: a claim-giver, a biblical witness, a historical witness, an objector, a pastoral/practical assessor, and a summarizer.

Each person must speak for one minute. After they are done, the rest of the class can ask questions and add their own information. The professor contributes and concludes the assignment with feedback on the topic. For larger classes, you can break the class into multiple groups and provide different questions. For grading, you can collect students’ prep cards and note general feedback on their participation during class (above average, average, below average).

This isn’t a debate, though that is another option. Nonetheless, this assignment helps students engage a structured theological question piece by piece. You are creating an in-the-moment presentation in which each person has to listen to what the others are saying and weave in the information they have.

AI can draft talking points, but it cannot stand in the student’s place as she listens, responds, clarifies, concedes, distinguishes, and speaks with accountability before her peers. Assignments like this make theological education better by treating theology as a communal practice of attentive listening and truthful speech rather than merely an independently written product.

3. Interpretation

Another option requires no preparation for students; they do the work in class. The point is to make students encounter the text before they search for explanations of the text.

For example, open the class with a reading of Scripture, a creed, a historic confession, or an important passage from a theologian. First let them hear it. Then, hand out a hard copy and give them several minutes to notate it. You could prompt them to consider:

• the central claim,
• words or phrases that need clarification,
• what doctrine is being taught or assumed,
• what tension or question does this text address or raise, and
• what could be misunderstood in this passage.

Next, break them into groups to discuss and form questions and observations to pursue further.

All of this so far has been offline.

Then, give them time to use commentaries, Bible software, library databases, AI, or course materials, but only after they have first made their own observations. AI, then, becomes a conversation partner to evaluate, not a substitute for reading. Bible software, commentaries, and AI tools become more valuable when students first learn to notice what is actually in the text. The goal is not to prevent the use of AI but to put everything in its right place.

Finally, ask each group to report on their interpretation, questions, and analysis. Along the way the teacher can introduce relevant details to help the learning process.

For the last fifteen minutes of class, have each student write a summary of their interpretation and the process of discovery (what they noticed at first, then with their group, then using resources, and their conclusion) on the hard copy you handed out, perhaps on the back side of the paper. Their marked-up page becomes evidence of the interpretive process: notes, questions, revisions, arrows, corrections, and final summary. They then turn this document in for credit.

AI can identify themes, summarize interpretations, and suggest questions, but it cannot perform the student’s first act of attention to the text. Assignments like this make theological education better because students learn to observe before consulting outside resources, evaluate the interpretations they receive, and take responsibility for their own conclusions. AI becomes a tool within the interpretive process rather than a substitute for it.

4. Discernment

For these assignments, the professor gives students a realistic ministry scenario and asks them to respond in stages with theologically informed answers.

For example: “A student in your youth group says, ‘I don’t think God loves me because I keep having panic attacks.’ What do you say in the first two minutes? What do you not say? What theological claim matters most?”

After posing this scenario, have each student write on a piece of paper their initial pastoral response and their theological rationale. Then, have them write about any possible risks or misuses of doctrine related to the scenario. Next, have the student discuss their response with their neighbor. If helpful, combine pairs into larger groups before calling on several groups to share their responses.

Have students take a photo of their initial response before turning it in so they can compare their first instinct with their revised plan. Then, have them turn that in for part of their grade. Finally, tell them to turn in a one-page “plan of action” informed by two to three theological doctrines or sources before the next class. Provide students additional theological resources (perhaps denominational guidance, church care policies, relevant Scripture, assigned theologians, and mental health referral guidelines) to investigate further after class.

In this example, it is possible that the students could engage deeply with the theology of the love of God, creation and embodied creatureliness, human weakness and finitude, the doctrine of sin, and the ministry of the church. The point is not for students to find the perfect answer, but to practice theologically disciplined pastoral judgment: what to say, what not to say, which doctrine applies, and when additional care is needed.

AI can produce a polished pastoral response, but it cannot assume responsibility for discerning what this real-life person needs in this particular situation. Assignments like this make theological education better because students must practice the difficult work of weighing doctrines, anticipating harm, choosing words carefully, and recognizing the limits of their own competence. They are not merely demonstrating what they know; they are learning how to use theological knowledge wisely.

5. Embodiment

Assignments of embodied theology ask students to notice how doctrine takes shape in real communities, practices, prayers, sermons, songs, ministries, habits, websites, etc.

A classic example of this type of assignment will be familiar to many who have taught on ecclesiology: Have students visit a local church, research its beliefs, history, and location within the larger Christian community, meet with one of the pastors, and then write a report and present their findings to the class in a presentation. The basic idea is to look at a specific local example or artifact in the community.

Another way to do this is to conduct an in-class audit of a church’s theology. The professor could model this by passing out a paper copy of a publicly available church mission statement and a statement of faith, preferably a church not represented by students in the room or anonymized. Which doctrines are explicit? Which doctrines are assumed but unnamed? Which doctrines are missing? What biblical support is provided? What pastoral strengths and dangers do you notice? Next, ask students to look up a church they have attended or are familiar with and do the same thing. Hand out a form that they can fill out to do a theological audit and turn in at the end of class. Along the way you could encourage them to talk with a partner or have an open discussion with the entire class.

Another option is to ask students, toward the end of class, to write on a piece of paper a prayer or liturgy related to the doctrine that was presented. This could include a biblical phrase or image or a doctrinal claim. After a lecture on the Trinity, a student might write a prayer that actually prays to the Father, through the Son, in the Spirit, or otherwise reflects Trinitarian grammar. Have students turn it in for credit.

AI can describe a generic church or write a generic prayer, but it cannot replace the student’s act of observing a real community, discerning the theology embedded in its practices, or producing words to be prayed by actual people. Assignments like this make theological education better by reconnecting doctrine to worship, ministry, and the lived practices of the church.

AI may make us better teachers

None of these assignments are AI-proof in the absolute sense. Students can still misuse AI while preparing for them. But these assignments reduce the value of outsourcing because the central act of learning happens in memory, dialogue, interpretation, discernment, and embodiment.

The purpose of teaching theology is not merely producing papers or providing grades, but forming students who can interpret, pray, teach, listen, discern, and speak truthfully. The best assignments in the age of AI are not merely harder to cheat on; they are closer to the actual work of theology.

Share your thoughts

What are AI-proof theology assignments? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

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As encouraging as our church’s numerical growth has been in recent days, the real growth I long to see is spiritual growth. I long to see my people hunger and thirst more and more for God; I long to see them beholding and becoming more like Jesus; I long to see them intentionally cultivating a close walk with God and for them to “reach all the riches of full assurance of understanding and the knowledge of God’s mystery, which is Christ, in whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (Col 2:2–3).

The question, then, is how we turn these longings into practices within our local church. How do we take spiritual formation seriously and help our people truly grow?

In this article, I want to share five pastoral practices that can help your church pursue spiritual formation with greater intentionality and depth.

1. Define your ministry by the Great Commission
2. Call people to take responsibility for their growth
3. Emphasize salvation as conformity to Christ
4. Trust God to work through the ordinary means of grace
5. Teach the church to abide in Christ

1. Define your ministry by the Great Commission

When we think of the Great Commission, we often picture missionaries being sent to unreached peoples around the world. As vital as that work is, we must recognize that the Great Commission also gives shape to the everyday mission of our local churches. Jesus calls all of us to participate in the work of making disciples.

Notice he says we’re to make disciples, not mere converts. This means teaching new believers everything Jesus commanded, with the aim that they themselves mature into disciples who make disciples, continuing the cycle of multiplication. The goal of the local church, then, is to make new disciples and to help existing disciples grow toward maturity. In other words, the church is meant to be an instrument of spiritual formation, from the first formation of new birth to the ongoing formation that shapes a believer as they grow up into their salvation.

So pastors, elders, and members, keep the main thing the main thing. Ensure that everything your church does, from the Sunday gathering to children’s ministry, youth ministry, student ministry, and every age and stage, is intentionally driving toward the end of making and maturing disciples. That is the heart of spiritual formation, and it is the heart of the Great Commission.

2. Call people to take responsibility for their growth

It is essential that we help our people understand the difference between justification and sanctification. In justification, God works to save us and we receive it by faith. In sanctification, God works and we work to see this sanctification become a reality in our lives. While God works by himself in justification, in sanctification God works and brings forth in us a willing cooperation with him so we actually do the work that he empowers: “Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling, for it is God who works in you, both to will and to work for his good pleasure” (Phil 2:12–13).

It is important to stress that spiritual formation is always God’s work before it is our work. But we must not be afraid to teach clearly that, for spiritual formation to occur, we have to do something! No one drifts into excellence in anything in life. It is the same in our spiritual lives. If we are going to grow and mature and see the character of Christ spiritually formed in us, it will take intentionality on our part.

So, fellow pastors, we must call our people to take up their responsibility to grow and mature in their Christian lives. We urge them to work diligently toward spiritual maturity, while continually reminding them that their effort is fueled by the life-giving power of the Spirit. We work for our sanctification as though it depends on us, while resting and praying because we know it ultimately depends on God. Paul holds this tension together beautifully in Colossians 1:28–29: “Him we proclaim, warning everyone and teaching everyone with all wisdom, that we may present everyone mature in Christ. For this I toil, struggling with all his energy that he powerfully works within me.”

3. Emphasize salvation as conformity to Christ

In Romans 8:28–29, Paul teaches that God works all things together for good, and then defines that good as our being conformed to the image of Christ. God is restoring his image in us, an image stamped on every human being yet marred by sin. Through the gospel we are born again, and the subsequent journey of spiritual formation is the journey of beholding Jesus more clearly so that we become more like him, seeing his image gradually restored in our actual lives (2 Cor 3:18).

We do not preach a gospel that treats Jesus as nothing more than a golden ticket out of hell, a kind of cosmic fire insurance policy. We proclaim a gospel in which we are reborn and then reshaped by the Spirit into the likeness of the Son. As the Apostle John puts it, “Whoever claims to live in him must live as Jesus did” (1 John 2:6 NIV). The Christian life is not merely about believing in Christ but becoming like Christ. Yet, gospel indicatives must lead us naturally into gospel imperatives. We must remind our people that God has already given us “everything we need for life and godliness” (2 Pet 1:3). Christlikeness is both the goal God is working toward and the life we are called to pursue.

As we lead, we must work hard to emphasize the importance of Christlike character in every interaction within the local church. We should not only teach this, but also model it. In elders’ meetings, deacons’ meetings, leadership planning sessions, and church business gatherings, we must continually remind one another that the manner of our conversation is always as important, if not more important, than the matter under discussion.

4. Trust God to work through the ordinary means of grace

In the New Testament, the primary context for spiritual formation is the local church. In Ephesians 4:11–16, Paul teaches that God has given his church gifted ministers of the Word to equip the saints for the work of ministry, to build up the body of Christ. Specifically, God works in his church through the ordinary means of preaching, prayer, and the practice of the ordinances: baptism and the Lord’s Supper. When these basics are carried out faithfully in community, God brings spiritual growth. Over time, his Word and Spirit bear fruit in the lives of his people.

Of course, we are also to seek God in private by praying, fasting, and enjoying communion with God in the secret place. Yet the goal of even these things is not a privatized, individualized spirituality. All of our spiritual disciplines are meant to strengthen us so that we can enjoy and contribute to the health and maturity of the whole body, our local church.

Consider the implications for our ministries. We do not need novel techniques or flashy gimmicks to see genuine growth in our churches. I often speak of the three P’s of pastoral ministry: preaching, prayer, and pastoral care. If we commit ourselves to these basics and practice them well, spiritual formation will take root and flourish over time.

5. Teach the church to abide in Christ

Jesus promises that those who abide in him will “bear much fruit” (John 15:5)—not might, but will. Spiritual formation is the byproduct of abiding in Christ. Likewise, John teaches that abiding in Christ is the primary way we fight sin (1 John 3:6). Abiding in Christ is not optional; it is the God-ordained pathway to spiritual formation. It will produce fruit in the lives of our people—Jesus himself guarantees it. Thus, if you want to grow, you should focus not on growth but on abiding in Christ.

Since this is the case, how important is it that we teach our people how to abide in Christ? Jesus calls his people to abide in him by feeding on the spiritual significance of his death (John 6:56). He calls his disciples to abide in his Word (John 8:31). He calls us to abide in his love (John 15:9).

So too, we must center our gatherings on Christ, not in a way that neglects the Father and Spirit, but to make clear that, apart from Christ, we have nothing of spiritual worth and can do nothing of spiritual worth. We want to major on union with Christ, that we approach the Father only in Jesus’s name, that Jesus baptizes us in the Holy Spirit who comes to live in us by his indwelling presence. Let’s see our small groups become centers of spiritual formation as we study Scripture, pray together, and discover how all of Scripture points us to Christ. Let’s see our children’s, youth, and adult ministries help people grasp more fully the person and work of Christ. Let’s ensure our expository preaching continually brings people to the astonishing reality of “this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory” (Col 1:27).

And let’s remind our people again and again that he alone brings about true spiritual formation.

Share your thoughts

How can we foster spiritual formation in the church? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Further resources on spiritual formation & the church

Spiritual Formation as if the Church Mattered: Growing in Christ Through Community, 2nd ed.

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Renovation of the Church: What Happens When a Seeker Church Discovers Spiritual Formation

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A Short Guide to Spiritual Formation: Finding Life in Truth, Goodness, Beauty, and Community

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Conformed to His Image: Biblical, Practical Approaches to Spiritual Formation, rev. ed.

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Mobile Ed: PD201 Introducing Spiritual Formation (10 hour course)

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Discipleship & Spiritual Formation: Foundational Study Bundle

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Discipleship & Spiritual Formation: Intermediate Study Bundle

Regular price: $1,849.99

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Related content

• What Is Spiritual Formation—and Why Does It Matter?
• Does Your Church Have a Discipleship Culture? How to Cultivate It
• What Is Sanctification? A Biblical Definition
• What Does It Mean to Work Out Our Salvation? | Lynn Cohick on Philippians 2:12–13
• What Does the Holy Spirit Do? Exploring His Mighty Works

Reading and understanding the Bible is something most of us do intuitively. At least, that is, until we encounter someone who has interpreted a passage in a way that seems completely at odds with what it’s plainly saying. Suddenly, we realize how important it is to have some guidelines for interpretation.

The goal of these interpretive guidelines must be to extract the author’s original intent. If we fail to ground our interpretation in the original intent, the Bible becomes putty that we can manipulate to mean whatever we might want. Such ungrounded reading is often harmless and might even seem spiritual (think of the athlete with Philippians 4:13 written on his shoes). But when ungrounded reading leads people to deny or undercut plain biblical truths, we realize interpretation must be grounded. It’s not enough to study our Bibles. We need to study them following sound interpretive principles.

Fortunately, there are many excellent resources to help us learn how to faithfully interpret the Bible,⁷⁹ and I’m convinced that anyone can learn faithful methods for Bible study. With that in mind, I want to highlight a few of the most helpful resources, especially accessible books that cover the basics. I will also mention three more academically oriented resources at the end.

Choose a few of these books to study. Ask your pastor or a mentor to discuss them with you. Maybe walk through them with your spouse, roommate, or small group.⁸⁰ Let’s all strive to better ground our interpretation in the author’s original intent!

Grasping the Bible’s unified story

Before we look at any specific passage, it’s helpful to have a sense of how the whole Bible fits together. That’s because the Bible tells one unified story.

I recommend two resources to help with this.⁸¹

1. Dave Helm and Gail Schoonmaker, The Big Picture Story Bible

This is my go-to recommendation for pastors and laypeople alike. It’s also an illustrated children’s Bible. That might be why it’s so helpful!

It retells the whole story of the Bible in a way that shows its united theme. There are only a few sentences on each page, making it a quick read.⁸² As an added bonus, the illustrations tell their own story. For example, Adam and Jesus are both drawn the same way. Or the picture of Adam and Eve leaving the garden mirrors the picture of Israel going into exile.

Read it with your kids or grandkids, or just read it on your own. Either way, you’ll be learning how the Bible fits together!

2. Vaughan Roberts, God’s Big Picture: Tracing the Storyline of the Bible

If you’re looking for a grown-up book that explains how the Bible holds together, Vaughan Robert’s 140-page overview is the clearest and simplest.

It focuses on the theme of kingdom. He traces this theme through Eden, the fall, the covenants, the monarchy, the prophets, the coming of Christ, the church, and the final consummation. Roberts traces this basic storyline with accessible prose, clean chapter divisions, and helpful charts.

God’s Big Picture: Tracing the Storyline of the Bible

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Interpreting individual passages

Once you have a basic grasp of the unified story of the Bible, you’ll want to learn the basics of how to read and interpret a particular passage.

There are hosts of books on this topic, some better than others. I’ll highlight a few of my favorites, mentioning their particular strengths. No need to read them all. Pick one or two that you think might best suit you, and you’ll be in a good place. Then practice!

3. Mortimer Adler, How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading

This is not a book about how to read and interpret the Bible. Instead, it’s a classic book aimed at teaching us how to read.

It was written in 1940 by University of Chicago professor Mortimer Adler, who also advocated for the idea of the “Great Books.” Adler aims to help us hear and consider an author’s argument—a skill which is essential for reading Scripture faithfully. As an added bonus, Adler tackles topics like how to use commentaries and how to read canonical books (e.g., the Bible).

It’s on the longer side but generally accessible for those looking to think more holistically about reading with an eye toward authorial intent. How to Read a Book is outstanding, surviving the test of time.

4. Nigel Beynon and Andrew Sach, Dig Deeper: Tools for Understanding God’s Word

In Dig Deeper, Beynon and Sach lay out sixteen essential tools for properly interpreting and applying the Bible. Each tool receives its own chapter.

The chapters are short, clear, and very practical. I like it because it’s a bit more thorough than most other entry-level books, without sacrificing brevity or clarity. The tradeoff is that sixteen steps might be too many to consistently follow in one’s own study, especially since the tools feel a bit isolated in how they are presented.

Taken as a whole, though, there’s no better entry-level book on how to study the Bible.

Dig Deeper: Tools for Understanding God’s Word

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5. Douglas Stuart and Gordon Fee, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth

Now in its fourth edition, the brilliance of this book is its focus on genres.

Every genre has slightly different tools for interpretation. When we read an Old Testament narrative, for example, we interpret it differently than we would a letter from Paul. Learning how to read and interpret each respective genre is invaluable for the Christian.

Stuart and Fee’s book covers Epistles, Old Testament narrative, Acts, the Gospels, parables, law, the Prophets, the Psalms, the Wisdom books, and Revelation. While not exhaustive, it provides a solid foundation for a genre-based interpretive approach.

How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, 4th ed.

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6. Jon Nielson, Understanding God’s Word: An Introduction to Interpreting the Bible

This is the newest book on my list, published in 2025 as part of Crossway’s Theology Basics series. It’s simple, accessible, and clear.

Nielson lays out five tools for interpreting the Bible and explains each briefly and helpfully. The best part about this new offering is how hands-on it is. Each tool includes practice exercises, and the book has a compendium workbook to further practice the tools.

Nielson’s approach, influenced by people like Dick Lucas and David Helm, is an easy entrypoint into biblical interpretation.

Understanding God’s Word: An Introduction to Interpreting the Bible (Theology Basics)

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7. David Helm, Expositional Preaching: How We Speak God’s Word Today

David Helm is a pastor and the chairman of the Charles Simeon Trust, an organization that has spent thirty years training people on how to interpret and teach God’s Word.

This book is the preaching contribution to the 9Marks Building Healthy Churches series. But it packs more hermeneutical punch in its first seventy pages than anything else available. Those seventy pages (the first three of the book’s four chapters) are engaging, compelling, and clear. Principles are illustrated with clarifying examples that drive home the concept.

I recommend it to anyone—not just preachers—who wants to grow as an interpreter, particularly if you regularly teach the Bible.

Expositional Preaching: How We Speak God’s Word Today (9Marks Building Healthy Churches Series)

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Studying more in-depth

Perhaps you already have a basic foundation in hermeneutics, and you’re looking for something that can push you to the next level. There are many excellent books to help you grow as an exegete. I will limit my recommendations to three that I think are particularly compelling, each progressively more demanding.

8. Graeme Goldsworthy, Gospel and Kingdom

Graeme Goldsworthy is one of the pioneers of the rediscovered field of biblical theology. His little book Gospel and Kingdom, first written in 1981 but now often sold as part of The Goldsworthy Trilogy, has had disproportionate impact on how evangelicals read their Bibles. It served as the foundation of the Helm and Roberts books mentioned above. At only a hundred pages, it packs a punch. Goldsworthy champions reading the Bible as a cohesive whole centered on Jesus Christ.

While newer books on biblical theology are more accessible, I have found it uniquely helpful to grapple with Goldsworthy’s original thesis. His concern is to reclaim the Old Testament. He doesn’t want it read as a collection of fable-like stories with a concluding moral. He wants it read as the story of God’s kingdom: created, lost, and restored in Jesus. The story of the Bible is the story of the gospel and the kingdom.

The Goldsworthy Trilogy

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9. D. A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies

This riveting little book exposes the many ways in which Bible interpreters err, and it’s one of the books that first put D. A. Carson on the map as a trusted evangelical scholar. If you read it, you’ll see why.

He offers sixteen examples of word study fallacies, eight examples of grammatical fallacies (three on tenses and five on syntax), eighteen examples of logical fallacies, and seven examples of presuppositional and historical fallacies. It’s a book that cuts in multiple directions. It’s an apologetic, exposing liberal interpretive tricks, and a corrective, taking common evangelical errors to task.

Sit alongside Carson as he trains you in precise and careful exegesis of the Scriptures. You’ll be better for having done so.

Exegetical Fallacies, 2nd ed.

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10. Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading

This is the only book on my list that’s not written from an evangelical perspective (if you don’t count Mortimer Adler). It’s also the most academically demanding—by a long shot. This tome, coming in at over five hundred pages, is the magnum opus of Meir Sternberg, capturing the collective approach of others also in his school (e.g., Adele Berlin and Robert Alter).

I haven’t read anything as compelling and helpful as it relates to reading Old Testament narrative. In one sense, it’s a blistering takedown of many modern readings of Scripture that chase everything but the author’s aim. In another sense, it’s Sternberg’s thought-provoking commentary on a host of passages that exemplify his principles. At its core, it’s arguably the definitive scholarly work on how to read biblical narrative faithfully.

Sternberg explains the complex interplay between God, the human author, the narrator, the characters, and the reader; how gaps in knowledge between the latter three are used by the author to move forward his aim. He describes the various Hebrew uses of repetition and how the author employs them to his end. He teaches us how authors use plot to maximize suspense, curiosity, or surprise. With these, and many other tools, Sternberg urges us to discover the clear theological aim of biblical narrative.

This seminal work is demanding but rewards those willing to put in the work.

The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading

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Conclusion

I’m thankful God doesn’t wait until we perfect our Bible study before using our Bible study to grow us! Nonetheless, we benefit from taking steps to improve our study of Scripture.

Faithful Bible study isn’t impossible. You don’t need a PhD. It doesn’t require a decoder ring. It just requires becoming a bit more conscious and intentional about the natural rules of reading that most of us intuitively understand.

I’m confident the books I’ve recommended will serve that end. They have helped me. I’m eager for them to help you too!

Share your thoughts

What books would you add to this list? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Related content

• What Is This Thing Called Bible Study?
• 7 Steps: How to Do an Inductive Bible Study
• How to Study the Bible Like an Evangelical: Principles & Practice
• The Best Study Bibles—& How to Choose
• How to Ask Excellent Bible Study Discussion Questions

The doctoral landscape has changed significantly in recent decades. In the past, earning a research doctorate often meant relocating to a Western institution for years of expensive, immersive study. Today, prospective doctoral students have an array of global options with varying formats.

Navigating the world of doctoral degrees in religion can be tricky. When embarking on this journey, the first crucial step is understanding the fundamental divides, academic prerequisites, and program models.

The methodological divide

The most critical distinction in the field pertains to your methodology and institutional home.

1. Critical: a descriptive approach

Typically housed in a secular university’s religious studies department, this track studies religion through a humanistic lens. Using disciplines such as history, sociology, and anthropology, students observe religious practices objectively without having to adhere to any faith commitments.

2. Confessional: a normative approach

This path, found in seminaries or divinity schools, studies religion from within the faith tradition. It asks normative questions about what is theologically true and often requires alignment with specific doctrinal or denominational beliefs.

Different degrees and purposes

Applicants frequently encounter different degree titles that signal distinct academic or professional end goals.

1. Research doctorates (PhD/ThD)

The doctor of philosophy (PhD) and doctor of theology (ThD) are terminal research degrees aimed at university-level teaching and publishing, culminating in a substantial original dissertation. This work is not meant to be your magnum opus. Instead, it’s your ticket to the party. It’s what validates your ability to participate in the conversation.

While the PhD is the academic gold standard, modern accrediting bodies usually treat the ThD as equivalent.

2. Professional doctorates (DMin/EdD)

Designed for active practitioners such as pastors or chaplains, the doctor of ministry (DMin) degree focuses on solving practical issues. While some hybrid DMin programs exist, if your goal is to teach at a major research university, you almost certainly need a PhD.

American vs. European models

Doctoral program designs vary significantly depending on regional educational philosophies.

1. The American model

These programs generally require multiple years of intensive coursework, comprehensive examinations, and the oral defense of a dissertation. Passing your comprehensive exams advances you to “ABD” (all but dissertation) status, proving you have a sufficient grasp of the field to begin original research.

2. The European model

Frequently following a “dissertation only” approach, this model skips coursework and focuses purely on original research from day one. It can be isolating, but it forces students to develop independent critical thought and find their own academic voice.

Emerging global programs often blend these traditions by requiring some coursework alongside research.

Varying delivery formats

Beyond the academic structure, the delivery format plays a major role.

1. Full-time residential

This is the traditional delivery format: You move in close proximity to the school and stay there for the duration of the program. This offers immersive experiences and closer faculty access but comes with considerable costs and transitions.

These programs remain, however, the gold standard. It’s very difficult (and arguably impossible) to replace the experience gained from living in a university community and focusing on your research for an extended period. It’s not possible for all of us, but I don’t know anyone interested in doctoral work who wouldn’t want this kind of experience.

2. Modular and distance learning

Modular and distance programs allow non-resident students to study either by moving the program entirely online or by varying residential requirements into intensives.

While these formats allow you to continue working, they often take much longer. Also, non-resident programs of any kind will be more dependent on your supervisor’s quality than other programs. If you’re looking at these types of programs, test the waters. Send some emails to potential advisors and see how quickly they respond. See how friendly they are. These things will matter more and more as your program continues.

Many schools do not offer online or non-resident options, and distance degrees can still carry a stigma. Distance students must actively close this perceived gap by networking and publishing aggressively.

Additionally, due to the isolating nature of distance education coupled with the isolating nature of specialized research, anyone committing to a distance program should actively seek out a learning community, present at academic conferences, etc. This is not simply padding your CV. It’s giving you the engagement that your program likely lacks.

All that said, distance education is likely the wave of the future, what with ministerial education shifting from credentialing to equipping. Distance learning allows students to stay in their ministry context, so they can apply what they’re learning immediately.

10 tips for discerning the right fit

Choosing the right program requires carefully assessing your goals against the fierce realities of the academic job market.

1. Decide whether or not you should even pursue a doctorate

Can you live a fulfilling life, following the Lord’s calling, without a PhD? If the answer is yes, then by all means do that. Simply put, the cost of pursuing a PhD is not worth it unless it is absolutely necessary for your life and calling.

Part of that cost is monetary, but much of it is emotional and psychological. Depression, anxiety, and profound isolation are highly prevalent among PhD students. You can and should attempt to proactively mitigate this with support. But it is unlikely that you will be able to eliminate it altogether.

Perhaps the most challenging cost is the return on investment. Put frankly, there is probably not a job waiting for you when you finish. You will need to find something else to pay the bills, and you may never be a professor of any kind. If you are, it will probably be as an adjunct. This is the simple, cold reality of the job market in the humanities right now—and it doesn’t look like it will change anytime soon. Simply put, there are already many people with PhDs in your field looking for jobs who already have teaching experience, publications, etc. On top of this, many small colleges are closing. So, competition for the available jobs continues to increase.

The bleak landscape doesn’t mean no one should pursue a PhD. It just means that those who do should carefully count the cost by making absolutely sure it’s the right path for them.

2. Choose the right methodological and professional track

Determine if your career aligns with the secular approach of religious studies or the normative approach of theology. Choose the American model for cross-disciplinary training or the British model for a faster, research-only timeline.

For example, if you want to teach at a Southern Baptist school, you may want to consider a PhD from a Southern Baptist school. Somewhat famously, John Behr had to earn an MA from an Orthodox seminary after completing his doctorate at Oxford because the institution required all its professors to hold a degree from an Orthodox seminary. A DPhil from Oxford (under Bishop Kallistos Ware, no less!) simply wasn’t good enough.

3. Evaluate financial feasibility and scholarship availability

Because doctoral programs require low student-to-faculty ratios and intensive supervision, they are highly expensive to operate.

Take care to avoid massive debt, as academic salaries are often low. Top-tier American schools are generally the most generous with funding. But there are other funding sources available if you look for them.

4. Assess library and electronic resources

Ensure the institution provides access to major electronic resources such as ATLA and EBSCO, and evaluate the speed and cost of its interlibrary loan system for specialized collections.

This is especially important if you are pursuing a distance program. You will need to make regular use of interlibrary loan, but you also probably need a library you can visit in person. If you live in the US, there should be a decent theological library within a day or so of driving, at most.

5. Look for institutional partnerships

If a school has limited resources, partnerships or academic consortia can provide access to larger libraries, specialized courses, and outside faculty supervision. For instance, students at Gordon-Conwell can take classes at Harvard. There are, of course, regulations that limit this, but these kinds of opportunities are incredible.

6. Scrutinize faculty supervisory experience

Investigate your potential mentor. See if you can connect with some of their former students to ask about their experiences. Your adviser can make or break your entire experience. Brilliant scholars do not always make great mentors, and very busy advisers can be exceedingly difficult to reach.

Also, be aware that if your adviser leaves the institution, you may be left scrambling for a replacement.

7. Weigh your timeline and work commitments

The traditional humanities PhD is grueling, and distance students who continue working face significant challenges in completing it. Plan out your time, your money, and your commitments. Look at everything. Remember, saying yes to one thing means saying no to lots of other things. You will have to say no to a lot of things to finish your degree.

8. Factor in institutional prestige

As mentioned above, the academic job market is severely oversaturated. So where you study matters immensely for overcoming this. Consider a program with institutional prestige and strong networking power.

9. Develop your pedagogy with teaching opportunities

Seek out teaching assistantships. Hiring committees prioritize pedagogical ability alongside research output.

Just be prepared to teach subjects outside your specialty, as universities’ specific needs rarely align perfectly with a niche dissertation topic. In fact, don’t expect to get a chance to teach your favorite topics at all. Remember, colleges and seminaries offer the classes required for degrees. You will likely teach far more courses on, say, world religions than on the concept of justification in Romans.

10. Consider professorships outside the domestic market

Think carefully about being a missionary professor. If you truly and deeply feel called to the classroom, there is a wealth of opportunity in the majority world. A seminary professor of mine used to tell students like me that he could guarantee them a job as a professor upon graduation. The catch was that it would be in another country.

Conclusion

Choosing a doctoral program isn’t a single decision but a series of them—methodology versus confession, research versus professional degree, residential versus distance format—each with real tradeoffs in cost, community, and career outcomes. There’s no universally “best” program, only the one that best fits your calling and situation.

Share your thoughts

How should postgraduate students decide among programs? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Ryan Lytton’s recommended resources

Witherington, Ben, III. Is there a Doctor in the House?: An Insider’s Story and Advice on Becoming a Bible Scholar. Zondervan Academic, 2011.

Prepare, Succeed, Advance: A Guidebook for Getting a PhD in Biblical Studies and Beyond, 2nd ed.

Regular price: $17.99

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Related content

• Doctor or Doctor? How to Choose Between DMin & PhD
• Should You Get a PhD? 5 Reasons for & Against
• Applying for a Doctoral Program? 7 Essential Tips
• 8 Tips for Finding a Thesis or Dissertation Topic
• Where Is Theological Education Heading? Flexible Faithfulness

In the opening chapters of Acts, Luke offers what is likely the most comprehensive description of a healthy church in the New Testament. Here we learn that as “awe came upon every soul” (Acts 2:43), the Jerusalem Church listened to the apostles’ teachings, broke bread in each other’s homes, and shared their resources generously while the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved (Acts 2:42–47; 4:32–37).

By any measure, the Church of Jerusalem was healthy and thriving.

And yet, while it’s easy to think that the Jerusalem Church was nearly perfect, Luke disabuses us of any such notion when he describes a shocking episode of moral failure and instant judgment—God strikes two people dead three hours apart!

Their names were Ananias and Sapphira.

After selling some property, they laid the proceeds from the sale at the apostles’ feet. But what looked like a generous donation was a work of calculated deception. What they claimed was a total donation of the proceeds was actually a partial one. They kept back some of the money for themselves. Thus, they lied about how generous they were being, about the extent of their sacrifice.

The result? Both dropped dead at the apostles’ feet, Ananias first, followed by his wife three hours later (Acts 5:1–11).

Table of contents

An overreaction?
1. Sin isn’t bad simply because it harms others
2. Faithfulness in one area doesn’t justify sin in another
3. God-honoring devotion requires proper motives
Conclusion

An overreaction?

Many read this account and are understandably disturbed by the severity of God’s judgment. Sure, Ananias and Sapphira shouldn’t have lied, but is the death penalty really appropriate? Why didn’t they receive the same divine forbearance that God is famous for showing his rebellious people? After all, they were making a generous (if partial) donation!

To answer these questions, we must first answer another one: Why would God inscripturate this episode in the first place? Why do we need to know about it? Both the event itself and its inclusion in Acts feels like a blemish that is deliberately inserted into the forever-record of a church that is otherwise thriving.

Indeed, the insertion is deliberate. Ananias’s and Sapphira’s deaths serve a pedagogical function for the Jerusalem Church in a crucial stage of its development, and its inclusion in Acts means that the lesson intended for the Jerusalem Church stands as a lesson for every church.

Through this episode of sin and judgment, God made three things very clear.

1. Sin isn’t bad simply because it harms others

It’s significant that God punished so severely sin that seemed to do so little—if any—public damage. The couple didn’t slander or kill anyone. We’re not told that their partial gift caused any suffering. If God hadn’t (somehow) told Peter they were lying, it’s likely that no one would have ever known.

So what’s the big deal?

Peter pinpoints their error: “You have not lied to man but to God” (Acts 5:4; cf. 5:3). The lesson to the burgeoning church was unmistakable: Sin isn’t bad simply because it harms others. Sin is bad because it’s against God regardless of who else it affects. Sin is theological before it’s sociological.

Confusion here is just as common today as it was then. Even the most faithful Christians are tempted to evaluate the severity of their sin by its observable consequences: How much is it hurting myself or my neighbor? What damage is it causing? If I can’t discern any damage to myself or others, is it really that bad? With this logic, it becomes much easier to tolerate or even indulge sin that we deem victimless:

• “My boyfriend and I are both consenting adults.”
• “I lied about why I was late.”
• “I got drunk last night at my house.”

But this social, purely horizontal understanding of sin’s offensiveness is precisely what the Ananias and Sapphira episode warns against! Their partial donation did no perceptible harm to anyone! Their deception was an affront to God. And that is what makes all sin serious, regardless of who else it affects.

In putting Ananias and Sapphira to death, God warned the Jerusalem Church of reducing the wickedness of sin against him to self-adjudicated ethical pragmatism, e.g., “If God is the only one ‘harmed’ by my sin, it’s not that bad.”

Dig deeper into Acts 5:1–11 with Logos’s Factbook.
Jumpstart your Bible study today with a free trial.

2. Faithfulness in one area doesn’t justify sin in another

Peter’s words to Sapphira are particularly illuminating: “How is it that you have agreed together to test the Spirit of the Lord?” (Acts 5:9). The word “test” here (Greek πειράσαι) indicates that they knew God disapproved of what they were doing and rolled the dice anyway.

Could it be that they thought their generous gift would secure a free pass for their lie? That sacrifice in one area would cause God to overlook sin in another? We can only speculate about their thought process, but God’s swift judgment served as a clear warning to anyone entertaining this sort of presumptive moral accounting.

Imagine how quickly the church’s call to holiness would morph into a carefully managed economy of sin if someone could earn immunity from calculated disobedience with a few good deeds. And yet, when we become aware of sin in our own lives, a quick review of our faithfulness in other areas is often all it takes to soothe our consciences with a reminder that on balance our “obedience portfolio” is in good standing. “God’s not a stickler,” we tell ourselves. He knows no one’s perfect. But God simply isn’t impressed when we minimize known sin—our irritability in the home, our laziness at work—because we feel like our prayer life, service to the church, or generous giving make up for it.

To be sure, we’ll always fight sin on this side of eternity, and no amount of faithfulness will make us right with God. Only Christ’s righteousness received through faith can do that. But having received that righteousness and the indwelling Spirit, the Ananias and Sapphira episode makes it clear that believers are called to execute their sin, not manage it.

3. God-honoring devotion requires proper motives

Perhaps more than anything, the Ananias and Sapphira narrative highlights God’s hatred of religious hypocrisy and superficiality.

True, the Jerusalem Church’s devotion to the Lord and to each other (cf. Acts 2:42–47 and 4:32–35) is impressive. But the couple’s execution signaled that it’s possible to engage in outwardly admirable religious activity with worldly motives, and that such religiosity is odious to God.

Ananias and Sapphira lied about how much they gave because they wanted to be seen as more generous than they really were. Perhaps they wanted a reputation like that of Barnabas who donated all the proceeds from the sale of his own property just a few verses earlier (Acts 4:36–37). Either way, their deception revealed that their offering to the Lord was a strategy for purchasing something they valued more than him—the praise of man.

Honest introspection reveals that we’re more like Ananias and Sapphira than we care to admit. Perhaps it’s more subtle, but we’re similarly superficial when:

• We post pictures of carefully marked up and highlighted Bible passages to publicly signal our spiritual depth.
• We pray for someone for two seconds and tell them, “I’ve been praying for you.”
• We turn Christian community into networking by selectively serving those in our church who will advance our interests.
• We condemn career idolization only to make our family/children the center of our lives.

In each case, our outwardly Christian behavior cloaks—and often issues from—a heart that is more gripped by worldly treasure than Christ.

Through the story of Ananias and Sapphira, the Jerusalem believers were reminded that it’s possible to express devotion to God in ways that anger him, viz., devotion that views God as a means to an end. He will not tolerate idolatry cloaked in Jesus’s name.

Conclusion

Why was God’s response to Ananias and Sapphira’s sin so severe? Setting aside the fact that all sin deserves death, it was an object lesson that put the young Church of Jerusalem on notice. A permissive view of sin and false piety was not only an affront to God but would corrupt the church at large, if left unchecked.

Donald Barnhouse once quipped that if God still struck people dead for lying, each church would need a morgue in the basement. While I’m grateful that God’s punishment of Ananias and Sapphira functioned as a unique warning—not a normal pattern—the sin it highlighted is just as serious today as it was then.

Viewed through a twenty-first-century lens, we might assume that two people falling over dead for lying was a bane on the church’s growth. After all, “great fear came upon the whole church and upon all who heard of these things” (Acts 5:11). But just three verses later, we learn that “more than ever believers were added to the Lord, multitudes of both men and women” (Acts 5:14).

As it turns out, taking both sin and God’s holiness seriously doesn’t deter church growth, but promotes it.

Share your thoughts

What can we learn from God’s judgment of Ananias and Sapphira? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Chase’s recommended resources for further reflection

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Evangelical Pharisees: The Gospel as Cure for the Church’s Hypocrisy

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Many churches are discovering the practice of reading from a lectionary. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican churches have historically used formal lectionaries, but the practice is growing in other Protestant church bodies.

I’d like to help you make the most of the lectionary by understanding what it is, how it works, and how you can use it in your church today, particularly by helping ministers preach the lectionary.

What is a lectionary?

In its essence, a lectionary is an orderly arrangement of readings from Holy Scripture, mainly intended for public worship services. There have been a variety of lectionaries throughout church history. Lectionaries can be a basic consecutive reading plan, or they can be arranged according to theological or liturgical themes. Some are daily lectionaries, while others are based around Sundays and other holidays throughout the year. Many lectionaries today are arranged for a three-year cycle. Older lectionaries were annual. There are even Psalter readings that repeat monthly.

For some Christians, the choice of lectionary is decided at the ecclesiastical level. Others will make the choice individually. In every case, the goal of the lectionary should be to read, understand, and apply the Scriptures in the life of faith.

A brief history of lectionaries

The world in which the Christian church emerged already had some fixed times for corporate prayer (Acts 3:1) and a rudimentary liturgical reading pattern (Acts 13:15; 15:21).⁸³ While there is no evidence for any precise Christian liturgy in the first century, we do see both services for daily prayers and formal eucharistic celebrations by the fourth.⁸⁴ There were seasonal lectionaries by this time.⁸⁵ Complete annual lectionaries can be dated shortly afterward to around the fifth century.⁸⁶

The Roman lectionary eventually became the standard lectionary for Western Christendom. This held constant until the twentieth century. Today, the lectionary with the widest use is the Revised Common Lectionary, which is itself based upon the Roman Catholic lectionary produced in conjunction with the Second Vatican Council.

While many readers might assume that the lectionary is therefore a Roman Catholic artifact, both the Lutheran and Anglican churches retained the historic lectionary. For example, the Anglican Book of Common Prayer combined the yearly Communion service readings with a new daily lectionary. Mostly the product of Thomas Cranmer, the Book of Common Prayer’s daily lectionary reintroduced consecutive canonical readings along with a psalm-reading cycle that completed the entire Psalter every month.

Those Reformed churches more closely aligned with the Swiss Reformation tended to discard the use of formal lectionaries, opting instead to read through the Bible in a consecutive fashion (lectio continua). The Westminster Directory for Public Worship represents the climax of this movement, recommending the practice of consecutive readings of Scripture as the only acceptable Sunday practice. This expression of the Reformed churches tended to only make recommendations for Sundays, with the practice of daily readings left to the individual reader’s discretion.

Over time, a great deal of diversity arose, even among churches that use lectionaries. Today, it is not uncommon for churches within the same denomination to use different lectionaries or none at all. On the other hand, many of those post-Westminsterian churches are now using lectionaries.

How to understand your lectionary

In order to preach from the lectionary, you should understand how it works on its own terms.

There are daily lectionaries and Communion lectionaries, meant for Sundays and other holidays. While the Sunday (and other holiday) readings can certainly stand on their own, they are, in fact, arranged as components of a larger annual (or triennial) cycle. Even if not laid out in a canonically consecutive series, the readings usually do stand in some relation to the readings from the week before and the week to come. Learning what your lectionary is trying to accomplish throughout the year will help you know how to use it from week to week.

The one-year lectionary

The historic one-year Communion lectionary is characterized by its simplicity. It has two halves, the incarnation cycle, running from Advent until Pentecost, and then Trinitytide, running from Trinity Sunday until the end of the church year. The incarnation “half” is itself split up according to the seasons of Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, and Easter. These various seasons nonetheless relate to one another as they explain the humiliation and exaltation of Christ, teaching about both his person and work. Trinitytide moves to the work of God, the whole Trinity, in the life of his people, the church.

In this lectionary, each Sunday (or other holiday) offers one Epistle and one Gospel reading, held together by the theme of the liturgical season and also the ideals mentioned in the Collect of the Day. (A collect is a short prayer that is intended to bring together various thoughts and petitions.) The Collect of the Day is almost always based upon the theme of the liturgical season, and its major ideas are usually reflected in the Scripture readings which are joined to it. Often the Epistle contains the theological or moral lesson, and the Gospel shows how Christ fulfills the various relevant themes in his person and ministry. While first-time readers may not immediately perceive the unity, the controlling logic can usually be discovered.

For one example, consider the First Sunday after Epiphany. Epiphany is a season focused on the true manifestation of Jesus, his divine nature and full identity. The theme of the First Sunday after Epiphany is “service,” and this is meant in two ways:

1. our worship of God, and
2. our humble love for our neighbor.

Put even more simply, this service is the duty we owe to God and the duty we owe to our fellow man.

We can demonstrate this in the following way. The Collect of the Day, going back well into the Middle Ages, says:

O Lord, we beseech thee mercifully to receive the prayers of thy people who call upon thee, and grant that they may both perceive and know what things they ought to do, and also may have grace and power faithfully to fulfill the same, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

The collect mentions “the prayers of thy people” and Christian duty, “what things they ought to do.” The readings are from Romans 12:1–5 and Luke 2:41–52. The Epistle reading emphasizes “a living sacrifice” and “reasonable service.” In other words, spiritual worship. The Gospel tells the story of the young Jesus in the temple. Surprising the doctors by his knowledge and his parents by his lingering behind, he declares, “I must be about my Father’s business.” We see, then, an emphasis on service to God.

Additionally, the Epistle reading teaches about humility, that a man must not “think of himself more highly than he ought to think.” The Gospel too has this lesson, as the divine Christ nevertheless returns home and “was subject unto” his earthly parents. A second theme, then, becomes evident. Following our service to God, we must also serve our fellow man, beginning with a humble desire to serve our neighbor and especially to respect those set in authority over us. Both of these themes relate to the season itself. As Epiphany reveals Christ’s glory, Christ also reveals the true worship of God and the ultimate example of humiliation in the exercise of divine love.

Finding the unity might be easier for some weeks than others, but it can almost always be done by starting with the concepts mentioned in the Collect for the Day and then identifying them in the biblical readings. From there, a reflection on the overarching theme of the season will add further detail and clarity.

As a brief summary, the themes of the seasons within the first half of the year are these:

• Advent remembers the first coming of the Messiah and looks forward to his second.
• Christmas commemorates the incarnation of God and the Messiah’s inheritance of the covenantal promises.
• Epiphany celebrates the manifestation of Christ’s full identity as well as the expansion of the kingdom of God to the gentiles.
• Lent is a season of mortification of the flesh in preparation for Easter.
• Easter, which should be understood as including Holy Week, focuses on the death and resurrection of the Messiah, along with his subsequent ascension to heaven and giving of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, all of which are the completion of his work and the equipment of his people for salvation and victory.

The two major criticisms of the historic one-year lectionary are its lack of Old Testament readings and the fact that a one-year cycle entails that only these texts are read each year. The first criticism can be mitigated by adding the daily office readings to the Sunday observance. In fact, the older Book of Common Prayer did exactly this, assigning Sunday “propers” to match the biblical readings at the Communion service. The Psalter, too, would be read on Sunday, and some major feast days were given proper psalms. Whether a single-year cycle is a strength or weakness is a matter of some debate.

Three-year lectionaries

In the twentieth century, new lectionaries were composed, largely out of a desire to expand the amount of Scripture that would be read in church. The Communion service also absorbed the Old Testament and Psalm readings, which had previously been a part of a separate service. This created one larger service with a greater variety of biblical texts. Typically, these lectionaries have an Old Testament reading, a psalm, a selection from the New Testament Epistles, and a portion from the Gospels. In order to include each of these in a single service, the length of each is shortened. These lectionaries also mostly adopt a three-year model. This means that books read in “Year A” are usually not read in “Year B” or “Year C.” This again allows for a greater variety of Scripture to be read in the public gatherings of the church, but it also creates complexity. Some liturgical books have retained the older collects which would have gone along with the biblical readings, but these no longer match the texts and so should usually not be used as thematic summaries.

While there are a variety of modern three-year lectionaries, the Revised Common Lectionary (RCL) is the most widely used. It is often the original template from which other modern lectionaries begin. The RCL was itself based upon the work of the modern Roman Catholic lectionary, and so there is a large amount of continuity across denominational boundaries.

It too has a sort of overall logic which can help ministers make the most of it. The RCL attempts to combine both seasonal emphases and lectio continua throughout the Christian calendar. The major feasts set the parameters. The scriptural texts around these days are thematically united. They highlight the major ideals of the season and usually attempt to complement each other. As the weeks move further away from the particular holiday, the readings tend to become canonically consecutive. This is especially true for those parts of the church year which modern lectionaries call “ordinary time.”

The three-year scheme also has a logic to it.

• Year A calls for the Gospel of Matthew to be read, largely in consecutive order. It also prescribes Old Testament readings from the Pentateuch.
• Year B gives readings from Mark and the Old Testament historical books.
• Year C has Luke and the Prophets.

These readings are interrupted by various holidays, and the Gospel of John is interspersed throughout each year.

The strength of offering a larger span of Scripture brings with it a corresponding weakness. The length of each scriptural selection must be reduced, and even in the “consecutive” portions of the year, there are gaps and omissions. Further, the greater diversity of readings also creates a greater complexity. Attempting to do both a seasonally thematic project and a consecutive canonical survey at the same time can confuse the listeners (and readers) and lose the overarching unity. Laying out a comprehensive plan to address each of the readings for each of the years is no small task. There are 624 readings to choose from over the course of three years (not counting the alternative selections), which creates a truly dizzying number of potential textual combinations to consider.

How to preach from a lectionary

With a more comfortable understanding of the various lectionary options, here are some practical tips on how to use the lectionary in the ministry of the Word, especially in preaching.

1. Consistently

Choose a lectionary and stick with it. Jumping between different lectionaries or regularly making your own substitutions will greatly limit the effectiveness of using a lectionary at all. While intentional breaks can be helpful, you should plan to use the same lectionary for a series of years, if not for the majority of your tenure.⁸⁷

Learn how your lectionary is meant to “work,” and then use it in that way. You might find it useful to preach from the Gospels for several weeks in a row, or even for the full year, so that you can demonstrate their logic. You might choose the Epistle readings for the next season or year.

2. Patiently

Lectionaries are designed to work over a longer period of time. You do not have to address everything in a single sermon. The text will come back around again in the future.

Additionally, the reading and hearing of the Word of God is an element of worship in its own right.⁸⁸ Even if a portion of text is not preached, the fact that it was read in worship is itself substantial and effective. Strong lectors can share the burden with the preacher, thus allowing the lectionary to do its full work across the service.

3. Diversely

While lectionaries do prescribe the texts to be read in the service, they almost always offer more homiletic options than first assumed. Even with the one-year lectionary, there are two different texts and usually two (or more) major themes. This alone could provide four years’ worth of sermon material. If elements of the Morning Prayer service are added to this, then an additional Old Testament lesson and a set of several psalms further add to the set of options. The preacher is entirely within his rights to preach from any of these texts, even when strictly “bound” to the lectionary.

While consistency was a virtue mentioned above, preachers should cover all of the texts over an appropriate course of time at a church. One could easily go seven years or more without feeling the slightest temptation to repeat a previous sermon. An effective use of the lectionary will continually offer fresh presentations and appropriately contemporary insights.

4. Expositionally

In terms of theological significance, this point should actually be the first in consideration. After all, the very point of the lectionary is to open the Word of God to the people of God. Lectionary preaching should therefore always be grounded in scriptural exegesis. The content of the sermon should come from the biblical text provided. Even in the case of topical sermons, the support from the topic should be derived from the Scriptures, and this should be demonstrated in the sermon itself. Again, the lectionary is an arrangement of texts. These should therefore be the primary material for the sermon. Insofar as a preacher neglects the biblical texts that were read, he is also neglecting the lectionary itself.⁸⁹

Expository preaching does not exclude symbolic or typological preaching. It does restrain it, however, and properly so. It requires the preacher to rhetorically “show his work” and allow the people to see how the Bible itself shows forth the symbols and arranges the types. A good lectionary does not discourage this work but instead makes it easier and integrates it into a more natural part of the overall service.

This principle also allows for the liberating and perennially appropriate option to “just preach the text.” On any given week, or during certain seasons of time, the minister might not know what to do with all of the various liturgical options. In such cases, he can simply choose one of the texts and preach it directly. If the lectionary has been composed well, then this approach will always “work” with the larger program. Just as a sermon on John 1 at Christmas is always a “Christmas sermon” by its very nature, so too is 1 Peter 4:7–11 an appropriate message for the feasts of the Ascension and Pentecost. Meditating on how any given text applies to a certain holiday has frequently deepened my appreciation of the lectionary and my understanding of the Scripture.

What does it mean to preach expositionally—and how do we do it? Tune into Dave Helm’s episode of Logos Live.

5. Intertextually

Even as a preacher strives for simplicity, one of the advantages of the lectionary is the way in which it brings different biblical texts together. This can be done by way of prophecy and fulfillment, by repeating patterns and types, or by illustrative examples, such as heroes and villains or dilemmas and solutions. Different lectionaries go about this project in different ways, and some are more successful than others. Finding the connections between the varying texts can help the pastor in his creation of his sermon. These connections often prompt a basic sermon outline or make the various big ideas easier to identify and demonstrate, as the biblical texts cast light on each other.

A preacher can make use of this intertextuality by choosing one text as primary and then referencing portions of the other texts. Occasionally, he might choose to balance each of the readings as subsets and then bring them together by way of the Collect of the Day.

6. Holistically

Finally, lectionary preaching should join redemptive-historical preaching with practical application. The person and work of Christ will be emphasized, as well as the fruits of his ministry in the life of the Christian. The historic collects usually do a good job of succinctly stating that the moral duties flow from the character of God in Christ. The preacher can use this to arrange his own sermon points.

Certain weeks will have a greater emphasis on one part or the other, but all will be present in some fashion. And again, the confidence in a long-term project will allow the preacher to emphasize some points in greater detail on one occasion, with the understanding that he will have another opportunity to emphasize other points.

Share your thoughts

How can one best preach from a lectionary? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Conclusion

Using the lectionary is a worthy work that can greatly enhance the work and worship of our churches. And I hope that using the lectionary will also enable each of us to, in the words of Thomas Cranmer, hear, read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest all holy Scriptures.

Resources for lectionary preaching

A Preacher’s Guide to Lectionary Sermon Series

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Feasting on the Word (12 vols.)

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Connections: A Lectionary Commentary for Preaching and Worship (9 vols.)

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Lectionary Reflections Collection (3 vols.)

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The Lectionary Commentary: Theological Exegesis for Sunday’s Texts (3 vols.)

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Twelve Months of Sundays (3 vols.)

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Preaching from the Lectionary: An Exegetical Commentary

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By the late first or early second century AD, the last book of the New Testament had been written. In AD 325, the Council of Nicaea would articulate the doctrine of the Trinity and adapt the church’s rule of faith into an official creed. But what happened in between these two watershed moments of church history?

The second century, in particular, was an existentially defining period for the church. The gospel spread far beyond its origins in Galilee, where it was met by serious challenges. The church would emerge from these with greater clarity about its identity and beliefs.

The major voices of this period were the Apostolic Fathers, so-called because they were the first generation of Christian leaders and teachers after the twelve appointed by Christ. Some of them actually knew apostles or knew someone who knew them.

In this article, I will introduce a few writings of the Apostolic Fathers. I have left out a considerable chunk.⁹⁰ I have selected those that have special interest for the average New Testament reader. I will organize these works under three major challenges Christians faced in the second century concerning Scripture.

Table of Contents

1. What is the relationship between the Christian faith and the Old Testament?
2. Were the Christians a threat to the Roman state?
3. What are the boundaries of “orthodox” Christianity?
Conclusion

1. What is the relationship between the Christian faith and the Old Testament?

Christianity rose out of the belief that Jesus is the Messiah, the son of Abraham and descendant of David (Matt 1:1). Most (though not all) of the Jewish people had failed to embrace Jesus as the Messiah, and the Jerusalem authorities were culpable for his death. Paul famously laments: “For I could wish that I myself were accursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my own people, my kindred according to the flesh” (Rom 9:3). At some point, it was becoming clear that non-Jews were listening and responding to the gospel, while most of Paul’s fellow Jews were not (see Acts 28:17–28).

Additionally, within the NT writings themselves, some very difficult things are said about the Jewish people (or leaders): Jesus accuses them of murdering the prophets (Matt 23:30–36), and Matthew reports that the Jewish people have called down divine wrath upon themselves (Matt 27:25).

Articulating the relationship between Christianity and Judaism, and between the Old Testament and the New Testament, was among the earliest problems facing the young church.

The Epistle of Barnabas (c. 70/135)

One of the earliest and most intriguing attempts to provide a response to the question of how Christians should read the Old Testament and understand their relationship to non-Jews is the spurious Epistle of Barnabas—a text of some popularity and significance to Christians in the East.

Barnabas is striking in that it is thoroughly infused with the OT Scriptures, but it takes a strong stance of discontinuity between the new covenant and the practices and rituals of Israel: “Therefore he [God] has abolished these things, in order that the new law of our Lord Jesus Christ, which is free from the yoke of compulsion, might have its offering, not made by man” (Barn. 2:6).⁹¹ Barnabas even suggests that the physical practice of circumcision was given to Israel through “an evil angel,” and so it has, appropriately, been entirely abolished (Barn. 9:4).

The text is an important witness of the challenge of articulating how Christians should understand their relationship to the historic people of God. Almost certainly, Barnabas is interested in widening the gap between Christians and non-Christian Jews, as he declares his agenda is to prevent his audience from “shipwrecking ourselves by becoming, as it were, ‘proselytes’ to their law” (Barn. 3:6).

Ignatius of Antioch (d. c. 108)

Ignatius was an early second century bishop of Antioch. He is best known for his martyrdom during the reign of Emperor Trajan (AD 98–117). While being escorted to Rome to be executed, a journey which would have taken three to four months, Ignatius managed to pen seven letters: six to churches (Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans, Romans) and one personal letter (To Polycarp). These writings are a rich source for understanding the early pastoral and ecclesial theology of the church.

In these letters, one finds strong concerns to encourage the church and exhort them to reject false teachings. For example, Ignatius repeatedly emphasizes the theme of unity. Jesus is united in his humanity and divinity (Eph. 7:2); the faith is united (Eph. 13:1); and Jesus is united with the Father (Magn. 1:2). But Ignatius is also deeply concerned to distinguish Christians from Jews. He emphasizes that the new is superior to the old (Magn. 10:2), and then makes this claim: “It is utterly absurd to profess Jesus Christ and to proclaim Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism, but Judaism in Christianity in which ‘every tongue’ believed and was ‘brought together’ to God” (Magn. 10:3). Put bluntly, Ignatius warns one church: “If anyone expounds Judaism to you, do not listen to him” (Phld. 6:1).

Marcion (c. 85–160)

Marcion was a wealthy shipowner who gave a substantial gift to the church in Rome and thereby found some level of influence and status as a result. Marcion was the earliest Christian writer (that we know of) to draft a closed list of canonical books, only his canon included no Old Testament, most of Paul’s letters, and a mutilated version of Luke’s Gospel. According to Marcion, there existed the utmost discontinuity between the God of the Old Testament and the God of Jesus Christ. He argued, in fact, that the God of the Old Testament was an angry and vengeful deity, whereas the God of Jesus is loving, forgiving, and gracious.

Marcion wrote one book, Antitheses, which has not survived in its entirety. Judging from attempts to reconstruct this work from bits and pieces quoted in the works of Church Fathers, the work posits contradictory statements between law/OT and gospel/NT in order to show that the God of Israel and the God of Jesus Christ are, in fact, separate deities entirely.

Tertullian of Carthage (c. 155–c. 220)

While many voices rose against Marcion, the strongest anti-Marcion from the second century belonged to Tertullian of Carthage, the earliest Church Father to write in Latin, and who is thus widely regarded as the Father of Western (i.e., Latin) theology.

The late second-century North African teacher is important for many reasons. He argued for the truth of Christianity and the superiority of its morals over and against its pagan opponents in his Apology. In Against Marcion, Tertullian argues that the God of Israel, as seen in the Hebrew Scriptures, is both good and the same as the God of Jesus Christ. Tertullian contends that playing off “justice” against “love” (or forgiveness and grace) is a simplistic hermeneutical failure. Tertullian further criticizes Marcion for his failure to submit to the orthodox teachings of the church and for his working with a smaller-than-necessary (and mutilated, at that) canon of New Testament Scripture.

The prominence of Marcion’s teachings resulted in numerous church leaders voicing their theological disapproval, the most important of which was Tertullian’s Against Marcion.

2. Were the Christians a threat to the Roman state?

The earliest non-Jewish Christians often offended and appeared as unpatriotic threats to the fabric of society by refusing to worship the pagan gods. Given that certain gods were understood to be the protectors and sponsors of the city, failure to worship them could threaten social health and safety. Some pagans, then, engaged in sporadic and local acts of persecution and harassment of Christians, whereas others labeled Christianity as misanthropic superstition.

Within this context, we find a variety of second-century Christian responses.

The Martyrdom of Polycarp (c. 155/160)

The second century witnessed the rise of stories of the martyrdom of early Christians. The historical accuracy and the theological purpose of these is much disputed. But one of the earliest and most influential of these is also one of the most entertaining. This is the Martyrdom of Polycarp, the first text to use the word “martyr” to mean not just a “witness” (the literal meaning) but an admirable hero of the faith who willingly suffers unto death in imitation of Christ.

Polycarp was an early second century bishop in the city of Smyrna who learned the Christian faith from the apostle John. History has preserved only one letter from Polycarp (The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians), a letter written to the church in Philippi, exhorting them to grow in Christ-like character and especially to encourage them after the fall of one of their leaders, Valens, who has committed some type of financial sin.

It’s obvious that the author has articulated the events of Polycarp’s suffering and death within the highly theological framework of Jesus’s own arrest, trial, and death. Those responsible for arresting Polycarp attempt to persuade him to say “Caesar is Lord” and to make a sacrifice in order to save his life (Mart. Pol. 8.2). At his hearing, he is charged with “atheism” (Mart. Pol. 9.2; cf. 3:2). We might find this accusation odd today: by “atheism,” critics did not mean Christians denied the existence of all divinities, but that they scorned the gods that mattered. Justin Martyr in his First Apology (c. AD 155/157) addressed to the Roman Emperor would own the title: “Thus are we even called atheists. We do proclaim ourselves atheists as regards those whom you call gods, but not with respect to the Most True God.”⁹²

Polycarp takes a different tack. He is commanded: “Swear by the genius of Caesar; repent; say, ‘Away with the atheists!’” In mock obedience, Polycarp faces the auditorium of pagans and declares with a wave of his hand, “Away with the atheists!” (Mart. Pol. 9.2). Thoroughly provoked, they accuse Polycarp of being “the destroyer of our gods, who teaches many not to sacrifice or to worship” (Mart. Pol. 12.2). Polycarp’s martyrdom exemplifies the battle between good and evil. His endurance and fortitude call others to maintain their loyalty to Christ in the face of opposition.

Justin Martyr (AD 105–165)

Justin Martyr penned two apologies (i.e., defenses of the Christian faith), each addressed to a Roman emperor, whereby he attempted to show that the Christians are virtuous and good citizens of the state, despite their refusal to worship the pagan deities. The conversation takes place at a philosophical level, in that Justin honors the emperor by appealing to his wisdom and sense of justice. In fact, Justin compares the persecution of Christians to the persecution of the ancient Athenian philosopher, Socrates, who likewise was accused of atheism and condemned to death for criticizing traditional polytheism. Indeed, he casts Socrates as a sort of proto-Christian who “was accused of the very crimes that are imputed to us.”⁹³ In this manner, Justin Martyr found precedents for Christian behavior in Greco-Roman philosophical tradition.

3. What are the boundaries of “orthodox” Christianity?

We have already seen that Tertullian’s response to Marcion’s understanding of the identity of God in relationship to the Old Testament placed Marcion outside the boundaries of so-called orthodox Christianity, but there were a variety of other challenges Christians needed to clarify, specifically as concerns the person and work of Jesus.

The Gospel of Thomas (c. 135/200)

In the second century, we have evidence that there were a variety of people writing Gospel texts about Jesus. Sometimes, these Gospels are referred to as “apocryphal,” which, taken from the Greek (ἀπόκρυφος), means something like “hidden,” “secret,” or “closed,” and is thus the antonym of “apocalyptic,” meaning “revealed,” “unveiled,” or “open.” The word “apocrypha” is not always used negatively to refer to spurious books or books full of false teachings. For example, Athanasius of Alexandria in his Festal Letter 39 (AD 367) calls certain early Christian writings “apocryphal,” but by this he only meant they weren’t suitable to be read publicly (i.e., “openly”) in church liturgies, despite their antiquity and popularity. One could, however, enjoy them in private.

So the designation “apocryphal” can refer to a mix of books. It could refer to books that are clearly outside the boundaries of creedal Christianity. It could also refer to books that are entirely orthodox in their theology and are likely intended to convey and supplement, rather than critique or replace, the accounts in the canonical Gospels.

By far the most popular of these is The Gospel of Thomas, the earliest non-canonical Gospel. Most agree that Thomas demonstrates literary dependence on the Synoptic Gospels (or traditions) and should be dated no later than the early second century.

What do we find in this Gospel?

First, it is entirely composed of sayings of Jesus and contains no narrative whatsoever. The writing begins: “These are the secret words which the living Jesus spoke and which Didymus Judas Thomas wrote down. And he said: He who shall find the interpretation of these words shall not taste death” (Gos. Thom. 1). Readers of Thomas are intended to meditate upon Jesus’s secret words.

So, the entire Gospel is filled with ambiguous and difficult-to-interpret sayings of Jesus. The portrait of Jesus in Thomas is strikingly different from that of the canonical Gospels. In Thomas, Jesus is characterized as a wise but provocative sage whose words enable those who listen to attain knowledge. There is no hint that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah who suffers, dies, and is raised from the dead in order to save humanity. In fact, Jesus’s teachings in Thomas often contradict his teachings from the canonical Gospels. In Thomas, Jesus rejects the prophets of Israel; he overturns the necessity and importance of Torah practices such as circumcision; rejects the practices of prayer, fasting, and almsgiving; and denigrates the notion of resurrection from the dead.

Second, the Gospel of Thomas conveys entirely different notions about the person of Jesus and salvation. Instead of a Gospel that centers upon Jesus as the Messiah of Israel, sent by God in the fulfillment of his Scriptures, who calls humanity to follow him through patterning their lives after him, and who dies on the cross to save humanity from their sins, Thomas presents a radically different construal of Jesus and salvation. Instead, Jesus is an obscurantist teacher who attempts to lead people to an inner knowledge and awareness of who they are and from whence they came.

Papias of Hierapolis (AD 60–c. 130)

In the early second century, Papias, the bishop of Hierapolis, wrote five volumes titled Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord (see Papias, Fragments 3.1). Papias’s introduction to his work indicates that he focused on collecting stories and teachings about Jesus from those who were taught by eyewitnesses of Jesus’s ministry. Papias provides evidence that the stories and teachings in the canonical Gospels derive from memory—that is, the remembered and orally transmitted sayings and stories of Jesus. In his prologue to his Expositions of the Logia of the Lord, Papias describes his method in this way:

I shall not hesitate to set down for you, along with my interpretations, everything I carefully learned then from the elders and carefully remembered, guaranteeing their truth. … And if by chance someone who had been a follower of the elders should come my way, I inquired about the words of the elders—what Andrew or Peter said, or Philip, or Thomas or James, or John or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s disciples, and whatever Aristion and the elder John, the Lord’s disciples, were saying. For I did not think that information from books would profit me as much as information from a living abiding voice.⁹⁴

Papias indicates that, even after the canonical Gospels had been written, he preferred the oral transmission of the Jesus tradition. His means of obtaining access to the Jesus tradition consists in his inquiring about “the words of the elders.” It is this later group that Papias describes as providing access, by means of their association with the Lord’s disciples, to the Jesus tradition. Papias seems to describe the transmission, then, as running as follows: Jesus → disciples/elders → group who followed the elders → Papias.

Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 155–c. 191)

Perhaps the greatest theologian of the second century, Irenaeus of Lyons develops a powerful argument for apostolic tradition and a rule of faith that would help Christians identify both what texts are scriptural as well as what groups and beliefs are outside the boundaries of orthodoxy.

Irenaeus argues that theology must be grounded in the fixed tradition of the apostolic proclamation. Of central importance for Irenaeus here is the Fourfold Gospel. There are, Irenaeus argues, four and only four Gospels that are scripturally authoritative for the worldwide church (Haer. 3.11).

The apostolic proclamation, grounded in the Fourfold Gospel, was of central importance to Irenaeus, among others, in the development of “the rule of faith.” This rule articulated the first-order theological doctrine regarding the identity of God the Father, the person of Christ, and the role of the Spirit. This rule allowed for the existence of a variety of other theological disagreements, but it provided a narrative structure for understanding the identity of God, the work of the incarnate Son of God, and the body of Christ (see Haer. 1.10.1). The rule of faith allowed Irenaeus to articulate a hermeneutical or interpretive guide to reading the Christian Scriptures that enabled the church to ensure its continuity with the original teaching of the apostles against teachings of ‘Gnostic’ Christians.

Conclusion

Two claims can be made with the utmost certainty regarding the second century.

First, early Christianity was highly textual. Just remarkably bookish. We have barely even scratched the surface in terms of describing the vibrant texts that were authored during this time period.

Second, the second century was a time of incredible importance as the church clarified its beliefs and identity with respect to the synagogue, Roman polytheism, and alternative (or “heretical”) forms of Christianity. The church would have to wait for the likes of Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine (among many others!) to provide theological clarity on a variety of important matters, but it is certain that they stood on the shoulders of Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Irenaeus.

Share your thoughts

Do you have a favorite work by an Apostolic Father? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Joshua Jipp’s recommended resources

• Bird, Michael E., and Scott Harrower, eds. A Handbook to Second-Century Christianity. Baylor University Press, 2025.
• Fredriksen, Paula. Ancient Christianities: The First Five Hundred Years. Princeton University Press, 2024.

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“When will I actually use this?”

It’s a fair question asked by many a Greek student. Preachers-in-training spend hours and hours memorizing verb charts and vocabulary; learning participle, infinitive, and genitive uses; and trying to grasp the grammar until, at long last, they can pull from their vast-yet-shaky knowledge of the language to scratch out a few sentences of the New Testament. Unsurprisingly, many are eager to put into practice what they’ve worked so hard to learn.

Yet when they do, the warnings of James Barr and D. A. Carson lurk in the background, haunting seminarians and young preachers. “Avoid the etymological fallacy.” “That’s an illegitimate totality transfer.” “I may be putting too much weight on the aorist here.” We often learn from our Greek professors how not to use our Greek.

But how should it be used? If you’ve put in the time to learn the language but aren’t sure what the payoff is—or should be—here are five ways your Greek can help your sermon prep.

Table of Contents

1. It helps you slow down and read carefully
2. It helps you notice repeated vocabulary and themes
3. It helps you recognize and study important words
4. It helps you answer exegetical questions
5. It helps you discern a passage’s structure
Closing advice: Use it, but don’t show it

1. It helps you slow down and read carefully

One of the major benefits of studying Greek and then using it in preaching and teaching is that it forces you to read the text much more carefully. You will find yourself going almost painfully slowly, at times laboring over every word in a phrase. Often this will result in things standing out to you that you might have missed had you read at a normal rate in your first language. It’s much harder for your brain to go into autopilot when you must translate every phrase you come across.

I can remember translating through 1 Corinthians 11 for Greek homework and coming upon the little phrase διὰ τοὺς ἀγγέλους. This seemed pretty straightforward: διὰ with an accusative direct object normally means “because of,” and ἀγγέλους is the plural of “angel.” Thus it would seem to mean, “because of the angels.”

But that didn’t seem right. In the context, Paul had been talking about head coverings, and he had just said, “for this cause a woman should have authority on her head.” How were angels a reason for a woman to wear a head covering? It had been several chapters since Paul had last mentioned angels (cf. 1 Cor 6:3), and I had no idea what role they could play in this already challenging chapter. I stared at the phrase for a bit, but I couldn’t figure out what I was missing. I finally shrugged, wrote down “because of the angels,” and hoped that the phrase wouldn’t show up on the translation quiz the next day.

When we got to class, I waited for my brilliant Greek teacher to show me what I had missed. Instead, I was surprised to learn that, in fact, I hadn’t missed anything. Paul had indeed said that women should have authority (or a symbol of authority) on their head “because of the angels.” What did that mean? Well, that’s been debated and will probably continue to be debated. It’s an odd phrase, as any notable commentary on 1 Corinthians will show.

Yet although I had read 1 Corinthians many times before, I had never previously noticed this phrase. How had I missed such a strange expression? Because before, I hadn’t been reading slowly and carefully.

Obviously, this is not a sufficient reason of its own to study Greek. But the practice of slowing down and reading carefully is a benefit that shouldn’t be dismissed too quickly.

2. It helps you notice repeated vocabulary and themes

English translations do not translate the same word the same way every time. This is because most words will have multiple senses or meanings, and the senses of words don’t line up perfectly from language to language. For example, the Greek verb that most students learn immediately is λύω, which means “to loose” or “to destroy.” This means that when translating, the translator must pick between “loose” or “destroy,” because in English those are very different ideas.

The Bible’s authors will often use a Greek word repeatedly to make a point or build a theme. But, because of the above, this repetition might not show up in an English translation.

Probably the clearest example of this is the book of Romans. In Romans, the Greek root δικη shows up seventy-seven times in the Nestle-Aland text.

• BDAG glosses δίκη as “punishment, penalty, justice.”
• One major verb that comes from δικη is δικαιόω, which means “justify” or “declare righteous.”
• δικη is also the root of several related nouns like δικαιοσύνη, δικαίωσις, and δικαίωμα, which are translated as “righteousness” or “justification.”
• Finally, δίκαιος is the adjective form that is translated as “just” or “righteous.”

All of this matters, because righteousness and justification are key themes of Romans. Realizing that what in English are two word families (“just, justification, justify,” as opposed to “righteous, righteousness, declare righteous”) are really one word family in the Greek will help the preacher better understand what Paul is doing with these ideas.

A similar thing happens with the Greek root αγιος, which means “holy.” The noun form is ἁγιασμός, which means “holiness” or “sanctification,” and the verb form is ἁγιάζω, which means “sanctify” or “make holy.” Many English speakers don’t realize that the word “saint” comes from the same root as “holy,” but to someone reading the Greek “saint” looks like “the holy one.” Or again the Greek root πειρα stands behind the words for “trial, try” or “tempt, temptation.” The interplay of these different but related senses is important for understanding passages of Scripture like James 1.

Seeing these and other connections throughout Scripture can help the careful student have a better grasp of God’s Word.

3. It helps you recognize and study important words

Studying words rightly is an important part of any sermon prep. Yet if there is one element of a preacher’s use of Greek that is likely to come under fire, it’s often the odd way we talk about Greek words. Some of this criticism is earned. Preachers can be guilty of making too much of the use of one synonym over another or emphasizing words in unhelpful or illegitimate ways. Some preachers love to use their Greek so much that they might end up saying something useless like, “The Greek word for ‘bread’ here is ἄρτος, which literally means ‘bread’.”

But while preachers should beware of reading too much into common, ordinary Greek words, sometimes a biblical author will use an unusual or rare word. Often by paying attention to these rare words, the preacher can find helpful exegetical nuggets.

For example, Philippians 3:20 uses the word πολίτευμα, a word that occurs only here in the New Testament (a hapax legomenon). This word is glossed by BDAG as “commonwealth” or “state.” It’s a word that would have been especially important for the city of Philippi. As a Roman colony, Philippi was viewed as equal to the Roman cities in Italy. It would have made perfect sense, then, for Paul to tell the Philippians that their πολίτευμα “is in heaven.” Just as Philippi was a slice of Rome for those living in Greece, so the church is supposed to be a slice of heaven living in the world.

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Later in Philippians 4:11, Paul will use the rare word αὐτάρκης (“content”), this time borrowing from the world of philosophy. Stoics and Cynics used this term for self-sufficiency, a total lack of need of anything outside of oneself. In an ironic twist, Paul transforms this self-sufficiency into a Christ-sufficiency in Philippians. He goes from “I have learned to be content in whatever circumstances I find myself” (Phil 4:11) to “I am able to do all things through him who strengthens me” (Phil 4:13). Whereas the philosophers of Paul’s day sought to weather the storms of life through their own power, Paul looked to Christ for the strength to find contentment.

These two quick examples show how word studies, especially of words that are relatively rare in the New Testament, can unlock helpful truth for preaching and study.

4. It helps you answer exegetical questions

As you read about a passage, scholars and commentators will present arguments about what it means. You might not be an expert, but knowing enough of the language can help you better listen in as the specialists go back and forth.

There are parts of the New Testament that are confusing, even for people who study Greek for a living. This doesn’t mean that, having two years of Greek under your belt, you’ll be able to definitively settle the correct interpretation on these challenging passages. But it does mean that you’ll be better equipped to have some idea of what everyone else is talking about.

1. Why do translations show the variety they do in the way they translate the second half of John 14:1?
2. Is it legitimate to translate James 2:14 as “can that kind of faith save him”?
3. Is Ephesians 4:22–24 saying that we have “put off … been renewed … put on” or that this is something we must do?

These and many other questions can only be answered by a working knowledge of the Greek language.

Sometimes, knowledge of Greek can keep you from making common mistakes, especially if you are using a good commentary.

For example, preachers sometimes point out that the phrase “Go and make disciples” from Matthew 28:18 uses a participle for the word “go.” This is true. But then they go on to argue that it should be translated, “Going, make disciples.” In other words, whatever you are doing in your life, you should also be making disciples.

Now, this may sound really good—but there are problems with it. Grammatically, it is true that the word translated “go” is a participle, but it’s functioning as an “attendant circumstance.” An attendant circumstance is a participle joined so closely to the main verb that it adopts the mood of the main verb. These participles express actions that coordinate with and accompany the main action. So, we should rightly translate this verse, “Go and make disciples,” as we find in every major modern translation. This isn’t a call to casually disciple along the pathway of life; it’s a call to put forth effort and intentionality in accomplishing the task our Lord has left us.

5. It helps you discern a passage’s structure

Finally, studying Greek can help you see the underlying structure of the passage a little more clearly.

Languages use lots of little words to connect clauses, phrases, and ideas. We call these conjunctions. Yet, once again, translators don’t always use a word-for-word equivalence when translating conjunctions. Reading in the original Greek can make the natural divisions of thought clearer because it helps you see first-hand what connecting words the author used.

Take Ephesians 4–6. This section has often been summarized as the walk of the believer. On five separate occasions, Paul tells believers how they should walk (Eph 4:1, 17; 5:2, 8, 15). But a careful look at the Greek text will show that, not only does Paul use “walk” five times, but it is always in connection with the Greek conjunction οὖν (“therefore”) (Eph 4:1, 17; 5:1, 7, 15).⁹⁵

If we include Paul’s final οὖν (Eph 6:14), which combines with the verb “stand” (Eph 6:11, 13, 14) instead of “walk,” we have a rough outline for the second half of Ephesians that looks something like this:

• Walk worthily (4:1–16)
• Walk differently (4:17–32)
• Walk in love (5:1–6)
• Walk in light (5:7–14)
• Walk in wisdom (5:15–6:9)
• Stand strong (6:10–20)

Figuring out where one idea ends and another idea begins is one of the most frustrating, profitable, and overlooked parts of sermon prep. Figuring out how the author’s ideas go together does a lot to help the preacher think through what the ideas themselves are. You can do much of this work with a good English translation, but you can do it better if you know how to work with the Greek language.

Closing advice: Use it, but don’t show it

In closing, I would like to give one final piece of advice, something I try to follow but don’t always succeed at.

Often the best uses of Greek in sermon prep never show up in the sermon itself. Use your Greek as much as you can in your study, but be careful about mentioning it too much from the pulpit. The more times you say “Greek” in a sermon, the more you may subtly communicate to your audience that they can’t really know what the New Testament is saying unless they know Greek.

I remember being a sophomore in a Christian university and hearing one of my professors preach a message that was a Greek word study on παρακαλέω. He explained that the word meant “encourage,” which is a pretty good single word gloss that covers ideas like exhorting and comforting, as does the original Greek. He then took us to several different passages and showed us how the word was used, eventually making application to our lives from those passages. It was a good, technically careful, and responsible Greek word study.

But what really stuck out to me was that he never once in the message used the word “Greek” or the word παρακαλέω. He did say “the original word,” but that was it. He could have told us what the Greek word was, but he didn’t. He could have said, “now this Greek word” repeatedly throughout his message, but he didn’t. Most people who walked out of chapel didn’t realize they had just been given a Greek word study.

Our goal shouldn’t be to say the word “Greek” as many times as possible when preaching. Our goal should be to take the tools and training that we have been given and use them to be a blessing to God’s people. This happens as we use our Greek to carefully consider every word, observe repetition we might have missed in English, study important words, answer exegetical questions, and discern structure.

Learning Greek is a lot of work, and using it responsibly is also quite a bit of work. But all the work is worth it, if it means that one day we are privileged to hear, “Well done, thou good and faithful servant.”

Share your thoughts

How do you use Greek to improve sermon prep? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Resources for making the most of Greek in your sermons

The Preacher’s Greek Companion series (Hendrickson)

Using New Testament Greek in Ministry: A Practical Guide for Students and Pastors

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New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and Pastors

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Exegetical Fallacies, 2nd ed.

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Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament | EGGNT (15 vols.)

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A Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (BDAG)

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Greek Grammar beyond the Basics

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Sacrifices in the Old Testament can seem strange, even repulsive: animal death, blood splashed on altars, covenant salt, ritual uncleanliness. Yet the sacrificial language of Leviticus matters, and not only for Israel’s worship. These offerings underlie the biblical logic of Christ’s atoning death, and Christians have long discussed exactly how they do so.

My goal in this article is to lay out the structure of sacrifice and offering in Leviticus 1–5 to help readers understand the underlying theology of sacrifice. Along the way, I will also reference the Passover and Yom Kippur. While these two rites stand outside Leviticus 1–5, the New Testament draws on these texts to show how Jesus fulfills these sacrifices.

What are sacrifices?

Sacrifice lies near the center of Israelite worship. While God ultimately desires obedience and faithfulness (e.g., 1 Sam 15:22; Hos 6:6), ritual sacrifices offered an important pathway to know and enjoy God. As Andrew Hill and John Walton explain, “The ritual sacrifice was but one way the Hebrew people could gain access to their God YHWH, the Holy One of Israel.”⁹⁶ Indeed, sacrifice predates the law of Moses. According to Genesis 4, Cain and Abel sacrificed to God.

Although sacrifice was normal in the ancient world, Hill and Walton point out that “the Hebrew sacrificial system was distinctive in that it was divinely revealed and was directed toward the goal of personal and community holiness necessary for relationship with God.”⁹⁷ In other words, God instituted Israel’s sacrificial system in order to facilitate a relationship between himself and his people.

What are Levitical sacrifices?

Leviticus 1–5 describes five kinds of offerings: burnt, grain, peace, sin, and guilt offerings. They represent a sort of baseline for understanding Levitical sacrifices, all of which are given by the mouth of God at the entrance of the newly created tabernacle (Exod 40; Lev 1:1). 

Sometimes scholars designate these different offerings using different terms. For example, Tremper Longman III and Raymond Dillard call the sin offering a purification offering.⁹⁸ They also speak of the peace offering as a fellowship offering and the meal offering as a grain offering.⁹⁹ These disparities mostly amount to disagreements on which English terms are best to translate or describe the underlying Hebrew words.

Use Logos’s Bible Sense Lexicon to explore the different terms designating types of sacrifices. Try it for free!

The text does not tell us why just these five sacrifices are given in Leviticus 1–5. We can assume they represent important ritual acts of worship that allowed both individuals and groups to draw near to God. One answer given by Jacob Milgrom underscores how each of these sacrifices responds to a deep religious need: “Their common denominator is that they arise in answer to an unpredictable religious or emotional need, and are thereby set off from the sacrifices of the public feasts and fasts that are fixed by the calendar (chaps. 9, 16, 23; cf. Num 28–29).”¹⁰⁰ If so, then God gave these sacrifices to help his people to draw near to him and to each other, as a way to love God and neighbor, since, as the below will show, these sacrifices involved worshiping God and/or fellowshipping with other worshipers.

According to the Jewish historian Josephus, these sacrifices split into two groups: sacrifices for private persons and sacrifices for the people in general.¹⁰¹ He further subdivides sacrifices into those where “what is slain” is burnt and those where what is offered becomes a feast; in other words, the latter is a thank offering which “is designed for feasting [with] those that sacrifice.”¹⁰² Ancient rabbis would also distinguish between voluntary (Lev 1–3) and mandatory sacrifices (Lev 4–5).

These categories help us to get a handle on the sacrificial system of ancient Israel. In the following, I will explain each of the five sacrifices in Leviticus 1–5 in simplified ways.

1. Burnt offering

The burnt offering in Hebrew is called עֹלָה, which means “to go up.” In this personal sacrifice, an offerer will bring an animal for sacrifice, and the priests will spread its blood upon the altar (Lev 1:5). The name עֹלָה implies that smoke from the burnt offering will ascend upwards. Josephus corroborates this point when he comments, “what is slain is burnt, as a whole burnt offering, whence that name is given to it.”¹⁰³

The burnt offering requires a person to lay his hands on the animal’s head in a ritual of atonement: “He shall lay his hand on the head of the burnt offering, and it shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him” (Lev 1:4; also Lev 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33). This act implies some relation between the offerer and the thing sacrificed. Only Leviticus 1:4 ties this ritual to making atonement in explicit terms, although atonement might be implied in the ritual for both peace and sin offerings. If so, the logic of substitution could be implied by the act, as it seems to be in Leviticus 16:21–22. 

The Hebrew word “if” (אִם) in Leviticus 1:3 begins this section, and, according to Milgrom, this implies the voluntary nature of the offering.¹⁰⁴ Presumably, God desires a willing or cheerful gift, which may underlie both the importance of the burnt offering (it makes atonement) and its voluntary nature. The Prophet Hosea might be alluding to the burnt offerings when he records God saying: “I desire steadfast love and not sacrifice, the knowledge of God rather than burnt offerings” (Hos 6:6). In other words, God is not desiring the offering per se, but rather the steadfast love behind the offering.

2. Grain offering

Leviticus 2:1 and 3 simply call the food or grain offering “an offering” (קָרְבָּן) or “gift” (מִנְחָה), but we infer that it is a food offering because of how the text describes: “his offering shall be of fine flour” (Lev 2:1). While some of the food is burned on the altar, the rest is eaten by the Levites (Lev 2:9–10).

Importantly, Leviticus 2:13 says, “You shall season all your grain offerings with salt. You shall not let the salt of the covenant with your God be missing from your grain offering; with all your offerings you shall offer salt” (cf. Num 18:19). The language of salt implies a long duration because salt was (and is) a preservative. So Philo comments, “By which injunction, as I have said before, he figuratively implies a duration for ever; for salt is calculated to preserve bodies.”¹⁰⁵

The food offering is voluntary, not mandatory. It is described as a gift, perhaps given for the sake of the priests. And lastly, one reason for the food offering may be that it allowed poor Israelites to offer out of their thankfulness to God, rather than an expensive animal, such as in the burnt offering. In other words, God does not place financial barriers on worship and enjoying communion with him.

3. Peace offering

Leviticus 3:1 describes the peace offering as a “sacrifice of peace” (זֶבַח שְׁלָמִים). Milgrom points out that the word “sacrifice” signals an animal sacrifice, while the word “peace” or “well-being” signifies the motivation for the one offering.¹⁰⁶ In other words, this offering seems to be a form of thanksgiving for experiencing peace or well-being. It is thus voluntary, like the food offering.

4. Sin offering

Leviticus 4:1, like Leviticus 1:1, indicates the beginning of a new section of text by saying, “And the Lord spoke to Moses.” Ancient rabbis noticed a transition in topics, pointing out that the sacrifices in Leviticus 1–3 concerned voluntary sacrifices, whereas the offerings in Leviticus 4–5 concerned mandatory ones.¹⁰⁷ The major grammatical Hebrew which suggests that the sin offering is mandatory (beyond the contextual cues) is that the major section begins with the Hebrew particle כִּי, not אִם, even though אִם appears throughout Leviticus 4.¹⁰⁸

The sin offering refers to unintentional wrongdoing (שְׁגָגָה) and implies a contrast with high-handed sins done with intent (Num 15:30–31). No sacrifice in Leviticus 1–5 forgives high-handed sins, which is why the Day of Atonement plays such an important role in Israelite worship, a topic that I discuss below. But here, individuals or the community could receive forgiveness for sins, either done without knowing it or done on purpose but without knowing that it transgressed the law.¹⁰⁹

Leviticus 5:1–13 adds further discussions on offerings that relate to sin (חטא), although it does not speak of unintentional wrongdoing. So it may be another set of sacrifices. The main point here, however, is that the text offers more affordable alternatives for the poor in Israel to offering mandatory sacrifices (Lev 5:7, 11).

5. Guilt offering

Leviticus 5:14 once again signals a new section like 1:1 and 4:1 by saying, “The Lord spoke to Moses.” Here, God names the last offering on this list: the guilt offering (אָשָׁם). The noun “guilt” refers to restitution.¹¹⁰ However, in the context of Leviticus 4–5, the verb “be guilty” appears frequently (אשׁם), signaling personal realization of guilt (e.g., Lev 4:22, 27; 5:2). So there appears to be a relation between realizing one’s guilt and making restitution. The guilt offering then eliminates guilt.

Are sacrifices always for sin? Is uncleanness sin?

Only Leviticus 5:2 and 3 speak about becoming unclean, and here it relates to sin (Lev 5:5). In this case, however, sin approximates unintentional wrongdoing rather than high-handed sin (Lev 5:3). Further, the Pentateuch does not always tie uncleanness to sin. Moses commands that Israelites should bury dead criminals (Deut 21:22–23), yet doing so makes one unclean (Num 19:11–13). Sometimes, then, obeying the command of God requires becoming unclean! After all, childbirth made women unclean (Lev 12:1–8), something that the Torah commends as not only good but part of our creative purpose (Gen 1:28).

We should therefore be careful in our judgments about the need for sacrifice when one becomes unclean. Hill and Walton explain, “Uncleanness could be caused by disease, contamination, infection, or sin; it could be cleansed only by ritual washing and sacrifice, hence the importance of the instructions regarding sacrifices in Leviticus.”¹¹¹

Additionally, being common and holy can both be states of moral goodness. While God commands all of his people to be holy (Lev 19:2), God dedicates certain people (e.g., priests) to holy status (e.g., Lev 20:8; 21:8). So a person can be common, not holy, yet sinless and obedient. In short, Levitical sacrifices do not necessarily make one holy, and sometimes sin offerings are needed to move someone from an unclean state to a common state. 

Logos’s Factbook, where you can jump start your study on the Bible’s sacrifices and offerings.

How do sacrifices achieve atonement or restitution?

While the burnt, peace, and sin offerings imply a relation between the offered animal and the one who offers, because the latter lays his hand on the former before the priest makes atonement (Lev 1:4; 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33), other sacrifices imply only a satisfaction or expiation. For example, the guilt offering speaks of sacrifices as restitution (e.g., Lev 5:16). Such a restitution would satisfy the demand of either damaged property or damaged relations with others through sinful acts.

How or if these sacrifices primarily propitiate, satisfy, or purify is unclear. The hand-laying ritual in Leviticus 1:4 may imply substitution and perhaps then propitiation, since it could be seen to avert divine wrath. But that is not explicitly stated in the context. The more obvious implication is that the various ritual sacrifices made a way to enjoy communion with God (nos. 1–3) and forgave unintentional wrongdoing and/or guilt (nos. 4–5), the latter including satisfaction (restitution). Interestingly, the notion that the first three sacrifices purify does not seem obvious in the context, and only the sin offering in two cases implies restoration from uncleanliness (Lev 5:2, 3).

The sacrifices listed above raise many important questions, but they do not give us all the answers we desire.

What is the Day of Atonement in the Bible?

The most important question that remains unanswered is: How can someone be forgiven of an intentional or high-handed sin? That is where the Day of Atonement comes in.

The Day of Atonement describes an annual rite whereby the high priest enters into the Most Holy Place to make atonement for his sin and the sins of the people. One purpose of this day, Yom Kippur, is to forgive presumptuous sins. So Milgrom insightfully argues that the Day of Atonement atones for presumptuous sins. He comments, “This is precisely the reason that such sinners are represented by the high priest: they themselves are barred from the sanctuary.”¹¹² In other words, presumptuous sins bar one from the sanctuary, and thus the high priest must make atonement for the people.

While the details of the Day of Atonement would require a full article to lay out, here I only want to draw attention to two important ones.

1. The high priest casts lots to decide which of two goats will be sacrificed as a sin offering and which will be sent to Azazel (Lev 16:8–10). Likely, Azazel refers to a goat demon, given the context of Leviticus 17:7.
2. The high priest kills the goat of the sin offering to make atonement for the place and the people:

Then he shall kill the goat of the sin offering that is for the people and bring its blood inside the veil and do with its blood as he did with the blood of the bull, sprinkling it over the mercy seat and in front of the mercy seat. Thus he shall make atonement for the Holy Place, because of the uncleannesses of the people of Israel and because of their transgressions, all their sins. And so he shall do for the tent of meeting, which dwells with them in the midst of their uncleannesses. (Lev 16:15–16)

At this point, the high priest lays the sin on the goat destined for Azazel and releases it into the wilderness:

And Aaron shall lay both his hands on the head of the live goat, and confess over it all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins. And he shall put them on the head of the goat and send it away into the wilderness by the hand of a man who is in readiness. The goat shall bear all their iniquities on itself to a remote area, and he shall let the goat go free in the wilderness. (Lev 16:21–22)

In summary, one goat goes to Azazel. This goat carries the iniquities of the people into the wilderness (i.e., the “scapegoat”), while the other goat makes atonement for the place and people in the Most Holy Place. The logic here implies both substitution and purification. It may also imply propitiation since it is evident that the scapegoat carries away sin into the wilderness, sin that would otherwise incur the wrath of God.

What is the Passover in the Bible?

During the Passover, Israelites sacrificed a lamb and spread its blood “on the two doorposts and the lintel” (Exod 12:7). This act prevented the “Destroyer” from slaying a family’s firstborn son (Exod 12:23).

To oversimplify matters, Israelites could look back to this event, along with the exodus, as a major salvation event. It precedes and is assumed by all the Levitical sacrifices. We might say that the Passover constitutes Israel’s salvation event, while the Levitical sacrifices show how they maintained their relationship with God and each other.

We must leave fuller explanation of the Passover for another article. However, it is important to recognize, as I will discuss below, that the New Testament draws on the Passover as one of the key sacrifices that Jesus fulfills. Thus, it fills out the picture of how Christians have approached Old Testament sacrifices.

How does Jesus fulfill the Bible’s sacrifices?

Jesus fulfills the Levitical sacrifices by way of accomplishing what they do, but in a better and more permanent way since he is a priest after the order of Melchizedek, not Levi. Secondly, Christ becomes the sacrificial animal, that is, the Passover lamb who takes away not just the sins of the people, but the sins of the world.

A superior priesthood

Hebrews claims that when there is a change in priesthood, there is also a change in law (Heb 7:12). And Christ brings a new priesthood and law as a Melchizedekian priest (Gen 14). Christ’s priesthood thus precedes the Levitical; and the Levites, through Abraham, honored his priesthood (Heb 7:1–10). 

While the Levites ministered under a copy of the heavenly tabernacle, the tabernacle remained a copy (Heb 8:5). By contrast, Christ ministers in the real thing (Heb 8:2; 9:11). His blood purifies the real holy place, a better Yom Kippur (Heb 9:11–14, 23–26). Specifically, it is better because Christ’s sacrifice is once for all, eternal, and thereby unlike the repeated Levitical offerings (Heb 7:27; 9:12). 

Further, Jesus himself is the true tabernacle, since his flesh is torn like the curtain to make a new and living way to God (Heb 10:19–20).

The spatial logic of Yom Kippur also finds its fulfillment in Christ’s atonement: Just as the bodies of the Day of Atonement animals were burned outside the camp, so Jesus suffered outside the city gate (Heb 13:11–13; Lev 16:27).

Related to this new priesthood and eternal sacrifice, Christ’s death also inaugurates a new covenant, echoing the blood of the covenant in Exodus 24:8 (Heb 9:15–22).

The sacrifices articulated in Leviticus remain good but temporary. Israel’s sacrifices kept them in communion with God. Then Christ came to inaugurate a new and better covenant as the new high priest. His once-and-for-all sacrifice atones for sins forever. It is permanent and thus builds a new and living way through the flesh of Christ to commune with our Father by the Holy Spirit.

The ultimate paschal lamb

As Jesus’s priesthood precedes and is superior to the Levitical priesthood, so also his sacrifice (himself) precedes and is superior to the Levitical sacrifices. One reason why his sacrifice is superior is that it finds its roots in the Passover of Exodus 12, an event that prefigures his later large-scale salvific sacrifice on the cross.

But in fact, Christians would also think of the Passover in similar ways in their celebration of the Pascha, with Christ being our Passover lamb. 

Therefore, as both the sacrificer and the sacrificed, Christ fulfills, improves, and betters the old covenant priestly sacrificial system because he, as our high priest of the new covenant, serves in the true tent, makes atonement once and forever, and is the paschal lamb who takes away the sins not just of the people of Israel, but of the whole world.

From the earliest records we have, second-century Christians (and likely first-century Christians too) celebrated Pascha (i.e., Passover) as a celebration of Christ’s death and resurrection. While English-speaking countries call it Easter, most other languages still call it some variation of Pascha, in line with early Christian practice. 

Because of Christ, Christians now offer up a sacrifice of thanksgiving (Heb 13:15–16; cf. Rom 12:1; 1 Pet 2:5; Phil 2:17; 4:18; 2 Tim 4:6; Rev 5:8; 8:3–4), not of bulls or goats. We are permanently forgiven. Christ’s offering is so complete, there is nothing left for us to offer but thanks.

Conclusion

The logic of sacrifice in the Old Testament explains how we can approach and have fellowship with God and his people.

While we might wish to have more details about the Levitical sacrifices, we know enough to understand their basic function from Leviticus. The Day of Atonement uniquely points out how one might be forgiven for high-handed sins, demonstrating a wide scope of grace within the covenant. The whole system of rites presupposes the Passover, where God rescued his people from Egypt to bring them into the promised land.

Christians saw Jesus as fulfilling all these sacrifices, particularly as a mediator and high priest of a better covenant, whose sacrifice would put an end to sin forever and bring us near to God in fellowship with one another.

Share your thoughts

What is the meaning of the Bible’s sacrifices? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Wyatt Graham’s recommended resources

Leviticus 1–16 (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentary | AYBC)

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On Pascha: With the Fragments of Melito and Other Material Related to the Quartodecimans: Translation (Popular Patristics Series)

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Who Shall Ascend the Mountain of the Lord?: A Biblical Theology of the Book of Leviticus (New Studies in Biblical Theology, vol. 37 | NSBT)

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Most Christians who have grown up attending a gospel-preaching church can recount the famous stories from the Bible. They know about Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden, the animals on Noah’s ark, Moses parting the Red Sea, David defeating Goliath with his sling and a stone, Daniel surviving the lions’ den, not to mention Jesus’s miracles and, of course, his crucifixion and resurrection.

However, it’s one thing to know the Bible’s stories, another to know the Bible’s story.

If we read Scripture only as a collection of isolated episodes, moral examples, or doctrinal proof texts, we can miss its essential unity around the one overarching story that God is working out in history. The Bible is an anthology of sixty-six books, but it is not a random collection of religious texts telling different stories. Like scenes in a larger epic plot, the individual stories all contribute to the one larger drama.

That story of the Bible is the story of redemption. God is working out his eternal plan of redemption in history, and the Bible details its story. It begins with creation, turns on humanity’s fall into sin, centers on God’s redeeming work in Christ, and ends in the restoration of all things.

This is what many Christians mean by redemptive history or salvation history, namely, the unfolding account of God’s saving acts and promises across time, centered in the person and work of Jesus Christ.

Table of contents

How does salvation history relate to biblical theology?

The category of redemptive history is closely connected to the discipline of biblical theology.

Biblical theology asks how God’s revelation unfolds across the canon and through the stages of history. Rather than beginning with a doctrinal topic and collecting all the relevant verses, biblical theology tracks themes in their movement across the storyline of Scripture. It pays attention to promise and fulfillment, type and antitype, covenantal progression, kingdom development, and the way later revelation builds on and deepens earlier revelation. This is why biblical theology is especially concerned with the Bible’s own categories and sequence.

Redemptive history is the drama itself, whereas biblical theology is the discipline that traces and interprets that drama. The two are not identical, but they belong together. Redemptive history describes the reality of God’s saving action through time, and biblical theology studies the meaning and coherence of that unfolding action in Scripture.

These definitions also help distinguish biblical theology from systematic theology. Systematic theology asks, “What does the whole Bible teach about God, sin, Christ, salvation, the church, and last things?” Biblical theology asks, “How does Scripture unfold these truths across the historical and literary movement of the canon?”

The two approaches are not in competition but should work together. D. A. Carson correctly argues that biblical theology is a “bridge discipline” between exegesis and systematic theology that actually should produce doctrinal formulations that are better grounded on responsible exegesis.¹⁰³ Biblical theology helps systematic theology remain attentive to the Bible’s storyline and categories, while systematic theology helps biblical theology synthesize the Bible’s teaching into a coherent doctrinal form. The healthiest theological work utilizes both disciplines.

In the twentieth century, discussions of biblical theology often placed fresh emphasis on the historical unfolding of revelation and the unity of Scripture as a drama of God’s saving acts. Without rehearsing that complex history in detail, it is enough to say that many theologians and biblical scholars increasingly came to recognize that Christian interpretation requires attention, not only to dogmatic formulations of doctrine, but also to the Bible’s own grand narrative movement.¹⁰⁸

What is the Bible’s grand narrative of redemption?

A common shorthand for the Bible’s metanarrative breaks it down into five parts:

1. creation,
2. fall,
3. promise,
4. redemption, and
5. restoration.

That summary is not meant to flatten the Bible’s complexities, but it does provide a helpful structural framework for the story of redemption.

1. Creation: the beginning of the story

The story of redemption begins with creation, because redemption is not an afterthought but God’s plan from before creation (Eph 1:4–5, 9–11; 2 Tim 1:9–10; Titus 1:2).

The opening chapters of Genesis establish the basic categories of the larger story that will unfold. God is the Creator–King who has made humanity in his image to live under his rule and to mediate that rule to creation (Gen 1:26–28).

Creation was made good (Gen 1:31) but not glorified. Adam was sinless yet able to sin. God placed Adam in the garden of Eden, where he enjoyed perfect fellowship with his Creator. But God also gave Adam the prohibition not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:16–17). The potential for evil was present, as well as the threat of punishment for disobedience. Conversely, God also placed the tree of life in the garden, which symbolized the promised reward that God held out for Adam’s obedience (Gen 2:9; 3:22–24; cf. Rev 2:7; 22:14). The original creation was perfect in that it was free from sin, yet it was also a probationary arrangement in that God was testing Adam.

Genesis 1–2 also shapes the rest of Scripture in crucial ways. Here, humanity’s identity as image bearers is established, and work, marriage, fruitfulness, place, and divine presence appear as original goods. Creation is shown to have purpose and order, and the salvation that will play out on the pages of Scripture in history does not abandon this creation but will finally lead to its restoration and renewal. The Bible ends, not with an ethereal existence apart from the world, but with a new heaven and a new earth where God dwells with his people (Rev 21–22).

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2. Fall: the problem that the story resolves

If Genesis 1–2 gives us the world as God intended it, Genesis 3 gives us the crisis that explains the rest of the Bible’s conflict.

Humanity rebels against God, distrusting his word and grasping for autonomy. The catastrophic results of Adam’s sin are alienation from God, guilt, shame, fractured human relationships, pain, curse, death, and exile from Eden.

Every major problem in the biblical narrative is, in one way or another, downstream from this rebellion. This is why Genesis 3 is pivotal in redemptive history. It explains why the world is not as it should be, why humanity cannot fix the problem we introduced, and why the rest of Scripture must tell the story of divine rescue.

Yet even here judgment is not God’s last word. In the midst of administering curses on his rebellious creation, God also offers a redemptive promise. The seed of the woman will bruise the serpent’s head (Gen 3:15). Christians have often seen that verse as the Bible’s first announcement of coming victory over evil and labeled it the protoevangelium. In this “first gospel” promise, God not only gives the hope of redemption but also cryptically describes the means by which it will come. The rest of Scripture unfolds this saving solution to the problem introduced during the original fall into sin.

3. Promise: the hope that drives the story

From Genesis 3 onward, the Old Testament advances the redemptive story through a series of divine acts and covenants.

After the flood, God preserves the world through Noah, ensuring that judgment will not bring history to an abrupt end (Gen 6–9).

With Abraham, the story takes a more focused shape as God promises offspring, land, and blessing (Gen 12:1–3). This blessing will come through Abraham’s seed, but the saving purposes extend to all the families of the earth. The land promised to Abraham and his offspring is also typological of the whole world (Rom 4:13).

The exodus becomes the Old Testament’s defining pattern of redemption. God hears the cries of his enslaved people, judges their oppressors, redeems them by mighty acts, and brings them into covenant fellowship with himself to be a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod 19:6). When God’s people are later exiled from this land as a consequence of their repeated idolatry, Israel’s prophets described the future, even greater redemption to come in terms reminiscent of the exodus (Isa 11:15–16; 43:16–19; Jer 16:14–15; Ezek 20:33–38; Hos 2:14–15).

The covenants between God and his people move this story forward and provide the contours to promised redemption.

• The Noahic covenant secures the stability of the created order to bring about the promised redemption (Gen 9:8–17).
• The Abrahamic covenant narrows the contours of the redemptive promise, clarifying that it will come about through one of Abraham’s offspring (Gen 15, 17, 22).
• The Mosaic covenant forms Israel as a redeemed people under God’s law, providing the pattern of obedience that the Messiah must fulfill to accomplish our redemption (Exod 19–24).
• The Davidic covenant focuses hope on a coming eternal royal son from David’s line who will perfectly rule God’s redemptive kingdom and bring all prior covenant promises to their intended goal (2 Sam 7:7–16; Ps 89).
• The prophets then interpret Israel’s history through this covenantal framework. They promise that final redemption will come through a new covenant which will create a new people with a new heart in a new relationship with God living in a new creation (Jer 31:31–34; Ezek 36:26–28; Isa 65:17–25).

The Old Testament story concludes while still anticipating the realization of this redemptive hope from a coming Messiah.

4. Redemption: the fulfillment of the story

The New Testament announces that Jesus is not only the fulfillment of Israel’s redemptive hopes, but also the Savior of the whole world (John 1:29).

Jesus is the ultimate offspring of Abraham (Gal 3:16), the true Israel who succeeds where the nation failed (Matt 2:15; Isa 49:3–6), David’s greater son who inherits the eternal kingdom (Luke 1:32–33; Rom 1:3–4), the true Image of God (Col 1:15; 2 Cor 4:4), and the obedient human that Adam failed to be (Rom 5:18–19; 1 Cor 15:45–49). He exercises God’s reign in his teaching, miracles, and exorcisms (Matt 4:23–24; Luke 4:18–21) and demonstrates that his ministry is the climax of redemptive history (Heb 1:1–3; 2 Cor 1:20).

This fulfillment of the Old Testament promises is why the cross stands at the center of the Bible’s metanarrative. At the cross, Jesus bears our sin (Isa 53:4–6; 1 Pet 2:24), satisfies divine justice (Rom 3:25–26), defeats the powers of evil (Col 2:14–15; Heb 2:14–15), and secures the forgiveness of sins (Col 1:13–14). The cross is not one saving event among many but the decisive turning point of the ages (Gal 4:4–5; Heb 9:26).

Yet the cross is inseparable from the resurrection and ascension because, in rising from the dead, Jesus inaugurates the new creation (1 Cor 15:20–28; 2 Cor 5:17). And in ascending and pouring out the Spirit, Jesus inaugurates the church’s participation in the life of the age to come (Acts 2:32–39; Eph 1:20–23).

The Bible’s story reaches its center in the life, death, and resurrection of Christ because there God does what no human hero, no law code, and no political kingdom could ever accomplish. The long-awaited Messiah actually redeems sinners (Mark 10:45; Titus 2:14) and begins the renewal of all things (Rom 8:19–23; Rev 21:1–5).

5. Restoration: the completion of the story

Still, the story is not finished. Christ has come (Gal 4:4–5), sin has been decisively dealt with (Heb 9:26), death has been defeated in principle (1 Cor 15:20–26), and the Spirit has been given (Acts 2:33). Yet creation still groans (Rom 8:22–23), believers still struggle against sin (Gal 5:16–17), and the nations still rage against God’s reign (Ps 2:1–3). This is what theologians mean by the already–not yet. God’s kingdom has already been inaugurated in Christ, but it has not yet been fully consummated.

The book of Revelation completes the story of redemption with final judgment (Rev 20:11–15), the defeat of evil (Rev 19:20; 20:10), the resurrection of the dead (Rev 20:4–6, 12–13), and the arrival of the new heaven and new earth (Rev 21:1–5). The story of redemption ends where it begins, but greater. The paradise that was lost is now restored as a garden–city (Rev 21:10–27; 22:1–5), complete with full-circle edenic references to the river of life (Rev 22:1), the tree of life (Rev 22:2, 14), the presence of God dwelling with his people (Rev 21:3, 22–23), and humanity reigning under God (Rev 22:5).

Redemption restores what sin ruined (Rom 5:12–21), but it does so through Christ in a way that surpasses the original state (Heb 8:6; Eph 1:9–10). The goal of salvation history is not a return to Eden only, but the consummated kingdom of God in a renewed creation (Matt 19:28; Acts 3:21; Rev 21:1–5).

Conclusion

The Bible is one unified story of God’s redeeming work. It begins with creation, passes through the catastrophe of the fall, advances through promise and covenant, reaches its center in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and ends in the restoration of all things. That is the story of redemption.

To read Scripture well requires learning this larger story of the Bible and not merely focusing on the individual stories contained in the Bible. When Christians learn to read the Bible in this way, we know how all of the individual pieces contribute to the larger whole.

This understanding of the Bible also clarifies our individual life stories by explaining our role in the grand narrative of history. We are the objects of this redeeming work, planned before the creation of the world (Rev 13:8), redeemed by Christ’s death on the cross (Eph 1:7), and dwelling with God forever in the restored garden–city of the new creation. It’s this message of redemption that we experience and that we proclaim (Luke 24:44–47)!

Share your thoughts

How would you describe the grand story of Scripture? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

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I went to ten years of seminary and skipped out on fast food to buy Logos books because I wanted to know as best a human could how to interpret the Bible well. I had teachers and mentors—and especially one pastor—who clearly had the tools I lacked for pursuing a careful and confident understanding of Scripture.

My desire impelled me into the world of scriptural exegesis—and away from its doppelganger, eisegesis. I want to submit to the text, not make the text submit to me. But how can I make sure to exegete and not eisegete? Ultimately, the direction of your heart—toward the Lord or toward some other God—will determine whether you truly listen to his speech in Scripture. But if your heart is for the Lord but your mind needs some assistance gaining listening skills, I’ll try in this article to provide you some categories and tips that will help you engage in exegesis.

Understanding the basic concepts

Let me introduce exegesis to you, at least in the way I think about it.

What is exegesis?

“Exegesis” is the word that careful interpreters of Scripture use to describe their interpretation.

People who know and use this word tend to know enough Greek to recognize its etymological source: exegesis is “drawing out of” (ἐξηγέομαι/exegeomai) the text what’s in there. In the Greek of New Testament times—though the word is not used in the New Testament—exegesis (ἐξήγησις) came to mean description, explanation, or interpretation.¹⁰⁹

Exegesis in English today is the technical term for careful, methodical scriptural interpretation.

Someone who performs exegesis is an “exegete.”

An approach to Scripture such a person takes is called “exegetical.”

What is eisegesis?

“Eisegesis” is a back-formation, a word invented to distinguish exegesis from its evil twin. Eisegesis is interpretation that goes the wrong direction: it “draws into” (Greek εἰς/eis) the text a meaning that the interpreter puts there, even if unintentionally.

Contrary to what some articles on the internet say, the word eisegesis does not derive from the Greek word εἰσηγέομαι/eisegeomai. That word had a distinct meaning in ancient Greek, and it had nothing to do with interpretation.¹¹² The word eisegesis is actually a kind of obscure pun for nerds. It was invented only in the late 1800s.¹¹³

Like most evil twins, eisegesis can deceive the unwary for a good while. It is a technical term for bad Bible interpretation, especially the kind that obviously imports meaning from elsewhere—from one’s denominational tradition or preferred worldview, for example.

A real-life example of eisegesis

I heard someone on YouTube recently insist, at length and with some initially credible detail, that Bible translations the world over are hiding the truth by refusing to translate a certain Greek word correctly. That word was μέλλω, which is usually translated “about to.” Sure enough, this someone showed eight passages in which μέλλω was (allegedly) mistranslated as a mere future, not as conveying imminence. For example, most often μέλλω is translated as it is in Luke 19:4: “He was about to pass that way.” But in many eschatological passages, translations include no idea of imminence, translating μέλλω as a simple future: “Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come?” (Luke 3:7).

I’m naturally suspicious when someone says that a given word always means the same thing. Language just doesn’t work that way. Human language is not math. This is my intuitive hermeneutics guiding my exegesis.

I also had categories ready for this question. I had software tools. Two years after leaving Logos’s employ, I still feel the urge to say: I turned to Logos not out of contractual obligation but because it is genuinely the best tool for the job. The Bible Word Study is something I could not live without.

The first category I reached for was “semantic range.” What senses are among the range of meanings that the word μέλλω can convey? Instantly—thanks to Logos and the tools in it—I had a large stack of verses using μέλλω to examine for contextual clues. And I was awash in literary and grammatical labels like “periphrasis” and “futurity.” I could understand these because others in the tradition of exegesis had slowly established them and then taught them to me.

Try Logos’s Bible Word Study on μέλλω for yourself. Start a free trial!

I had other tools to turn to as well—tools with their own labels, such as “lexicon,” and their own set of conceptual tools and literary labels, such as “sense 1” and “extrabiblical citation.” Ultimately, through the BDAG lexicon, I confirmed what I had seen on my own in the Logos Bible Word Study: Native speakers and writers of Koine Greek simply did not use μέλλω to communicate imminence (something “about to” happen) in every last instance; it sometimes conveys merely that something will happen, or that someone intends for it to, at an undetermined point in the future.

I performed an act of “exegesis,” because I refined my interpretive intuitions about human communication with carefully formed concepts, useful labels, and trusted tools.

Eisegesis is what, I soon discovered, this YouTuber was doing. This YouTuber brought a preconceived notion to the text, a theological view called “preterism,” in which end-time promises in the New Testament are viewed as already having been fulfilled. I cannot, on the basis of the word μέλλω, say that preterism is all wrong. But I can say that the preterists I found online discussing μέλλω read “into” that word a meaning that—because of my exegetical tools—I know to be incorrect.

Eisegesis is more than just misreading. We all do that sometimes. Eisegesis is importing meaning into the text that you want to find there and then yelling, “Eureka!”

How to do exegesis instead of eisegesis

Now here’s what everyone immediately wants to know: How do I know I’m doing exegesis and not eisegesis? What is the golden key, the silver bullet, the holy algorithm, that will reliably produce the former and not the latter?

Is exegesis even possible?

It’s obvious: Exegesis is what I do with the Bible; eisegesis is what other people do with it. Right?

Wrong. If exegesis were always easy to distinguish from eisegesis, presumably we would have fewer theological disagreements in the Christian church. And there would be only one commentary for each book of the Bible. (And Logos would be much cheaper, though far less enjoyable.)

In real life with fallen and finite people such as ourselves, the line between exegesis and eisegesis is not always clear. These twins are (oh, forgive me, reader) conjoined. To use another image: The wheat of good Bible interpretation and the tares of bad will grow together till the end of the age.

But even if doctors have not yet gained the ability to perfectly separate these twins, there are two distinct heartbeats. For if there is finally no difference at all between reading out of the Bible and reading into it, we are of all men most to be pitied. In such cases, God would be stuck behind the bars of the limits of language and of human nature. Every group that thinks it hears him would be hearing only its own echo.

This is more or less what certain skeptics say about evangelical Bible reading. And I will briefly dig into this objection in a follow-up to this piece on hermeneutics. Just you wait.

Exegesis as careful labeling

To “draw out” of a text what is there, you must begin by seeing with clarity what is in fact there.

So exegesis necessarily entails the careful use of conceptual tools. These could be as simple as:

• grammatical labels such as “noun” and “verb,”
• literary genre labels such as “narrative” and “poetry,” and
• literary device labels such as “parallelism” and “hyperbole.”

These could be as complex as:

• discourse markers,
• text-critical dilemmas, and
• elaborate chiasms.¹¹⁴

Exegesis pays attention to:

• the meaning of individual words,
• the literary context of any sentence,
• the historical-cultural context of the audience and author,
• the intertextuality (quotations, allusions, and echoes of previous scriptural—and other—texts), and
• syntax (the relationships between words and phrases).

You can do exegesis without technical labels, but you can’t do it without the concepts those labels point to. And the most efficient way to share those concepts with others is to use commonly recognized labels. In other words, other exegetes will recognize your Bible interpretation as “exegesis” when you are able to slow down and give names—names drawn from the tradition of Christian literary and theological analysis of Scripture—to the textual features you see.

To exegete is to learn to put agreed-upon labels on features of ancient human communication using intuitions formed, unavoidably, by your contemporary human communication. It is to understand a text better than you used to because you used labels to slow yourself down and unpack the passage.

Finding help for your exegesis

Presuming that the would-be exegete is a regenerated Christian believer who is praying for illumination, obeying Christ in daily life, and (therefore) attending and serving in a properly constituted local church—presuming all that, I can offer some practical resources for doing exegesis over eisegesis.

1. Find good models

My most important pastoral mentor often said that good interpretation is caught as much as taught.¹¹⁵ If exegesis is the careful use of technical tools that refine and put labels on readerly intuition, then it’s something like an art (intuition) being helped by a science (technical tools). And the way to learn exegesis, as with any combination of art and science, is through explicit instruction from models. (When is that not the answer?)

2. Books and resources

But if you’ve already had good instruction from good models, then I think the most practical thing you can do is to grab good exegetical tools and start using them.

I really love The Hermeneutical Spiral, by Grant Osborne. It contains countless practical pieces of advice for exegesis. So does Interpreting the Pauline Epistles, by Tom Schreiner. Logos carries many other books on hermeneutics that have much to say about exegesis.

Such books will often give you step-by-step processes to follow, questions to ask, things to look for, and—all-importantly—labels to use when you find those things.

3. Step-by-step instructions

I remember the days when “exegesis” began with me reading the passage and asking myself, “Now what?” I had no idea what to do next.

If you have had literally no idea what to do in biblical exegesis, Logos Workflows can help. They are step-by-step guides (a few of which I wrote, such as English Word Study) with questions to answer and blanks to fill in. These scaffolds are meant to fall away after a time. But they can be immensely helpful to the beginning or intermediate student.

Another important set of exegetical tools you may want to use on a regular basis comes in the Logos Exegetical Guide. Give the guide a Bible reference—Matthew 5:22, say—and it will organize information from your Logos library according to certain important steps in the exegetical process.

The Exegetical Guide will give you:

• Notes, highlights, sermons, and other material you have created on the given passage
• Important textual variants in your passage and how to study them in greater depth
• A list of the most important words in your text with links to study them further
• A list of grammatical constructions found in your passage with links to grammars that discuss them in greater detail
• Links to commentaries and resources that discuss key words in your text—even commentaries that aren’t on the book you’re studying
• Important cross references
• Links to ancient literature, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls or the apocrypha, that reference your passage
• Links to commentaries and journals on your particular passage

A library-powered assistant for your study

Let me offer just one more tip: I’m getting more and more excited about the Logos Study Assistant, a powerful tool that searches my Logos library for answers to my questions.

I have asked it a few exegetical questions in recent weeks, and each time I have been happy with the results. I asked it about the Greek word μέλλω, for example, and this is what it came up with:

Claude and Gemini and other tools do, in my testing, offer valuable responses to questions like these. But they don’t link me to further discussions in my Logos library, and they don’t rely on vetted resources the way Study Assistant does (because, by definition, I have vetted the resources that go into my Logos library, but only the great AI spirit knows what books it has consumed on its way to giving me an answer). Also, because Study Assistant usually just paraphrases relevant material from my books, it doesn’t hallucinate—and it can (other users tell me they notice this) speak with a little more humility instead of the false confidence that other AI tools sometimes have.

Exegetical questions are often conceptual questions, things I never thought a computer could answer. I think I’m ready to say that the Logos Study Assistant—when paired with a good Logos library—is a useful substitute for an exegetical mentor if you lack such a person in your life. And if you do have more advanced exegetical skills, it is a phenomenal his girl Friday. I have a video coming out on AI tools in Bible study on my own channel soon, and Logos fares well.

Conclusion

Scriptural exegesis is valuable because God’s word is valuable, because living a life pleasing to him is incredibly valuable. If you consistently perform eisegesis rather than exegesis, you are your own God. How can you say you love someone but then refuse to listen to him? There are infinite riches to discover in God and, therefore, in his word. Let us pray that the Lord would not permit us to replace his words with our own.

Share your thoughts

What’s the difference between exegesis and eisegesis? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Mark Ward’s suggested reading

Mark Ward Study Bundle

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The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation

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Exegetical Fallacies, 2nd ed.

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Linguistics & Biblical Exegesis (Lexham Methods Series)

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Which social media platforms should we use? What is a catchy name? Where do we stand on audio/visual equipment? Where’s a good location to meet? Who can we get to help out? How many people do we hope will show up?

These are very good questions that my friends who run youth basketball clubs ask. Unfortunately, these same questions tend to be ones that my friends who start youth ministries begin with too.

It might sound blunt and obvious, but it must be stated explicitly: There must be differences between starting a secular and a sacred group.

Starting a youth ministry is less like launching an event and more like laying a foundation. Clarity early on can prevent confusion later. To start a youth ministry, you must:

• begin with Jesus Christ,
• understand youth and discern your context,
• clarify your specific ministerial context, and
• start in a strategic way.

Understanding youth ministry

Before we do that, we must answer two basic questions:

What is youth ministry?

Youth ministry has three components.

First, it’s Christian. The word “ministry” can be used broadly. It is derived from Latin ministrare, which means “to serve” or “attend.” In certain parts of the world, you can have a Ministry of Finance or a Prime Minister. But, and as we will see below, the type of youth work we have in mind for youth ministry is Christian youth ministry, that is, ministry through and for Jesus Christ (Col 1:16).

Second, it focuses on young people. This shouldn’t be rushed over too quickly, as we will see below.

Third, it’s the church’s work carried out in the power of the Holy Spirit. Youth ministry, like all ministry, is a work of the church—a visible, communal manifestation of the Holy Spirit, formed and animated by the Spirit’s presence and power (Acts 2:1–4, 42–47).

Put together, youth ministry is a manifestation of the Holy Spirit through the church which is attentive to the distinctives of young people made through and for Jesus Christ. Pretty quickly, this doesn’t sound like a basketball league.

Why start a youth ministry?

You don’t need to start a youth ministry. But it might be a good idea.

The Lord has always been faithful to people of all ages. There is no need to look back at the book of Acts or a medieval church in search for a precedent for a Wednesday-night teenage pizza party and Bible study. Meanwhile, there is no need to blindly scrutinize what youth groups do today just because these outward ministry practices are relatively recent and continue to change.

Why, then, start a youth ministry? After considering the advice below, prayerful and thoughtful Christians should consider starting a youth ministry today because society and culture have segmented our families and communities—and this is not going to change overnight.¹¹⁶ No church or family must embrace youth ministry—the most natural place for youth ministry is the Sunday worship service and the home—yet youth ministry serves a purpose in our era. Youth ministry as we know it could, and perhaps should, fade away. But for now, it fills a need in our disordered environment.

Starting a youth ministry

Let’s consider four essential steps to starting a youth ministry.

1. Begin with Christ, not activities

Before you build a calendar, build a theology. And this theology, like all theology, must be centered on Jesus Christ.

The cultural forces pulling youth ministry away from its proper center, Jesus Christ, are persistent and astonishingly strong. Many such cultural forces begin with younger people. Meanwhile, younger people are often the least able to resist these forces and, to exacerbate this dynamic, many of the leaders within youth ministry are young themselves.

All ministries must be centered in Christ. Given these forces, it may be necessary to remind youth ministry of this more than any other ministry. Youth ministry must constantly ask: How does each component of our youth ministry relate to the fact that all things are from and for Jesus Christ (Col 1:16)? If you don’t ask this question frequently, your youth ministry will quietly drift away from being Christ-centered.

One thing that is incredibly freeing about this is that two youth ministries may look completely different externally while sharing the same mission. What matters is if the components are prayerfully and wisely developed to point to Jesus Christ.

2. Understand youth before trying to reach them

Once we understand this purpose of ministry, we need to understand the people being ministered to.

Young people in the age range of youth ministry are experiencing some of the most significant changes they will undergo in their entire lives. Wise youth ministry will educate and adjust to these realities.

When the Word became flesh, the Son took on humanity. An implication of this truth is often overlooked by youth ministry: Our Lord was just as much a teenager as any teenager we’ve ever met. Luke helps us understand that, “Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man” (Luke 2:52). This means that Jesus, like all humans, grew in at least four ways: biologically, intellectually, relationally, and spiritually. Youth ministries must be attuned to all four aspects of our humanity.

Biological

Teenagers naturally undergo physical development, energy shifts, and changes in their need for sleep amid new levels of stress and excitement in school, family, friends, and activities. Youth ministries that treat students like ten-year-olds or thirty-year-olds aren’t comprehending who is actually in front of them.

Intellectual

Naturally connected to the biological development teenagers experience is the neurological and intellectual. Questions become deeper. Students challenge assumptions. Meanwhile, what to do with these newfound curiosities and choices is fogged by the delayed “control” capacity as the prefrontal cortex lags behind other emerging capacities. This makes for a wild ride, like a race car with a very loose steering wheel.

Relational

Relationships and friendships take on new meanings. Belonging and identity become more central. Some teenagers find a deeper connection with the church and the ministries and people within them, while others do the opposite. This can be an extremely challenging time for Christian families who want their child to have friends in the church—but this simply cannot be forced, whether a strong youth group exists or not.

Spiritual

During this time, faith becomes increasingly personal. In earlier years, the norms of the family likely dictated the spiritual life of the young person. During the teenage years, a natural progression and cycle of moral and spiritual development occurs.

Each of these four realities about young people are not problems to be solved. They are realities to be embraced. Remember that Jesus was fully human and, as such, grew in each of these four ways. Teenage Jesus needed sleep, asked tough questions, added new friends, and grew in favor with God. Create a youth ministry where Jesus would have fit in.

3. Clarify your ministerial context

I’m a fast walker. So every time I’m at the airport, I have a decision to make when I encounter a long hallway that has a moving walkway (in the UK, they call it a travelator or a people mover, which is more fun to say). Do I get on it—accepting some delays might occur due to people obstructing my path—or just walk alongside, since I’m a fast walker? I’ve come to realize that the moving walkway is better.

When you sit down to form a youth ministry, you too have a choice. You and your team are likely gifted and capable, so you set off doing what you know best. What you may be missing is that alongside you is an externally-powered people-mover already in motion. But we are blind to see it because we have not stopped to pray and listen to the Holy Spirit and the people God has surrounded us with.

Prayer

An extended time of prayer and listening may seem to slow things down. The goal is not merely to stop and ask God to bless our plans, but to ask what God may already be doing among the young people in our church and community.

To form a youth ministry, pray.

Plan

You also ought to stop and survey what plan your church already has in place. Youth ministry should grow out of the church rather than beside it. Get answers to the following questions:

• What values already shape the church?
• What expectations and vision already exist?
• How does leadership define success?

Many youth ministry conflicts are not a result of theological disagreements but of misalignments resulting from unspoken expectations. Healthy youth ministries reflect the broader life of the church. They should not function as isolated subcultures.

To form a youth ministry, examine the church’s existing plan.

Praxis

Every youth ministry already has assumptions, whether acknowledged or not. This typically comes when youth ministry leaders recall with nostalgia their favorite ministry memories or when they have an impulse to adapt or mimic the latest youth ministry paradigm. These models might include attractional aspects (entertainment, production value, crowd-building), discipleship assumptions (small groups, mentorship, theological formation), or family ministry dynamics (strong parental integration or minimal parental involvement).

None of these are automatically right or wrong. But wise leaders identify ministry assumptions before unconsciously reproducing them. This is the praxis, the actual shape and ministry logic that governs how a youth ministry operates.

To form a youth ministry, define its praxis.

4. Start strategically

As we step onto the travelator to pray, evaluate plans, and consider the praxis, the final question becomes practical: Where do you actually begin?

Begin small by building relationships

Many people imagine that youth ministry begins with a large launch event, a polished room, and a crowded gathering. However, most lasting ministries begin much smaller than that, and youth ministries are no exception. The median in-person church attendance in America is seventy people. This might include zero to ten teenagers, maybe five. A difficult motto to adapt in youth ministry is “Comparison is the thief of joy.”

One of the benefits of this scale is that anyone starting a youth group can begin to pray for young people consistently by name. Youth ministries rarely begin with crowds, but they should always begin with focused name-based prayer. And prayerful engagement leads to relational and pastoral engagement. The main purpose is not “to get you to our meeting.” The main purpose of youth ministry is to minister to youth.

Consider a church that desires to start a youth ministry. It dedicates its first six months not to launching a meeting, but to praying for teenagers by name and getting to know them. Rather than asking students to come to them, they go to the students: attending games, performances, and school events, sharing meals, offering encouragement, and listening well.

Programs may attract students temporarily, but relationships often determine whether they stay connected.

Establish natural rhythms

While starting small and building relationships, you will see what type of form your youth ministry should take. It might look quite different from the one down the street.

This is where the timeless practices of the church—Scripture, prayer, meals, and worship—can be woven into the specific circumstances of your people and community, resulting in ministry rhythms synchronized with their reality, a reality you noticed and acquired prayerfully and personally.

Conclusion

There are more steps you can take, including recruiting and training youth ministry leaders as well as planning events. These are important, but what is more important is laying the proper foundation.

Share your thoughts?

What principles or practices would you add? Join us in the Word by Word group to share your thoughts.

Resources for further help

Giving up Gimmicks: Reclaiming Youth Ministry from an Entertainment Culture

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Keeping Kids Christian: Recovering a Biblical Vision for Lifelong Discipleship

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Alongside: Loving Teenagers with the Gospel

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Biblical Theology Of Youth Ministry: Teenagers In The Life Of The Church

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