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noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Thu, 10 Nov 2022 11:08:00 +0700

Manfaat Buah Mentega Bagi Kesehatan

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 5 Jan 2019 22:24:00 +0700

Buah mentega adalah sejenis buah kesemek. Tak hanya dikenal sebagai buah mentega, buah ini juga dinamakan sebagai buah bisbul, selain itu beberapa nama lainnya diantaranya marit, buah lemak, velvet apple dan kamagong. Ada banyak sekali nutrisi dan gizi yang terdapat pada buah mentega tersebut. Kandungan gizi tersebut diantaranya lemak, protein, serat, fosfor, kalsium, vitamin A, zat besi, vitamin C, riboflavin, dan tiamin.

Buah ini termasuk buah langka karena itu buah mentega jarang sekali kita temui di lingkungan kita.

Berikut klasifikasi ilmiah dari buah mentega:

Kerajaan : Plantae
Divisi : Magnoliophyta
Kelas : Magnoliopsida
Ordo : Ercales
Famili : Ebenaceae
Genus Diospyros

Tentang Buah Mentega

Pohon buah mentega mempunyai banyak sekali manfaat untuk manusia, diantaranya sebagai pohon peneduh, dan seringkali dijumpai di area taman maupun pinggiran jalan raya. BUah mentega mempunyai diameter berukuran 12 cm, yang memiliki kulit buah berbulu halus dengan warna merah. Memiliki daging buah berwarna putih, cenderung kering, buah ini juga bertekstur sedikit keras. Dengan kandungan gizi yang dimilikinya, ternyata ada banyak sekali manfaat buah mentega yang belum banyak diketahui.

Manfaat Buah Mentega Untuk Kesehatan

Beberapa manfaat dan khasiat buah mentega bagi kesehatan, diantaranya :

1. Memperbaiki Kerusakan Sel Tubuh

Manfaat buah mentega berikutnya untuk memperbaiki sel tubuh yang telah rusak. Buah mentega mengandung sejumlah protein penting yang sangat baik bagi pertumbuhan sel-sel pada tubuh. Dimana protein tersebut sangat penting meregenerasi sekaligus memperbaiki terjadinya kerusakan pada sel-sel tubuh.

2. Menyehatkan Kulit

Buah mentega pun mempunyai manfaat penting untuk perawatan kecantikan kulit. Hal tersebut dikarenakan kandungan berbagai macam vitamin pada buah mentega, berfungsi untuk menangkal paparan radikal bebas serta membantu mencerahkan dan menghaluskan kulit. Selain itu juga sangat baik mencegah terjadinya penuaan dini. Buah mentega juga mencegah kekeringan pada kulit dan membantu mempertahankan elastisitas kulit.

3. Menyehatkan Mata

Manfaat buah mentega berikutnya adalah untuk menyehatkan mata. Hal tersebut dikarenakan buah mentega mengandung vitamin A, sehingga sangat penting untuk menyehatkan mata serta bisa terhindar dari berbagai gangguan kesehatan yang menyerang mata, baik katarak ataupun minus silindris.

4. Menyehatkan Pernafasan

Buah Mentega di Filiphina juga seringkali dimanfaatkan dalam meredakan sakit batuk, asma atau sesak dada. Dimana hal tersebut kemungkinan besar disebabkan oleh kandungan vitamin beserta mineral yang tinggi di dalam buah mentega, hal ini pulalah yang membuatnya berkontribusi besar terhadap peningkatan daya imun tubuh.

5. Menyehatkan Pernafasan

Buah Mentega di Filiphina juga seringkali dimanfaatkan dalam meredakan sakit batuk, asma atau sesak dada. Dimana hal tersebut kemungkinan besar disebabkan oleh kandungan vitamin beserta mineral yang tinggi di dalam buah mentega, hal ini pulalah yang membuatnya berkontribusi besar terhadap peningkatan daya imun tubuh.

6. Menjaga Sirkulasi Darah

Zat besi dalam buah mentega memiliki zat besi melimpah, yang bisa membantu meningkatkan sel darah merah pada tubuh. Kandungan zat besi pun dapat meningkatkan oksigenasi pada jaringan penting beserta kelompok otot, mempercepat penyembuhan jaringan sel, merangsang tumbuhnya rambut, serta meningkatkan efisiensi pada metabolism. Untuk Anda yang bermasalah dengan peredaran darah, tentu bisa mencoba mengonsumsi buah mentega.

7. Menyehatkan Jantung

Manfaat buah mentega ternyata juga berdampak baik bagi kesehatan jantung. Kandungan kalium yang banyak pada buah mentega bisa membantu peregangan pembuluh darah, menurunkan hipertensi dan mengurangi stress dalam system kardiovaskular. Selain itu, dengan kandungan serat pada buah mentega yang mellimpah juga dapat menurunkan kolesterol, dengan begitu bisa membantu meminimalisir risiko pembekuan darah, aterosklerosis, hingga serangan jantung. Dengan mengonsumsi buah mentega, maka kesehatan jantung pun bisa terjaga.

8. Mencegah Terjadinya Anemia

Buah mentega berkhasiat juga untuk mencegah berbagai gejala anemia (kekurangan darah). Zat besi pada buah mentega bisa membantu mencegah anemia di dalam tubuh.

9. Menjaga Ketahanan Tubuh

Manfaat buah mentega berikutnya yaitu untuk menjaga serta meningkatkan daya imun tubuh. Adapun hal tersebut didapatkan dari aneka macam kandungan vitamin di dalam buah mentega, diantaranya vitamin A, vitamin C hingga berbagai macam mineral lainnya yang bisa membantu menjaga daya imun tubuh. Dengan begitu, manfaat ini sangat efektif mencegah berbagai macam penyakit yang diakibatkan oleh menurunnya imun tubuh, seperti demam, dan influenza.

10. Menjaga Kesehatan Sistem Cerna

Buah mentega mengandung serat cukup tinggi, sehingga sangat baik dikonsumsi. Kandungan serat pada buah mentega, bisa membantu memperlancar sekaligus menjaga kesehatan system cerna, dengan begitu Anda pun bisa terhindar dari aneka macam gangguan penyakit yang berkaitan dengan system pencernaan. Seperti susah BAB, diare, radang lambung, radang usus, ambeien, dan wasir.

Cara Flash Xiaomi Redmi 3 / 3 Pro / 3 Prime

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Fri, 4 Jan 2019 23:16:00 +0700

Cara mudah Flash Xiaomi Redmi 3 / 3 pro / 3 Prime. HP Xiaomi 3 / 3 pro / 3 Prime Sobat Bootloop/Rom Abal-abal, pastinya sobat akan merasa bingung, jangan khawatir, disini saya akan bantu sobat untuk mengatasinya.

Apa itu ROM Distributor? ROM Distributor itu adalah ROM yang tidak Resmi. ROM ini memiliki banyak sekali bug seperti :

Sidik Jari sering error
Banyak Iklan
Camera Error
Sering Hang
dll

Pokoknya, ROM Distributor atau ROM Abal abal itu benar benar gak enak banget. Tetapi, ada juga beberapa orang yang mendapatkan ROM Distributor atau ROM Abal abal, namun tidak mendapatkan Masalah Apapun. Jadi yang terpenting sekarang, dicek dulu. apakah ada yang error atau tidak

Redmi 3 Pro sering disebut juga Redmi 3 Prime, jadi sama saja flash sama ROM nya.

Berikut Cara Flash Xiaomi Redmi 3 / 3 pro / 3 Prime dengan MiFlash :

Persiapan :

Download MI Flash disini
Downloado ROM nya disini
Downloado Driver Qualqomm disini
Pastikan PC mu menggunakan Windows 64 Bit.
Jika menggunakan 32Bit, berkemungkinan akan terkena Error Not Enough Storage to Proccess this Command .
Kabel USB
Disable Driver Signature Enforcement
Berikut Cara Disable Driver Signature Enforcement
ROM berekstensi .tgz bukan .zip
Jika Berekstensi .tar Silahkan Rename dengan Cara Klik kanan Rename ubah Tar menjadi TGZ

Lanjut Cara Flash nya :

Extract 3 File Hasil Downloadnya, Usahakan extract dalam satu folder agar lebih mudah mencarinya.
Install drivernya sampai selesai, lalu restart PC/Laptop sobat.
Install Mi Flash Sampai Selesai.
Buka Mi Flash, Pada kolom ROM Browser lalu pilih ke ROM yg sudah di extract tadi. Centang clean all.
Matikan smartphone, lalu masuk ke mode download, caranya pada kondisi off, tekan tombol power + volume atas secara bersamaan, lalu pilih download.
( Jika HH sobat tidak bisa masuk ke mode download coba tekan tombol power + volume atas secara bersamaan lalu lepas tombol power dan tahan tombol volume atas sampai layar berkedip seperti mati)
Colokan smartphone ke PC/Laptop dengan Kabel USB, tunggu driver terinstall / terdeteksi.
Pada Mi Flash Tools, klik refresh, maka akan terdeteksi. Lalu tekan flash.
Tunggu proses flashing sampai selesai.
Jika sudah selesai, hidupkan smartphone, tekan tombol power yang agak lama.

Gimana sobat gampang kan cara flash Xiaomi Redmi 3 / 3 Pro / 3 Prime nya.
Oke sekian dulu tutorial Flash nya..

Jika sobat kesulitan dalam tutorial ini silahkan tulis di komentar... Matur Tengkyu :-)

Kisah Perjalanan Hidup dan Biografi Imam Syafi'i

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 16 Aug 2014 11:46:00 +0700

Imam Syafi’i yang dikenal sebagai pendiri madzhab Syafi’i memiliki nama lengkap Muhammad bin Idris As Syafi’i Al Quraisy. Beliau dilahirkan di daerah Ghazzah, Palestina pada tahun 150 H di bulan Rajab.

Nasab Imam Syafi’i

Beliau bernama Muhammad bin Idris bin Abbas bin Utsman bin Syafi’i bin Saib bin Abdu Yazid bin Hasyim bin Abdullah bin Abdu Manaf. Kun-yah (panggilan kehormatan) beliau adalah Abu Abdullah (bapaknya Abdullah) dikarenakan salah seorang anak beliau yang bernama Abdullah. Nasab Imam Syafi’i bertemu dengan nasab Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. pada Abdu Manaf. Sedangkan Hasyim kakek Imam Syafi’i bukanlah kakek dari Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم..

Diriwayatkan bahwa ketika beberapa hari setelah ibunda Imam Syafi’i melahirkan terdengar kabar dari Baghdad tentang meninggalnya Imam Abu Hanifah. Tatkala diteliti dengan seksama ternyata hari meninggalnya Imam Abu Hanifah bertepatan dengan saat lahirnya Imam Syafi’i. Para ulama waktu itu mengisyaratkan bahwa Muhammad yang baru lahir kelak akan mengikuti derajat keilmuan Imam Abu Hanifah.

Hadits Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. yang mengisyaratkan kedatangan Imam Syafi’i

Para ulama telah menelaah sejumlah hadits dari Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. berkenaan dengan kegembiraan Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. kepada Imam Syafi’i.

Hadits dari Ibnu Mas’ud beliau berkata: “Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. telah bersabda: janganlah kamu mencaci-maki Quraisy karena orang alim Quraisy itu ilmunya akan memenuhi bumi. Ya Allah, Engkau telah memberi siksaan pada awal Quraisy, maka berilah anugerah pada akhir Quraisy.”

Hadits dari Ali bin Abi Thalib beliau berkata: “Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. telah bersabda: jangan kamu mengimami orang Quraisy dan bermakmumlah kamu pada mereka. Jangan mendahului Quraisy akan tetapi dahulukanlah mereka. Jangan kamu mengajari Quraisy tetapi belajarlah dari mereka karena ilmu orang alim Quraisy akan menyebar ke seluruh dunia,”

Kesungguhan Imam Syafi’i dalam menuntut ilmu

Meskipun dibesarkan dalam keadaan yatim dan kondisi keluarga yang miskin, tidak menjadikan beliau rendah diri apalagi malas. Sebaliknya, keadaan itu membuat beliau makin giat menuntut ilmu. Pada umur 9 tahun beliau telah hafal Al Quran seluruhnya. Beliau banyak berdiam di Masjid al-Haram dimana beliau menuntut ilmu pada ulama-ulama dalam berbagai bidang ilmu.

Beliau mencatat ilmu-ilmu yang telah diperolehnya pada kertas-kertas, kulit dan tulang binatang. Hingga pada suatu hari kamar tempat istirahatnya penuh oleh kertas, kulit dan tulang. Maka seluruh catatan pada benda-benda itu dihafal oleh Imam seluruhnya, lalu setelah itu benda-benda tersebut dibakarnya.

Kekuatan hafalan Imam Syafi’i   sangat mencengangkan. Sampai-sampai seluruh kitab yang dibaca dapat dihafalnya. Ketika beliau membaca satu kitab beliau berusaha menutup halaman yang kiri dengan tangan kanannya karena khawatir akan melihat halaman yang kiri dan menghafalnya terlebih dahulu sebelum beliau hafal halaman yang kanan.

Mengenai hal ini beliau bercerita: bahwa beliau pernah bermimpi bertemu Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. dan Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. berkata kepadanya: “Siapa kamu hai anak muda?” Imam Syafi’i berkata. : “aku termasuk umatmu, ya Rasulullah” Rasul berkata: “mendekatlah padaku.”

Imam Syafi’i lalu mendekat kepada Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم., lalu Rasul mengambil air liurnya dan meletakkan air liur itu ke dalam mulut dan bibir Imam Syafi’i. setelah itu Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. berkata padanya: “ berangkatlah, semoga Allah memberkahimu.” Setelah mimpi itu beliau tak pernah merasa kesulitan dalam menghafal ilmu.

Beliau juga telah mencapai kemampuan berbahasa yang sangat indah. Kemampuan beliau dalam menggubah syair dan ketinggian mutu bahasanya mendapat pengakuan dan penghargaan yang sangat tinggi oleh orang-orang alim yang sejaman dengan beliau.

Demikian tinggi prestasi-prestasi keilmuan yang telah beliau capai dalam usia yang masih sangat belia, sehingga guru-gurunya membolehkan beliau untuk berfatwa di Masjid al-Haram. Ketika itu beliau bahkan baru mencapai usia 15 tahun.

Kepergian Imam Syafi’i ke Madinah

Imam Syafi’i hidup sejaman dengan Imam Malik bin Anas, seorang ulama besar pendiri madzhab Maliki. Imam Malik bin Anas juga dikenal sebagai Ahli Hadits. Beliau menghimpun hadits-hadits nabi dalam kitab beliau yang berjudul Muwattha’. Imam Syafi’i pernah meminjam kitab Muwattha’ pada salah seorang penduduk Mekkah dan menghafalnya dalam waktu singkat. Imam Syafi’i rindu untuk melihat Imam Malik di Madinah Al Munawwarah dan berharap dapat mengambil manfaat dari ilmu beliau.



Maka pada suatu hari berangkatlah Imam Syafi’i ke Madinah dengan niat untuk menuntut ilmu. Dalam perjalanan dari Mekkah menuju Madinah beliau mengkhatamkan bacaan Al Qur’an sebanyak 16 kali. Malam satu kali khatam dan siangnya satu kali. Pada hari ke delapan beliau tiba di Madinah setelah shalat ashar. Beliau shalat di Masjid Nabawi dan berziarah terlebih dahulu ke makam Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم.. Setelah itu baru beliau menuju kediaman Imam Malik bin Anas.



Ketika Imam Syafi’i menghadap Imam Malik, beliau berkata: “mudah-mudahan Allah selalu memberimu kebaikan. Aku adalah seorang penuntut ilmu. Kondisi dan ceritaku begini dan begini…”

Mendengar perkataan itu Imam Malik merasa kasihan dan bertanya kepadanya: “siapa namamu?” menjawab: “Muhammad.” Imam Malik berkata kepadanya; “wahai Muhammad, bertaqwalah kepada Allah, hindarilah maksiat. Aku melihat di hatimu ada cahaya. Karena itu janganlah kamu padamkan cahaya itu dengan maksiat. Sesungguhnya cahaya itu akan menjadikanmu dibutuhkan oleh manusia. “ Imam Syafi’i menjawab: “ya.” Imam Malik lalu berkata: “kalau besok kamu masih ada, kami akan mengajarkanmu kitab Muwattha’.”

Imam Syafi’i berkata: “wahai tuanku, aku telah membaca kitab Muwattha’ sampai hafal.”“bacalah!” lalu Imam Syafi’i membaca dan Imam Malik menyimaknya. Ketika Imam Syafi’i khawatir Imam Malik lelah, maka beliau berhenti. Dan Imam Malik lalu berkata: “teruskan wahai anak muda, aku akan memperbaiki bacaanmu.” Demikianlah, maka aktivitas harian Imam Syafi’i adalah membaca kitab Muwattha’ dibawah bimbingan Imam Malik.

Beliau pun selalu hadir di majlis ilmu Imam Malik yang menerangkan tentang hadits-hadits Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم.. Imam Malik memuji kuatnya hafalan dan keluasan pemahaman Imam Syafi’i terhadap ilmu yang dipelajarinya. Seringkali sehabis membacakan kitabnya, Imam Malik meminta Imam Syafi’i untuk menyampaikannya kepada orang lain. Imam Malik juga sering memberikan hadiah kepada sang murid sebagai wujud rasa cinta dan perhatian beliau kepadanya.

Demikian juga Imam Syafi’i begitu mencintai gurunya dengan sepenuh hati. Beliau berkata: “Malik bin Anas adalah guruku. Dari beliau aku belajar dan tidak ada orang yang aku percaya kecuali Malik bin Anas. Dan aku menjadikan Malik bin Anas sebagai hujjah (saksi) antara aku dan Allah.”

Kepergian Imam Syafi’i ke Iraq

Pada waktu Imam Syafi’i telah menyelesaikan pelajarannya pada Imam Malik, beliau mendengar kabar tentang Abu Yusuf dan Muhammad bin Hasan yang adalah murid sekaligus sahabat Imam Abu Hanifah yang sedang berada di Iraq yaitu di kota Kufah. Beliau ingin sekali bertemu dengan mereka berdua. Maka Imam Syafi’i lantas memohon izin kepada Imam Malik untuk pergi ke Iraq.

Imam Malik memberi tambahan bekal kepada beliau dan menyewakannya hewan tunggangan menuju kota Kufah.

Di Kufah, begitu berjumpa dengan Abu Yusuf dan Muhammad bin Hasan, mereka berdua sangat gembira dengan kedatangan Imam Syafi’i. Mereka bertanya kepada beliau tentang Imam Malik bin Anas. Beliau berkata: “aku telah datang kepadanya.” Salah satu dari keduanya berkata: “apakah kamu melihat kitab Muwattha’?” Imam Syafi’i menjawab: “aku telah menghafal kitab tersebut dalam lubuk hatiku.”

Itu semua telah membuat Muhammad bin Hasan dan Abu Yusuf menaruh hormat kepada Imam Syafi’i. Muhammad bin Hasan lalu bertanya kepada beliau tentang masalah thaharah, zakat, jual beli, dan masalah lainnya yang dijawab dengan jawaban yang sangat bagus oleh Imam Syafi’i. Bertambah kagumlah Muhammad bin Hasan pada beliau. Kemudian ia mengajak Imam Syafi’i ke rumahnya dan mengizinkan Imam Syafi’i untuk menyalin kitab apa saja yan dia inginkan yang ada di perpustakaan miliknya.

Selama di Kufah, Imam Syafi’i menjadi tamu Muhammad bin Hasan. Ketika beliau telah selesai mempelajari kitab-kitab di perpustakaan Muhammad bin Hasan, beliau lantas mohon izin untuk meneruskan perjalanan menuju Persia dan kota-kota disekitarnya.

Kembali ke Madinah

Ketika beliau di kota Romlah ada serombongan orang Madinah datang. Beliau bertanya tentang keadaan guru beliau, Imam Malik bin Anas. Mereka menjawab bahwa Imam Malik dalam keadaan sehat. Imam Syafi’i merasa rindu dan ingin sekali berjumpa dengan guru yang sangat dicintainya itu. Maka beliau pun mempersiapkan diri untuk perjalanan menuju ke Madinah.

Sampai di Madinah, setelah berziarah ke makam Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم., beliau lantas menuju pengajian Imam Malik. Ketika Imam Malik mengetahui kehadiran Imam Syafi’i, beliau memanggilnya dan memeluknya dengan penuh kerinduan. Murid-murid Imam Malik yang lain merasa terharu melihat peristiwa ini. Imam Malik lalu membawa Imam Syafi’i duduk disisinya. Beliau berkata: “ajarilah ini, wahai Syafi’i.” Setelah menyelesaikan pelajaran itu, Imam Malik mengajak Imam Syafi’i ke rumahnya.

Imam Syafi’i tinggal selama beberapa tahun di Madinah. Selama itu beliau senantiasa mendapat perlakuan yang istimewa dan sangat diperhatikan oleh gurunya. Pada bulan Rabi’ul awwal tahun 179 H Imam Malik bin Anas wafat dan dimakamkan di pemakaman Baqi’ di kota Madinah. Seluruh penduduk Madinah tenggelam dalam duka cita karena meninggalnya Imam yang sangat alim dan mulia ini.

Setelah wafatnya Imam Malik, Imam Syafi’i masih tinggal beberapa lama di Madinah. Beliau kemudian pergi ke Yaman, menetap dan mengajarkan ilmunya di sana.

Berita tentang keluasan ilmu beliau segera saja menyebar ke seluruh negeri. Orang berduyun-duyun datang untuk menyimak pelajaran yang beliau sampaikan. Ketinggian ilmu dan ma’rifahnya, baik itu dibidang fiqh, hadits, filsafat, kedokteran, ilmu falak dan lain-lain membuat khalifah Harun al-Rasyid mengundang beliau dan meminta beliau untuk mengajar di kota Baghdad.

Sejak saat itu beliau dikenal secara luas dan lebih banyak lagi orang yang datang menuntut ilmu padanya. Pada waktu itulah madzhab beliau mulai dikenal. Imam Syafii mengajar banyak orang yang kelak sebagian dari mereka menjadi ulama-ulama yang besar pula. Diantara murid-murid beliau yaitu Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal yang kelak dikenal sebagai salah seorang Imam madzhab juga.

Semua orang, baik dari kalangan pejabat maupun rakyat sangat mencintai dan mengagungkan kedudukan Imam Syafi’i. Demikian pula murid-murid beliau begitu menaruh hormat padanya.

Ini terbukti ketika Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal sakit dan Imam Syafi’i membesuknya. Waktu beliau sampai di rumahnya, Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal langsung turun dari tempat tidurnya dan meminta Imam Syafi’i untuk duduk di tempat itu. Sedangkan Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal duduk di tanah dan sewaktu-waktu beliau bertanya pada Imam Syafi’i.

Ketika Imam Syafi’i hendak pulang, Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal menaikkan beliau ke hewan tunggangannya. Lalu Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal naik ke tunggangannya -beliau dalam kondisi sakit- dengan menerobos jalan dan pasar-pasar Baghdad, sampai ia bisa mengantar Imam Syafi’i tiba di rumahnya.

Pulang ke Mekkah

Setelah beberapa waktu berada di Baghdad, beliau bermaksud pulang ke Mekkah. Memakan waktu perjalanan beberapa hari akhirnya beliau sampai di Mekkah. Waktu itu tahun 181 H. Sebelum masuk kota Mekkah, beliau mendirikan kemah di luar kota. Penduduk Mekkah keluar untuk menyampaikan salam dan menyambutnya.

Beliau lalu membagi-bagikan seluruh emas dan perak yang beliau miliki kepada mereka. Hal itu dilakukan untuk melaksanakan wasiat ibunya ketika beliau datang ke Mekkah. Begitulah, Imam Syafi’i masuk ke kota Mekkah dalam keadaan tidak membawa apapun, sama seperti ketika beliau keluar dari Mekkah dalam keadaan tidak membawa benda apapun.

Beliau tinggal di Mekkah selama 17 tahun. Selama berada disana beliau mengajarkan ilmu pada manusia. Madzhab Imam Syafi’i tersebar di antara jamaah haji dan mereka membawa madzhab tersebut ke tempat asal mereka masing-masing.

Selama 17 tahun tinggal di Mekkah beliau mendengar wafatnya Abu Yusuf dan Muhammad bin Hasan yang dahulu pernah ditemuinya di kota Kufah. Setelah itu wafat pula Harun al-Rasyid.

Setelah sekian lama tinggal di Mekkah beliau lantas kembali ke kota Baghdad. Disana beliau melanjutkan kegiatan mengajar selama beberapa waktu. Setelah itu beliau bermaksud hendak pergi ke Mesir. Ketika penduduk Baghdad mendengar akan kepergian orang mulia ini, maka mereka keluar untuk perpisahan dengan beliau.

Di tengah-tengah penduduk ini ada Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal. Maka diwaktu itu Imam Syafi’i memegang erat tangan Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal dan berkata: “sungguh aku rindu akan bumi Mesir. Selain Mesir adalah bumi yang tandus. Demi Allah, aku tidak tahu untuk kemuliaan atau untuk kaya aku pindah ke Mesir. Atau pindah ke kubur?”

Seakan-akan Imam Syafii merasa akan wafat di Mesir dan kuburannya akan berada di negeri itu. Lalu beliau menangis. Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal dan semua orang yang menyaksikan perpisahan itu menangis semua. Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal pulang sambil bercucuran airmata dan berkata pada para penduduk Baghdad: “ sungguh ilmu fiqh telah tertutup, lalu Allah membukakan ilmu itu dengan kedatangan Imam Syafi’i.”

Menetap di Mesir

Di negeri Mesir segera saja penduduknya jatuh hati pada Imam Syafi’i. Para ulama negeri itu juga memuliakannya dan meminta beliau untuk mengajar di masjid Amru bin Ash. Beliau mengajar sehabis subuh sampai zhuhur. Imam Syafi’i adalah orang pertama yang mengajar ilmu hadits di Mesir sampai zhuhur. Setelah itu beliau melanjutkan pelajaran di rumahnya.

Para ulama dan orang-orang jenius terpelajar lainnya datang menyimak pelajaran yang beliau sampaikan baik di masjid maupun di rumah. Di antara orang-orang yang belajar pada beliau yang kelak menjadi ulama terkenal adalah Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Hakam, Abu Ibrahim bin Ismail bin Yahya Al-Muzani, Abu Yaqub Yusuf bin Yahya Al-Buwaiti, Rabi’ Al-Jizi dan lain sebagainya.

Ketika di Mesir ini pula Imam Syafi’i banyak menulis kitab yang berisi madzhab beliau. Di antara kitabnya adalah Al-Umm, Imla’ al-Shaghir, Jizyah, Ar-Risalah dan lain sebagainya.

Sebagian dari akhlak Imam Syafi’i

Imam Syafi’i adalah seorang yang taqwa, zuhud dan wara’. Beliau juga sangat santun dalam memberi peringatan kepada orang yang melakukan kesalahan. Hatinya sangat lembut dan dermawan terhadap harta.

Baihaqi meriwayatkan dari Hasan bin Habib. Dia berkata: “Aku melihat Imam Syafi’i menunggang kuda melewati pasar sepatu.

Tiba-tiba cambuknya jatuh dan mengenai salah seorang pedagang sepatu. Lalu pedagang sepatu itu mengusap cambuk untuk membersihkannya dan memberikan cambuk itu pada beliau. Imam Syafi’i lalu menyuruh budaknya untuk memberikan uangnya pada pedagang itu.”

Tiada hari yang dilewati beliau tanpa bershadaqah. Siang dan malam beliau selalu bershadaqah, Apalagi di bulan Ramadhan. Beliau juga sering mengunjungi fakir miskin dan menjamin kebutuhan-kebutuhan mereka. Untuk menafkahi keluarganya beliau berdagang.

Imam Syafi’i sangat baik dalam memperlakukan kerabat-kerabatnya. Beliau menghormati mereka dan tidak menyombongkan dirinya. Beliau menghormati orang sesuai posisinya. Imam Syafi’i pernah berkata: “Paling zhalimnya orang adalah ia yang menjauhi kerabatnya, tidak mau tahu terhadap mereka, meremehkan dan sombong pada orang yang memiliki keutamaan.”

Beliau juga senantiasa memaafkan orang yang berbuat kesalahan kepadanya. Beliau membalas kejahatan dengan kebaikan dan tidak pernah menyimpan dendam kepada seseorang.

Pujian Ahmad bin Hanbal kepada Imam Syafi’i

Sewaktu di Baghdad, Imam Syafi’i selalu bersama Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal. Demikian cintanya pada Imam Syafi’i, sehingga putra-putri Imam Ahmad merasa penasaran kepada bapaknya itu. Putri Imam Ahmad memintanya untuk mengundang Imam Syafii bermalam di rumah untuk mengetahui perilaku beliau dari dekat. Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal lalu menemui Imam Syafi’i dan menyampaikan undangan itu.

Ketika Imam Syafi’i telah berada di rumah Ahmad, putrinya lalu membawakan hidangan. Imam Syafi’i memakan banyak sekali makanan itu dengan sangat lahap. Ini membuat heran putri Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal.

Setelah makan malam, Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal mempersilakan Imam Syafi’i untuk beristirahat di kamar yang telah disediakan. Putri Imam Ahmad melihat Imam Syafi’i langsung merebahkan tubuhnya dan tidak bangun untuk melaksanakan shalat malam. Pada waktu subuh tiba beliau langsung berangkat ke masjid tanpa berwudhu terlebih dulu.

Sehabis shalat subuh, putri Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal langsung protes kepada ayahnya tentang perbuatan Imam Syafi’i, yang menurutnya kurang mencerminkan keilmuannya. Imam Ahmad yang menolak untuk menyalahkan Imam Syafi’i, langsung menanyakan hal itu kepada Imam Syafi’i.

Mengenai hidangan yang dimakannya dengan sangat lahap beliau berkata: “Ahmad, memang benar aku makan banyak, dan itu ada alasannya. Aku tahu hidangan itu halal dan aku tahu kau adalah orang yang pemurah. Maka aku makan sebanyak-banyaknya. Sebab makanan yang halal itu banyak berkahnya dan makanan dari orang yang pemurah adalah obat. Sedangkan malam ini adalah malam yang paling berkah bagiku.”

“Kenapa begitu, wahai guru?”

“Begitu aku meletakkan kepala di atas bantal seolah kitabullah dan sunnah Rasulullah صَلّى الله عَلَيْهِ وَسَلّم. digelar di hadapanku. Aku menelaah dan telah menyelesaikan 100 masalah yang bermanfaat bagi orang islam. Karena itu aku tak sempat shalat malam.”

Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal berkata pada putrinya: “inilah yang dilakukan guruku pada malam ini. Sungguh, berbaringnya beliau lebih utama dari semua yang aku kerjakan pada waktu tidak tidur.”

Imam Syafi’i melanjutkan: “Aku shalat subuh tanpa wudhu sebab aku masih

suci. Aku tidak memejamkan mata sedikit pun .wudhuku masih terjaga sejak isya, sehingga aku bisa shalat subuh tanpa berwudhu lagi.”

Dilain kesempatan Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal pernah berkata: “aku tidak pernah shalat sejak 40 tahun silam kecuali dalam shalatku itu aku berdoa untuk Imam Syafi’i.”

Abdullah, putranya lantas bertanya: “wahai ayahku, seperti apa sih Syafi’i, sehingga ayah selalu berziaroh ke Makam Imam Syafi'i

berdoa untuknya?” Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal menjawab: “wahai anakku, Imam Syafi’i bagaikan matahari bagi dunia dan seperti kesehatan bagi tubuh. Lihatlah anakku, betapa pentingnya dua hal itu.”

Abdul Malik bin Abdul Hamid al-Maimuni berkata: “Aku berada di sisi Ahmad bin Hanbal dan beliau selalu menyebut Imam Syafi’i. Aku selalu melihat beliau mengagungkan Imam Syafi’i.”

Wafatnya Imam Syafi’i

Beliau wafat pada malam jum’at akhir dari bulan Rajab tahun 204 H setelah mengalami sakit selama beberapa waktu. Setelah isya ruh beliau yang suci kembali ke Rahmatullah di pangkuan murid beliau, yaitu Rabi’ al-Jizi. Jenazah beliau dimakamkan dengan iringan tangis dan rintih duka cita dari segenap penduduk Mesir.

Sumber : http://jawilanbisnis.blogspot.com/2013/05/kisah-perjalanan-hidup-dan-biografi.html

BUDAYA POLITIK INDONESIA

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:18:00 +0700

Politik Indonesia

Indonesia adalah negara demokrasi konstitusional. Setelah jatuhnya rezim Orde Baru yang otoriter pada tahun 1998, berbagai perubahan konstitusional dilakukan untuk melemahkan kekuasaan cabang-cabang eksekutif. Dengan demikian, membuat sebuah sistem kediktatoran baru hampir mustahil. Indonesia saat ini ditandai oleh kedaulatan rakyat termanifestasi dalam pemilihan parlemen dan presiden setiap lima tahun. Sejak berakhirnya Orde Baru dan mulainya periode Reformasi, setiap pemilu di Indonesia dianggap bebas dan adil (meskipun korupsi dan politik uang di mana orang membeli kekuasaan atau posisi politik masih tetap lazim).

Ikhtisar Struktur Politik

Bagian ini membahas struktur sistem politik di Indonesia saat ini. Topik-topik termasuk peran agama (terutama agama Islam) dalam pengambilan kebijakan politik dan keterangan pemisahan kekuasaan (trias politica), yaitu kekuasaan eksekutif, legislatif dan yudikatif tersedia dalam bagian ini. Kini, Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu II (2009-sekarang) sedang memimpin Indonesia sampai dengan tahun 2014, di mana pemilihan parlemen dan presiden baru akan diselenggarakan.

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Masa Prakolonial

Sumber-sumber menunjukkan bahwa Nusantara berisikan berbagai entitas politik sejak awal sejarah. Entitas ini berevolusi dari pusat politik di sekitar perorangan di mana kepemimpinannya diwujudkan dalam diri seseorang yang mempunyai ketrampilan tertentu dan kharisma dan juga menyatakan diri sebagai seseroang yang mirip Tuhan dan mempunyai kekuatan supernatural serta didukung oleh tentara dan rakyat yang membayar upeti kepada raja.

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Masa Penjajahan

Kedatangan bangsa Eropa yang tertarik dengan potensi menjanjikan yaitu perdagangan rempah-rempah adalah salah satu titik balik utama dalam sejarah kepulauan. Memiliki teknologi yang lebih canggih dan persenjataan baru di tangan, orang Portugis dan khususnya orang Belanda, berhasil menjadi pemegang kekuatan ekonomi dan politik yang berpengaruh dan mampu mendominasi kepulauan ini serta mulai menciptakan kerangka politik dan batas-batas baru.

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Orde Lama Soekarno

Soekarno, presiden pertama Indonesia, adalah ikon perjuangan nasionalis yang melawan para penjajah. Akan tetapi setelah kemerdekaan dicapai, ia memiliki tugas berat untuk memimpin sebuah negara baru yang masih memiliki trauma dari masa lalu dan konflik kekuatan politik dan sosial di masa kini. Ternyata politisi generasi muda yang tidak berpengalaman kesulitan membimbing negaranya. Keadaan itu memuncak dalam kekacauan pada pertengahan tahun 1960.

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Orde Baru Suharto

Suharto, presiden kedua Indonesia, berhasil mengambil kekuasaan pada tahun 1960an di tengah perbergolakan yang ada. Pemerintah Orde Baru memerintah Indonesia selama lebih dari tiga puluh tahun dan pemerintahan itu ditandai oleh perkembangan ekonomi (yang mengakibatkan pengurangan kemiskinan yang mengesankan) tetapi juga oleh penindasan dan korupsi. Namun, ketika ekonomi domestik -dasar legitimasi kekuatannya- runtuh pada tahun 1990an, Suharto cepat kehilangan kendali kekuasaan.

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Reformasi

Setelah berada di bawah pemerintahan otoriter selama tiga puluh tahun lebih, politik Indonesia mengalami proses pembaruan untuk memberikan kekuatan lebih banyak kekuasaan dan politik kepada masyarakat Indonesia. Periode baru ini dikenal sebagai periode Reformasi. Tak hanya ditandai oleh perubahan struktural (seperti desentralisasi kekuasaan ke daerah dan pembatasan kekuasaan presiden), tetapi juga ditandai oleh kesinambungan (misalnya korupsi, kemiskinan dan pengelompokan modal di kalangan atas).

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Kabinet Sekarang

Bagian ini menampilkan daftar anggota kabinet presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono yang dinamai Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu II yang diresmikan pada tanggal 22 Oktober 2009 dan akan memerintah sampai tahun 2014, saat pemilu baru akan diadakan. Presiden Yudhoyono tidak akan diizinkan untuk berpartisipasi dalam pemilihan presiden baru pada tahun 2014 karena konstitusi membatas kepresidenan sampai dua kali masa jabatan (masing-masing lima tahun).

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Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu II (2009-kini)

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:18:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's second United Indonesia Cabinet (2009-present) consists of 34 ministries and three ministerial-level officials. This cabinet constitutes a broad-based coalition between six political parties:

• Democrat Party (PD)
• Golkar
• National Mandate Party (PAN)
• United Development Party (PPP)
• Prosperous Justice Party (PKS)
• National Awakening Party (PKB)

Each of these parties deliver a number of ministers but approximately half of all ministers are 'professionals' (technocrats) with an academic background, and who are not affiliated with any political party. Technocrats usually enjoy more popular support in Indonesia as politicians from political parties are often associated with perceived and wide-spread political corruption.

Modifications of cabinet composition since 2012:

On 13 June 2012, it was announced that Nafsiah Mboi will be appointed as the new Health minister after her predecessor Endang Rahayu Sedyaningsih had past away on 2 May 2012.

On 7 December 2012, Andi Mallarangeng stepped down as Minister of Youth and Sport Affairs because of his alleged involvement in the "Hambalan corruption case". He is replaced by Roy Suryo.

On 21 May 2013, Chatib Basri (former head of the BKPM) was installed as Indonesia's new Finance Minister. Former Finance Minister Agus Martowardojo resigned in March 2013 to become Governor of Bank Indonesia (per 23 May 2013).

United Indonesia Cabinet II

President	Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
Vice President	Boediono

Ministries

Political, Legal and Security Affairs	Djoko Suyanto
Economy	Hatta Rajasa
People’s Welfare	Agung Laksono
State Secretary	Sudi Silalahi
Home Affairs	Gamawan Fauzi
Foreign Affairs	Marty Natalegawa
Defense	Purnomo Yusgiantoro
Justice and Human Rights	Amir Syamsuddin
Finance	Chatib Basri
Energy and Mineral Resources	Jero Wacik
Industry	Muhammad Sulaeman Hidayat
Trade	Gita Wirjawan
Agriculture	Suswono
Forestry	Zulkifli Hasan
Transportation	Evert Ernest Mangindaan
Fishery and Maritime	Syarif Cicip Sutarjo
Manpower and Transmigration	Muhaimin Iskandar
Public Works	Djoko Kirmanto
Health	Nafsiah Mboi
Education and Culture	Muhammad Nuh
Social Affairs	Salim Segaf Al-jufri
Religious Affairs	Suryadharma Ali
Tourism and Creative Economy	Mari Elka Pangestu
Communication and Information	Tifatul Sembiring
Research and Technology	Gusti Muhammad Hatta
Cooperatives and Small and Medium Enterprises	Syarifuddin Hasan
Environment	Balthasar Kambuaya
Woman Empowerment and Children Protection	Linda Amalia Sari Gumelar
State Administrative Reform	Azwar Abubakar
Development of Disadvantaged Regions	Ahmad Helmy Faishal Zaini
National Development Planning	Armida Alisjahbana
State-Owned Enterprises	Dahlan Iskan
Public Housing	Djan Faridz
Youth and Sports Affairs	Roy Suryo

Non-Cabinet Key Positions

State Intelligence Agency (BIN)	Marciano Norman
National Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM)
Presidential Working Unit for Development, Supervision and Oversight	Kuntoro Mangkusubroto
Governor of Bank Indonesia	Agus Martowardojo
Chamber of Commerce & Industry	Suryo Bambang Sulisto

Reformasi

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:16:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

When president Suharto left office in May 1998 it marked the beginning of a new period in Indonesian history. After being under the rule of Suharto's authoritarian New Order regime for more than three decades, Indonesia embarked for a new phase called Reformation (Reformasi in Indonesian). It was envisaged to be the starting period of a democracy with open and liberal politics in which extensive autonomy would be transferred to the regions, away from the center (decentralization). The basis of this transition was formulated in a law which passed parliament in 1999 and called for the transfer of administrative powers from the central government to the regional districts. The role of the central government was to be confined to matters connected to defence, foreign policy, fiscal-monetary and macroeconomic policy, justice and religion. Not less important was that the regions would receive a larger share of revenues from the regional production of natural resources. However, as not every region is blessed with abundant natural resources, it increased the gap between richer and poorer regions. Along with power, corruption was also decentralized to the regional level where so-called shadow states emerged in which the regional elite is in control of power, business and money flows. One of the victims is the environment. In exchange for large sums of money, logging permits were granted on a large scale.

The process of decentralization was also accompanied by regional violence entrenched with ethnic or religious aspects because of the emergence of competition for local political positions in conjunction with a revival of regional identities. For more information on this topic, please visit the Ethnic and Religious Violence section.

The Bacharuddin Habibie Administration (1998-1999)

Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, vice president during Suharto's last presidential term, replaced Suharto in 1998 when the latter stepped down from the presidency. But this did not mean an end to the political system that had been applied during the New Order. Many Indonesians were highly suspicious of Habibie because of his closeness to Suharto (who had been a father figure to Habibie) and the fact that he had been an important player in Suharto's political patronage system. Habibie's refusal to order a thorough investigation into Suharto's accumulated wealth only strengthened this distrust.

Habibie had no other option than to launch the reform program. It would have been political suicide if he did not comply with demands of the Indonesian public. During Habibie's presidency thirty new laws were approved by the parliament (MPR), some of which characterized by fundamental breaks with the political past. A number of noteworthy reforms were:

• Introduction of freedom of the press
• Allowing the establishment of new political parties and unions
• Release of political prisoners
• Limiting the presidency to two terms of five years
• Decentralization of power to the regions

Another important decision was to schedule new general elections, to be held in June 1999. Parliament had no intention yet, however, to reduce political influence of the army and to order an investigation into Suharto's wealth.

Indonesia entered a period of increasing violence in the regions. East Java was plagued by mysterious killings (perhaps led by army units) while religious violence flared up in Jakarta, Ambon (Moluccas), Kupang (West Timor) and West Kalimantan. Moreover, three regions rebelled against the central authorities: Aceh (Sumatra), Irian Jaya (Papua) and East Timor. It caused an environment in which foreign investors were hesitant to invest, thus holding back economic recovery for the country. Not less important was the sanitation of the Indonesian financial sector, which had been the heart of the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s. The Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA), set up in January 1998, became a powerful agency that undertook an integrated and comprehensive series of activities consisting of matters such as bank liability programs, the recovery of state funds, bank restructuring, bank loan restructuring, and shareholders settlements.

The East Timor case was one that caused much conflict, both nationally and internationally. East Timor had declared independence in 1975 but was invaded by Indonesia the following year. This did not end its desire for independence. Habibie had an open-minded stance towards East Timor's independence. He stated that if East Timor rejects the special status of autonomous province within Indonesia, it can become independent. This statement of Habibie was not agreed upon by the Indonesian army that fiercely wanted to prevent separation from Indonesia. According to the army East Timor's separation was dangerous for Indonesian unity as it could lead to a domino effect in the other provinces. It was decided that the people of East Timor could express themselves on this matter through a referendum. The outcome of this referendum was that 78 percent of the voters chose for independence. The Indonesian army subsequently reacted by ravaging much of East Timor, killing more than one thousand people.

Habibie's reputation was severely damaged by losing control over the situation in East Timor. Although it were army units and civilian militias that committed the extreme violence, Habibie was personally held responsible being acting president. Moreover, Habibie himself became linked to a big corruption scandal involving Bank Bali. This bank received funds from the IBRA for its recapitalization but -allegedly- almost half of these funds were used for Habibie's campaign team.

Elections of 1999

After 1955 the Indonesian people were forced to wait for 44 years to witness another example of free and fair parliamentary elections. In this election people voted for a political party, not for an individual. Since there were no limitations on the establishment of political parties as part of the reform program, Indonesia had witnessed the mushrooming of many such parties. No less than 48 parties were allowed to participate in the elections of 1999, although most of these parties would play an insignificant role. In modern Indonesian politics a political party can be regarded as a political vehicle for its leader instead of an institution that expresses a shared ideology or vision; and only a few people could count on public support during the 1999 elections.

One of these people was Megawati Soekarnoputri, daughter of Indonesia's first president Soekarno. She had established a new party PDI-P (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan) in 1998 after being outcasted from the PDI in 1996. Due to her father's legacy and her opposition to the New Order towards the end of Suharto's rule, she enjoyed widespread popularity (especially on the islands of Java and Bali). Similar to her father, she stressed national unity and propagated secular nationalism. Another popular national figure was Abdurrahman Wahid who had founded the PKB (Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa) in 1998. Previously, he worked as chairman of the biggest Muslim organization in Indonesia, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), but now set his eyes on the presidency. Wahid propagated a sort of tolerant nationalism and could rely on popular support from the traditional Muslim community (mostly on Java). Habibie, acting president, fostered ambitions to maintain his position. Although not enjoying much popularity, he could rightfully claim that he launched the reform program and could benefit from Golkar's powerful political machine which stretched up to the village level. Lastly, Amien Rais, exponent of opposition against Suharto's New Order, joined the race with his PAN (Partai Amanat Nasional).

An important matter during these elections was that seats in parliament would be divided in half. The island of Java received half of the seats while the other half would go to all other islands. This was done as a measure to lessen Java's dominant position in politics. But as Java is much more densely populated than Outer Java, it basically implied that a non-Javanese vote was more powerful than a Javanese one. This situation would have far reaching consequences for the results in this election.

**Parliamentary Election 1999**
	1999
PDI-P	34%
Golkar	22%
PKB	13%
PPP	11%
PAN	7%

Around 90 percent of the Indonesian electorate came to cast their vote on 7 June 1999. As could be expected, the PDI-P received most of the votes (34 percent) with Golkar coming in second (22 percent). However, these two parties were allocated almost a similar amount of seats in the parliament as the PDI-P received most of the votes from Java, while Golkar enjoyed most votes from the Outer Islands.

In October Habibie had to deliver an accountability speech in front of the parliament. This speech was a report regarding his performance as president and the performance of policies during his presidency. His speech was rejected by a majority of the members of parliament. After this rejection Habibie decided to renounce his bid for the presidency in 1999. This meant that there were now just two persons who enjoyed significant political support to become the next president of Indonesia: Megawati and Wahid. In another session the Indonesian parliament eventually chose Wahid as the new president. Megawati became the new vice president and Rais was elected as chairman of the parliament.

The Abdurrahman Wahid Presidency (1999-2001)

In order to establish a broad based coalition Wahid appointed members from many political parties as well as army officers as ministers to his cabinet. But this diverse composition also implied a lack of cohesion within the cabinet and, moreover, it contained few reformers. Wahid did put effort in reducing the political role of the army but this led to conflict and the subsequent loss of support from the army. Without army support there were few means to survive for the president as Indonesia was plagued by conflicts and violence in the regions. These regional outbursts needed army intervention but due to the conflict with Wahid the army did not seem to have any interest in settling or interfering, resulting in the undermining of Wahid's presidency.

Corruption cases still seemed to be the rule rather than the exception. In his first year as president, Wahid sacked seven ministers who were all involved in alleged corruption cases. Four of these ministers belonged to the four most important coalition partners: PDI-P, Golkar, PPP and PAN. This meant that Wahid became even more isolated. And - even more serious - Wahid himself also became linked to two corruption scandals which eventually led to his impeachment. These two scandals were called 'Buloggate' and 'Bruneigate', each involving the abstraction of public funds. Indonesian parliament saw this as a great opportunity to impeach Wahid and Megawati was subsequently appointed as the new president, while Hamzah Haz (leader of the PPP) became the new vice president.

The Megawati Soekarnoputri Presidency (2001-2004)

Towards the end of Suharto's New Order rule, the late Soekarno (Indonesia's first president) became a symbol of opposition to the government. Soekarno was the national hero who had devoted his life to - and succeeded in - reaching independence. Most of the anti-Suharto protesters were born during the New Order regime which lasted for more than three decades and therefore probably had rudimentary knowledge only of the pre-Suharto era. But for them Soekarno represented freedom, an independence from Suharto. Therefore it was only logical that his daughter, Megawati, could count on much support among the people. But this support was based on her status as daughter of Soekarno only and not based on her political vision nor skills. Her cabinet did not differ markedly from Wahid's initial cabinet: it contained a broad parliamentary basis and army officers were well represented. Megawati herself did not do a lot of decision making, which she left to her ministers. There were no signs that corruption was dealt with while the status quo in the government remained.

But although Megawati herself did not seem highly supportive of political reforms, the reform process had in fact already been initiated in 1999 when parliament commenced designing new laws (including constitutional amendments) which would become effective during Megawati's presidency. These reform measures implied a significant increase in democratic checks and balances which put an end to the possibility of an authoritarian regime. It placed power in the hands of the people instead of the government. Moreover, the executive and legislative branches were separated more strictly.

Megawati's predecessor made strong efforts to reduce the influence of the army (which actually undermined his position) but Megawati herself had no intention to mingle with army affairs. As a consequence the army would regain some influence in politics. International developments also enlarged the role of the Indonesian army. After the 9/11 attacks on the Twin Towers in New York, the American government resumed cooperation with the Indonesian army (which had been halted since the army's participation in violence in East Timor in 1999) to combat international terrorism. Although parliament had been careful in reducing the political role of the army, it was the commander-in-chief of the army himself who stated that by 2004 army fractions in the parliament should be eliminated; a military officer who wanted to become active in politics would have to resign from his military position first. These reforms were realized but did not mean an end to political influence of the army in Indonesian society. To this day the army is a strong force as former generals who are active in politics can still rely on a network within the army and, moreover, the army is still entangled in business activities in the regions.

Elections of 2004

Parliamentary election

In April 2004 approximately 84 percent of the Indonesian electorate (constituting around 113,5 million people) casted their vote for national parliament. Contrary to the election in 1999, this time Indonesians could vote for specific candidates of a party which brought forward a more personal element in the election. In this election the two biggest parties of the previous election, to wit Golkar and PDI-P, lost their absolute majority. The PDI-P tumbled, as could be expected, from 34 percent to 19 percent as the Indonesian people were not satisfied with Megawati's presidential performance that seemed to lack vision and leadership while corruption within her party was growing. Golkar, that had proved to be able to survive without the support of Suharto and the army, maintained their share of the votes (22 percent), although they had expected to do better.

But two newcomers, both not having participated in the 1999 elections, drew attention. The first one being the Prosperous Justice Party (Partai Keadilan Sejahtera, abbreviated PKS), a party which places great emphasis on the role of Islam in public life. It received seven percent of the votes in the 2004 election. The second one being the Democratic Party (Partai Demokrat, abbreviated PD). This party was the political vehicle of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (often referred to as SBY), the Coordinating Minister of Political and Security Affairs in Megawati's cabinet. Yudhoyono had hoped to become vice president in 2001 but lost out to Hamzah Haz. Having high political aspirations of his own and the support of a small group of intellectuals around him (who set up the PD especially for him), Yudhoyono seemed to be a potential prospective president candidate for the 2004 elections. This bothered president Megawati and caused a riff between the two. In early 2004 Yudhoyono left the Megawati cabinet, a decision which gave him great public sympathy. The PD received just over seven percent of the votes, enabling Yudhoyono to participate in the upcoming presidential elections of 2004 (a party needed a minimum of five percent to be authorized to nominate a candidate for the presidency).

**Parliamentary Election 2004**
	2004	1999
PDI-P	19%	34%
Golkar	22%	22%
PKB	11%	13%
PPP	8%	11%
PD	7%	-
PKS	7%	-

Presidential election

In July 2004 the Indonesian people went to the ballot boxes for the presidential elections. The winner of this election would require an absolute majority, therefore it seemed likely that a second round would be needed in which the top two of the first round compete each other. Due to the fact that the president and vice president participate in this election as an inseparable couple, its composition is of strategic importance. Yudhoyono (PD), leading in the speculative polls, teamed up with Jusuf Kalla (a businessman from Eastern Indonesia). Megawati (PDI-P) paired with Hasyim Muzadi (chairman of the Nahdlatul Ulama). Another pair that seemed to have a chance, although slight, was Wiranto (a former army general, nominated by Golkar) who was joined by Sallahudin Wahid (vice chairman of the National Human Rights Commission).

With 33.5 percent of the votes, less than expected, Yudhoyono and Kalla became the winners of the first round. On second place, thus entitled to contest in the second round, was the Megawati-Muzadi pair who received 26.5 percent of the votes. As expected, the second round was easily won by Yudhoyono with 60.5 percent and he was consequently inaugurated as Indonesia's new president on 20 October 2004.

**Presidential Election 2004**
	2004 (1st round)	2004 (2nd round)
Yudhoyono, Kalla	33.5%	60.5%
Megawati, Muzadi	26.5%	39.5%
Wiranto, Wahid	22.0%	-
Rais, Yudho Husodo	14.5%	-
Haz, Gumelar	3.0%	-

The Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Government I (2004-2009)

The Democratic Party (PD) was primarily established to function as Yudhoyono's political vehicle on his path towards the Indonesian presidency. It propagated democracy, pluralism and the professionalization of the army (Yudhoyono himself being a retired army general). But politics was not something new to Yudhoyono who was appointed chief of staff for social-political affairs (an army department) in 1997. At this position he showed his reformist nature when he presented the 'New Paradigm' which called for an end to direct military involvement in politics (through a gradual withdrawal from the national and regional parliaments) and called for a split between the army and police (this split was decided upon during Habibie's presidency and became effective during the Wahid administration). Later, Yudhoyono became minister of Mines and Energy during the Wahid presidency and coordinating minister for Legal, Political, and Security Affairs during Megawati's presidency. In both cases a fallout with the president led to his early departure. But he enjoyed popularity among the Indonesians due to his reformist ideas, his successful mediating in a number of regional violent conflicts, and his clean record of corruption (fighting corruption was in fact an important element in his campaigns prior to the elections).

From the start expectations were very high. Yudhoyono, being regarded as a strong and balanced character, took office with ambitious reformist ideals such as the toppling of corruption and terrorism, the strengthening of democracy and human rights, and the fostering of accelerated economic growth. Surely his ambitions were - realistically speaking - too high as Indonesia is a difficult country to reform within a timespan of a few years. A slow and inefficient bureaucracy, opposing forces throughout society and widespread corruption (especially on the regional level) make it difficult to implement policies effectively. As promised during his campaign period, around half of Yudhoyono's cabinet ministers consisted of non-partisan professionals, especially on positions concerning the economy, in order to encourage professionalization.

Yudhoyono's presidency is also characterized by disasters causing some people to label him the 'disaster president'. Most famous natural disaster is the horrific tsunami in Aceh which killed more than 200,000 people in Aceh in 2004. Other disasters were the earthquake in Bantul (Central Java) in 2006 killing 6,000 people, the Sidoarjo mud flow ruining hundreds of hectares in East Java as well as causing the evacuation of thousands of people, multiple floods in Jakarta triggering the evacuation of about half a million people in 2007 and, lastly, the Merapi volcano eruptions in 2010 which killed 353 people and caused the evacuating of 350,000 people.

A good achievement of the Yudhoyono administration is the fostering of strong macroeconomic fundamentals: foreign debt has declined impressively, foreign exchange reserves have improved and annual GDP growth has been satisfying. These strong fundamentals are what made Indonesia successfully sail through the global crisis of 2008-2009.

Elections of 2009

Parliamentary election

The parliamentary elections for the DPR (People’s Representative Council) and DPD (Regional Representative Council), held on 9 April 2009, proved a clear victory for Yudhoyono's PD party (20.8 percent), while Golkar came in second (14.4 percent) and the PDI-P third (14.0 percent). Factors that contributed to this victory of the PD were massive cash programs to support the poor and declining food and fuel prices which contributed to the notion that the national economy was performing well. The public also considered Yudhoyono to be sincere in toppling corruption; the PD was known as the least corrupted political party.

A party (or a coalition of parties) winning more than 112 seats (twenty percent) in the 560-member DPR or winning at least 25 percent of the national vote was allowed to nominate a candidate for the presidency. This put Yudhoyono in a strong position for the upcoming presidential election. But controversy arose on the new parliamentary threshold which stipulated that only parties receiving more than 2.5 percent of the popular vote would be seated in the DPR. This was a big disadvantage for the smaller parties.

An interesting outcome in this election was an increasing preference for secular-nationalist parties over Islamic or Islamist parties. The total of Islamic parties combined received 27.8 percent of the votes only, indicating a continuing declining trend compared to previous elections (38.1 percent in 2004).

**Parliamentary Election 2009**
	2009	2004	1999
PD	20.8%	7.5%	-
Golkar	14.5%	21.6%	22.4%
PDI-P	14.0%	18.5%	33.7%
PKS	7.9%	7.3%	1.4%
PAN	6.0%	6.4%	7.1%

Presidential election

There were three pairs that ran for presidency and vice presidency in the presidential election of 2009. First of all acting president Yudhoyono whose PD party had won the parliamentary election and who was entitled for one more term as president. He chose Boediono as his running mate for the vice presidency. Boediono, an economist, was not affiliated to any political party and had been Governor of Bank Indonesia (the central bank) and coordinating minister for Economic Affairs during Yudhoyono's first cabinet. The second pair that run for office consisted of Golkar's Jusuf Kalla (Yudhoyono's former vice president) who partnered with former army general Wiranto (who had been accused of human rights abuses in East Timor). And lastly, Megawati joined the race again. This time she chose Prabowo as her running mate. Prabowo, also a former army general was son-in-law to Suharto and is believed to have been responsible for violence against anti-Suharto intellectuals and students, as well as against the ethnic Chinese community in Jakarta, during the riots in 1998.

Without having to need a second round this time, Yudhoyono and Boediono won the presidential election with an absolute majority (60.8 percent). The international community regarded this as an important element for maintaining political stability in Indonesia. The Megawati-Prabowo pair received 26.8 percent of the votes, while Kalla-Wiranto came in third with 12.1 percent.

**Presidential Election 2009**
	2009
Yudhoyono, Boediono	60.8%
Megawati, Prabowo	26.8%
Kalla, Wiranto	12.1%

The Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Government II (2009-2014)

On 22 October 2009 the inauguration of the Second United Indonesia Cabinet took place. This cabinet was a coalition between the PD, Golkar and the four Islamic parties PKS, PAN, PKB and PPP. Besides appointing ministers from all these six parties, Yudhoyono also placed quite some professionals (non-partisan figures) on key ministry posts such as the ministries of Home Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Trade, National Education and Health. Only two former army generals were appointed.

But despite strong macroeconomic indicators, popular support for Yudhoyono has begun to erode. Yudhoyono did not meet expectations in toppling corruption, an important campaign slogan of his party. High corruption cases involving government staff made frequent headlines. More severely, the PD itself became deeply involved in corruption scandals when several of its members, including party treasurer Muhammad Nazaruddin, were accused and trialled for the 2011 Southeast Asian Games graft case in which - allegedly - bribes were paid connected to the construction of the athletes’ village. These scandals severely harmed both Yudhoyono's and his party's popularity.

According to many Indonesians the emergence of graft cases within the PD is a sign of Yudhoyono's weak leadership. On other subjects Yudhoyono is regarded to act weak as well. Many reform-minded Indonesians were disappointed when he did not back reformist Finance minister Sri Mulyani Indrawati when she - together with vice president Boediono - were criticized for mishandling a bank bailout case in 2008. Sri Mulyani moved to the World Bank Group where she started working as a managing director. Most people assume, however, that her early departure was connected to pressures from certain political forces with major business interests as her reform policies had led to conflicts with these interests. Another supposed weakness in Yudhoyono's leadership concerns his slow and unconvincing condemnation of violent attacks on minority religions, such as the Ahmadiyya killings in February 2011 when an Islamist mob killed members of the small local Ahmadiyya Islamic sect in the province of Banten.

The future of the PD remains uncertain. Popular support is declining fast and as Yudhoyono is not allowed to participate in the 2014 elections, a new candidate(s) for the party's leadership is needed but is yet to be found.

Orde Baru Suharto: Pembangunan Indonesia di Bawah Sistem Otoriter

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:15:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

Suharto (1921-2008), Indonesia's second president, came to power amid a period of exceptional crisis and bloodshed. His predecessor, Soekarno, had created a highly dangerous antagonistic government composition consisting of nationalists, communists and religious fractions. Another side eager to retain political power, the army, managed to become more influential in politics during the 1950s when it had to break down a number of revolts that threatened to disintegrate Indonesia. Together these four sides were highly distrustful towards each other, culminating in the tragedies of the mid 1960s when a group of leftist officers, allegedly influenced by the communist PKI party, committed a pre-emptive coup against seven top army officers who, allegedly, wanted to topple president Soekarno. Suharto, a high officer who took control over the army during these chaotic days, blamed the coup on the PKI and during the subsequent months hundreds of thousands of communists were slaughtered on Sumatra, Java and Bali. Although much of the facts will remain unknown, it became clear that General Suharto emerged as the strong power out of the chaos in the mid-1960s.

The Transfer of Power; the Old Order Becomes the New Order

On 11 March 1966 Indonesia was still in a state of total shock and chaos. On that particular day president Soekarno was pressured into signing a decree in which army officer Suharto received full power to guarantee security, calm and stability in the country. This decree became known as the Supersemar document and meant the effective transfer of executive power from Soekarno to Suharto. Suharto then quickly banned the communist PKI party, started cleansing the army from leftist elements and began to expand the political role of the army in Indonesian society. Although still president, Soekarno's powers were reduced more and more until Suharto was formally named acting president in 1967 and inducted as Indonesia's second president in 1968. This marked the emergence of a new era which was called the 'New Order'. Policies quickly changed a rather rigorous course from the start of this New Order. Emphasis of the new government was put on economic development. Ties with the West, broken by Soekarno, were restored which enabled the flow of much needed foreign aid to reach Indonesia. Prudent fiscal management was introduced by the economic technocrats and the hostile and costly confrontation politics towards Malaysia were stopped.

Suharto's next step was the depoliticization of Indonesia. Cabinet ministers were not allowed to make their own policies but instead had to implement the policies that were formulated higher up. Golkar (acronym for Golongan Karya, or functional groups) was used as Suharto's powerful parliamentary vehicle. It contained several hundreds of smaller functional groups (such as labour unions, peasants and businesses) which made sure that the Indonesian people were no longer to be mobilized by political parties. Golkar was developed into an electoral machinery to produce a majority for the government. It had a network up to the village districts and was financially sponsored to promote the central government. Civil servants were obliged to support Golkar while village heads received quotas of Golkar votes to fill. These policies resulted in a big victory for Golkar during the 1971 elections. To extend his grip on politics even further, Suharto 'encouraged' the nine political parties that existed to merge into two. Firstly, the United Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, abbreviated PPP) consisting of the Muslim parties and, secondly, the Indonesian Democratic Party (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia, abbreviated PDI) consisting of the nationalist and Christian parties. Political activities, however, were very much restricted to short campaign periods prior to national elections.

Intensifying Authoritarianism

From the early beginnings of the New Order, macroeconomic figures were impressive (a detailed account can be found in the New Order Miracle section). However, these economic policies also led to resentment by the Indonesian people as the government was considered to be too focused on attracting foreign investors. When big investment opportunities were given to Indonesians it were usually military officers or the small group of ethnic Chinese Indonesians who, although forming a small portion of the total population, were dominating the economy. Fed up with corruption, collusion and nepotism, thousands of people went to demonstrate in 1974 when the Japanese prime minister paid a visit to Jakarta. This demonstration turned into massive violent riots which became known as the 'Malari-riots'. It was a frightening experience for the government because it proved unable to control the people. Concerned that one day there might be an uprising among the millions of urban and rural poor, new (more repressive) policies were implemented by the government. Twelve newspapers were closed and journalists detained without trial, thus stimulating self-censorship. Any dissent expressed by the public (such as demonstrations) were now quickly act upon. The economic side of this policy shift - much to the approval of the Indonesians - was the introduction of more restrictive measures on foreign investment and preferential policies favouring indigenous businessmen.

In national politics Suharto managed to tighten his position in the 1970s. The oil booms made sure that money was abundant, which was used for financing progress with the development of the country's infrastructure and poverty alleviation programs. Internationally, however, Indonesia's standing was weakened by its invasion of East Timor. After decolonization from Portugal - and East Timor's subsequent declaration of independence in 1975 - the Indonesian army quickly invaded the country; an invasion marked by violence.

In 1984 all social-political organizations were decreed to declare the Pancasila (the five principles that form the foundation of the Indonesian state, introduced by Soekarno in the 1940s) as their sole ideology. Suharto could now use the Pancasila as a tool for repression because all organizations were under continuous threat of being accused of anti-Pancasila activities.

It can be stated that during the 1980s Suharto was on the pinnacle of his power. Each election implied an easy victory. Moreover, he had succeeded in making the army powerless. Similar to the political parties and civil service, the army was there only to implement Suharto's policy. But this depoliticization of Indonesian society had one important side effect. It caused the revival of an Islamic consciousness, especially among the youth. As the political arena was closed territory, the Muslims saw Islam as a safe alternative. Complaints regarding the government were discussed in mosques and filled the sermons as it was too risky to speak out at demonstrations (which were curbed anyway). This Muslim revival would cause another policy shift in the early 1990s.

Shifting Focus to Islam

As Islamic forces have always been strong throughout Indonesia's history, Muslim leaders of organizations such as the Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) have had more room than others to criticize Suharto. When Islam became a political alternative to express resentment, Suharto (himself a nominal Muslim) began to take a new approach towards the Islam in the early 1990s. This included his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1991, more 'Islam-friendly' officers in the top ranks of the army and the establishment of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in 1990. ICMI was set up as a sounding board for Muslim input into public policy rather than being a mass-based political vehicle. Among its membership were critical non-government Muslim leaders and cabinet members. All these measures combined did somewhat dilute criticism from the Muslim community.

Rising Opposition

During the course of the 1990s Suharto's New Order government began to run out of sync with an increasing assertive Indonesian society. This was partly due to its own success: impressive economic development had resulted in more Indonesians being educated and this group was frustrated at not having any influence on the political course of the country, while indigenous businessmen were frustrated at being empty-handed when large investment opportunities went to family members or close friends of Suharto. Starting from 1993 street demonstrations and protests started to become more frequent and not without success: a state-sponsored lottery was forced to withdraw after demonstrations by students and certain Muslim groups. Moreover, some government-backed officials were defeated during provincial elections. This showed the public that Suharto's regime was not invincible.

Another issue that had a negative impact on the position of the government was its meddling with the internal party politics of the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). Megawati Soekarnoputri (daughter of Soekarno) was elected as the chairperson of the PDI in 1993 to replace Suryadi. The government, however, did not recognize this decision and ordered a new election. Again, Megawati was elected and this time it was ratified at the PDI congress. Megawati, increasingly critical of Suharto's regime, was seen as a real threat by the government due to the status of her father. The government therefore backed Suryadi in yet another congress in which Megawati was not invited to participate. It then resulted in Suryadi's re-election as chairman but Megawati, obviously, refused to acknowledge the result of this congress. It subsequently led to a schism in the PDI as well as violent clashes at its headquarters in Jakarta. Society at large was frustrated that Suharto meddled with the internal affairs of the PDI, especially because it involved a daughter of Soekarno.

The Collapse of Suharto's New Order

The legitimacy of Suharto's authoritarian rule lay primarily in the economic development that took place during its reign. From despair in the mid-1960s, rapid industrialization had turned Indonesia into a promising country. Influential international institutions (such as the World Bank) labelled Indonesia as an 'East Asian Miracle' in the early 1990s. Other phrases that were used by international institutions to describe Indonesia's economic performance were 'Asian Tiger' and 'High Performing Asian Economy' (HPAE). Of course, the international community was also aware about the fact that human rights were not always respected by the authorities in the country. But, ironically, its suppressive nature was also key in alleviating millions of people out of poverty because there was little room for dissent in policy-making and policy implementation. In the mid-1960s more than 50 percent of the population was classified as poor, while in 1993 this number had been reduced to 13.5 percent of the population. Other social indicators (such as school enrollment, infant mortality, life expectancy) showed similar positive results.

Suharto's style of rule was that of a political patronage system. In exchange for electoral (or financial) support, he would often buy off critics by providing them with good government positions or investment opportunities. But this preferential treatment was not confined to his critics only. During the last decade of Suharto's rule his children and close friends were able to set up huge business empires purely because of their closeness to Suharto. Although many Indonesians were frustrated at this high level of corruption, nepotism and collusion in government circles, the government could always point to its impressive economic progress while at the same time paying lip service to the people by claiming to take efforts to reduce corruption in the country. But this economic pillar of legitimacy vanished when the Asian Financial Crisis erupted in 1997-1998 (for a detailed account visit the Asian Financial Crisis section). Indonesia was the country that would be hit hardest by this crisis, snowballing from an economic crisis to a social as well as a political one. Much of its economic and social achievements were undone and the Indonesian people became determined to keep pushing for a new (Suharto-less) government. Jakarta was turned into a battlefield in which violent riots destroyed thousands of buildings, while more than one thousand people were killed. Suharto was soon politically isolated and had no other option than to resign from the presidency. On 21 May 1998 vice president Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, a close ally of Suharto, became Indonesia's third president. He had no other option than to comply with the Indonesian people's wishes and to usher in the era of Reformation.

Orde Lama Soekarno: Kelahiran Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:13:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

Soekarno (1901-1970), born in the East Javanese city of Surabaya during the colonial rule of the Dutch, was a leading nationalist who devoted his life to the struggle for independence of Indonesia. Although growing up in a traditional Javanese cultural environment (in combination with Balinese influences from his mother's side of the family), Soekarno was educated in the modern Dutch colonial schools. From a young age his major interest lay in reading books on the topic of philosophy, politics and socialism. When studying in Surabaya, Soekarno lived in the house of Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, the first leader of the Sarekat Islam (which would become an important movement for the nationalist awakening of Indonesia). Tjokroaminoto became Soekarno's political mentor and inspiration.

In 1927 Soekarno established and became leader of a political vehicle called the Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia, abbreviated PNI) which aimed for full independence of Indonesia. However, these subversive political activities resulted in his arrest and imprisonment by the repressive Dutch colonial regime in 1929. For Indonesians at that time Soekarno's imprisonment only strengthened his image as a national hero and freedom fighter. After his release Soekarno was in continuous conflict with the colonial authorities during the 1930s, resulting in multiple imprisonments. When the Japanese invaded the Dutch Indies in March 1942, Soekarno considered collaboration with the Japanese as the only means to reach independence successfully. A tactic which proved to be effective.

Today, the people of Indonesia highly respect and admire Soekarno, exponent of Indonesian nationalism, for devoting his life to Indonesian independence and for bringing a new political identity to the country.

The Difficult Birth of the Indonesian Nation

When Soekarno (Indonesia's first president) and Mohammed Hatta (first vice-president), two of the country's most prominent nationalists, pronounced the proclamation of Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, together with the publication of a short and provisional constitution, troubles were far from over. In fact, it would take four more years of Revolution against the Dutch who - after being freed from the Germans in Europe - returned to reclaim their colony. The Dutch were stubborn to relinquish their lucrative Southeast Asian colony but eventually had to face reality. Under international pressure they acknowledged Indonesian independence in 1949 (except for the western half of the island of New Guinea). However, negotiations with the Dutch resulted in the 'Republic of the United States of Indonesia' containing a Federal Constitution that was considered to be too much influenced by the Dutch. Therefore, it was quickly replaced by a new constitution in 1950 which stipulated a parliamentary system of government, provided guarantees for individual freedoms and made the military subordinate to the nation's civilian leadership. The president mainly had a ceremonial role only in this system.

Debates between several influential sides regarding the ideological basis of Indonesia and the organization of relations between organs of the state had begun even before the proclamation in 1945. The army, heroes of the Revolution, had always harboured political aspirations of their own. The 1950 Constitution, however, provided no political role for the army. Muslim representatives at the constitutional talks -although on other subjects not representing a homogeneous group- wanted Indonesia to become an Islamic state ruled by shariah law. But other sides felt that the establishment of an Islamic state would endanger the unity of Indonesia and might trigger revolts or calls for separatism as the country contains millions of non-Muslims. Much to the dismay of both Muslim groups and the army, the communist party PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia) made an impressive comeback. Being outlawed by the colonial authorities in 1927 for the organizing of revolts in West Java and West Sumatra, it gained much support in Central and East Java, becoming one of the most popular parties on a national scale. And lastly, there were the nationalists who stressed the need for individual rights against the state. Their party was the PNI (the political party version of the previously mentioned PNI movement, set up by Soekarno in 1927 that targeted for independence). This PNI party gained much popularity in the country.

Soekarno had to find a way to unite these diverse viewpoints. In June 1945 he revealed his view on Indonesian nationhood by proclaiming his Pancasila philosophy. Pancasila are the five principles that would become the foundation of the Indonesian state:

1. Belief in one supreme God
2. Justice and civility among peoples
3. Unity of Indonesia
4. Democracy through deliberation and consensus among representatives
5. Social justice for all the people of Indonesia

One lasting problem with uniting a highly pluralistic Indonesian society through the Pancasila, however, was the demand for an Islamic state by the Muslim parties. Initially a constitutional committee agreed to add a short addition to the first principle: 'Belief in one supreme God, with the obligation for adherents of Islam to implement the Islamic shariah law.' However, just before publishing the 1945 Constitution this addition (known as the Jakarta Charter) was dropped due to fears that it might provoke resentment in nominal and non-Muslim circles. Its omission would cause deep distrust towards the secular nationalists in stricter parts of the Islamic community.

Parliamentary Democracy

Indonesia's parliamentary democracy of the 1950s was characterized by instability. The underlying reason being the differences in viewpoints on the ideological basis of the country. This situation was to be reflected in Indonesia's first general elections. These elections took place in 1955 and are considered to be free and fair (and it would take more than 40 years before Indonesia witnessed another example of fair and free elections). The two big Muslim parties Masyumi and Nahdlatul Ulama (of which the latter had split off from the Masyumi in 1952) received 20.9 and 18.4 percent respectively. The nationalist PNI received 20.3 percent of the votes, while the communist PKI obtained 16.4 percent. This meant there was no workable majority for any party but instead governments had to be created by forming coalitions between various ideological streams. From 1950 to 1959 seven cabinets would take turns in rapid succession, each failing to make significant progress for the country.

Besides disagreement within the political elite in Jakarta, there were other problems that endangered the unity of Indonesia in the 1950s. The militant Darul Islam movement, which aimed to establish an Islamic state and used guerrilla-techniques to reach its goal, was winning territory in West Java, South Sulawesi and Aceh. This movement had already started during the colonial period but quickly redirected its focus towards the Soekarno government until it surrendered in 1962. Other subversive movements that made impact were the Universal Struggle Charter (Permesta) in North Sulawesi and the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) in West Sumatra. Both started in the late 1950s and confronted the central government with demands for political, economic and regional reform. These movements were led by regional military officers, supported by members of the Masyumi and the American Intelligence Agency (CIA) which regarded the popularity of the communist PKI party as a major threat. By using military force the central government managed to silence these movements in the early 1960s. Lastly, former members of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) proclaimed the Republic of the South Moluccas in 1950. Although being largely defeated by Indonesian forces in the same year, armed struggles continued until 1963.

Soekarno's Guided Democracy

Soekarno was aware that the period of liberal democracy was hampering Indonesia's development due to the ideological differences within the cabinets. The solution Soekarno proposed was named "Guided Democracy", meaning a return to the 1945 Constitution which foresaw a strong presidency with authoritarian tendencies. This way he had more power to realize his ideals. The army, which was unhappy with its insignificant influence in political matters up to that point, supported this reorientation. By 1958 Soekarno had already recognized the army as a 'functional group' meaning that they became agents in the political process but with the period of Guided Democracy its role in politics was about to increase.

In 1959 Soekarno ushered in the period of Guided Democracy. He disbanded parliament and replaced it with a new one in which half of the members were appointed by himself. Soekarno was also aware of the danger for his position if the army would become too strong. Therefore, he relied on the support of the communist PKI to counter-balance the army's power. Both the army and the PKI were members of his 'Nasakom' philosophy, an acronym referring to the union between the three most important ideological strands in Indonesian society in the 1950s and early 1960s to wit nationalism (nasionalisme), religion (agama), and communism (komunisme). These three components had little in common, in fact they harboured deep resentment towards each other. It was up to Soekarno's political skills, charisma and status to keep these components together.

Another feature of Soekarno's Guided Democracy was the anti-Western tone of his policies. He intensified efforts to take control over the western part of New Guinea. After some armed conflicts the Dutch gave the territory to the United Nations that subsequently gave it to Indonesia the following year. From 1962 to 1966 Soekarno masterminded the confrontation policy against Malaysia. He considered the establishment of the Federation of Malaysia, including Malaya, Singapore, and former British Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), as a continuation of colonial rule and launched an unsuccessful military campaign to crush Malaysia. Part of this confrontation policy was the withdrawal of Indonesia from the United Nations (UN) due to the UN's approval of Malaysia as a member state. In 1965 Soekarno continued cutting links with the capitalist Western world by withdrawing Indonesia from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Word Bank, meaning that much needed foreign aid would cease to flow to Indonesia. This worsened Indonesia's economic situation which had already reached extreme precarious levels by then.

The Mysterious Coup by the 30 September Movement

Tensions between the three components of Nasakom heightened. On 30 September 1965 it became clear just how dangerous the political cocktail was that Soekarno had created. On that evening six army generals and one lieutenant were kidnapped and killed by a group of leftist officers who called themselves the 30 September Movement. Allegedly, these murdered officers were planning a coup to topple Soekarno. However, there is no evidence that there would be a military coup against Soekarno. There is also no evidence that the communist PKI party was behind the pre-emptive strike to prevent the military coup. Yet, Suharto, head of the Strategic Reserve Command (Kostrad) who seized control over the army being the highest army commander after the killings of his superiors, immediately put the blame on the PKI. Soon communists and suspected communists were slaughtered, especially in the provinces of Central Java, East Java, Bali and North Sumatra. Estimates of victims vary between 400,000 and one million people. It is suspected that the killers of these communists were army units, civilian gangs (who received weaponry from army units) and the militant Ansor youth wing of the Nahdlatul Ulama. These Indonesian killings continued through 1965 and 1966. However, many issues surrounding the coup and subsequent anti-communist purges remain unclear until the present day and will probably never be known. After Suharto's New Order ended in 1998, Indonesians started to doubt the official explanation of the government which put the blame on the communists but this chapter in its history has not received profound attention in the public discourse of the country yet, except for a report made by the National Commission on Human Rights (Komnas HAM) in 2012 that labeled the communist purges as a gross human rights violation.

The coup and its aftermath also entailed dramatic political consequences for Soekarno. Indonesia was in a state of martial law which had put effective authority in the hands of General Suharto. During the next two years Suharto would slowly but decisively extend his powers and put Soekarno on the sideline. This marked the beginning of Suharto's New Order. Soekarno was put under house arrest in Bogor (West Java) where his health deteriorated until his death in 1970.

Masa Penjajahan Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:12:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

The colonial period of Indonesia did not immediately start when the Dutch first arrived in the archipelago at the end of the 16th century. Instead, it was a slow process of political expansion that took centuries to reach the territorial boundaries of present-day Indonesia.

During the course of the 18th century the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, abbreviated VOC) had established itself as the dominating economic and political power on Java after the crumbling and collapse of the Mataram empire. This Dutch trading company had been a major power in Asian trade since the early 1600s, but started to develop an interest to interfere in indigenous politics on the island of Java in the 18th century as that would improve their hold on the local economy. Mismanagement, corruption and fierce competition from the English East India Company, however, resulted in the slow demise of the VOC towards the end of the 18th century. In 1796 the VOC went bankrupt and was nationalized by the Dutch state. As a consequence its possessions in the archipelago passed into the hands of the Dutch crown in 1800. However, when the French occupied Holland between 1806 and 1815 these possessions were transferred to the British. After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo it was decided that most parts of the archipelago would return to the Dutch.

Architects of the Dutch Colonial State in Indonesia

Two names stand out as being architects of the new Dutch colonial state in Indonesia. Firstly, Herman Willem Daendels, Governor-General from 1808 to 1811 during the French occupation of Holland and, secondly, British Lieutenant Sir Stamford Raffles, Governor-General from 1811 to 1816 during the British occupation of Java. Daendels reorganized the central and regional colonial administration by dividing Java into districts (also known as residencies), each one headed by an European civil servant - called the resident - who was directly subordinate - and had to report - to the Governor-General in Batavia. These residents were responsible for a wide range of matters in their residency, varying from legal matters to the organization of agriculture. Raffles continued the reorganizations of his predecessor by reforming the judicial, police and administrative system of Java. He introduced the land-tax which meant that Javanese peasants had to pay tax, approximately the value of two-fifths of their annual harvests, to the authorities. Raffles also had a sincere interest in the cultures and languages of Java. In 1817 he published his The History of Java, one of the first academic works on the topic of Java. However, his administrative reorganizations meant an increasing intervention in Java's society and economy by foreigners, which is reflected by the growing number of middle ranked European officials working in the residencies. Between 1825 and 1890 this number increased from 73 to 190.

The Dutch system of rule in colonial Java was both direct and dualistic. Alongside the Dutch hierarchy, there existed an indigenous one which functioned as an intermediary between the Javanese peasants and the European civil service. The top of this indigenous structure consisted of the Javanese aristocracy, previously the officials that ran the Mataram administration. Now, however, they had to execute the will of the Dutch center.

The increasing Dutch dominance over Java did not come without resistance. When the colonial authorities decided to build a road on the land of prince Diponegoro (who was appointed as guardian of the throne of Yogyakarta after the sudden death of his half-brother), he rebelled, supported by a majority of the Javanese population in Central Java and turned it into a jihad war. This war lasted from 1825 to 1830 and resulted in the deaths of approximately 215,000 people, mostly on Javanese side. However, when the Java War was over - and prince Diponegoro captured - the Dutch were more dominant on Java than ever before.

The Cultivation System in Java

Competing British traders, the Napoleonic wars in Europe and the Java War implied a big financial burden on the Dutch kingdom's budget. It was decided that Java should become a major source of revenue for the Dutch and therefore Governor-General Van den Bosch ushered in the era of the Cultivation System in 1830. This system meant a Dutch monopoly on the cultivation of export crops on Java. Moreover, it were the Dutch who decided what kind of crops (and in what quantity) had to be delivered by the Javanese peasants. Generally it meant that Javanese peasants had to hand over one-fifth of their harvests to the Dutch. In return the peasants received an arbitrarily fixed compensation in cash which basically had no relation to the value of the crop on the world market. The Dutch and Javanese officials received a bonus when their residency delivered more crops than on previous occasions, therefore stimulating top-down intervention and oppression. On top of this compulsory cultivation of crops and traditional corvee-labor services, Raffles' land tax still applied as well. The Cultivation System turned out to be a financial success. Between 1832 and 1852 around 19 percent of total Dutch state income was generated from the Javanese colony. Between 1860 and 1866 this number reached around 33 percent.

Initially, the Cultivation System was not dominated by the Dutch authorities only. Javanese power holders and private European as well as Chinese entrepreneurs joined in as well. However, after 1850 - when the Cultivation System was reorganized - the Dutch colonial state became the dominant player. But these reorganizations also opened doors for private parties to start exploiting Java. A process of privatization commenced in which the colonial state gradually transferred export production to Western entrepreneurs.

The Liberal Period of Colonial Indonesia

More and more voices were heard in the Netherlands that rejected the Cultivation System and supported a more liberal approach for foreign enterprises. This rejection of the Cultivation System was both for humane and for economic motives. Around 1870 Dutch liberals had won their battle in Dutch parliament and successfully eliminated some characteristic features of the Cultivation System, such as the cultivation percentages and the compulsory use of land and labour for export crops. These liberals paved the way for the introduction of a new period in Indonesian history, known as the Liberal Period (circa 1870 to 1900). This period is marked by a huge influence of private capitalism on colonial policy in the Dutch Indies. The colonial state now more or less played the role of supervisor in relations between Western enterprises and the rural Javanese population. But - although liberals claimed that the benefits of economic growth would trickle down to the local level - Javanese farmers suffering from hunger, famine and epidemics were just as common as under the Cultivation System.

The 19th century is also known as the century in which the Dutch made substantial geographical expansion in the archipelago. Driven by the New Imperialism-mentality, European countries were competing for colonies outside the European continent for both economic motives and status. One important motive for the Dutch to expand its territory in the archipelago - apart from financial benefit - was to prevent other European countries from taking parts of this region. The most famous and prolonged battle during this period of Dutch expansion was the Aceh War that started in 1873 and lasted until 1913, resulting in the deaths of more than 100,000 people. The Dutch would, however, never have full control over Aceh. But the political integration of Java and the Outer Islands into a single colonial polity had largely been achieved by the start of the 20th century.

The Ethical Policy and Indonesian Nationalism

When the borderlines of the Dutch Indies began to take the shape of present Indonesia, Queen Wilhelmina made an announcement in her annual speech in 1901 informing that a new policy, the Ethical Policy, would be installed. The Ethical Policy (acknowledging that the Dutch had a debt of honour towards the Indonesians) was aimed at raising the living standards of the native population. The means to accomplish this was direct state intervention in (economic) life, promoted under the slogan ‘irrigation, education and emigration’. This new approach would, however, not prove to be a significant success in raising the living standards of Indonesians.

This Ethical Policy implied a profound side effect. Its educational component contributed significantly to the awakening of Indonesian nationalism by providing Indonesians the intellectual tools to organize and articulate their objections to colonial rule. The Policy provided a small Indonesian elite with Western political ideas of freedom and democracy. For the first time people began to develop a national consciousness as 'Indonesians'.

In 1908 students in Batavia founded the association Budi Utomo, the first native political society. This event is often regarded as the birth of Indonesian nationalism. It established a political tradition in which cooperation between the young Indonesian elite and the Dutch authorities was expected to lead to acquiring some degree of independence. The next chapter in the emergence of Indonesian nationalism was the founding of the first mass-based political party, the Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union) in 1911. Initially, it was formed to support the indigenous entrepreneurs against the dominating Chinese in the local economy but expanded its scope and developed a popular political consciousness with subversive tendencies. Other important movements that led to the unfolding of indigenous political thinking were the Muhammadiyah, an Islamic reformist socio-religious movement founded in 1912 and the Indonesian Association of Social Democrats, a communist movement founded in 1914 that spread Marxist ideas through the Dutch Indies. Internal disunity in this latter movement led to the formation of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in 1920.

Initially, the Dutch colonial authorities permitted the establishment of indigenous political movements but when Indonesian ideologies radicalized in the 1920s (as seen in the communist uprisings in West Java and West Sumatra in 1926 and 1927) the Dutch authorities changed course. A relative tolerant regime was replaced by a repressive one in which every suspected act of subversive behaviour was suppressed. This repressive regime in fact only worsened the situation by radicalizing the entire Indonesian nationalist movement. Part of these nationalists established the Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia, abbreviated PNI) in 1927 as a reaction to the repressive regime. Its goal was full independence for Indonesia.

Another important occasion for Indonesian nationalism was the declaration of the Youth Pledge in 1928. At this congress of youth organizations three ideals were proclaimed, to wit one motherland, one nation and one language. The main aim of this congress was to stimulate the feeling of unity between the young Indonesians. On this congress the future national anthem (Indonesia Raya) was played and the future national flag (merah-putih) was shown for the first time. The colonial authorities reacted with another act of suppression. Young national leaders, such as Soekarno (who would become Indonesia's first president in 1945) and Mohammad Hatta (Indonesia's first vice president) were arrested and exiled.

Japanese Invasion of the Dutch Indies

The Dutch were powerful enough to curb Indonesian nationalism by arresting its leaders and suppressing the nationalist organizations but never were they able to eliminate nationalist sentiment. The Indonesians, on the other hand, did not have the power to compete with the colonial rulers and therefore needed outside help to eliminate the colonial system. In March 1942 the Japanese, fueled by the desire for oil, provided such help by occupying the Dutch Indies. Although initially welcomed as liberators by the Indonesian population, soon they would experience the hardship of the Japanese rule: scarcity of food, clothing and medicines as well as forced labour under harsh conditions. The scarcity of food was mainly brought on by administrative incompetence, turning Java into an island of hunger. Indonesians working as forced labourers (called romusha) were stationed to work on labour-intensive construction projects on Java.

When the Japanese took over, Dutch officials were put in internment camps and were replaced by Indonesians to administer government tasks. The Japanese educated, trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice. This enabled the nationalists to prepare for a future independent Indonesian nation. In the final months before Japan's surrender, effectively ending World War II, the Japanese gave full support to the Indonesian nationalist movement. Political, economic and social dismantling of the Dutch colonial state meant that a new era was about to emerge. On 17 August 1945 Soekarno and Hatta proclaimed the independence of Indonesia, two days after the Nagasaki atomic bombing.

Masa Prakolonial Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:11:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

In the period before western European powers were able to control Southeast Asian soil and waters, there was no Indonesia. The archipelago we now know as Indonesia consisted of islands and estates ruled by various kingdoms and empires, sometimes living in peaceful coexistence while at other times being at state of war with each other. This vast archipelago lacked the sense of social and political unity that Indonesia has today. Integrated trade networks, however, were developing in this area starting from the early dawn of Asian history. Being connected to trade networks was an important asset for an empire to acquire wealth and commodities, necessary to become a powerful force. But the more global these trade networks in the archipelago became, the more foreign influences managed to enter; a development that would eventually lead to the colonial state.

The existence of written sources is what separates history from prehistory. As few written sources dating from before 500 AD have been preserved, the history of present Indonesia starts rather late. It is assumed that most writings were done on perishable material and - in combination with the tropical humid climate and low-quality conservation technique standards at the time - this means that historians have to rely on inscriptions on stone and the study of remnants of ancient temples to trace the archipelago's earliest history. These two approaches provide information regarding the old political structures as both literature and the construction of temples were samples of high culture reserved for the ruling elites.

A remarkable feature of Indonesian history is that it generally centers on the western part of the archipelago (in particular on the islands of Sumatra and Java). As most of the eastern part of the archipelago has been on the fringes of economic activity throughout history (located further away from main trade routes), it consequently has been on the fringes of politics as well; a situation that continues up to the present day.

The Impact of Hinduism and Buddhism in Indonesia

The earliest inscriptions found in the archipelago are known as the Kutai-inscriptions and originate from East Kalimantan, dated around 375 AD when the Kutai Martadipura kingdom ruled. These inscriptions were written in Sanskrit (the liturgical language of Hinduism) using the Pallava script, a script developed in Southern India around the third century AD. In these inscriptions three rulers of Kutai Martadipura are mentioned and they describe a ritual that is characteristic of archaic Hinduism. Approximately one century later, the first (known) stone is inscripted on Java. This inscription, also in Sanskrit, states king Purnavarman of the Tarumanagara kingdom (fourth to seventh century) in West Java and associates him with a Hindu deity (Vishnu). Together, these inscriptions show evidence of major influences from Indian Hinduism within the ruling elites of the first known indigenous ancient kingdoms in the archipelago.

However, trade contacts between present-day India and the archipelago are known to have been established centuries prior to the Kutai inscriptions. The Strait of Malacca, a sea lane linking the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean, has been the main shipping channel for seaborne trade between China, India and the Middle East since human memory. A large part of Sumatra's coastline is conveniently located next to this sea lane causing merchants between India and China to stop over here or on the other side of the Strait (present-day Malaysia) to wait for the right monsoon winds that would carry them further. But it is assumed that Hinduism and Buddhism were not spread to the archipelago by these Indian traders. More likely, kings and emperors in the archipelago were drawn to the prestige of the Brahmans (the Hindu priestly class which forms the highest ranking of the four social classes). These Brahmans, supposedly, introduced a new religion to the archipelago which enabled the indigenous kings to identify themselves with a Hindu deity or a Buddhist Bodhisattva (an enlightened mystical being), thereby replacing the ancestor worship that was adhered to previously. This new religious doctrine, therefore, implied more prestige for the kings. Empires in the archipelago that copied such Indian concepts were found on the islands of Kalimantan, Java, Sumatra and Bali.

Due to the strategic position of Sumatra's and Malaysia's coastline next to the Strait of Malacca it is hardly surprising that we find the first major influential state in Indonesian history on the coastal area of Sumatra, and stretching a wide geographical area around the strait. This state was called Srivijaya and ruled the trade routes connecting the Indian Ocean, the South Chinese Sea and the Spice Islands of the Moluccas between the 7th and the 13th century. Srivijaya will also be remembered as Southeast Asia's center for Buddhist studies with a major emphasis on the study of the Sanskrit language. From Chinese sources it is known that many Chinese Buddhist monks stayed in Srivijaya for more than a decade to pursue their study.

Hindu and Buddhist temple remnants dating from between the 8th and the 10th century indicate the ruling of two dynasties in Central Java. These were the Sailendra-dynasty (adherents of Mahayana Buddhism and most likely the dynasty that built the famous Borobudur temple nearby present-day Yogyakarta around 800 AD) and the Sanjaya-dynasty (adherents of Hinduism that built the temple complex of Prambanan around 850 AD not far from - and as a reaction to - the Borobudur temple). The slow demise of Srivijaya and the rise of these new powerful kingdoms on Java meant that political power was gradually turning away from Sumatra towards Java. But in the 10th century the lives of inhabitants in Central Java suddenly went unrecorded because of a lack of sources. It is assumed that a major volcano eruption shifted political power from Central to East Java where a number of new kingdoms developed. Two of these deserve special attention due to their legacy, namely Kediri (around 1042 to 1222) for its inscriptions and literary legacy, and its successor Singasari (between 1222 and 1292) for introducing a new chapter in Indonesian history, namely the syncretism of Hinduism and Buddhism. This new chapter found its peak in the East Javanese kingdom of Majapahit (1293 to around 1500), perhaps the greatest kingdom in the history of the archipelago which had a geographical area resembling the present- day boundaries of Indonesia (although it is still debated among scholars how much sovereignty this kingdom actually enjoyed outside of Java and Bali). Majapahit with its flourishing arts and literature is still an important concept and cause of national pride for Indonesians today as it is regarded as the basis of the modern state of Indonesia. The nationalist movement in the 20th century used this concept to justify both independence and the validity of territorial borders. Indonesia's national motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, meaning 'Unity in Diversity', originates from an Old Javanese poem written during the rule of Majapahit.

The Arrival of Islam in Indonesia

Although constituting a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom, Islamic influences were present as high up as the ruling elite of Majapahit. There probably has been an Islamic presence in maritime Southeast Asia from early on in the Islamic era when Muslim traders came to the archipelago, made settlements on the coastal areas, married local women and enjoyed respect due to their wealth acquired through trade. Some local rulers were probably drawn to this new faith and considered it to be advantageous to adopt the same faith as the majority of the traders. The establishment of Islamic kingdoms was the next logical step. It is assumed that subjects of these kings followed suit by converting to Islam.

Inscriptions on gravestones suggest that early on in the 13th century there existed an Islamic kingdom in the northern part of Sumatra called Pasai or Samudera. This kingdom is regarded to be the first Islamic kingdom in the archipelago. From northern Sumatra, Muslim influences subsequently spread eastwards through trade. On the northern coastline of Java multiple Islamic cities arose during the course of the 14th century. However, it is unlikely that some of the Javanese courtiers of Majapahit in East Java adopted the Islamic faith because of trade. They probably felt far more superior to the social class of traders. More likely this Javanese nobility was influenced by learned Muslim mystics (Sufis) and holy men claiming to possess supernatural powers.

In the late 14th and early 15th century the influence of Majapahit in the archipelago began to decline due to conflicts of succession and the rising powers of Islamic empires. A new trading state, Malacca, was one of these new powers. It rose on the coastal area in present-day Malaysia and was conveniently located on the narrowest part of the Strait of Malacca. This state became an enormously successful port with advantageous facilities in a wide trade network stretching from China and the Moluccas in the far east to Africa and the Mediterranean in the far west. Although initially Malacca was a Hindu-Buddhist state, it quickly transformed into a Muslim sultanate (probably due to trade-related reasons).

The historical link between trade and Islam is also visible in the developments on the island of Ternate in the present-day province of Maluku in eastern Indonesia. Ternate (similar to nearby located Tidore) became a wealthy region due to the production of cloves. From Java - and through trade - Islam spread to this region, resulting in the establishment of a sultanate in the late 15th century. This sultanate managed to rule a large part of eastern Indonesia but its position would be undermined by the Dutch in the 17th century.

The Arrival of Europeans in Indonesia

Stories about Malacca's wealth reached Europe and tempted the Portuguese, who were making technological advances in navigation, to sail to this part of the world in order to have more influence on the global spice trade network (and would make their yields higher). In 1511 Malacca was conquered by a Portuguese fleet under the leadership of Afonso de Albuquerque. This conquest, however, had far-reaching consequences for the trade routes. Malacca, once a wealthy port, quickly perished under the rule of the Portuguese who never succeeded in monopolizing Asian trade. After the conquest, traders immediately began to avoid Malacca and went to take their business to several other ports instead. Johor (Malaysia), Aceh (Sumatra) and Banten (Java) were states that began to dominate spice trade due to the shift in trade routes.

The Dutch were also keen on establishing a firm grip on the spice trade network in Southeast Asia. Their first expedition reached Banten in 1596 but was accompanied by hostilities between the Dutch and the indigenous population. After arriving back in the Netherlands, the expedition still showed a good profit which demonstrated that expeditions to the Southeast Asian region were in fact money-makers. Multiple expeditions organized by several Dutch companies went to the archipelago causing a negative impact on profits. Competition for spices was driving prices up in the archipelago while supply-increase was driving prices down in Europe. This made the Dutch government decide to merge the competing companies into one entity called the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, abbreviated VOC). It received far-reaching sovereign powers to monopolize the Asian spice trade as well as to exclude other European competitors. It decided to have its headquarters not in the Moluccas (the heart of the spice-producing islands) but more strategically nearby the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Sunda. Its choice fell on present-day Jakarta. In 1619 Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen established Batavia on the ashes of the town Jayakerta which was demolished because of its hostile attitude towards the Dutch. Batavia offered good commercial prospects evoking the immigration of many people (especially Chinese) to this expanding city.

Towards Colonial Rule of Indonesia

Meanwhile, Islamic states continued to develop in the archipelago. In Aceh (Sumatra) Sultan Iskandar Muda established a major power early in the 17th century, controlling the pepper and tin reserves. However, he never succeeded in establishing hegemony around the Strait of Malacca as Johor and the Portuguese were strong competitors. After Iskandar Muda's reign, Aceh experienced a long period of internal disunity ceasing it to be a significant force outside the northern tip of Sumatra. In Central Java two new strong Islamic powers emerged in the second half of the 16th century. These were the districts of Pajang and Mataram that, after a long struggle, managed to stop the political dominance of the coastal areas in northern Java. Mataram would become the most powerful and the longest lasting of the modern Javanese dynasties, with the reign of Sultan Agung as political pinnacle. Agung ruled from 1613 to 1646 and managed to conquer almost the entire surface of Java, except for the kingdom of Banten in West Java and the city of Batavia. Dutch control of Batavia was a thorn in the eye of Agung who wanted to control the whole surface of the island. On two occasions he sent his army to conquer this Dutch city but failed both times.

The VOC quickly extended its power in the archipelago and obtained control over the production of cloves and nutmeg on the Banda Islands (Moluccas) by using extreme measures such as genocide. It kept on expanding its network of trading posts throughout the archipelago. Cities and ports that played central roles in this Dutch trade network were Surabaya (East Java), Malacca (West Malaysia) and Banten (West Java). Even though the statutes of the VOC initially did not allow it to interfere with the internal politics of indigenous states, it became deeply entrenched in the politics of Mataram in Central Java. After Sultan Agung's death Mataram had quickly deteriorated and succession disputes emerged around the end of the 17th century and early 18th century. The Dutch played a divide and conquer game which eventually resulted in the division of the kingdom of Mataram in four parts with its rulers becoming subservient to the Dutch. Although the position of the Dutch was still rather weak outside the island of Java, these political developments on Java can be considered as the initial stages of Dutch colonialism in the archipelago.

Ikhtisar Struktur Politik Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 11:08:00 +0700

Teks ini hanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris

Indonesia is a secular country in the sense that its political policies are not necessarily derived from religious teachings and that it does not have a single state religion. Religion, however, does play a very important role in Indonesian society. Indonesian nationals are obliged to adhere to one of the religions that have been selected by the government (Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism), while atheism is not an option. Being the country that contains the largest Muslim population in the world, Islamic principles do play an important role in the nation's political decision making, but Indonesia is not a Muslim or Islamic state. Political decentralization in the post-Suharto era has brought more power to the regional governments and this development implied that regional decision-making has been more affected by the regional religious context. In strict Muslim areas, implemented policies can include the regional banning of pork business or the obligation for women to wear the headscarf, while in Christian regions (located mostly in eastern Indonesia) such policies seem impossible to be implemented. However, given the nation's clear Muslim majority and the dominance of (Muslim) Java in national politics, Indonesia - as a whole - is far more Islam oriented. To have a president that is non-Muslim, therefore, seems impossible. On the other hand, Indonesian Islam can generally be labelled 'moderate' as the majority of Indonesian Muslims consist of nominal Muslims. For example, when Megawati Soekarnoputri became the first female Indonesian president in 2001, only a small minority rejected her based on certain Islamic doctrine that women cannot take leading positions.

The Indonesian political system consists of three branches:

• Executive branch
• Legislative branch
• Judicial branch

The executive branch consists of the president, the vice president and the cabinet. Both the president and vice president are chosen by the Indonesian electorate through presidential elections. They serve for a term of five years that can be extended once by another term of five years when re-elected by the people. During these elections the president and vice president run as a fixed, inseparable pair, which implies that the composition of this pair is of great political strategic importance. Important matters that are of influence include ethnic (and religious) background and (previous) social position in Indonesian society. In terms of ethnicity and religion, a Javanese Muslim will enjoy more popular support as the majority of the Indonesian people consist of Javanese Muslims. In lower political positions (and depending on the regional religious context) political leaders that are non-Muslim are possible (for example, the current vice governor of Jakarta is Chinese-Christian Basuki Cahaya Purnama). With regard to (previous) social position in society there are a few categories that all enjoy popular support from part of the people. These categories include (retired) army generals, businessmen, technocrats and leading Muslim scholars. Therefore, to optimize chances of winning the election the president and vice president usually come from different social categories in order to grasp a larger share of the popular vote. For example, current president Yudhoyono (himself a retired army general) chose Boediono (a Javanese Muslim technocrat) as vice president in his presidential campaign of 2009. As Boediono is an experienced economist, it raised people's trust in the pair. Despite Indonesia's authoritarian past under Suharto, army generals who run for president can still count on much popular support in present Indonesia as they are considered being strong leaders.

After election, the new president appoints a cabinet that usually consists of members from his own party, the coalition partners and non-partisan technocrats. To see Indonesia's current cabinet composition, go here.

The legislative branch is the People’s Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, abbreviated MPR). It has the power to set or change the Constitution and appoints (or impeaches) the president. The MPR is a bicameral parliament that consists of the People’s Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, abbreviated DPR) and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, abbreviated DPD). The DPR, consisting of 560 members, draws up and passes laws, produces the annual budget in cooperation with the president and oversees the general performance of political affairs. It is elected for a five-year term through proportional representation based on general elections. Remarkably, this DPR is notorious due to the frequent occurrences of corruption scandals among its members. The DPD deals with bills, laws and matters that are related to the regions, thus increasing regional representation at the national level. Every Indonesian province elects four members to the DPD (who serve for a five-year term) on non-partisan basis. As Indonesia contains 33 provinces, the DPD consists of a total of 132 members.

The highest court in Indonesia's judiciary system is the independent Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung). It is the final court of appeal and also deals with disputes between lower courts. A new court, established in 2003, is the Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi), which monitors whether decisions made by the cabinet and parliament (MPR) are in line with the Indonesian Constitution. Most of the legal cases, however, are dealt with by the public courts, administrative courts, religious courts and military courts. A Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) oversees the maintenance of honour, dignity and behaviour of Indonesian judges. There are frequent reports that Indonesia's judiciary institutions are not free from corruption and are not fully independent from the other political branches.

SEJARAH KEBUDAYAAN INDONESIA

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Wed, 2 Oct 2013 10:54:00 +0700

Buku Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia (SKI) mengulas tahapan perkembangan kebudayaan Indonesia pada setiap periode. Perencanaan peluncuran buku ini dijadwalkan berbarengan dengan buku Sejarah Nasional Indonesia. Adapun waktunya masih menunggu konfirmasi kesiapan dari Presiden SBY yang akan didampingi oleh Menbudpar. Acara peluncuran buku ini sedianya akan diisi dengan pembahasan mengenai isi buku.
Pembahas
- Roger Tol, Direktur KITLV Jakarta
- Budayawan Dr. Muji Sutrisno
- Penulis Gunawan Muhammad
Moderator
Dr. Mukhlis PaEni, Sejarawan, Antropolog, Ketua MSI, dan Ketua Lembaga Sensor Film.
Team Redaksi:
- Endjat Djaenuderadjat (Direktur Geografi Sejarah)
- Triana Wulandari (Kasubdit Perkembangan Wilayah Sejarah)
- Dwiana Hercahyani (Kasi Perbatasan Wilayah)
- Tirmizi
- Dewaki Kramadibrata (Staf Pengajar FIB UI).
Ulasan singkat tentang Buku Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia.
1. Religi dan Falsafah
Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia (SKI) merupakan bahasan tahapan perkembangan kebudayaan Indonesia pada setiap periode. Kawasan Indonesia mempunyai banyak pulau yang dipisahkan oleh laut dan selat memiliki sejarah perkembangan budaya yang tidak seragam. Daerah yang berada dalam satu wilayah pun kadang mengalami perbedaan perkembangan kebudayaan. Beberapa penyebabnya adalah (1) perbedaan intensitas budaya asing yang masuk ke masing-masing daerah dan (2) perbedaan periode (lama waktu) intervensi budaya luar terhadap budaya lokal daerah. Dua faktor utama tersebut berperan dalam membentuk budaya Indonesia saat ini. Dalam perkembangannya, ada unsur yang melatari perkembangan unsur lainnya, yaitu unsur Religi. Unsur tersebut melahirkan pandangan hidup. Buku SKI jilid I ini membahas mengenai religi dan falsafah yang berkembang di Indonesia. Pembahasan tersebut dikemas secara ringkas sehingga dapat diapresiasi oleh pembaca.
Religi selalu hadir dalam bentuk apa pun di setiap kebudayaan etnik di dunia. Tak terkecuali etnik di Nusantara. Bentuk Religi dalam wujudnya yang paling pertama adalah menghormati kekuatan yang mengisi ruang alam. Kekuatan tersebut mencakup kekuatan negatif maupun positif. Tak bisa disangkal bahwa kedua kekuatan tersebut hadir dalam kehidupan manusia. Kekuatan tidak berbentuk dan dapat menghuni berbagai ruang seperti bebatuan, sungai, pepohonan atau lembah.
Saat peradaban mulai berkembang, religi menyesuaikan bentuknya dengan pemikiran manusia. Ketua kelompok dipilih oleh anggotanya berdasarkan konsep Primus Interpares (yaitu orang yang paling unggul di antara para unggulan). Selama menjadi pemimpin, ketua kelompok diharuskan sanggup menyelenggarakan pesta jasa (fiest of merit) pada seluruh anggotanya. Pesta tersebut bisa berupa pendirian monumen untuk mengenangnya. Monumen tersebut biasanya berbentuk punden berundak, dengan menhir yang menjulang tegak di atasnya. Jika meninggal, roh ketua kelompok akan mendiami puncak-puncak gunung bersama roh leluhur. Roh ketua kelompok dapat dipanggil sewaktu-waktu rakyatnya memerlukan pertolongan dengan memasuki menhir yang menjadi simbolitas. Dengan demikian lahirlah Religi Pemujaan terhadap Arwah Leluhur (ancestor worship) di Nusantara.
Demikianlah ketika agama besar dunia hadir ke kehidupan penduduk di kepulauan Nusantara pada awal tarikh Masehi. Dalam bidang religi, nenek moyang kita sudah mempunyai dasar yang baik, yaitu sudah bisa mengidentifikasikan kekuatan supranatural. Mereka sudah mampu mengatur warganya sesuai dengan pandangan hidup terhadap kekuatan supranatural. Mereka juga mampu menciptakan kesenian yang didedikasikan untuk kekuatan supranatural, dan masih banyak lagi bentuk apresiasi lainnya untuk alam supranatural. Agama Hindu dan Buddha yang diterima secara luas di Jawa, Sumatera, Bali, dan sedikit di Kalimantan sebenarnya merupakan pembungkus dari ritual pemujaan terhadap arwah leluhur. Agama Islam, Kristen, Katholik yang datang menyusul mendapatkan sambutan yang baik dan berkembang dengan subur di beberapa wilayah berbeda Nusantara. Perbedaan pendalaman agama-agama besar itu terjadi karena akulturasi dengan lapisan kebudayaan yang sudah mengendap sebelumnya. Hingga dewasa ini kehidupan religi di Indonesia berjalan dengan baik, rasa toleransi, dan melanjutkan tradisi tetap hidup, di antara etnik-etnik besar atau pun kecil.
2. Masa Kejayaan Hindu-Buddha
Pada masa kekuasaan Hindu-Buddha, masyarakat bisa mengangkat negeri ini hingga mencapai kejayaan. Masyarakat saat ini masih merasa ikut memiliki peninggalan peradaban tersebut, misalnya peninggalan kerajaan Sriwijaya atau Mataram Kuno. Peninggalan tersebut rupanya bisa dimanfaatkan menjadi sumber penghidupan masyarakat saat ini. Wisatawan berdatangan untuk melihat peninggalan sejarah yang dijadikan sebagai objek wisata, mengagumi kejayaan masa lalu. Hal itu membuktikan bahwa sistem sosial masyarakat di masa lalu tidaklah buruk, bahkan mereka mampu membangun karya monumental yang membanggakan.
Masa kejayaan Islam merupakan kebanggaan bagi sebagian masyarakat. Hal itu ditimbulkan dari anggapan bahwa keberhasilan penyebar agama Islam mampu menanamkan kekuasaan di Nusantara. Masyarakat yang tadinya tidak beragama / kafir, bisa diubah menjadi masyarakat yang bermartabat dan agamis. Agama Islam menjadi rujukan pembuatan tata nilai atau seluruh tindakan sosial di Nusantara.
Beberapa kesultanan didirikan oleh bangsa Arab atau setidaknya mengadopsi nama-nama Arab yang menandakan mereka adalah Islam. Istilah “sulthan” menjadi sebutan bagi penguasa di berbagai kerajaan kecil yang mampu bertahan. Pertikaian antarkelompok mewarnai kerajaan-kerajaan Islam. Di Aceh, pengikut Hamzah Fansyuri diburu dan seluruh buku karangan Hamzah Fansyuri pun dibakar. Pengikut Ar Raniri, orang Arab dari Kerala, membantu mempertahankan kelangsungan Islam di Aceh.
Penyebar Islam di Jawa kebanyakan merujuk pada satu dewan wali yang dikenal dengan Walisongo. Beberapa anggotanya seperti Sunan Kalijogo, Sunan Kudus, Sunan Bonang, Sunan Giri, Sunan Gunung Jati, kyai Pandan Aran masih menjadi tokoh yang sangat dikagumi hingga masa kini. Di Sulawesi ada kesan khusus pada satu tokoh Islam karena dianggap sebagai simbol perlawanan pada kaum kafir, orang Belanda, yaitu Syeh Yusuf yang diasingkan ke Afrika Selatan.
Masyarakat Islam Indonesia pada masa kini belum berhasil menghasilkan sesuatu yang bermakna. Mungkin satu-satunya peninggalan kerajaan Islam yang tersisa adalah “Serat Centhini di Jawa”, yang berupa sebuah ensiklopedi yang cukup tebal. Serat itu mungkin hanya tertandingi oleh “La Galigo” dari Sulawesi Selatan yang mungkin dibuat pada masa Kerajaan Sawungaling. Masyarakat saat ini tidak mampu bersatu untuk menciptakan karya-karya monumental seperti masa dahulu.
Masa pendudukan Belanda di Indonesia merupakan masa-masa paling gelap. Bangsa Indonesia sama sekali tidak memiliki kesempatan untuk berkembang sebagai suatu bangsa yang mandiri. Kita hanya bisa mengagumi bagaimana bangsa Jepang mampu bertahan dan melakukan restorasi Meiji yang terkenal sehingga menyejajarkan kedudukan Jepang dengan bangsa-bangsa Barat.
Selanjutnya, orang-orang yang digolongkan ke kelompok ‘abangan’ ini mampu melahirkan ide-ide cemerlang untuk bangsa. Kita semua mengenal nama-nama seperti Tan Malaka, Douwes Dekker, atau bahkan Bung Karno. Tokoh-tokoh tersebut telah merintis jalur ke arah kemerdekaan dan memungkinkan pembebasan bangsa ini dari segala bentuk penjajahan baik fisik, ekonomi, dan mental spiritual.
Sejak 1945, setelah Jepang menyerah pada sekutu, bangsa Indonesia merasa bebas dan bersatu mendirikan negara Indonesia. Undang-undang Dasar 1945 dan Pancasila menjadi landasan falsafah bangsa.
Dari perjalanan sejarah kita, terlihat jelas ada masa-masa di mana kita mampu membuat prestasi yang luar biasa. Tetapi mungkin ada suatu pertanyaan besar, di mana salahnya bangsa ini? Mampukah kita menghasilkan monumen bersejarah seperti Borobudur atau kita hanya mampu membuat monumen-monumen impian?
Semoga buku tentang kebudayaan Indonesia ini memberikan sumbangan bagi masyarakat luas agar bisa melihat kembali ke belakang.
Merdeka!

Download IDM 608 with Optimizer Full

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 20 Jan 2013 05:34:00 +0700

Download IDM 608 with Optimizer Full - Kali ini ane berbagi lagi sobat tentang software IDM 608 dengan Optimizernya, wah pasti buat downloadnya tambah kenceng nih sobat. Pada postingan sebelumnya ane sudah pernah share sob. Namun link broken, tapi pada postingan yang lalu software IDMnye tanpa ada Optimizernya. Bagi sobat-sobat yang terkena "Fake Serial Number" Ente bisa juga pakek IDM ini buat solusinya. Soalnya di dalam software ini sudah terdapat software crack otomatis buat nginject crack IDM ente yang terkena fake serial number. Langsung aje bagi sobat-sobat yang demen ma ini software silahkan nih download dibawah ini :

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Alasan Telur Sangat Baik Untuk Sarapan

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 5 Jan 2013 09:34:00 +0700

Alasan mengapa telur sangat baik untuk sarapan -
Telur merupakan bahan makanan yang sangat akrab dengan kehidupan kita sehari-hari. Telur sebagai sumber protein mempunyai banyak keunggulan antara lain, kandungan asam amino paling lengkap dibandingkan bahan makanan lain seperti ikan, daging, ayam, tahu, tempe, dll. Telur mempunyai citarasa yang enak sehingga digemari oleh banyak orang. Telur juga berfungsi dalam aneka ragam pengolahan bahan makanan. Selain itu, telur termasuk bahan makanan sumber protein yang relatif murah dan mudah ditemukan. Hampir semua orang membutuhkan telur.

Sarapan sehat sudah dipercaya sebagai salah satu metode wajib yang dijalani bagi mereka yang tengah menjalankan program diet. Pasalnya, bukan hanya menjaga performa tubuh, namun sarapan sehat juga secara tidak langsung mengontrol nafsu untuk tidak makan lebih banyak saat siang hari. Nah, berikut ini beberapa alasan mengapa telur sangat baik untuk sarapan sebagaimana yang saya kutip dari web mediaindonesia.com berikut;

Salah satu menu sehat tersebut adalah telur. Para pakar diet dan kesehatan menyarankan untuk sarapan telur jika Anda ingin tetap menjaga berat badan tidak bertambah. Bukan tanpa alasan, telur dipercaya sebagai menu sarapan karena telur bisa membuat perut kenyang lebih lama. Para peneliti di Pennington Biomedical Research di Louisiana, Amerika Serikat menemukan mereka yang diberi sarapan telur memiliki level ghrelin (hormon yang menstimulir keinginan makan) yang secara signifikan lebih rendah setelah tiga jam sarapan. Selain itu, dari laporan peneliti mereka juga menemukan tingginya level hormon PYY3-36 yang memberi sinyal kenyang pada tubuh.

Bagi Dr Nikhil Dhurandhar, sang pemimpin penelitian, diet dengan protein berkualitas lebih tinggi bisa meningkatkan kekenyangan, mendorong rasa penuh yang lebih baik, dan menjadi cara ampuh dalam memangkas bobot tubuh. Tracy Parker, pakar diet kesehatan jantung di British Heart Foundation (BHF) mengatakan temuan ini bisa membantu orang yang mencoba menurunkan berat badan atau berhenti mengudap. Namun lanjutnya, harus diingat cara pemasakan yang lebih sehat. Sebaiknya telur direbus daripada digoreng. Serta hindari menambahkan mentega pada telur orak-arik. (mediaindonesia.com)

Nah, mulai sekarang jangan ragu dan bosan untuk sarapan dengan telur karena sangat baik bagi kesehatan kita dengan kandungan proteinnya yang tinggi, trims telah menyimak artikel mengenai alasan mengapa telur sangat baik untuk sarapan.

Sejarah Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 5 Jan 2013 09:30:00 +0700

Sejarah gerakan pramuka Indonesia - Kenyataan sejarah menunjukkan bahwa pemuda Indonesia mempunyai saham besar dalam pergerakan perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia serta ada dan berkembangnya pendidikan kepramukaan nasional Indonesia. Dalam perkembangan pendidikan kepramukaan itu tampak adanya dorongan dan semangat untuk bersatu, namun terdapat gejala adanya berorganisasi yang Bhinneka.

Organisasi kepramukaan di Indonesia dimulai oleh adanya cabang “Nederlandse Padvinders Organisatie” (NPO) pada tahun 1912, yang pada saat pecahnya Perang Dunia I memiliki kwartir [[besar sendiri serta kemudian berganti nama menjadi “Nederlands-Indische Padvinders Vereeniging” (NIPV) pada tahun 1916. Organisasi Kepramukaan yang diprakarsai oleh bangsa Indonesia adalah Javaanse Padvinders Organisatie; berdiri atas prakarsa S.P. Mangkunegara VII pada tahun 1916.

Kenyataan bahwa kepramukaan itu senapas dengan pergerakan nasional, seperti tersebut di atas dapat diperhatikan pada adanya “Padvinder Muhammadiyah” yang pada 1920 berganti nama menjadi “Hisbul Wathon” (HW); “Nationale Padvinderij” yang didirikan oleh Budi Utomo; Syarikat Islam mendirikan “Syarikat Islam Afdeling Padvinderij” yang kemudian diganti menjadi “Syarikat Islam Afdeling Pandu” dan lebih dikenal dengan SIAP, Nationale Islamietishe Padvinderij (NATIPIJ) didirikan oleh Jong Islamieten Bond (JIB) dan Indonesisch Nationale Padvinders Organisatie (INPO) didirikan oleh Pemuda Indonesia.

Hasrat bersatu bagi organisasi kepramukaan Indonesia waktu itu tampak mulai dengan terbentuknya PAPI yaitu “Persaudaraan Antara Pandu Indonesia” merupakan federasi dari Pandu Kebangsaan, INPO, SIAP, NATIPIJ dan PPS pada tanggal 23 Mei 1928. Federasi ini tidak dapat bertahan lama, karena niat adanya fusi, akibatnya pada 1930 berdirilah Kepanduan Bangsa Indonesia (KBI) yang dirintis oleh tokoh dari Jong Java Padvinders/Pandu Kebangsaan (JJP/PK), INPO dan PPS (JJP-Jong Java Padvinderij); PK-Pandu Kebangsaan). PAPI kemudian berkembang menjadi Badan Pusat Persaudaraan Kepanduan Indonesia (BPPKI) pada bulan April 1938.

Sejarah gerakan pramuka Indonesia - Antara tahun 1928-1935 bermuncullah gerakan kepramukaan Indonesia baik yang bernafas utama kebangsaan maupun bernafas agama. kepramukaan yang bernafas kebangsaan dapat dicatat Pandu Indonesia (PI), Padvinders Organisatie Pasundan (POP), Pandu Kesultanan (PK), Sinar Pandu Kita (SPK) dan Kepanduan Rakyat Indonesia (KRI). Sedangkan yang bernafas agama Pandu Ansor, Al Wathoni, Hizbul Wathon, Kepanduan Islam Indonesia (KII), Islamitische Padvinders Organisatie (IPO), Tri Darma (Kristen), Kepanduan Azas Katholik Indonesia (KAKI), Kepanduan Masehi Indonesia (KMI).

Sebagai upaya untuk menggalang kesatuan dan persatuan, Badan Pusat Persaudaraan Kepanduan Indonesia BPPKI merencanakan “All Indonesian Jamboree”. Rencana ini mengalami beberapa perubahan baik dalam waktu pelaksanaan maupun nama kegiatan, yang kemudian disepakati diganti dengan “Perkemahan Kepanduan Indonesia Oemoem” disingkat PERKINO dan dilaksanakan pada tanggal 19-23 Juli 1941 di Yogyakarta. Nah, itulah sekilas mengenai sejarah gerakan pramuka Indonesia mudah-mudahan bermanfaat.

Manfaat Madu Bagi Kesehatan

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 18:07:00 +0700

Madu memiliki manfaat yang sangat banyak bagi kesehatan manusia, disamping itu madu juga sering diambil sebagai obat. Kali ini akan dipaparkan khasiat atau mamfaat madu bagi kesehatan dan kecantikan. Madu merupakan cairan berasa manis yang dihasilkan oleh lebah dari nektar bunga.

Kandungan zat gizi madu
Zat gizi utama pada madu adalah gula dalam bentuk glukosa dan fruktosa. Proporsi glukosa dan fruktosa pada berbeda-beda tergantung pada konsistensi dan sumber nektar yang digunakan. Komposisi rata-rata madu menurut National Honer Board, Colorado, AS adalah 17,1% air, 82,4% karbohidrat, dan 0,5% protein, asam amino, vitamin, dan mineral. Kandungan karbohidrat yang terbanyak adalah fruktosa (38,5%) dan glukosa (31%). Sisanya terbentuk dari maltosa, sukrosa, dan gula-gula lain. Kandungan gula tersebut membuat madu berasa manis.

Manfaat madu untuk kecantikan

Zat antiperadangan dan peranannya sebagai antiseptik alami berguna untuk mengatasi jerawat.
Menjaga kehalusan dan kekenyalan kulit.
Sebagai antioksidan dan antiradikal bebas yang dapat mencegah proses penuaan akibat sinar matahari dan polusi.
Kandungan vitamin dan mineral dalam madu berperan dalam memberikan nutrisi dan mencegah kerontokan pada rambut.

Manfaat madu untuk kesehatan

Glukosa yang dikandungnya berperan sebagai sumber tenaga bagi jantung untuk melakukan aktivitasnya.
Kandungan mineralnya dapat mengurangi derajat keasaman dan membantu mencegah pendarahan lambung.
Glukosa yang dikandungnya dibutuhkan tubuh dalam melakukan berbagai aktivitas.Madu bisa mengurangi terbentuknya plak pada gigi dan jumlah asam yang diproduksi mulut.
Madu sebagai antiseptik alami, dapat menghambat pertumbuhan dan perkembangan bakteri serta bersifat asam sehingga patogen tidak dapat bertahan.

Mengatasi Migren pada Anak

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 18:04:00 +0700

Migren ternyata bukan hanya sering diderita orang dewasa, tapi juga merupakan jenis sakit kepala yang sering diderita oleh anak. Dan banyak obat-obatan yang biasanya digunakan untuk mengobati migren pada orang dewasa, saat ini dapat juga menyembuhkan dengan baik pada anak-anak dan remaja.

Hal ini diungkapkan pakar pada pertemuan tahunan American Headache Society. Beberapa penelitian klinis menunjukkan bahwa obat-obatan tertentu bisa bekerja dengan baik pada orang dewasa, maupun anak-anak.

Walaupun obat penghilang sakit yang sederhana seperti asetaminofen (parasetamol), asam salisilat (aspirin), dan naproksen biasanya dapat membantu menghilangkan gangguan migren, tapi para orangtua tetap dianjurkan untuk segera mencari bantuan jika sakit kepala pada anak mereka berlangsung lebih dari 4 jam dan bila pengobatan sederhana tidak juga meredakan sakit dalam waktu 2 jam. Dan perlu dihindari efek rebound karena pemakaian obat yang berlebihan sehingga memicu sakit kepala itu sendiri.

Pengobatan lain, tanpa obat-obatan seperti penanganan stres dan biofeedback (mengatur kondisi badan melalui pikiran), seringkali mengurangi sakit baik secara tersendiri maupun dikombinasikan dengan obat-obatan.

Makan dan tidur secara teratur dan banyak berolahraga akan banyak membantu. Dan pendidikan melalui pengertian juga amat penting, biarkan anak mengetahui apa itu sakit kepala, dan tidak ada yang salah pada otaknya.

Para orangtua perlu menyadari bahwa depresi dan kecemasan dapat menjadi penyebab timbulnya migren pada anak-anak. Tidak diketahui apakah gangguan-gangguan psikologi ini dikarenakan oleh sakit kepala atau apakah gangguan itu yang menyebabkan timbulnya migren.

Gejala dan Penyebab Stress

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 18:01:00 +0700

Stress adalah reaksi tubuh terhadap situasi yang tampak berbahaya atau sulit. Stres membuat tubuh untuk memproduksi hormone adrenaline yang berfungsi untuk mempertahankan diri. Stres merupakan bagian dari kehidupan manusia. Stres yang ringan berguna dan dapat memacu seseorang untuk berpikir dan berusaha lebih berpikir dan berusaha lebih cepat dan keras sehingga dapat menjawab tantangan hidup seharihari. Stres ringan bisa merangsang dan memberikan rasa lebih bergairah dalam kehidupan yang biasanya membosankan dan rutin. Tetapi stress yang terlalu banyak dan berkelanjutan, bila tidak ditanggulangi, akan berbahaya bagi kesehatan.

Gejala-gejala stress :

Menjadi mudah tersinggung dan marah terhadap teman, keluarga dan kolega.
Bertindak secara agresif dan defensif
Merasa selalu lelah.
Sukar konsentrasi atau menjadi pelupa.
Palpitasi atau jantung berdebar-debar.
Otot-otot tegang.
Sakit kepala, perut dan diare.

Komplikasi stress

Tekanan darah tinggi dan serangan jantung.
Sakit mental, hysteria.
Gangguan makan seperti hilang nafsu makan atau terlalu banyak makan.
Tidak bisa tidur (insomnia).
Migren/kepala pusing.
Sakit maag.
Serangan asma yang tambah berat.
Ruam kulit.

Penyebab Stress

Kejadian hidup sehari-hari baik gembira dan sedih seperti:
Menikah/mempunyai anak.
Mulai tempat kerja baru/pindah rumah/emigrasi.
Kehilangan orang yang dicintai baik karena meninggal atau cerai.
Masalah hubungan pribadi.
Pelajaran sekolah maupun pekerjaan yang membutuhkan jadwal waktu yang ketat, dan atau bekerja dengan atasan yang keras dan kurang pengertian.
Tidak sehat.
Lingkungan seperti terlalu ramai, terlalu banyak orang atau terlalu panas dalam rumah atau tempat kerja.
Masalah keuangan seperti hutang dan pengeluaran di luar kemampuan.
Kurang percaya diri, pemalu
Terlalu ambisi dan bercita-cita terlalu tinggi.
Perasaan negatif seperti rasa bersalah dan tidak tahu cara pemecahannya, frustasi.
Tidak dapat bergaul, kurang dukungan kawan.
Membuat keputusan masalah yang bisa merubah jalan hidupnya atau dipaksa untuk merubah nilai-nilai/prinsip hidup pribadi. Yang dapat anda lakukan

Bagaimana mencegah stress ?

Lihat/ukur kemampuan sendiri. Belajar untuk menerima apa adanya dan mencintai diri sendiri.
Temukan penyebab perasaan negatif dan belajar untuk menanggulanginya. Jangan memperberat masalah dan coba untuk sekali-kali mengalah terhadap orang lain meskipun mungkin anda di pihak yang benar.
Rencanakan perubahan-perubahan besar dalam kehidupan anda dalam jangka lama dan beri waktu secukupnya bagi diri anda untuk menyesuaikan dari perubahan satu ke yang lainnya.
Rencanakan waktu anda dengan baik. Buat daftar yang harus dikerjakan sesuai prioritas.
Buat keputusan dengan hati-hati. Pertimbangkan dengan masak-masak segi baik atau buruk sebelum memutuskan sesuatu.
Biarkan orang lain ikut memikirkan masalah anda. Ceritakan kepada pasangan hidup, teman, supervisor atau pemimpin agama. Mereka mungkin bisa membantu meletakkan masalah anda sesuai dengan proporsinya dan menawarkan cara-cara pemecahan yang berguna.
Bangun suatu sistim pendorong yang baik dengan cara banyak berteman dan mempunyai keluarga yang bahagia. Mereka akan selalu bersama anda dalam setiap kesulitan.Jaga kesehatan, makan dengan baik, tidur cukup dan latihan olahraga secara teratur.
Rencanakan waktu untuk rekreasi.
Tehnik relaksasi seperti napas dalam, meditasi atau pijatan mungkin bisa

Mengenal Aphasia

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:59:00 +0700

Aphasia adalah kehilangan kemampuan untuk berbicara dan mengerti pembicaraan karena kelainan pada otak. Anak yang menderita Aphasia sejak lahir mengalami kesulitan dengan bahasa ucapan. Mereka yang Receptive Aphasia mempunyai kesulitan yang parah dalam mengerti kata-kata dan mengerti percakapan. Anak dengan Executive Aphasia dapat mengerti dengan cukup baik tetapi mempunyai kesulitan membuat katakata untuk dirinya sendiri.

Anak yang Receptive Aphasia kelihatannya dapat membingungkan dengan anak yang autistic khususnya bila mereka sudah sama-sama remaja karena mereka juga cenderung untuk mengabaikan suara dan menjadi anak yang menyendiri. Anak yang Executive Aphasia biasanya lebih responsif dan lebih memasyarakat, tapi mereka memiliki kesulitan yang sama dengan anak yang autistic dalam menirukan gerakan orang lain dan dalam berbicara.

Kedua kelompok anak yang menderita aphasia ini berbeda dengan anak yang autistic dalam hal dimana mereka menggunakan mata untuk membantu memahami dunia, dan mereka dapat berkomunikasi dengan baik dengan menggunakan cara non-verbal (tanpa kata-kata). Mungkin juga diketemukan anak yang aphasia dengan cacat tambahan yang sangat mirip dengan anak yang autistic. Receptive dan executive aphasia merupakan dua dari sekian banyak kekurangan-kekurangan yang muncul pada anak yang autistic. Aphasia dan autism saling membayangi satu sama lain, sehingga sangat sulit untuk mengatakan dalam kelompok yang mana seorang anak harus ditempatkan.

Artikel Kesehatan Masyarakat

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:55:00 +0700

Kesehatan di lingkungan masyarakat sangat penting untuk diperhatikan. Kesehatan masyarakat sangat dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan yang bersih, lingkungan yang tidak bersih dapat menyebabkan timbulnya berbagai macam penyakit. Penyakit yang sangat dikhawatirkan adalah deman berdarah.

Demam berdarah merupakan salah satu masalah kesehatan masyarakat yang perlu perhatian serius. Penyakit ini ditandai dengan panas mendadak yang dapat mencapai 38 – 40 ^oC, selain itu juga ditandai dengan adanya bintik-bintik merah akibat pecahnya pembuluh darah. Jika dilakukan pemeriksaan darah, didapatkan penurunan trombosit yang cukup signifikan. Demam berdarah disebabkan oleh virus dangue yang ditularkan melalui nyamuk Aedes Aegypty. Dengan demikian, demam berdarah dapat dicegah dengan melakukan pemberantasan sarang nyamuk. Selain 3M, salah satu program kesehatan masyarakat yang digalakkan saat ini adalah pemantauan jentik berkala oleh jumantik.

Jumantik adalah orang yang ditunjuk dan diberi tugas untuk memantau jentik nyamuk dari rumah ke rumah . Jumantik tidak hanya terdiri dari petugas pusat kesehatan masyarakat (Puskesmas) tetapi juga dari masyarakat sekitar dan anak anak sekolah. Memantau jentik tidaklah terlalu sulit jika kita sudah mengenal ciri ciri jentik nyamuk Aedes Aegypty. Jentik nyamuk ini memiliki ciri yang khas yaitu selalu bergerak aktif di dalam air. Gerakannya berulang-ulang dari bawah ke atas permukaan air untuk bernafas, kemudian turun kembali ke bawah untuk mencari makanan dan seterusnya.

Pada waktu istirahat, posisinya hampir tegak lurus dengan permukaan air. Biasanya berada di sekitar dinding tempat penampungan air. Setelah 6-8 hari jentik itu akan berkembang/berubah menjadi kepompong. Bentuk kepompong adalah seperti koma, gerakannya lamban dan sering berada dipermukaan air. Setelah 1 - 2 hari akan menjadi nyamuk baru. Pemeriksaan jentik dilakukan dengan cara sebagai berikut. Pertama, periksalah tempat penampungan air (bak mandi , wc, drum, vas, ban bekas) yang ada di dalam rumah atau disekitar rumah. Jika tidak ditemukan jentik di permukaan, tunggu selama kurang lebih satu menit karena jika bernafas jentik akan muncul ke permukaan untuk bernafas.

Apabila gelap dapat digunakan bantuan senter untuk melihat kedalam tempat penampungan air. Cocokkan ciri jentik dengan uraian di atas. Jika dapat dipastikan jentik tersebut adalah jentik Aedes Aegypti, maka petugas kesehatan masyarakat atau jumantik akan melakukan abatisasi dan pencatatan. Abatisasi yaitu memberikan abate pada tempat penampungan air yang ditemukan jentik, untuk membunuh jentik yang ada. Tentu saja ini dilakukan dalam rangka mewujudkan kesehatan masyarakat, agar terhindar dari bibit penyebabDBD. Sedangkan Pencatatan yang dilakukan meliputi tanggal pemeriksaan dan kelurahan tempat dilakukan survei pemantauan jentik, nama keluarga dan alamat (lengkap dengan RT/ RW), jumlah semua penampungan air (container) yang diperiksa, serta jumlah container yang di temukan jentik. Data tersebut akan digunakan untuk menghitung angka bebas jentik.

Apabila angka bebas jentik suatu daerah tertentu rendah, maka kemungkinan penduduk daerah tersebut untuk terkena DBD adalah lebih besar dibanding daerah lain yang angka bebas jentiknya lebih besar. Hasil pencatatan kemudian dilaporkan ke Pusat Kesehatan Masyarakat (Puskesmas) sekitar dan kemudian dilanjutkan ke Dinas Kesehatan . Jadi mudah bukan melakukan pemberantasan sarang nyamuk? Jika anak sekolah saja bisa, apalagi kita. Mari ramai-ramai kita cegah demam berdarah dengan berperan aktif menjadi jumantik

Artikel Kesehatan Lingkungan

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:52:00 +0700

Kesehatan adalah anugerah yang diberikan sang pencipta kepada hamba-Nya. Maka hendaklah sebagai hamba-Nya kita berusaha menjaga dan memelihara kesehatan kita. Karena kesehatan tidak ternilai harganya. Terkadang pada saat kita sehat, kita lupa akan nikmat tersebut dan ketika sakit kita baru sadar dan merasakan betapa kesehatan sungguh sangat berharga.

Tubuh yang sehat bisa didapatkan dari berolahraga secara teratur, menkomsumsi makananan bergizi, dan lingkungan yang sehat dan bersih. Lingkungan yang sehatterkadang sering tidak kita perhatikan karena kesibukan dalam bekerja sehingga lingkungan sekitar tidak dijaga kebersihannya. Akibat dari lingkungan yang tidak sehat dapat menimbulkan berbagai macam penyakit, salah satu yang mengkhawatirkan adalah deman berdarah (DBD) karena dapat menyebabkan kematian.

Kesehatan lingkungan sangat penting untuk dijaga bersama dan harus ada kesadaran dari tiap masyarakat dari semua kalangan betapa penting dan berharganya kesehatan lingkungan.

Tujuan dan Ruang Lingkup Kesehatan Lingkungan

Tujuan dan ruang lingkup kesehatan lingkungan dapat dibagi menjadi dua, secara umum dan secara khusus.

Tujuan dan ruang lingkup kesehatan lingkungan secara umum, antara lain:

Melakukan koreksi atau perbaikan terhadap segala bahaya dan ancaman pada kesehatan dan kesejahteraan hidup manusia.
Melakukan usaha pencegahan dengan cara mengatur sumber-sumber lingkungan dalam upaya meningkatkan derajat kesehatan dan kesejahteraan hidup manusia.
Melakukan kerja sama dan menerapkan program terpadu di antara masyarakat dan institusi pemerintah serta lembaga nonpemerintah dalam menghadapi bencana alam atau wabah penyakit menular.
Menyediakan air bersih yang cukup dan memenuhi persyaratan kesehatan.
Makanan dan minuman yang diproduksi dalam skala besar dan dikonsumsi secara luas oleh masyarakat.
Pencemaran udara akibat sisa pembakaran BBM, batubara, kebakaran hutan, dan gas beracun yang berbahaya bagi kesehatan dan makhluk hidup lain dan menjadi penyebab terjadinya perubahan ekosistem.
Limbah cair dan padat yang berasal dari rumah tangga, pertanian, peternakan, industri, rumah sakit, dan lain-lain.
Kontrol terhadap arthropoda dan rodent yang menjadi vektor penyakit dan cara memutuskan rantai penularan penyakitnya.
Perumahan dan bangunan yang layak huni dan memenuhi syarat kesehatan.
Kebisingan, radiasi, dan kesehatan kerja.
Survei sanitasi untuk perencanaan, pemantauan, dan evaluasi program kesehatan lingkungan

Adapun tujuan dan ruang lingkup kesehatan lingkungan secara khusus meliputi usaha-usaha perbaikan atau pengendalian terhadap lingkungan hidup manusia, yang di antaranya berupa:

Keajaiban Asi (Air Susu Ibu)

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:49:00 +0700

Air susu ibu (ASI) adalah sebuah cairan tanpa tanding ciptaan Allah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan gizi bayi dan melindunginya dalam melawan kemungkinan serangan penyakit. Keseimbangan zat-zat gizi dalam air susu ibu berada pada tingkat terbaik dan air susunya memiliki bentuk paling baik bagi tubuh bayi yang masih muda. Pada saat yang sama, ASI juga sangat kaya akan sari-sari makanan yang mempercepat pertumbuhan sel-sel otak dan perkembangan sistem saraf. Makanan-makanan tiruan untuk bayi yang diramu menggunakan tekhnologi masa kini tidak mampu menandingi keunggulan makanan ajaib ini.

Daftar manfaat ASI bagi bayi selalu bertambah setiap hari. Penelitian menunjukkan, bayi yang diberi ASI secara khusus terlindung dari serangan penyakit sistem pernapasan dan pencernaan. Hal itu disebabkan zat-zat kekebalan tubuh di dalam ASI memberikan perlindungan langsung melawan serangan penyakit. Sifat lain dari ASI yang juga memberikan perlindungan terhadap penyakit adalah penyediaan lingkungan yang ramah bagi bakteri ”menguntungkan” yang disebut ”flora normal”. Keberadaan bakteri ini menghambat perkembangan bakteri, virus dan parasit berbahaya. Tambahan lagi, telah dibuktikan pula bahwa terdapat unsur-unsur di dalam ASI yang dapat membentuk sistem kekebalan melawan penyakit-penyakit menular dan membantunya agar bekerja dengan benar.

Karena telah diramu secara istimewa, ASI merupakan makanan yang paling mudah dicerna bayi. Meskipun sangat kaya akan zat gizi, ASI sangat mudah dicerna sistem pencernaan bayi yang masih rentan. Karena itulah bayi mengeluarkan lebih sedikit energi dalam mencerna ASI, sehingga ia dapat menggunakan energi selebihnya untuk kegiatan tubuh lainnya, pertumbuhan dan perkembahan organ.

Air susu ibu yang memiliki bayi prematur mengandung lebih banyak zat lemak, protein, natrium, klorida, dan besi untuk memenuhi kebutuhan bayi. Bahkan telah dibuktikan bahwa fungsi mata bayi berkembang lebih baik pada bayi-bayi prematur yang diberi ASI dan mereka memperlihatkan kecakapan yang lebih baik dalam tes kecerdasan. Selain itu, mereka juga mempunyai banyak sekali kelebihan lainnya.

Salah satu hal yang menyebabkan ASI sangat dibutuhkan bagi perkembangan bayi yang baru lahir adalah kandungan minyak omega-3 asam linoleat alfa. Selain sebagai zat penting bagi otak dan retina manusia, minyak tersebut juga sangat penting bagi bayi yang baru lahir. Omega-3 secara khusus sangat penting selama masa kehamilan dan pada tahap-tahap awal usia bayi yang dengannya otak dan sarafnya berkembang secara nomal. Para ilmuwan secara khusus menekankan pentingnya ASI sebagai penyedia alami dan sempurna dari omega-3.

Selanjutnya, penelitian yang dilakukan para ilmuwan Universitas Bristol mengungkap bahwa di antara manfaat ASI jangka panjang adalah dampak baiknya terhadap tekanan darah, yang dengannya tingkat bahaya serangan jantung dapat dikurangi. Kelompok peneliti tersebut menyimpulkan bahwa perlindungan yang diberikan ASI disebabkan oleh kandungan zat gizinya. Menurut hasil penelitian itu, yang diterbitkan dalam jurnal kedokteran Circulation, bayi yang diberi ASI berkemungkinan lebih kecil mengidap penyakit jantung. Telah diungkap bahwa keberadaan asam-asam lemak tak jenuh berantai panjang (yang mencegah pengerasan pembuluh arteri), serta fakta bahwa bayi yang diberi ASI menelan sedikit natrium (yang berkaitan erat dengan tekanan darah) yang dengannya tidak mengalami penambahan berat badan berlebihan, merupakan beberapa di antara manfaat ASI bagi jantung.

Selain itu, kelompok penelitian yang dipimpin Dr. Lisa Martin, dari Pusat Kedokteran Rumah Sakit Anak Cincinnati di Amerika Serikat, menemukan kandungan tinggi hormon protein yang dikenal sebagai adiponectin di dalam ASI. Kadar Adiponectin yang tinggi di dalam darah berhubungan dengan rendahnya resiko serangan jantung. Kadar adiponectin yang rendah dijumpai pada orang yang kegemukan dan yang memiliki resiko besar terkena serangan jantung. Oleh karena itu telah diketahui bahwa resiko terjadinya kelebihan berat badan pada bayi yang diberi ASI berkurang dengan adanya hormon ini. Lebih dari itu, mereka juga menemukan keberadaan hormon lain yang disebut leptin di dalam ASI yang memiliki peran utama dalam metabolisme lemak. Leptin dipercayai sebagai molekul penyampai pesan kepada otak bahwa terdapat lemak pada tubuh. Jadi, menurut pernyataan Dr. Martin, hormon-hormon yang didapatkan semasa bayi melalui ASI mengurangi resiko penyakit-penyakit seperti kelebihan berat badan, diabetes jenis 2 dan kekebalan terhadap insulin, dan penyakit pada pembuluh nadi utama jantung.

Fakta tentang "Makanan Paling Segar" [ASI]

Full hygiene may not be established in water or foodstuffs other than mother’s milk.

Fakta tentang ASI tidak berhenti hanya sampai di sini. Peran penting yang dimainkannya terhadap kesehatan bayi berubah seiring dengan tahapan-tahapan yang dilalui bayi dan jenis zat-zat makanan yang dibutuhkan pada tahapan tertentu. Kandungan ASI berubah guna memenuhi kebutuhan yang sangat khusus ini. ASI, yang selalu siap setiap saat dan selalu berada pada suhu yang paling sesuai, memainkan peran utama dalam perkembangan otak karena gula dan lemak yang dikandungnya. Di samping itu, unsur-unsur seperti kalsium yang dimilikinya berperan besar dalam perkembangan tulang-tulang bayi.

Meskipun disebut sebagai susu, cairan ajaib ini sebenarnya sebagian besarnya tersusun atas air. Ini adalah ciri terpenting, sebab selain makanan, bayi juga membutuhkan cairan dalam bentuk air. Keadaan yang benar-benar bersih dan sehat mungkin tidak bisa dimunculkan pada air atau bahan makanan, selain pada ASI. Namun ASI – sedikitnya 90% adalah air – , memenuhi kebutuhan bayi akan air dalam cara yang paling bersih dan sehat.

ASI dan Kecerdasan

Penelitian ilmiah menunjukkan bahwa perkembangan kemampuan otak pada bayi yang diberi ASI lebih baik daripada bayi lain. Penelitian pembandingan terhadap bayi yang diberi ASI dengan bayi yang diberi susu buatan pabrik oleh James W. Anderson – seorang ahli dari Universitas Kentucky – membuktikan bahwa IQ [tingkat kecerdasan] bayi yang diberi ASI lebih tinggi 5 angka daripada bayi lainnya. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini ditetapkan bahwa ASI yang diberikan hingga 6 bulan bermanfaat bagi kecerdasan bayi, dan anak yang disusui kurang dari 8 minggu tidak memberikan manfaat pada IQ.

Apakah ASI Dapat Memerangi Kanker?

Berdasarkan hasil seluruh penelitian yang telah dilakukan, terbukti bahwa ASI, yang dibahas dalam ratusan tulisan yang telah terbit, melindungi bayi terhadap kanker. Hal ini telah diketahui, walaupun secara fakta mekanismenya belum sepenuhnya dipahami. Ketika sebuah protein ASI membunuh sel-sel tumor yang telah ditumbuhkan di dalam laboratorium tanpa merusak sel yang sehat mana pun, para peneliti menyatakan bahwa sebuah potensi besar telah muncul. Catharina Svanborg, Profesor imunologi klinis di Universitas Lund, Swedia, memimpin kelompok penelitian yang menemukan rahasia mengagumkan ASI ini. Kelompok yang berpusat di Universitas Lund ini menjelaskan kemampuan ASI dalam memberikan perlindungan melawan beragam jenis kanker sebagai penemuan yang ajaib.

Awalnya, para peneliti memberi perlakuan pada sel-sel selaput lendir usus yang diambil dari bayi yang baru lahir dengan ASI. Mereka mengamati bahwa gangguan yang disebabkan oleh bakteri Pneumococcus dan dikenal sebagai pneumonia berhasil dengan mudah dihentikan oleh ASI. Terlebih lagi, bayi yang diberi ASI mengalami jauh lebih sedikit gangguan pendengaran dibandingkan bayi yang diberi susu formula, dan menderita jauh lebih sedikit infeksi saluran pernapasan. Pasca serangkaian penelitian, diperlihatkan bahwa ASI juga memberikan perlindungan melawan kanker. Setelah menunjukkan bahwa penyakit kanker getah bening yang teramati pada masa kanak-kanak ternyata sembilan kali lebih sering menjangkiti anak-anak yang diberi susu formula, mereka menyadari bahwa hasil yang sama berlaku pula untuk jenis-jenis kanker lainnya. Menurut hasil penelitian tersebut, ASI secara tepat menemukan keberadaan sel-sel kanker dan kemudian membunuhnya. Adalah zat yang disebut alpha-lac (alphalactalbumin), yang terdapat dalam jumlah besar di dalam ASI, yang mengenali keberadaan se-sel kanker dan membunuhnya. Alpha-lac dihasilkan oleh sebuah protein yang membantu pembuatan gula laktosa di dalam susu.

Berkah Tanpa Tara Ini Adalah Karunia Allah

Ciri menakjubkan lain dari ASI adalah fakta bahwa ASI sangat bermanfaat bagi bayi apabila disusui selama dua tahun. Pengetahuan penting ini, hanya baru ditemukan oleh ilmu pengetahuan, telah diwahyukan Allah empat belas abad silam di dalam ayat-Nya:

”Para ibu hendaklah menyusukan anak-anaknya selama dua tahun penuh, yaitu bagi yang ingin menyempurnakan penyusuan..." (QS, Al Baqarah, 2:233)

Sang ibu bukanlah yang memutuskan untuk membuat ASI, sumber zat makanan terbaik bagi bayi yang lemah yang memerlukan makanan di dalam tubuhnya. Sang ibu bukan pula yang menentukan beragam kadar gizi yang dikandung ASI. Allah Yang Mahakuasa-lah, Yang mengetahui kebutuhan setiap makhluk hidup dan memperlihatkan kasih sayang kepadanya, Yang menciptakan ASI untuk bayi di dalam tubuh sang ibu.

10 Menu Makanan Cerdas

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:46:00 +0700

10 Menu Makanan Cerdas - Sebagai manusia, cobalah untuk memperhatikan dengan jeli kebutuhan gizi dan nutrisi diri kita setiap hari. Selain itu, ada baiknya pula memasukan 10 jenis makanan terbaik berikut ini. Makanan yang dijuluki "Brain Food" ini diyakini dapat merangsang pertumbuhan sel-sel otak, memperbaiki fungsinya, meningkatkan daya ingat dan konsentrasi berpikir anak-anak.

1. Telur

Telur dikenal sebagai sumber penting protein yang relatif murah dan harganya cukup terjangkau. Bagian kuning telur ternyata padat akan kandungan kolin, suatu zat yang dapat membantu perkembangan memori atau daya ingat.

2. Selai kacang

"Kacang tanah (peanut) dan selai kacang merupakan salah satu sumber vitamin E. Vitamin ini merupakan antioksidan yang dapat melindungi membran-membran sel saraf. Bersama thiamin, vitamin E membantu otak dan sistem saraf dalam penggunaan glukosa untuk kebutuhan energi.

3. Gandum murni

Otak membutuhkan suplai atau sediaan glukosa dari tubuh yang sifatnya konstan. Gandum murni memiliki kemampuan untuk mendukung kebutuhan tersebut. Serat yang terkandung dalam gandum murni dapat membantu mengatur pelepasan glukosa dalam tubuh. Gandum juga mengandung vitamin B yang berfungsi memelihara kesehatan sistem saraf.

4. Oat/Oatmeal

Oat merupakan salah satu jenis sereal paling populer di kalangan anak-anak dan kaya akan nutrisi penting bagi otak. Oat dapat menyediakan energi atau bahan bakar untuk otak yang sangat dibutuhkan anak-anak mengawali aktivitasnya di pagi hari. Kaya akan kandungan serat, oat akan menjaga otak anak terpenuhi kebutuhannya di sepanjang pagi. Oat juga merupakan sumber vitamin E, vitamin B, potassium dan seng -- yang membuat tubuh dan fungsi otak berfungsi pada kapasitas penuh.

5. Berry

Strawberry, cherry, blueberriy dan blackberry. Secara umum, semakin kuat warnanya, semakin banyak nutritisi yang di kandungnya. Berry mengandung antioksidan kadar tinggi, khususnya vitamin C, yang berfaedah mencegah kanker.

Beberapa riset menunjukkan mereka yang mendapatkan ekstrak blueberry dan strawberry mengalami perbaikian dalam fungsi daya ingatnya. Biji dari buah berri ini juga ternyata kaya akan asam lemak omega-3.

6. Kacang-kacangan

Kacang adalah makanan spesial sebab makanan ini memiliki energi yang berasal dari protein serta karbohidrat kompleks. Selain itu, kacang kaya akan kandungan serat, vitamin dan mineral. Kacang juga makanan yang baik untuk otak karena mereka dapat mempertahankan energi dan kemampuan berpikir anak-anak pada puncaknya pada sore hari jika dikonsumsi saat makan siang.

Menurut hasil penelitian, kacang merah dan kacang pinto mengandung lebih banyak asal lemak omega 3 daripada jenis kacang lainnya -- khususnya ALA - jenis asal omega-3 yang penting bagi pertumbuhan dan fungsi otak .

7. Sayuran berwarna

Tomat, ubi jalar merah, labu, wortel, bayam adalah sayuran yang kaya nutrisi dan sumber antioksidan yang akan membuat sel-sel otak kuat dan sehat.

8. Salmon

Ikan berlemak seperti salmon merupakan sumber terbaik asam lemak omega-3 - DHA and EPA - yang keduanya penting bagi pertumbuhan dan perkembangan fungsi otak. Riset terbaru juga menunjukkan bahwa orang yang memperoleh asupan asam lemak lebih banyak memiliki pikiran lebih tajam dan mencatat hasil memuaskan dalam uji kemampuan. Menurut para ahli walaupun tuna mengandung asam omega-3, namun ikan ini tidaklah sekaya salmon.

9. Susu dan Yogurt

Makanan yang berasal dari produk susu mengandung protein dan vitamin B tinggi. Dua jenis nutrisi ini penting bagi pertumbuhan jaringan otak, neurotransmitter dan enzim. Susu dan yogurt juga bisa membuat perut kenyang karena kandungan protein dan karbohidratnya sekaligus menjadi sumber energi bagi otak.

Penelitian terbaru mengindikasikan bahwa anak-anak dan remaja membutuhkan lebih banyak vitamin D bahkan 10 kali dari dosis yang direkomendasikan. Vitamin D adalah vitamin yang juga penting bagi sistem saraf otot dan siklus hidup sel-sel manusia secara keseluruhan.

10. Daging sapi tanpa lemak

Zat besi adalah jenis mineral esensial yang akan membantu anak-anak tetap berenergi dan berkonsentrasi di sekolag. Daging sapi tanpa lemak adalah salah atu sumber makanan yang mengandung banyak zat besi. Dengan hanya mengonsumsi 1 ons per hari, maka tubuh Anda akan terbantu dalam penyerapan zat besi darai sumber lainnya. Daging sapi juga mengandung mineral seng yang dapat membantu memelihara daya ingat .

Khsusus bagi yang vegetarian, Anda dapat memanfaatkan kacang hitam dan burger kedelai sebagai pilihan. Kacang-kacangan adalah adalah sumber penting zat besi nonheme -- tipe zat besi yang membutuhkan vitamin C untuk di serap oleh tubuh. Mengonsumsi tomat , jus jeruk, strawberry dan kacang-kacangan juga dapat dipilih sebagai upaya mencukupi kebutuhan zat besi.

Cara Turunkan Tekanan Darah

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 29 Dec 2012 17:43:00 +0700

"Siapa saja yang memiliki hipertensi harus didorong untuk bekerjasama dengan dokter mereka dan mencoba berbagai hal yang mungkin membantu menurunkan tekanan darah tanpa menggunakan agen farmakologis (obat-obatan)," kata Matthew Burg, PhD, seorang profesor dari Columbia University Medical Center di New York.

Mereka yang mengalami hipertensi biasanya harus mengonsumsi obat-obatan secara rutin untuk mengontrol tekanan darah. Tetapi dengan melakukan perubahan gaya hidup, tekanan darah yang kelewat tinggi dapat dikendalikan dan diturunkan. Dengan modal tekad dan kedisiplinan, bukan mustahil upaya modifikasi lifestyle ini dapat membantu melepaskan ketergantungan pada obat-obatan.

Berikut ini adalah 10 cara murah dan alami menurunkan tekanan darah tanpa harus menggunakan obat-obatan :

1. Olahraga

Dengan melakukan olahraga 30 menit sehari, Anda dapat menurunkan tekanan darah secara signifikan, kata Gerald Fletcher, MD, seorang ahli jantung dari Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, sekaligus juru bicara American Heart Association.

"Cobalah latihan aerobik untuk mengurangi tekanan darah sistolik Anda," kata Fletcher. Ia menambahkan, orang yang aktif secara fisik biasanya dapat mengurangi konsumsi jumlah asupan obat hipertensi. Untuk menunjangnya, pilihlah jenis kegiatan yang Anda sukai seperti misalnya, berjalan, berlari, berenang atau bersepeda.

2. Makan pisang

Anda mungkin tahu bahwa makan terlalu banyak garam dapat meningkatkan tekanan darah, tetapi kebanyakan orang tidak menyadari manfaat kalium - zat yang mampu menangkal efek buruk dari sodium.

Menurut penelitian dari Dietary Guidelines for Americans, mereka yang mengalami hipertensi harus mencukupi kebutuhan jumlah kalium dalam diet mereka. Orang dewasa harus mendapatkan setidaknya 4.700 miligram per hari. Adapun beberapa sumber makanan yang kaya kandungan kalium diantaranya pisang (422 miligram), kentang panggang dengan kulit (738 miligram), jus jeruk (496 miligram per cangkir), dan yogurt tanpa lemak atau rendah lemak (531-579 miligram per 8 ons).

3. Kurangi asupan garam

Orang dengan tekanan darah normal, cukup tinggi, dan hipertensi secara substansial dapat mengurangi tekanan darah mereka dengan memotong asupan garam. Pedoman diet merekomendasikan bahwa orang dengan hipertensi harus membatasi asupan garam kurang dari 1.500 miligram (600 miligram sodium) sehari.

4. Stop merokok

Perokok adalah kelompok yang paling berisiko tinggi mengidap hipertensi. Kandungan tembakau dan nikotin dalam rokok dapat menyebabkan lonjakan tekanan darah sementara, meskipun rokok itu sendiri bukan penyebab tunggal hipertensi kronis. Berhenti merokok dapat membantu Anda menurunkan sedikit tekanan darah Anda. Dan, tentu saja, manfaat kesehatan lainnya yang tak terhitung jumlahnya, kata Fletcher.

5. Menurunkan berat badan

Secara konsisten beberapa penelitian menunjukkan bahwa, sedikit saja kehilangan berat badan, dapat memiliki dampak besar pada tekanan darah Anda. Kelebihan berat badan membuat jantung bekerja lebih keras. Tekanan ekstra ini lambat laun dapat menyebabkan hipertensi. Sementara itu, dengan memangkas berat badan beban kerja jantung akan jauh lebih ringan.

6. Kurangi alkohol

Konsumsi alkohol secara moderat - tidak lebih dari satu gelas sehari untuk wanita, dan dua gelas sehari untuk pria - memiliki manfaat kesehatan jantung. Tapi pada beberapa orang, minum terlalu banyak dapat meningkatkan tekanan darah. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mengkonsumsi alkohol lebih dari dua gelas sehari dapat meningkatkan risiko hipertensi bagi pria dan wanita.

7. Kelola stres

Mengelola stres secara efektif dapat membantu mengurangi tekanan darah, tetapi sayangnya, tidak ada penelitian yang menawarkan langkah demi langkah untuk mengurangi tingkat stres pada semua orang, kata Burg.

"Ada sejumlah cara yang telah dikembangkan sebagai praktik untuk menginduksi keadaan relaksasi. Tetapi bagaimana cara yang baik dan benar, ini masih harus dijawab dalam uji klinis," katanya. Namun demikian, Burg merekomendasikan bahwa orang dengan hipertensi harus mampu melakukan manajemen stres dan berlatih dengan konsisten.

8. Yoga

Yoga adalah cara terbaik untuk mengatasi stres. Sebuah studi baru di India menemukan bahwa latihan pernapasan yoga mengurangi tekanan darah pada orang dengan hipertensi - di mana bekerja mempengaruhi efek sistem saraf otonom - dengan mengatur denyut jantung, pencernaan, dan fungsi lainnya.

9. Jauhi kafein

Kopi memiliki beberapa manfaat kesehatan, tetapi tidak untuk menurunkan tekanan darah. Dalam jangka pendek kafein dapat memicu lonjakan tekanan darah, bahkan pada orang tanpa hipertensi.

Jika Anda memiliki tekanan darah tinggi, cara terbaik yang harus dilakukan adalah dengan membatasi asupan kafein (sekitar dua cangkir kopi per hari). Anda dapat memeriksa apakah Anda sensitif terhadap kafein atau tidak dengan memeriksa tekanan darah sebelum dan setengah jam setelah mengkonsumsi minuman berkafein. Jika meningkat sebesar 5 atau 10 poin, Anda berarti sensitif terhadap kafein.

10. Meditasi

Meditasi - apakah itu melibatkan nyanyian, pernapasan, visualisasi - dapat menjadi alat manajemen stres yang efektif bagi banyak orang, kata Burg. Sekali lagi, yang penting adalah bahwa hal itu membuat Anda merasa baik, dan Anda dapat berkomitmen untuk melakukannya secara konsisten.

OlielCell

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