MBA 2nd Semester

business state and math past paper2008

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Probability 1

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Probability
Introduction
We all deal with the concept of probability on a daily basis without sometimes even realizing it. What are the chances that we will come to work on time? What is the likelihood that the check we have just written will be sent to our bank before the bank receives the direct deposit from our employer? What are the chances that it will rain tonight? What Are Chances The New Product Will Capture The Market...etc.
So what is Probability?
It is the chance, the likelihood that something will happen.
In statistics, the words chance and likelihood are seldom used to describe the possibilities for an event to take place, instead, the word probability is used along with some other basic concepts which meaning defer from our every day use. Probability is the measure of the possibility for an event to take place. It is a number between 0 and 1. If there is a 100% chance that the event will take place, the probability will be 1 and if it is impossible for it to happen, it will be 0.

Trial
The performance of any individual item is called Trial
Examples
When we toss a coin we take trial. The Result may be head or tail.
Outcome
The result obtain from trial is called outcome.
Example
The customer takes trial of a new product of a company. The customer may be satisfied or not satisfied from the trial of this product.
Experiment
The process of getting information for particular purpose it may be conducted in library, market or field.
Random Experiment
An Experiment is called random it has at least two possible outcome in it
Example
In tossing coin there are two possible out come head and tail
In die thrown there are 6 possible outcomes
Sample Space
The sample space is an exhaustive list of all the possible outcomes of an experiment. Each possible result of such a study is represented by one and only one point in the sample space, which is usually denoted by S.
Examples
Experiment rolling a die once:
Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Experiment Tossing a coin:
Sample space S = {Heads,Tails}
Experiment Measuring the height (cms) of a girl on her first day at school:
Sample space S = the set of all possible real numbers
Quality checker check the product from a lot
Sample Space S ={good, defective}

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Probability 2

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Event
An event is any collection of outcomes of an experiment.

Formally, any subset of the sample space is an event.

Any event which consists of a single outcome in the sample space is called an elementary or simple event. Events which consist of more than one outcome are called compound events. It is represented by A,B,C …etc

Set theory is used to represent relationships among events. In general, if A and B are two events in the sample space S, then
(A union B) = 'either A or B occurs or both occur'
(A intersection B) = 'both A and B occur'
(A is a subset of B) = 'if A occurs, so does B'
A' or = 'event A does not occur'
(the empty set) = an impossible event
S (the sample space) = an event that is certain to occur
Example
Experiment: rolling a dice once -
Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Events A = 'score < 4' = {1,2,3}
B = 'score is even' = {2,4,6}
C = 'score is 7' =
= 'the score is < 4 or even or both' = {1,2,3,4,6}
= 'the score is < 4 and even' = {2}
A' or = 'event A does not occur' = {4,5,6}

Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are mutually exclusive (or disjoint) if it is impossible for them to occur together. And their intersection doesnot exit

Formally, two events A and B are mutually exclusive if and only if

If two events are mutually exclusive, they cannot be independent and vice versa.

Examples

Experiment: Rolling a die once

Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Events A = 'observe an odd number' = {1,3,5}
B = 'observe an even number' = {2,4,6}
= the empty set, so A and B are mutually exclusive.

Not Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are Not mutually exclusive (or joint) if it is possible for them to occur together and their intersection esit

Examples

Experiment: Rolling a die once

Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Events A = 'observe an odd number' = {1,3,5}
B = 'observe an number less than 5' = {1,2,3,4}
{1,3} = so A and B are Not mutually exclusive.

Probability 3

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Equally Likely Event

Events are equally likely if one event can occur as other ca
Example

In Tossing a coin head can occur as tail can

Not Equally Likely Event

Events are not equally likely if one event cannot occur as other can

Example
A jar containing 10 white balls and 4 green balls the occurrence of white balls is not equal is green can

Independent Event

Event are said to be independent if the occurrence of one event does not effect the occurrence of the other event

Example
Tossing two Coins
Rolling two Dies

Dependent event

Event are said to be dependent if the occurrence of one event effect the occurrence of the other event

Example
A jar containing 10 white balls and 4 green balls we get two balls from jar and we have to know the chance that two balls are White.
When we get one ball from jar and then get other another ball from jar with no replacement getting first ball from jar with no replacement effect chance of second Ball.

Types of probability

There are three approaches of probability these are
1. Classical approach

The classical approach to probability is to count the number of favorable outcomes, the number of total outcomes (outcomes are assumed to be mutually exclusive and equiprobable), and express the probability as a ratio of these two numbers. Here, "favorable" refers not to any subjective value given to the outcomes, but is rather the classical terminology used to indicate that an outcome belongs to a given event of interest. What is meant by this will be made clear by an example, and formalized with the introduction of axiomatic probability theory. We use this Approach When Events Are equally likely
The probability of an event (A) is Denoted ByP(A) and Define By
Example

A spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow, blue, green and red. After spinning the spinner, what is the probability of landing on each color?

Probability of yellow, Blue, Green, and Red Will be

Probability 4

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2. Relative Frequency Approach:

In practical life events are not equally likely so we use Relative Frequency Approach for this or we define Relative frequency as it is another term for proportion; it is the value calculated by dividing the number of times an event occurs by the total number of times an experiment is carried out. The probability of an event can be thought of as its long-run relative frequency when the experiment is carried out many times.
If an experiment is repeated n times, and event E occurs r times, then the relative frequency of the event E is defined to be
rfn(E) = r/n
Example
Experiment: Tossing a fair coin 50 times (n = 50)
Event E = 'heads'
Result: 30 heads, 20 tails, so r = 30
Relative frequency: rfn(E) = r/n = 30/50 = 3/5 = 0.6
If an experiment is repeated many, many times without changing the experimental conditions, the relative frequency of any particular event will settle down to some value. The probability of the event can be defined as the limiting value of the relative frequency:
P(E) = rfn(E)

A jar containing 12 red balls and 8 white balls
The probability of getting red ball is 12/20
And probability of getting white balls is 8/20
Here occurrence of red balls is not equally likely than occurrence of White balls

3. Subjective Approach
A subjective probability describes an individual's personal judgment about how likely a particular event is to occur. It is not based on any precise computation but is often a reasonable assessment by a knowledgeable person.

Like all probabilities, a subjective probability is conventionally expressed on a scale from 0 to 1; a rare event has a subjective probability close to 0, a very common event has a subjective probability close to 1.

A person's subjective probability of an event describes his/her degree of belief in the event.

Example
A Rangers supporter might say, "I believe that Rangers have probability of 0.9 of winning the Scottish Premier Division this year since they have been playing really well."

Medical doctors sometimes assign subjective probabilities to the length of life expectancy for people having cancer.

Forecasting is another example of subjective probability.

Probability 6

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Probability Rules

Addition Law:

1. Addition Law For Not Mutually exclusive Events
when two or more events will happen at the same time, and the events are not mutually exclusive, then:

P(X or Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X Y)

For example, what is the probability that a card chosen at random from a deck of cards will either be a king or a heart?
P(King or Heart) = P(X or Y) = 4/52 + 13/52 - 1/52 = 30.77%
Addition Law For Mutually exclusive Events

when two or more events will happen at the same time, and the events are mutually exclusive, then:

P(X or Y) = P(X) + P(Y)

For example, suppose we have a machine that inserts a mixture of beans, broccoli, and other types of vegetables into a plastic bag. Most of the bags contain the correct weight, but because of slight variation in the size of the beans and other vegetables, a package might be slightly underweight or overweight. A check of many packages in the past indicate that:

Weight.................Event............No. of Packages.........Probability

Underweight..........X.......................100...........................0.025
Correct weight.......Y.......................3600.........................0.9
Overweight............Z.......................300...........................0.075
Total................................................4000......................1.00

What is the probability of selecting a package at random and having the package be under weight or over weight? Since the events are mutually exclusive, a package cannot be underweight and overweight at the same time. The answer is: P(X or Z) = P(0.025 + 0.075) = 0.1

B The Multiplication Law:

3 Multiplication Law For dependent Events
when two or more events will happen at the same time, and the events are dependent, then the general rule of multiplication law is used to find the joint probability:

P(X and Y) = P(X) . P(Y|X)

For example, supposes there are 10 marbles in a bag, and 3 are defective. Two marbles are to be selected, one after the other without replacement. What is the probability of selecting a defective marble followed by another defective marble?
Probability that the first marble selected is defective: P(X)=3/10
Probability that the second marble selected is defective: P(Y)=2/9
P(X and Y) = (3/10) . (2/9) = 7%
This means that if this experiment were repeated 100 times, in the long run 7 experiments would result in defective marbles on both the first and second selections. Another example is selecting one card at random from a deck of cards and finding the probability that the card is an 8 and a diamond. P(8 and diamond) = (4/52) . (1/4) = 1/52 which is = P(diamond and 8) = (13/52) . (1/13) = 1/52.

4 Multiplication law For Independent events
when two or more events will happen at the same time, and the events are independent, then the special rule of multiplication law is used to find the joint probability:

P(X and Y) = P(X) . P(Y)

if two coins are tossed, what is the probability of getting a tail on the first coin and a tail on the second coin?
P(T and T) = (1/2) . (1/2) = 1/4 = 25%. This can be shown by listing all of the possible outcomes: T T, or T H, or H T, or H H. Games of chance in casinos, such as roulette and craps, consist of independent events. The next occurrence on the die or wheel should have nothing to do with what has already happened.

Probability 7

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C The Conditional Law

Conditional probabilities are based on knowledge of one of the variables. The conditional probability of an event, such as X, occurring given that another event, such as Y, has occurred is expressed as:

P(X|Y) = P(X and Y) / P(Y) = {P(X) . P(Y|X)} / P(Y)

Note that when using the conditional law of probability, you always divide the joint probability by the probability of the event after the word given. Thus, to get P(X given Y), you divide the joint probability of X and Y by the unconditional probability of Y. In other words, the above equation is used to find the conditional probability for any two dependent events. When two events, such as X and Y, are independent their conditional probability is calculated as follows:

P(X|Y) = P(X) and P(Y|X) = P(Y)

For example, if a single card is selected at random from a deck of cards, what is the probability that the card is a king given that it is a club?
P(king given club) = P (X|Y) = {P(X) .P(Y|X)} / P(Y)
P(Y) = 13/52, and P(king given club) = 1/52, thus
P(king given club) = P(X|Y) = (1/52) / (13/52) = 1/13
Note that this example can be solved conceptually without the use of equations. Since it is given that the card is a club, there are only 13 clubs in the deck. Of the 13 clubs, only 1 is a king. Thus P(king given club) = 1/13.

Application of Probability
In business, probability theory is used in the calculation of long-term gains and losses. This is how a company whose business is based on risk calculates "probability of profitability" within acceptable margins. An example of this is the way in which life insurance companies calculate the cost of life insurance policies and is based on how many policy holders are reasonably expected to die within a year versus revenue generated from other policies extended. In this scenario it is important to point out that in order for a company to mitigate the risk associated with loss of revenue it must issue a substantial number of policies.Ultimately the insurance company charges more when it is at risk of having to pay out. I didn't realize that insurance was inverse for health and auto, but I can see why it would be. First, to understand this concept you have to suspend the want to point out the exceptions. This being statements like, "I knew a guy that had a heart attack at 20." Statistically, things such as heart attacks in your 20s don't happen often. That being said, it might be easily shown that as your age increases your risk of sickness. Now also bear in mind that the insurance company is concerned with "how much" moreso than "how often." They are a company so they watch the bottom line. In youth you may be sick, but most likely it will not cost much. A prescription vs. surgery etc. Now coming to car insurance: It is easily shown that the younger the driver the worse the accident might be. This shows why young males are most often the worst to ensure. Statistically, the young male is prone to accidents and usually might be involved in some of the most not less expensive accidents. Older drivers tend to go slower and when there is an accident it is usually not as severe.

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4. Finding
This is most important and longest part of the research report.
In this part the researcher define all results and finding of the report in paragraphs.
This section should be written that reader can understand the result of the research.
5. Conclusion
In this part the writer write fist write its finding in a brief summary. Highlight the important results then write its conclusions about its findings
6. Recommendations.
Here the researcher write its recommendations about finding of the problems if a research is about a problems then researcher give its solution in this part.
7. Appendices
Complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology are place in appendices
8. Bibliography
It is the list of works cited by an author at the end of an article, paper, book, or other research-based writing. A list of reference materials such as books and articles used for research are place in it.

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A. Problem Statement.
The problem statement shows the need for research problem. Here the researcher define what was the problem on which he made research and why the search was made.
B. Research Objective
It shows the purposes of the research the researcher define objective and purpose of the research some time hypothesis statements are also included in this section.
C. Background
Background material may be of preliminary results or secondary material from literature review
1. Methodology
It has five parts
A Sampling design
B Research Design
C Data Collection
D Data Analysis
E Limitations
A Sampling Design
In this section the researcher defines the target population that was studied and method of sampling used in research.
B Research Design
In this part of report the researcher write about material, test, equipment, control conditions and other devices used in research
C Data Collection
This Part is about data collection. The researcher defines how data was collected. It depends on the selected design. The writer writes about research team, their qualification and experience.
D Data Analysis
This section show the method used to analysis the data. This section also explain about handling of data, statistical test and computer programmers used in data analysis
E Limitation
This section of the report thoughtfully defines the limitation of the research. There may be some difficulties in findings results, limitations of methods used in surveys, limitation of data collection and other limitations. All are written in this section.

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Research Report
Research report is a report in which researcher define his finding, analysis of finding, interpretations conclusion and some time recommendation on his research on particular topic.
Essential of a Research Report
Following are the essential of research report
1. Prefatory Items
Following are the prefatory items of the report
A. Letter of Transmittal
A letter of transmittal is written when relationship b/w researcher and client are formal and report is written for an outside organization.
B. Title Page
It include (1) title of the report (2) date of the report (3) name for which report was written (4).name of Researcher of the report
C. Authorization letter
This letter shows the authority for undertaking research. It also show that who is sponsored the research
D. Executive Summary
It is the summary of the report or finding of research it cover all aspects of the body of it should be consists of almost two pages.
E. Table of Contents.
It should contain table of contain of topic data explain that a in it in the report.
2. Introduction.
This section include the following
A Problems Statement
B Research Objective
C Background

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References
References cited in the text are included in the reference list; however, exceptions can be found to this rule. For example, committees may require evidence that you are familiar with a broader spectrum of literature than that immediately relevant to your research. In such instances, the reference list may be called a bibliography. Some committees require that reference lists and/or bibliographies be "annotated," which is to say that each entry be accompanied by a brief description, or an abstract. Check with your committee Chair before the fact.
Appendixes
The need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate appendixes in proposals (although this is generally not the case as regards conference proposals). The following materials are appropriate for an appendix.
Consult with your committee Chair.
Verbatim instructions to participants.
Original scales or questionnaires. If an instrument is copyrighted, permission in writing to reproduce the instrument from the copyright holder or proof of purchase of the instrument.
Interview protocols.
Sample of informed consent forms.
Cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders.
Official letters of permission to conduct research.

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Data Collection

Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained enter. Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow.
Data Analysis
Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g., ANOVA, MANCOVA, HLM, ethnography, case study, grounded theory). If coding procedures are to be used, describe in reasonable detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went about it. Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed.
Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use (e.g., Ethnography, NUDIST, AQUAD, SAS, SPSS, SYSTAT).
Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the design, methodology, and analyses you have selected.
Significance of the Study
Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash value). Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and professional peers. Statements relating the research to both groups are in order. This can be a difficult section to write. Think about implications—how results of the study may affect scholarly research, theory, practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.
When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following questions.
What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
Will results influence educational policy decisions?
What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

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Sampling

The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations with other people.
Sampling is critical to external validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. All probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage. In experimentation, two distinct steps are involved.
Random selection—participants to be included in the sample have been chosen at random from the same population. Define the population and indicate the sampling plan in detail.
Random assignment—participants for the sample have been assigned at random to one of the experimental conditions.
Instrumentation
Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols, observation grids). If instruments have previously been used, identify previous studies and findings related to reliability and validity. If instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will follow to develop and test their reliability and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly essential. Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs, this is a crucial step in the proposal. For example, it is at this step that a literary conception such as "self-efficacy is related to school achievement" becomes "scores on the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale are related to Grade Point Average." Strictly speaking, results of your study will be directly relevant only to the instrumental or operational statements.
Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include sample items in the description of the instrument. For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in administering and following up the survey to obtain a high response rate.

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Qualification of Researchers
In This section of proposal the researcher Write his academic record and experience in carrying out previous research. Curriculum Vitae are included in the proposal if it is required by the RFP.
Budget
The budget should be presented in the form of the requirement of sponsor. Cost of travel, per diem rate and capital equipment purchases helps to prepare a budget. The research should show all information to use to generate the budget. If quotes from external contractors are used the quotes should be in written form.
Schedule
Schedule in the proposal should include the major phases of the project, their timetable, and the milestones that signify completion of a phase. This phase may be
Exploratory interviews
Final research proposal
Questionnaire revision
Field interviews
Editing and coding
Data analyses
Report generation
The Design--Methods and Procedures
The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities should be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent. Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question or to test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section. All research is plagued by the presence of confounding variables (the noise that covers up the information you would like to have). Confounding variables should be minimized by various kinds of controls or be estimated and taken into account by randomization processes. In the design section, indicate
The variables you propose to control and how you propose to control them, experimentally or statistically, and
The variables you propose to randomize and the nature of the randomizing unit (students, grades, schools, etc.).
Be aware of possible sources of error to which your design exposes you. You will not produce a perfect, error free design (no one can). However, you should anticipate possible sources of error and attempt to overcome them or take them into account in your analysis. Moreover, you should disclose to the reader the sources you have identified and what efforts you have made to account for them.

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Questions and/or Hypotheses

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is there a relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of the assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.

A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables
Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research

Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements.

Literary null—a "no difference" forms in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, "There is no relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college women." Or, "There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulated students."

Operational null—a "no difference" forms in terms of the operation required to test the hypothesis. For example, "There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged college women use the student union and their persistence at the college after their freshman year." Or, "There is no difference between the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles of the distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory." The operational null is generally the preferred form of hypothesis-writing.

Literary alternative—a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will show. For example, "The more that nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will persist academically." Or, "High self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-regulated students."

Operational alternative—similar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified. For example, "The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more they will persist at the college after their freshman year." Or, Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lower quartile.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study. If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader. Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research. You will revisit this in greater detail in a later section

Foreshadow the hypotheses to be tested or the questions to be raised, as well as the significance of the study. These will require specific elaboration in subsequent sections. The purpose statement can also incorporate the rationale for the study. Some committees prefer that the purpose and rationale be provided in separate sections, however. Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement.

Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with "The purpose of this study is . . ."
This will clarify your own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly and explicitly.
Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study. Some committee Chairs prefer a separate section to this end.

Review of the Literature

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area. It review accomplishes several important things.

It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported.
It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies.
It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.
It "frames" the problem earlier identified.

Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of important recent substantive and methodological developments. Delineate the "jumping-off place" for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known?

Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications that the writer is not really familiar with the literature. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant. Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly. Committees may want a section outlining your search strategy—the procedures you used and sources you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the field) to compile your literature review. Check with your Chair.

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THE ESSANTIALS OF A PROPOSAL

Introduction OR Executive Summary

The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research. Executive summary helps a busy manager or sponsor to understand the proposal quickly. In an introduction, the writer should

Ø      Create reader interest in the topic.
Ø      Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
Ø      Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
Ø      Reach out to a specific audience.

If a researcher is working within a particular theoretical framework/line of inquiry, the theory or line of inquiry should be introduced and discussed early, preferably in the introduction or literature review. Remember that the theory/line of inquiry selected will inform the statement of the problem, rationale for the study, questions and hypotheses, selection of instruments, and choice of methods. Ultimately, findings will be discussed in terms of how they relate to the theory/line of inquiry that undergrads the study. Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in quantitative and qualitative endeavors.

    Statement of the Problem

The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis approach. A problem might be defined as,
"The issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study"

It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily recognize it. Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or line of inquiry that under girds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all proposals and requires careful attention. It is a key element that associations such as AERA and APA look for in proposals. It is essential in all quantitative research and much qualitative research.

The Essentials of Research Proposal and Report

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The Essentials of Research Proposal and Report

The Research Proposal

Introduction

Proposal is an individual's or company's offer to produce a product or render a service to a potential buyer or sponsor. A research proposal is the presentation of an idea that you wish to pursue. A good research proposal presumes that you have already thought about your project and have devoted some time and effort in gathering information, reading, and then organizing your thoughts. The actual proposal will indicate what analytical question you wish to address. The foundation of a good research paper is a good research question. Just a tree needs a good root system to grow to be strong; a good research paper needs a good analytical question.

Purpose

Following are the purpose of research proposal
Proposal is written to present the problem to be researched and its importance.
It is written to discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related problems.
It is present to suggest the data necessary for solving the problem and how the data will be gathered, treated, and interpreted.
Proposal present researcher's plan services and credentials in best possible way.

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Security issue of Information System

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Firewall
A firewall is a device or set of devices configured to permit, deny, encrypt, or proxy all computer traffic between different security domains based upon a set of rules or other criteria.
A firewall is a dedicated appliance, or software running on another computer, which inspects network traffic passing through it, and denies or permits passage based on a set of rules.
A firewall's basic task is to regulate some of the flow of traffic between computer networks of different trust levels. Typical examples are the Internet which is a zone with no trust and an internal network which is a zone of higher trust. A zone with an intermediate trust level, situated between the Internet and a trusted internal network, is often referred to as a "perimeter network" or Demilitarized zone (DMZ).
A firewall's function within a network is similar to firewalls with fire doors in building construction. In the former case, it is used to prevent network intrusion to the private network. In the latter case, it is intended to contain and delay structural fire from spreading to adjacent structures.
Without proper configuration, a firewall can often become worthless. Standard security practices dictate a "default-deny" firewall ruleset, in which the only network connections which are allowed are the ones that have been explicitly allowed. Unfortunately, such a configuration requires detailed understanding of the network applications and endpoints required for the organization's day-to-day operation. Many businesses lack such understanding, and therefore implement a "default-allow" ruleset, in which all traffic is allowed unless it has been specifically blocked. This configuration makes inadvertent network connections and system compromise much more likely.

Viruses Defenses
The threat from viruses changes constantly. More than 300 new viruses are discovered each month. To make Matters worse, today’s most prevalent threats are worms and mass-mailing viruses that can spread around the world In a matter of hours. To effectively combat the ever-changing virus threat, Various Companies establish an active anti-virus policy. Most companies today understand the need for virus protection. Many have established formal policies defining what form that protection should take, and how it should be used. Today most companies update antivirus software

Security Codes
For security of information system Password system is used. First an end user logs on to the computer system by entering his or her unique identification code or user ID. The end user is then asked to enter a password in order to gain access into the system. Next to access an individual file a unique file name must be entered. Password protects data from unauthorized use.

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Other Principles

Authenticity
In computing, e-Business and information security it is necessary to ensure that the data, transactions, communications or documents (electronic or physical) are genuine (i.e. they have not been forged or fabricated.)

Non-repudiation
In law, non-repudiation implies ones intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction can not deny having received a transaction nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.
Electronic commerce uses technology such as digital signatures and encryption to establish authenticity and non-repudiation.

Security Measures of Information System

Cryptography

In cryptography, encryption is the process of transforming information (referred to as plaintext) using an algorithm (called cipher) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key. The result of the process is encrypted information (in cryptography, referred to as ciphertext). In many contexts, the word encryption also implicitly refers to the reverse process, decryption (e.g. "software for encryption" can typically also perform decryption), to make the encrypted information readable again (i.e. to make it unencrypted).
Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. Encryption is now used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems, such as computers, networks (e.g. the Internet e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines. Encryption is also used in digital rights management to prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and in software also to protect against reverse engineering (see also copy protection).
Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature. Standards and cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single slip-up in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption.

Security issue of Information System page3

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Security of Information System

Security of Information System means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. The terms Security of information System, computer security and information assurance are frequently used interchangeably. These fields are interrelated and share the common goals of protecting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information; however, there are some subtle differences between them. These differences lie primarily in the approach to the subject, the methodologies used, and the areas of concentration. Security of information is concerned with the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data regardless of the form the data may take: electronic, print, or other forms.
Protecting confidential information is a business requirement, and in many cases also an ethical and legal requirement. For the individual, information security has a significant effect on Privacy, which is viewed very differently in different cultures.
Principles of security of information system
Information security has held that confidentiality, integrity and availability (known as the CIA Triad) are the core principles of information security.

Confidentiality
It is virtually impossible to get a drivers license, rent an apartment, obtain medical care, or take out a loan without disclosing a great deal of very personal information about ourselves, such as our name, address, telephone number, date of birth, Social Security number, marital status, number of children, mother's maiden name, income, place of employment, medical history, etc. This is all very personal and private information, yet we are often required to provide such information in order to transact business. We generally take it on faith that the person, business, or institution to whom we disclose such personal information have taken measures to ensure that our information will be protected from unauthorized disclosure, either accidental or intentional, and that our information will only be shared with other people, businesses or institutions who are authorized to have access to the information and who have a genuine need to know the information.
Information that is considered to be confidential in nature must only be accessed, used, copied, or disclosed by persons who have been authorized to do so, and only when there is a genuine need to do so. A breach of confidentiality occurs when information that is considered to be confidential in nature has been, or may have been, accessed, used, copied, or disclosed to, or by, someone who was not authorized to have access to the information.
For example: permitting someone to look over your shoulder at your computer screen while you have confidential data displayed on it would be a breach of confidentiality if they were not authorized to have the information. If a laptop computer, which contains employment and benefit information about 100,000 employees, is stolen from a car (or is sold on eBay) could result in a breach of confidentiality because the information is now in the hands of someone who is not authorized to have it. Giving out confidential information over the telephone is a breach of confidentiality if the caller is not authorized to have the information.

Integrity
In information security, integrity means that data can not be created, changed, or deleted without authorization. It also means that data stored in one part of a database system is in agreement with other related data stored in another part of the database system (or another system). For example: a loss of integrity can occur when a database system is not properly shut down before maintenance is performed or the database server suddenly loses electrical power. A loss of integrity occurs when an employee accidentally, or with malicious intent, deletes important data files. A loss of integrity can occur if a computer virus is released onto the computer. A loss of integrity can occur when an on-line shopper is able to change the price of the product they are purchasing.

Availability
The concept of availability means that the information, the computing systems used to process the information, and the security controls used to protect the information are all available and functioning correctly when the information is needed. The opposite of availability is denial of servic
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Security issue of Information System page 2

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1 External Agents

External actors refer to individuals or groups like hackers, terrorist organizations, business competitors and foreign intelligence organizations These agents perceive Internet ubiquity and anonymity as advantageous features for accomplishing their strategic and political objectives.

2 Insiders

The term "insiders" indicates authorized users who take advantage of their authorized access to internal networks and the Internet in general to achieve personal objectives. According to Information Security, more than half of the interviewed organizations have experienced abuses from their employees or authorized users. According to the consulting firm Political Psychology Associates, this high number of misuses may be related to personal frustrations, computer dependency, and reduced loyalty to employers as well as perceived lack of financial entailment for supposed superior technical and managerial capabilities

Security Challenges of Information System

Computer Crime

Computer crime, cybercrime, e-crime, hi-tech crime or electronic crime generally refers to criminal activity where a computer or network is the source, tool, target, or place of a crime. These categories are not exclusive and many activities can be characterized as falling in one or more category. these terms are also sometimes used to include traditional crimes, such as fraud, theft, blackmail, forgery, and embezzlement, in which computers or networks are used to facilitate the illicit activity.
Computer crime can broadly be defined as criminal activity involving an information technology infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging, deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and electronic fraud.Computer crime Involves the Following

Hacking
Hacking is the practice of modifying computer hardware and software to accomplish a goal outside of the creator’s original purpose. People who engage in computer hacking activities are often called hackers. Since the word "hack" has long been used to describe someone who is incompetent at his/her profession, Computer hacking is most common among teenagers and young adults, although there are many older hackers as well. Many hackers are true technology buffs who enjoy learning more about how computers work and consider computer hacking an "art" form. They often enjoy programming and have expert-level skills in one particular program. For these individuals, computer hacking is a real life application of their problem-solving skills. It’s a chance to demonstrate their abilities, not an opportunity to harm others.
Since a large number of hackers are self-taught prodigies, some corporations actually employ computer hackers as part of their technical support staff. These individuals use their skills to find flaws in the company’s security system so that they can be repaired quickly. In many cases, this type of computer hacking helps prevent identity theft and other serious computer-related crimes.

Cyber Crime OR Theft

Cyber crime or Theft also includes traditional crimes conducted through the Internet. For example; hate crimes, telemarketing and Internet fraud, identity theft, and credit card account thefts are considered to be cyber crimes when the illegal activities are committed through the use of a computer and the Internet.
Example of cyber theft is the theft of $11 million from Citibank in 1994.

Computer Virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or knowledge of the user. However, the term "virus" is commonly used, albeit erroneously, to refer to many different types of malware programs. The original virus may modify the copies, or the copies may modify themselves, as occurs in a metamorphic virus. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or the Internet, or by carrying it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive. Meanwhile viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan horses. A worm can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host, and a Trojan horse is a file that appears harmless. Both worms and Trojans will cause harm to computers when executed.
Most personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local area networks, facilitating the spread of malicious code. Today's viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the World Wide Web, e-mail, Instant Messaging and file sharing systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms. Furthermore, some sources use an alternative terminology in which a virus is any form of self-replicating malware.
Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply replicate themselves and perhaps make their presence known by presenting text, video, or audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often cause erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-ridden, and these bugs may lead to system crashes and data loss.
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Security Issues of Information System

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Security Issues of Information System

What is Information System

Information System can be any organized combination of people, hardware, software, communications networks, and data resources that stores and retrieves, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization. An information system is an example of both a technical and social system. It is a technical system in that it may contain a large number of machinery but it is also a social system that it may reflect in the way it is used the social structure of an organization. For example an information system not only exists to record transactions but also it is used to provide summary information to senior management to assess whether the organization is following its long-term strategic objectives.
Internal users of Information
It includes
1. Board of the company or the equivalent of a board in other organization.
2. Directors with functional responsibilities.
3. Divisional general managers.
4. Divisional heads.
5. Departmental heads.
6. Section leader or fore men.

By function classification: -
1. Marketing.
2. Finance.
3. Administration.
4. Production.
5. Technical.
6. Personnel.
7. Research.

what is Security Issues of Information System

Governments, military, financial institutions, hospitals, and private businesses have a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status. Most of this information is now collected, processed and stored on electronic computers and transmitted across networks to other computers. Should confidential information about a businesses customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor, such a breach of security could lead to lost business, law suits or even bankruptcy of the business.
Since March 2008 some people had fraudulently withdrawn Rs20 million from automated-teller machines (ATMs)of National Bank Of Pakistan in Multan, the Federal Investigation Agency believes that the bank’s online money providing system has been "hacked".
According to Information Security magazine, since 1998 about 20 percent of the surveyed financial institutions have suffered disruptions of their information and network systems. Similar findings have been confirmed by the 1999 Computer Crime and Security Survey conducted by San Francisco-based Computer Security Institute and the Computer Intrusion Squad of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation. This initiative revealed that more than 50 percent of the surveyed companies had their networks violated through their Internet connections. Nonetheless, the most troublesome aspect of this rise in computer crime is its global reach, especially for an online financial institution that aims to offer its products and services to clients worldwide. In the final report of Project Trawler, the National Criminal Intelligence Service, the central intelligence body of the various English regional police forces, has indicated an exponential growth of computer crime in the United Kingdom. The perpetrators of these security breaches may be classified in two categories
1 External Agents
2 Insiders

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