A unit of a large land of productional – organizational type during the Carolingian dynasty was an estate documented as a villa. The extent of such an estate varied between 200 and 2000 hectares, each of which was divided into two divisions:

• Landowner’s reservation land
• Subordinate cultivators’ particles¹

Landowner’s reservation land is originally also known as terra indominicata or terra salica. In this land that the landowner kept for himself was the landowner’s court (curtis); an area enclosed by a wall in which there was a housing, and along with it were accommodations for the workers that lived and worked on the reservation land. Inside the walls there were an allotment and a vegetable garden, and outside the walls there was arable land of the landowner’s reservation that comprised of ploughs, meadows, vineyards and forrests. The composition of the reservation also included a church that was under the direct ownership and supervision of the owner of the villae. Besides the church itself, the owner also supervised its entire assets, and the land that was given to the church to support the priest that lived there. The reservation had its own mill which was rented out most of the time, and was used by the owner only on rare occasions. There was also a supervisor (villicus) on the estate, who was in charge of cultivation and exploitation of the reservation land, as well as the collection of duties in kind from the subordinate particles. Among the workers on a Carolingian period reservation there were also slaves, which were few due to the fact that they worked on the court as landowner’s service. They lived in special accommodations within the walls. They were known as prebendarii because they ate food from the landowner’s own supplies, and this is called prebenda. In some cases, the prebendarii had a separate small house outside the court’s walls, with an infield that was cultivated by the wife and children, while the head of the family was administering his duties in the landowner’s home.

An estate, apart from the reservation, also contained particles, and the main labour on the landowner’s reservation were subordinate peasants from those particles. A peasant particle from within the estate is referred to as mansus, comprised of a residential house with infield as a residence, and ploughs, meadows and vineyards. Eventhough they weren’t considered as a part of a mansus, forrests, pastures and hunting grounds were given to the use to particle holders free of charge or for special fees.

Apart from a various number of mansi that went from a few up to a hundred, a villa could have also contained several different types of mansi, which were divided by the social – economical status and the origin of their holder, thus we distinguish:

• Mansi ingenuiles – meaning free mansi that were kept by the descendants of former members of free village counties that were forced to give their particle to a wealthier holder due to poverty, but kept cultivating it under the condition that they give the owner of that particle an installment in kind.
• Mansi serviles – particles that were held by former slaves that inhabited the particle of the landowner’s property.
• Mansi lidiles – a mansus category that was held by former germanic half-free men or liti. They most probably descend from the free Germans who became slaves as war prisoners, and were eventually, following the formation of large estates, given land from their masters, to cultivate, under the obligation to give duties in kind to their master.²

The differences between the mansus categories that were known even in the Antique, manifested through unequal obligations that mainly depended on the social status of the cultivator. Therefore, the servi cultivated their small particles by hand tools (hoe and shovel), whilst the colons cultivated their much larger particles using animal-drawn carts.

In the Carolingian time, the duties in kind were comprised of specific amounts of crops. Apart from the crops, these duties also included livestock (oxen, pigs and sheep). Widely spread was a duty of regular type that included a certain number of hens or other poultry off of each mansus, and along with each hen, it was also obligatory to include five or six eggs.

Along with the duties in kind, the transitional period introduced labour duties which related to end products, and these can be divided into two groups:

• Lumber products that the particle holders were obliged to provide in the form of firewood and boards that were used in different purposes; stable construction, vineyard poles, torches etc. These duties were regular and annual.
• Linen products (flax or wool) were duties in textile products, and they related to certain amounts of linen and cloth. Weaving was a commitment of all the servile mansi. It was performed by the women within the workshops inside the court.³

Working commitments covered obligations called servitium i. e. service, and they consisted of farming obligations which were the most difficult for the particle holder, and the most important for the landowner, manoperaea, works that related to the upkeep of fences, wells and buildings, underpass (carroperae and angarie) which meant delivery and shipping of raw materials and crops to and from the landowner’s court, that is, outside of the villae to a market or a harbour, and nights (noctes) which was so-called unpredictable work that was common in rich priories where there was a lack of manpower from time to time.

The differences between the obligations of ingenuile and servile mansi were obvious from both duties in kind and in labour. Whilst the duties in kind of ingenuile mansi understood the exact amount of crops from fields, a duty in wine, as well as hostilium and carnaticum, those of servile mansi referred to a certain amount of products of agricultural labour, which was defined by the supervisor of the estate, depending on the fruitfulness of harvest and the number of smal livestock of the cultivator. The working commitments of ingenuile and servile mansi differed by the fact that the first ones included plough cultivation, manoperae, carroperae, angariae and noctes, whilst the latter ones were much more demanding, and included availability for all kinds of duties three days every week. Beside that, every servile mansus had to perform an additional working obligation during the seasonal agricultural work in the reservation, which was usually a form of night watch on curtis, herding of pigs and sheep, and supplying the court with wood and beer.

The second half of the 9th century introduces a process of mansus specialization. Artisans such as blacksmiths, shoemakers, canters and goldsmiths had particles of their own, which they cultivated, but were free of any duties in kind or in labour. In turn, they were obliged to deliver a certain amount of their product to the court each year. The similar practice was applied on work supervisors, rangers and accountants. They had an ingenuile mansus each, from which they didn’t give any sort of duties other than providing their service.

Related articles:

• Feudalism

The territories of Europe did not use the same weaponry. The Slavs were in shortage of iron, so they preferred ranged weapons. That is why Charlemagne banned selling weapons to Slavs and Avars. Later, other bans are introduced on a social level as well. I.e. Frederick I Barbarossa (cca. 1122-1190) banned carrying or possession of weapons (spear or sword) to peasants. Travelling merchants were allowed to carry weapons, in order to defend themselves from robbers, but they were not allowed to carry them “in a knightly manner “, on their body, only attached to the saddle or inside the wagon. It was, in any way, harder for the lower classes to get a hold of weapons since they were costly. For example, it is a known fact that in Charlemagne’s time, a sword cost seven cows, and a spear two.²

Cold weapons

The most common and well known weapon amongst the warriors of the Middle Ages were swords.³ Swords of the noblemen were especially richly decorated and were also often attributed with supernatural powers. Though swords of other warriors were slightly more modest, they display excellent craftsmanship nevertheless. By a single stroke, they could pierce through metal, but also inflict a deadly wound to the enemy.⁴

Apart from swords, another important weapon were sabres. This weapon originates from the East, from the equestrian tribes of middle Asia. They were later adopted by the Persians, as well as nations of India and Japan. They were brought to Europe during the Migration and were used by the Huns, Avars and Hungarians. However, with a gradual dominance of the sword as a primary medieval weapon, sabre vanishes from general use. It will reemerge in Europe during the Turkish invasion of this area. Later, many nations that were in contact with the Turks will readopt the sabre, i.e. the Polish will make it their national weapon (“karabela “). Its widespread use is also witnessed by the Hussar army that was assembled of defectors who were skilled in Turkish type of warfare, by the Hungarian king Mattias Corvinus in 1474; this light cavalry’s primary weapon was sabre.⁵

Knives were a shorter type of weapon, consisting of a handle and a single blade. Since they were cheaper to make, they were most commonly used by peasants. Nowadays, it is hard to differentiate which of them were used as a weapon, or in hunting and everyday household activities.

Somewhat larger than knives were daggers. They were used for quick self-defence, by inflicting stab wounds, and also for putting the wounded out of misery. They were sometimes used in parallel with a sword, in a way that a warrior would hold a sword in one hand, and a dagger in the other. Due to its size, it could have easily been hidden in garments or various objects, which made it a very dangerous weapon. Even though they vanish from use in the early Middle Ages, they reappear throughout entire Europe during the 12th and 13th century. They became useful once more due to the evolution of heavy knights’ armours, which were tough to pierce with a sword or some larger weapon. Thin dagger blades were ideal for this purpose; thus the knights use them increasingly, holding the sword in one hand, and the dagger in the other.⁷

Both footmen and horsemen used spears, a weapon that consisted of a long pole on top of which was a blade with two, three or four edges. Spears had been used since prehistory, with no major changes in design. During the Middle Ages, spears were used by all European nations, especially Germanic and Norman tribes.⁸

Imposing, but rarely used medieval weapons were battle axes. They had been used since Prehistory, and they consisted of a handle and a blade which was shaped either as a parallelogram, a crescent moon or a fan. In medieval Europe, they were mostly used by the Franks (francisca) and the Vikings. However, it should be mentioned that, even though legends often display axes as a most common weapon used by Vikings, this was, in fact, a much more modest weapon. They were mostly used by warriors who could not afford a sword. Most of the preserved battle axes, due to their modesty, cannot be distinguished from the ones that were used by lumberjacks.⁹ Axe was used by knights in late Middle Ages, and some time later it will have been used, once again, by infantry.¹⁰

Similar to axes were halberds, which consisted of a long pole (1.80 – 2.40 m), on top of which there was a spear, an axe or a beak (not until the 16th century). Footmen used them for fighting against armoured knights. Halberds were first used by the Swiss soldiers-footmen fighting against armoured cavalry in the battle at Morgarten in 1315. This weapon was multi-functional since the spear was used for hitting or piercing the horseman, the axe was used for inflicting cut wounds, and the beak for unhorsing the horseman. It had a distinctive form in each country it was used in; thus we can distinguish German, Swiss, Italian and Czech halberd. At the beginning of the 15th century, the halberd was pulled to the centre of the military formation and was replaced entirely by the spear in the next century. Nowadays, it is used only by the papal guard in the Vatican.¹¹

Although having appeared in as early as Prehistory, mace and morning star were characteristical medieval weapons. A mace consists of a short handle and a head split into flanges. Flanges were narrow and long in the 14th and 15th century, thus having been named “gothic “maces. Later, they became more round and triangular, and by the number of flanges, we can distinguish six-flanged, ten-flanged, twelve-flanged etc. By shape, it is similar to the morning star, the difference being that the morning star had a full bronze or iron head covered in spikes or pyramidal bulges. For their decorativity, both mace and morning star became symbols of dignity and honour in the Middle Ages, worn by civilians (town’s judges and noblemen), as well as military commanders.¹²

Range weapons

Though they were often considered primitive weapon, slings were also used in warfare. They had been used since prehistory, and they were an extremely deadly weapon when used by skilled warriors. During the 15th century, there were entire mercenary fleets armed with slings. Such a fleet, for example, was a part of an army raised by Ivan Kapistran in 1456 for the defence of Belgrade. A large version of the sling was catapult. It was mostly used during the siege. They were made of wood, and they were used for casting rocks.¹³

During the Middle Ages, nevertheless, the most used weapons were bows, which were one of the most efficient range weapons. They were made of wood (larch, ash, elm, maple, birch …), horn (ox, buffalo, goat, antelope), cane (bamboo) or metal (copper, bronze, steel). The tendon was made out of leather, entrails, vegetable fibres, horse hair or silk. Since they were sensitive to humidity, the archers wore spare tendons. Arrows consisted of a pointy top (flint, bone, iron, copper, hardwood), a shaft made of light wood and fletchings made of feathers. An archer carried 24 to 50 arrows in his sac.¹⁴

Bows had been used since the Antique (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon), and they first appeared in Europe in Charlemagne’s army in the 8th century. The Hungarian and Tartarian cavalry particularly used bows and the most famous for this skill were the English and the Welsh, who were the most wanted bowmen in the period from the 13th until the 15th century.¹⁵ Armoured knights did not use bows; specially trained warrior bowmen were hired in battles. Apart from being trained in using a bow from childhood, bowmen also had to be trained in handling other sorts of weapons, which they would use in a battle after they have run out of arrows. A good bowman was able to fire twelve arrows per minute and hit a target in a range of 225 metres. English bowmen that were captivated by the French were punished severely. Thumbs on both of their hands were amputated, as well as index and middle finger on their right hand. Although it was not a primary weapon in Europe, some nations used bows as weapons almost exclusively. For example, Avars, Bulgarians, Huns, Hungarians and Mongols used them as their primary weapons. They circled the enemy riding fast horses, firing arrows at them.¹⁶ From the 16th century onward, bows seized to be used, since they were replaced by firearms.¹⁷

An advanced version of bow was crossbow, which is first used in the 11th century by the Normans, and later spread throughout the rest of Europe.¹⁸ It was mainly a weapon used by footmen, although it was used by the cavalry as well. It was considered a hazardous weapon that brings certain death. A fact is that in 15th-century crossbow arrows pierced through helmets at a distance of 300 steps, and through a chest armour at 100 up to 125 steps. It is interesting that it had a larger range than the firearms of the same period. Its use was often banned, however, the bans did not hold, since it was used until the 17th century when more advanced firearms replace it.¹⁹

Defensive weapons

In battles, as well as in individual knights’ conflicts, a warrior’s protection was critical. At the beginning, protection was provided by an outfit made out of leather (which will have been used throughout the entire Middle Ages by the lower cast); later, along with the evolution of blacksmith skills, warriors started to use metal protectors, first for some body parts, and later entire armours.

Apart from armours, protection was primarily contributed by shields, which had been used since Prehistory. They came in many sizes and shapes, and they were usually larger when used by infantry, while the cavalry used shields of smaller proportions. Shields seized to be used as a defensive weapon by the end of the 17th century but continued to be produced as decorative objects.²⁰

Helmets were also used since the earliest of times, and they were invented with the purpose to protect the nape and the vertex with their rear part, and the forehead, cheeks and ears with their front part. In 14th century, this shape is modified in a way that the cut around the eyes is more emphasized (barbuta, bacinet, beckenhaube). They could also have a moving part for the protection of the face – a visor. During the Middle Ages helmets were designed in different forms, and they were most often shaped like a hat, a bowl or a sphere.²¹

For the protection of the body, mailed vests and armours were made. A mailed vest comes from the East, and it was brought to Europe through Byzantium in the 6th century. It was made of interwoven iron rings, and it was designed in the shape of a long-sleeved vest that descended to the knees. Later, metal plates were applied additionally on the chest, in order to make it stronger. Metal armour was allowed to be worn only by noblemen, which led to a competition among them in acquiring the most expensive and handsome specimen. It was designed as a stylistic whole, and it consisted of a helmet, a collar, straps, upper arm, elbow, forearm, and gloves. On joints of individual parts, there were movable plates which allowed for easier mobility. Apart from these battle armours, there were also exclusive tournament armors and specially decorated armours for solemn occasions. Medieval armours are divided into two primary types: Gothic and Maximillian. During the 16th century, they become slightly obsolete, due to the broader use of firearms.²²

Firearms

There is a great change in medieval armament and warfare with the appearance of firearms. It was preceded by the discovery of gunpowder, which dates back much earlier in history. An Indian document from 5th century BC contains a recipe for making an explosive compound. Apart from the Indians, the Chinese and the Arabs also knew gunpowder. It was the Arabs that first used small wooden hand mortars in the siege of the Spanish city of Alora in 712.²³ However, the Arabian wooden thrower from 12th century called madfaa, which fired nut-sized projectiles, is considered an immediate predecessor of firearms.²⁴

It is not known precisely when the Europeans began using gunpowder, but they were familiar with it during the 13th century. We find the first records of formulas in the works of Marco Graecus „Liber Ignium“, and they were also familiar to Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Roger Bacon (1215-1294). The Germans attribute the invention of gunpowder to Berthold Schwartz around 1320.²⁵

At the beginning, casting cold weapons (such as catapults) were much more efficient than firearms. Because of it, as well as religious fanaticism (firearms were considered the Devil’s invention), many countries refused to use it in their armament.²⁶

First cannons were used in the 14th century in the sieges of cities (Cividale, 1338), but they did not pose any serious threat at the time. Their purpose was mainly to scare since they produced much noise. The greater danger was for whoever loaded the barrel, since it often used to explode, thus injuring the person standing next to it. First specialized gun foundries were established in Augsburg in 1370, Venice in 1376, and in Dubrovnik in 1411. By the beginning of the 15th century, they were producing two types of cannons, the ones that cast stone balls, and the ones that cast lead and iron balls. The following data also tells of little strength of 15th-century cannons: their range was, at the time, 200 to 400 meters, and by the end of the century it went up to 600 meters, and the speed of shooting was only one ball per hour. Later, the artillery will have been improved, and finally, become a special branch.²⁷

Besides the cannons, along with the gunpowder, handheld firearms developed as well. During the 15th and 16th century, pipes with hooks on them were used, which represented transitional form from cannons to rifles. This weapon was called arquebus (hakenbüchse). Arquebuses were heavy bastion rifles, which had longer or shorter barrels, and were used for fortification defence and for signalling in case of the enemy approach. They were fired using a burning wick that was put against the back of the barrel. Matchlocks appeared around 1500, representing the first type of barrels planted in wood. At the side, there was a hook with a small head into which the wick was drawn, thus firing up the gunpowder charge inside the barrel. However, these guns had a series of flaws, for example, they could not be used in rainy weather, also they were an easy target for the enemy at night while lighting up the wick, and only footmen, and not cavalry, were able to use them. Nevertheless, around the beginning of the 16th century, there is an improved way of firing – by a wheel mechanism, and later by a flint. Pistols were developed in parallel with rifles, following their function mechanism. At first, they fired using a wick, and later, pistols running on the wheels and flint mechanisms were gradually introduced.²⁸

With the new era, new types of warfare are introduced, the knighthood seizes to exist, and hired warriors battle in the battlefield. Although cold weapons remained in use, they were gradually replaced by firearms, which were over time further improved. More extensive use of firearms is accompanied by a gradual discontinuance of the use of metal armour, which lost its purpose.

Related articles:

• Knights

Knighthood emerges in Europe with the appearance of feudalism, and it is mostly developed between the 11th and 13th century.¹ Already during the Carolingian period, there was a substantial increase of cavalry in the military, and they were paid for their service inland properties. Warriors were thus given land, and in return, they fought for the ruler and swore him their allegiance. They were given authority to collect taxes from their serfs, and they were also exempt of some of the feudal tributes. All of these warriors, that owned properties and were subordinate and loyal to their seigneurs, who granted them land, were called knights.²

A knight’s training usually started already at the age of seven, when a boy that was decided to become a knight was sent to a kinsman, also a nobleman, to serve as a page. There he was taught the skills of warfare, and riding, but also mannerliness and politeness. At the age of fourteen, he would have become a squire, becoming a servant to some other knight. There he was taught sword handling and was also responsible for grooming the horse and taking care of the armour and weapon of the knight that he served. Young squires had to be in great physical shape. That is why they regularly trained, fighting each other. Those training were tough and exhausting, so only some of them were able to finish. The squire accompanied the knight in tournaments, and even in battles, in which he helped him in preparations and armouring.

If he should successfully pass the training, a young man at the age of twenty-one was subsequently proclaimed a knight, in a grand ceremony held in his honour. In this ceremony, before the proclamation, he was obliged to demonstrate his skills in front of the guests.³ The inauguration was particularly solemn; it started by putting on the armour in the presence of the godfather, who was in most cases, an intently chosen close relative.⁴ Then, he was awarded a weapon and special marks of knighthood, a belt, golden spurs and a crest with a motto. The Prentice pledged an oath by which he committed loyalty and bravery to his seigneur (a count, a duke or a ruler). A strike of a sword upon the shoulders and the head marked that he had become a knight.⁵

Knights equipment

Since having fought on a horse, every knight had to have at least one in his possession. It served him in warfare, tournaments, travel, and equipment transfer. Horses were then particularly expensive, and the most valuable were the ones from Italy, France and Spain.⁶

As to protect themselves from hits during the battle, knights wore armour. In the beginning, these armours were mails consisting of many small, tied metal rings. A single mail shirt used to weigh between nine and fourteen kilograms.⁷ In the 15th century, plate armour was introduced. Although it was often considered heavy and stiff, thereby inconvenient to wear, this was not true. The armourers that built these armours made them prudently so to enable the knight to move as quickly as possible while wearing them. The secret was in the workmanship of the plates, which were able to move along with the knight’s body. They were linked with rivets that enabled them to move.⁸ The armour could have been put on and taken off in a matter of minutes, and his squire aided the knight.

The most important weapon the knights carried was a sword, which changed its shape through time, depending on whichever armour was popular. Apart from swords, the knights also occasionally wore an axe, a spear, a dagger, a bow, etc.

Although the rules of knighthood implied that the winners in battle had to be courteous to the defeated, this, however, did not apply to their equipment. Thus, they regularly plundered horses, weapons and armours from their rivals after the battle, which presented a significant portion of their incomes.⁹

Knights tournaments

Besides the battles, knights also fought in tournaments, which appeared in the 11th century, and apart from serving as entertainment for the spectators, they were also a kind of practice ground for warfare. In a fake battle that was organized within a tournament, two teams would oppose each other. After its finish, the defeated had to give up their horses and armours to the victors. Some other forms of competitions, such as knights duels or standing up fights, were also held.¹⁰

Knights duels in which two knights fight with lances riding on horses appeared in the 13th century. Knights would run towards each other at a fast speed, with the primary aim to strike the opponent with the lance, thus unhorsing him. At first, they used sharp lances, which were later replaced by blunted ones. Such fights with blunt lances were called „the peace duels“. A wooden fence was introduced in the 15th century, which disparted the knights’ tracks, and it also prevented the possibility of a collision.¹¹ After the duel using lances, the fight could have been continued on foot, and the knights would continue to fight using swords, axes or a club. Every contestant had a certain amount of hits that he was allowed to direct at his opponent. During the duel, armed men stood in the vicinity to the contestants, ready to separate them if they got carried away.¹²

There were also waterborne knights duels, in which the conflicting knights were distributed into two boats. The teams would paddle towards each other, and in the prow, there was a knight that was trying to unbalance his opponent by hitting him with a lance.¹³

However, not all of the duels were competitive, since sometimes murder or treason accusations were solved by fighting. It was considered that God would aid whoever was genuinely innocent. Thus the fights lasted until one of the contestants would be killed or surrender, after which he would nonetheless be punished by death.¹⁴

Hunting

Hunting was one of the favourite hobbies of then nobility, especially knights. It was also a good exercise for warfare and especially useful for practising the use of bow and arrows. Also, it provided fresh meat, and it served as a place of social gathering, so it was especially popular amongst the members of the noble class. Hunters used bows or arbalests, and they hunted all sorts of game, from deers, boars, rabbits, to different types of birds. Particularly popular was falconry, which was so favoured by the German emperor Friedrich II Falconer that in the middle of the 13th century he wrote a book on that topic. Hunters were also primarily aided by specially trained hounds, of which they took special care. In the events of injuries, the dogs were treated with healing herbs and were also successfully treated from bone fractures and dislocations.¹⁵

The end of knighthood

Around 1500, there is a change in the structure of previous military units. An essential part of all armies becomes well-trained disciplined infantry, which gradually suppresses the heavily armed and armoured cavalry. There is a change in the recruitment process, as well. The recruits are now mostly well-trained professional mercenaries, and there is less and less need for knights, who become ineffective in the battlefield as well. The appearance of firearms is also not to be omitted since it has proven to have a fatal and very devastating effect on the knight’s armour.

Knighthood seized to be a title carried from father to son in the 16th and 17th century. It instead became just a spoken honour which a ruler awarded to people whom he wished to give tribute to. It, however, had no relevance to warfare whatsoever.

Related articles:

• Medieval Weaponry

By the end of the 15th century, French language was introduced with a term féodalité which represented laws and customs that were effective in France as of the Carolingian period until the end of the Middle Ages. These laws were typical of martial polity, a system that protected the man, and of non-existence of public government. The first to have used the term „feudalism“ were English lawyers in the 17th century. They implied a legal system of fiefs, which was at that time the only surviving part of the medieval system.¹

As to fully comprehend feudalism and its development, we shall go back to earlier periods. „The feudal society“ is a typical type of society where agriculture is a predominant type of economy and it was mostly developed in such circumstances. In times when the Western Roman Empire was at its last breaths, the life of small landowners was exceptionally hard. In such conditions, they had to give away their land to the Church as insurance, after which the Church gave it back to them in a form of a gift (beneficium). Cultivators that had no land or didn’t have enough, and had a desire to live off their work as farmers, went to see the overlord whom they would formally ask (preces) for land in exchange for a compensation. Such property was called a precarium.² I. e., the land that is formally and legally owned by one individual, is possessed by some other individual. Whilst the Roman law permitted that precarium be consumed until the provider chooses so, in Frankish law it became a sort of a land lease for a predetermined period of time. As much as this was an important element in the uprise of feudal society, what we call a fief was a special type of benefit; a gift to the vassal in exchange for his military service. Honor, loyalty and military service will, at last, constitute something that is, in medieval terms, called a vassal relationship.³

A vassal enters willingly into a relationship with an overlord, agreeing thereby to certain obligations and thus bonding with him by personal loyalty. The overlord and his vassal are bound by a vassal agreement, in which the vassal swears loyalty to his overlord. The establishment of a feudal relationship is followed by a ceremony in which the vassal puts his hands into his overlord’s, and the overlord folds his hands around the vassal’s. The vassal’s obligation to his overlord is called consilium, i.e. council, or auxilium which represents military or more rarely financial assistance. In return, the overlord is obligated to provide protection to the vassal.⁴

In order to obtain funds for living and for obligatory military service, vassals provided pieces of land to other vassals or to serfs directly. Without this procedure, the feudal hierarchy would not have been maintained, and the entire production would have been significantly smaller. Serfs were forced into subordinant and dependent position, and for the purpose of upkeep, they were forced to lease land from a feudal. In case they wished to leave the land or free themselves, they were forcefully prevented from doing so. In exchange for ceded land, the serfs were obliged to pay a feudal fee to their master, which was usually paid in three different types; labor, natural goods or money. Even though these types of rent appeared mostly individually, due to different types of deals and feudals increasingly burdening the serfs, there are cases where some of these types appeared together.

The political system in the area of Western Europe, that fully grew during the Carolingian era in 8th century, was developed as a synthesis of the two prior systems; imperial and barbaric, in time when the assignment of feuds on one hand, and the establishment of vassal-overlord relationship on the other, were connected. In parallel with the Frankish conquests during the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century, feudalism spread towards Italy, Spain, Germany, to the East towards Hungary and to some Slavenic lands. The Normans also spread it to lands they conquered. Thus it arrived to England and to the south of Italy. From England it spread to Ireland and Scotland. Feudalism appears in the Middle East as well, when the Crusader states were formed round the end of the 11th century, but also in Byzantine Empire, where we find pronoia as an equivalent to feud. Japan and China, as great non-European civilizations, went through a feudal period in their histories. Japanese feudalism is comparable to European, and in China a similar process evolves already in the 2nd century BC, and retains until the 20th century. In 12th century, in some of the most developed European countries such as England and France, feudalism finds itself under pressure from different social groups, and by maturity of organized society, feudal relations are gradually replaced by relations of masters to their subjects. Under such circumstances, feudalism loses its significance as a political and social phenomenon, especially in the 14th century. Despite such turn of events, feudalism left a deep mark in European societies, having influenced on modern political systems and their development. Finally, feudalism was abolished in England in the 16th century, in France in 1789, in Russia in 1861, and in Croatia in 1848.⁵

Langobard feudalism

After conquering Italy, the Langobards inhabited it by tribal communities (farae). The royal government and the dukes as representatives of Langobard ancestral aristocracy thus occupied properties that were preowned by the Empire, along with the lands of large landowners that had been exiled or murdered, whilst the ancestral communities seized lands of smaller landowners or abandoned properties. In the process of forming of Langobard villages, tribal communities were divided into individual economical units, i.e. large families that consisted of three or four generations that collectively cultivated the ploughlands. The pastures and forests remained a common property of the entire village community. However, shortly after the conquest, the economical and social relations go through a reform, thus the „Edict of Rothari“ was published in 643, by which the tribal village community becomes a neighboring community or mark. It can be seen from the fore mentioned edict that large families, which were until then basic economical units of ancestral villages, were split into smaller families of single married couples. Common lands of large families were divided into allodial lands of smaller families which were governed by the father of the family, and sold, pledged or granted solely at his will. Forests and pastures remain at disposal to all villagers, and ploughlands and meadows are left as a free pasture for the whole village’s live stock.⁶

In the middle of the 7th century the Langobard population was divided into four groups:

• Fulcfree et haamund – completely free and independant people
• Fulcfree – free, but economically dependant people
• Aldi – half-free people
• Slaves

Under the Rothari law, fulcfree was free, but economically dependent individual, and he was brought into this position due to impoverishment (given the fact that before this he was free and independent) or if he was a slave or aldio, and was subsequently granted freedom by his master. The social status of aldi was similar to slavery. Aldio had a piece of land which was owned by his master who was responsible for him, which made him legally dependent. Aldio also had features of freedom which meant that he was able to govern his land and employ slaves, and he could also marry a free woman, which lead to her losing freedom.

Above these four basic categories of Langobard society there was former military tribal aristocracy, which served to highest bearers of political authority. The royal government had its court, which hired servants such as marshals, majordoms, treasurers, sword bearers etc. Some royal estates were governed by gastalds who had civil, military and judicial authority, and besides them there were also other administrative and judicial officials such as judices. Lands were cultivated by laborers, who were either slaves, aldi or fulcfree. However, free and independent people are increasingly called arimani or exercitales in the 7th and 8th century. The feature of this group of people was right and duty to participate in war.⁷

In the middle of the 8th century, king Aistulf legally forbade all the libertines and dependent liberals to leave their masters, unless they were given a special muniment granting them a right to leave. The land was given for cultivation to a free man that had no land of his own, under terms of a written contract (libellus scriptus). The forming of such relationships is a result of Liutprand’s law from 727. Libellarius is a free man that is granted a piece of land from the landlord to cultivate, in exchange for toll. By this act, he keeps his personal freedom, but accepts land and judicial dependency to the landlord.⁸