micropaleontology

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2014-06-16T04:32:00.001-07:00

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Alternative Renewable Energy Resources - Forget The Fossil Fuel Go Green With These

2011-10-09T22:35:00.001-07:00

There are all kinds of option renewable power resources accessible for you to use. 1 such resource is the sun, which can power up the Earth for 27 years. The other two feasible alternative power sources people today can use geo thermal and wind energy.

If you're looking for superb option renewable energy resources to replace your dependency on fossil fuels, then you've come to suitable place. Following all, you already know that fossil fuels will, 1 day, run out.

As noted above, solar energy is 1 of the very best option renewable energy resources that can be applied. The sun can be harnessed to generate energy (electricity and heat). Solar renewable power utilizes the direct exchange of radiation in the form of a few systems such as solar PV system, solar water purification method and solar hot water systems.

There are roughly 200,000 properties that generate electricity by way of solar power. As the capacity to produce solar power in this way becomes additional cost-effective, even more people today, looking to save funds and lessen the quantity of carbon emissions, will turn to this form of solar renewable energy source.

A second of 3 preferred option renewable power sources is wind energy, which can be used by consumers searching to lessen their reliance on fossil fuel energy and reduce how significantly spending they do for power. Like solar power, wind power has been in place for quite some time and first harnessed for electricity in the late 19th century. If wind power was 1 of the well known alternative renewable energy resources in the 19th century, envision the marketplace for it currently with far more persons going green.

Many men and women assume that the wind ought to blow heavily to power houses. This is a fallacy. You can essentially produce it inside your own yard and, most beneficial of all, it's clean and green. If you're looking for option renewable power resources that has room to grow, wind power is what you want.

Those who live in isolated places and get a fair amount of wind can use wind power to electrify their residence. The reason for their capacity to use this power is that they can't use the electrical grid. A lot like solar power, wind power is really dependable and rather reliable. Plus, the price of making use of wind power is low. The method works when wind power is offered and those many people use wind energy but can't get it, for whatever reason, can use battery powered systems.

You don't have to live in some far-off location to take advantage of this power source. Tiny wind turbines will generate approximately 20 kilowatts of energy a lot more than sufficient energy for power inside a dwelling.

Besides solar and wind power, there are alot more option renewable power resources such as hydroelectricity. The difficulty with this and other types of option power sources is that they're not that prosperous and can only be utilized a certain quantity of locations. Hydroelectricity will will need dams with high pressure water flow to generate power. Appropriate now, only 10 percent of the world's power is produced by hydroelectricity. There are a variety of of these accessible but they're generally out west.

If you are interested in working with water to power the electronics in your household, you can use hydropower generators, placing them near your backyard streams and rivers.

These are just some of the a number of option renewable energy resources you can use to power your house and your life.

Relax in Style - Cruises to Bermuda

2011-07-27T18:19:00.001-07:00

The K-T Mass Extinction Was Caused by a Meteorite Impact

2011-07-27T18:18:00.001-07:00

The K-T Mass Extinction Was Caused by a Meteorite Impact

2011-07-27T18:17:00.001-07:00

Bermuda - The Pink Sand Paradise

2011-07-27T18:16:00.003-07:00

Relax in Style - Cruises to Bermuda

2011-07-27T18:16:00.001-07:00

The K-T Mass Extinction Was Caused by a Meteorite Impact

2011-07-27T18:13:00.001-07:00

The K-T Mass Extinction Was Caused by a Meteorite Impact

2011-07-27T18:12:00.001-07:00

Relax in Style - Cruises to Bermuda

2011-07-27T18:11:00.001-07:00

Relax in Style - Cruises to Bermuda

2011-07-27T18:10:00.001-07:00

Where can I find the journal of micropaleontology Revista Espanola?

2011-05-03T02:38:00.000-07:00

Question by FEMI O: Where can I discover the journal of micropaleontology Revista Espanola?
This journal publishes study findings on micropaleontology like foraminifera and palynology. My aim is to submit a manuscript on-line for publication.

Greatest answer:

Answer by Draken
Try a general search (Yahoo works well and you are likely already there) employing Paleontology Revista Espanola and you'll get a list with all sorts of those journals. I opened up one that looks to be what you want referred to as VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY JOURNAL LINKS. It's there and lots others as nicely.

What do you believe? Answer below!

2011-02-24T10:53:00.001-08:00

Over the recent past, nuclear powered energy production has prevented about 2.2 billion tonnes of CO2 from being added to the atmospheric load. Not a lot in relevant terms but a actual positive in an ever-growing energy requirement that has tipped the world into the Climate Change crises.

Tom Blees in his book \" Prescriptions for the Planet\" has examined in depth 3 key achievable solutions for the world to embrace if we collectively wish for a superior and fairer planet for us and future generations.

The initial is energy production, the use of Integral Rapidly Reactors to produce electricity. The second is the use of Plasma technologies for waste removal and the third is Boron powering technologies for vehicles. Setting aside the waste and vehicle problems for a different day, the energy creation is pressing.

Integrated Quick Reactors are technologically with us. They need to have a lot more development but the basics are in location for these units to produce about a Gigawat Year of electricity from a tonne of fuel. They make use of depleted uranium stocks currently in the world at some thing in the magnitude of 1.1 million tonnes and rising. These are in part the wastes from present generator plants that cause so a lot debate about storage and half-lives.

Well! These can be re-employed in IFR\'s to extract their latent energy, then they will be reduced to a fraction of their size and to a 300 year, much a lot more manageable, life cycle. The IFR\'s can also use other fuels such as thorium. By utilizing what is currently a issue for waste removal and transferring from fossil fuel to nuclear thus saving further climate alter impacts would appear to be sensible. There are stocks of fuel adequate to last a quite lengthy time using this technology.

There are two other technologies being employed or developed in the world, which are of superb importance.

The 1st is the extraction of uranium from waste coal residue or fly ash. Coal contains uranium, as does just about every thing, and right after use in a power plant the residue ends up as a waste product. In China the technology has been developed to extract the uranium from massive waste dumps and reuse it in existing nuclear generating plants.

We, that is Australia, exports millions of tonnes of Coal annually, all of which will eventually be available to the destination countries for uranium extraction with this process. I do not think all of the coal importing nations have signed uranium use protocols! Possibly a minor oversight, but extra likely a case of a blinkered view

The second process is the development in Japan of extraction of uranium from seawater. This is a completed method but is presently not cost efficient compared to terrestrial sources. It will be as the process is refined and other costs impact some mining processes. There is presently projected about 5.five million tonnes of known terrestrial uranium deposits around the world. Australia has about 23% of these known reserves.

Compare it to the oceans where there is calculated to be approx. four.62 billion tonnes of uranium. Permitting for energy usage four times our current global demand and by the use of IFR\'s it is reasonable to forecast that we will never run out of uranium to fuel our global energy requirement.

Whatever we take from the oceans and process will be replaced by the Earths geological capacity to create and leach the mineral. That makes nuclear power generation a renewable along with the sun, wind, geothermal and others and therefore fully sustainable.

Intercoolers explained

2010-11-18T07:50:00.001-08:00

Engine Performance Parts improve supercharger performance…

I am compiling a guide on information on how to pick the exact engine performance parts to fit your target power requirements. Basically I want to eliminate all the guess work out of tuning and save you some money from having to do things over and over again.

While I was doing research for ‘buying the right intercooler’ I got lost, honestly. There are two types of information you will find out there:

1-One lesson, course of articles is written by engineers speaking about pressure differentials, thermal efficiencies, enthalpy and multi variable equations that are very remotely related to flow, horsepower, torque, supercharger rpm or other things that we KNOW that we can use as an input to our equations. (Basically this science needs to be translated to layman’s terms)

2-The other lesson, course is a group of random trial and error advice by enthusiasts, press releases and other materials that you find online.

Here’s what we do know:

First let’s speak about how intercoolers work. There is some debate about whether the intercooler is like a heat sink whose operate is to absorb thermal energy from the incoming air to prevent the heat from reaching the engine, or whether the intercooler is like a radiator, where the air flow over the intercooler is responsible for extracting heat from the inlet air charge.

The true reply is both are correct…

The air running through the intercooler spends very tiny time inside the intercooler and slowing it down for more thermal exchange (like we would coolant in the radiator) would mean preventing air from reaching the engine which is a restriction on power. Because the air spends tiny time in the intercooler, the intercooler generally has multiple passages, internal ribs, and fins inside of it to maximize the surface area contact between the intercooler aluminum and the compressed air molecules. In this sense, the overall volume of the intercooler, and the overall surface area of its internal surfaces are like a heat sink that absorbs the heat energy out of the compressed air. In this aspect it makes sense that the larger our intercooler, the better. Furthermore it also makes sense, that the more complex and intricate the internal passages of our core, the more heat we will be healthy to extract out of the charge air. Of course the flipside of this is that very complex internal passages can create turbulence and restrict airflow so finally there is a equilibrise in good design between internal complexity and flow capacity.

When we begin out, the intercooler is cold, and with our first power run, as the hot compressed air runs through the intercooler, the heat is transferred to our heat sink (which is the intercooler) and nice cool air is left to enter the engine. After the first run, the intercooler is warm; and whether we were to make a moment power run back to back, the intercooler will not be healthy to SINK much heat because it is already somewhat heated. This is where the intercooler as a radiator comes in, the heat that was transferred from the air to the intercooler core, needs to be taken absent either by cross flowing air in an air to air intercooler, or by cooling fluid in an air to water intercooler, or even by an ice-water bath for drag racing applications. Without harvesting the heat that the intercooler has absorbed out of the compressed air, the intercooler will heat up run after run until its temperature is the same as the compressed air heating it. At this point there is no temperature difference between the air and the intercooler core and we can no longer SINK any heat.

Some automobiles have their intercoolers located under the car’s hood (like the Mazda Sentia / 626). In this kind of installation the intercooler is mostly a heat sink and will be used for a few passes till it soaks, once it soaks it needs to be left to cool till it returns to under hood temperatures before it can be effective again as an intercooler. From this we gather, that any intercooler no matter how small, or poorly put is superior than no intercooler because at least for that first power run it will potentially increase horsepower.

Now I’d like you to keep this information in intellect while we speak about intercooler dimensions…

There are three main dimensions to the intercooler, the height (H), width (W) and (D) depth and based on that there are some physical concepts that we want to think about:

Cross Sectional Area:

Height x Depth = the cross section of the intercooler and is related to how well the intercooler will flow and whether or not it poses a restriction to the intake flow. This is the area of the surface covering the compressed air as it travels through the intercooler. Just like free flowing intakes, throttle bodies, and exhausts, whether this area is undersized it will pose a flow restriction and reduce performance.

Width:

Width = the length of the intercooler and whether you have a same side inlet/outlet intercooler then your intercooler length is effectively 2*W. This is the distance the air has to travel through the turbulent and complex intercooler core. The longer this length is, the more pressure drop there is in the intercooler so it’s not advisable to have too wide an intercooler because we’d be waste turbocharger compression in intercooler pressure drop, neither is it advisable to have a same side inlet/outlet intercooler where the air has to travel a long distance in the core.

Frontal Area:

Width x Height = frontal area of the intercooler which faces the incoming ambient air, a good sized frontal area is required to ensure that the intercooler doesn’t heat soak and that the rushing air stream is healthy to cool the intercooler efficiently (like a radiator) for you to be healthy to make back to back power runs. As we increase this area, we anticipate the intercooler to have superior control over its peak operating temperature and have superior repeatability no matter how long we stay in boost (good for standing mile races for example or all day road racing events).

Depth:

Depth = the depth of the intercooler, generally the intercooler is front mounted in front of the radiator… whether you increase the depth too much (and particularly without proper air ducting to the intercooler and airfoils between the intercooler and radiator) then you might slow down the incoming ambient air enough that your radiator starts overheating. So increasing D gives us superior intercooler performance and more flow capacity (H*D is the cross sectional area mentioned above) but it reduces engine cooling efficiency so it must also be controlled.

Last but not least:

Total Volume:

Height x Width x Depth = the total volume of the intercooler, which is an indirect degree of the internal surface area of the intercooler. The larger the volume, the larger the heat exchange surface area, the more heat we can sink out of the air in an extremely short period of time (the 100 milliseconds or so that the air spends inside the core). Obviously the larger the volume, the superior the cooling and the worse for pressure drop. Again this number needs to be controlled.

How do I know whether the intercooler I have now is adequate?

Intercooler efficiency can be tested in two ways:

1-Thermal performance

a.Measure the temperature difference between the intercooler inlet air and intercooler outlet air and use this delta T to compare between the intercoolers you have acquirable to you. The saint intercoolers out there can drop air temperature by over 100*F and get you within 20* of ambient air temperatures. If your works intercooler can already achieve similar results then there might be no need to upgrade.

b.Track the temperature of your intercooler in a prolonged power run, or on back to back power runs. The design and placement of the intercooler should be sufficient that the temperature rise over time (with state 60+mph air hitting the intercooler) should be controlled, whether the temperature rise is too steep then you might need a superior ‘radiating’ core with more frontal area, superior air guides and air foils, and superior placement with high pressure air in front and low pressure air behind it… we’ll explain more about this later.

2-Flow performance

a.Measure the flow through the intercooler core at 28″ of water (standard for most flow meters), or degree the overall intercooler pressure drop at the flow rate required by your target horsepower. If the intercooler is on the car, degree the differential pressure crossways your intercooler at peak hp figures.

The saint intercoolers will have less than 1psi of pressure drop (typically 0.5 to 0.9psi) at peak boost and horsepower. If your intercooler is within these power figures then there might not be any need to upgrade.

Now going back to selecting the saint sized intercooler for your application, it would be very tough for me to figure out the exact math of how to optimize your intercooler size, and then I would have to translate that math to ‘car terms’ of power, inlet air temps, supercharger outlet temps, pressure ratios and boost pressures…etc

Here is another solution; one thing engineers like to do in dealing with this kind of a problem plotting statistical data on a chart and looking for some trends…

I found some 30 different intercoolers online with either flow tests (CFM), or Dyno tests (HP) or both, and since we know that it takes roughly 1.5 CFM of air to produce 1 HP (depending on density) then I combined both sets of data both for flow tested OEM intercoolers and for aftermarket ‘engineered’ intercoolers to produce the following graphs:

Flow in CFM vs. Cross Sectional Area trend:

Flow (CFM) = 11.63 * Cross sectional area (square inches) - 12.84

This is a plot of flow in CFM (vertical) vs. cross sectional area (squared inches) for the 30 cores that I had data for. As you can see there is a linear relationship between flow and area which is expected. So we can use this as a guideline to figure out (for a given depth D) of acquirable cores, what the minimum height of our intercooler must be to get good flow performance.

One thing to note here is that these flow measurements were taken at 28″ of water pressure or 1psi. As we know from supercharger theory, the more boost pressure (and the higher the pressure ratio) the more compressed the air is. Air at 15psi of boost is actually half of its volume compared to 0psi (or 1psi). So making 700hp (1050 CFM) @ 15psi (on a 3.5 liter 6 cylinder for example) might require only 42 squared inches of cross sectional area (because the air is at half its original size) whereas making 700hp (1050 CFM) @ 3psi (on a 7.0 liter 8 cylinder for example) might need a larger 91 squared inches of cross sectional area. So make certain you bourgeois in your pressure ratio before choosing your cross sectional area.

Here’s my moment trend:

Horsepower (hp) = 0.533 * intercooler volume (cubic inches) + 50.17

This is a plot of horsepower (vertical) vs. total core volume (cubic inches) for the 30 cores that I had data for. As you can see there is a linear relationship between horsepower and volume which is expected. The more horsepower we want to make, the more air we need to ingest. The more air masses there is; the more energy that mass can carry (at the same temperature compared to a smaller mass) and thus the more intercooler core we need to sink that energy into our intercooler.

I think between these two charts it becomes now doable to go back to my ‘twin-charged’ Toyota Celica and say:

I wanted to make a peak of 320hp @ 20 psi. That equates to 480 CFM @ 2.36 Pressure ratio.

Starting with a standard 3″ deep intercooler core, let me figure out my other 2 dimensions:

Minimum cross area = ((480/2.36) + 12.84) /11.63 = 18 square inches = D*H

Intercooler height = 18 / 3 = 6″

Total volume = (320 – 50.17)/0.533 = 506 cubic inches.

Intercooler width = 506/18 = 28″

So my saint core size seems to be 28″ X 6″ X 3″ which is a pretty reasonably sized front mount intercooler.

Now 28″ is a fair intercooler width for pressure drop. If this figure were too massive I would go back and use a 3.5″ deep core for example. Likewise, whether my intercooler height of 6″ would not fit behind my bumper I could go back and increase depth slightly and redo the calculations.

Pressure drop crossways the intercooler is really important to track for a supercharged automobile because unlike a turbocharger, we can’t just increase boost pressure with a boost controller, we are limited with superchargers to the gearing we have acquirable in our supercharger pulley. So wasting any of this boost is really poor, naughty for performance. This is why it’s really fundamental to neither undersize the intercooler to choke off the engine, nor to oversize it as to create a huge pressure drop.

Trends in Crude Oil Prices

2010-11-17T06:29:00.001-08:00

Crude oil prices have been capturing many news headlines worldwide, be they are falling or rising. Crude oil has been demonstrating a sense of its importance to global consumers for the past couple of years. In the past, many economies had unsuccessful to adeptly grappling crude oil price shocks of 1974 and again in 1979. This time around the shock was building up steadily. Most economies, developed and developing, had the knowledge of this built-up and had prepared to grappling this shock.

Between 2001 and 2004, the OPEC Reference Basket of crude oil was in the range of US and US a barrel. In 2006, it rose to over US a barrel before receding to current level of US a barrel. Though it should be famous that in real term these crude oil prices are still below those heralded in the primeval 1980s, when the crude oil basket had reached US a barrel at today’s prices. In July 2006, the US light crude oil touched an all time high of US.40 a barrel. Analysts and experts, both from industry and commodity investors, had predicted crude oil to even touch US5 a barrel, whether the pace of increase persisted.

The crux of the rise in crude oil prices is the mismatch between supply and demand of refinery products. Refining capacities have not commensurately kept pace with the rise in demand. Crude oil, as such, was in ample supplies and this was time and again asserted by OPEC itself. The OPEC was also determined to increase output whether crude oil prices continue to spurt. It did so in 2006 to rein in rising prices. Now that crude oil prices have touched the year’s low, and have lost almost 30% of its peak, OPEC have cut output in November and have indicated that crude oil output will be further cut whether the current free start in crude oil prices continue

The empires of life

2010-11-15T15:09:00.000-08:00

Living individuals all belong to naturally isolated units
called species. Ideally, these species are freely interbreeding
populations that share a common ecological
niche. Even those lowly organisms that disdain sexual
reproduction (such as the silicoflagellates) or do not
have the organization for it (such as the cyanobacteria),
occur in discrete morphological and ecological
species. Obviously it is impossible to prove that a population
of microfossils was freely interbreeding but, if
specimens are sufficiently plentiful, it is possible to
recognize both morphological and ecological discontinuities.
These can serve as the basis for distinguishing
one fossil species from another.
Whereas the species is a functioning unit, the higher
taxonomic categories in the hierarchical system of
classification are mere abstractions, implying varying
degrees of shared ancestry. All species are placed within
a genus that contains one or more closely related
species. These will differ from other species in neighbouring
genera by a distinct morphological, ecological
or biochemical gap. Genera (plural of genus) tend to
be more widely distributed in time and space than do
species, so they are not greatly valued for stratigraphical
correlation. They are, however, of considerable value
in palaeoecological and palaeogeographical studies.
The successively higher categories of family, order and
class (often with intervening sub- or super-categories)
should each contain clusters of taxa with similar grades
of body organization and a common ancestor. They
are of relatively little value in biostratigraphy and
palaeoenvironmental studies. In ‘animals’ the phylum
taxon is defined on the basis of major structural differences,
whereas in ‘plants’ the corresponding division
has been defined largely on structure, life history and
photosynthetic pigments.
An even higher category is the kingdom. In the
nineteenth century it was usual to recognize only
the two kingdoms: Plantae and Animalia. Plants were
considered to be mainly non-motile, feeding by
photosynthesis. Animals were considered to be motile,
feeding by ingestion of pre-formed organic matter.
Although these distinctions are evident amongst
macroscopic organisms living on land, the largely
aqueous world of microscopic life abounds with
organisms that appear to straddle the plant–animal
boundary. The classification shown in Box 1.1 overcomes
these anomalies by recognizing seven kingdoms:
the Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protozoa, Plantae,
Animalia, Fungi and Chromista.
The highest category is the empire. The Bacteria are single celled but they lack a nucleus, cell vacuoles and organelles. This primitive prokaryotic condition, in which proper sexual
reproduction is unknown, is characteristic of such
forms as cyanobacteria. The empire is currently
divided into two kingdoms, the Archaebacteria and
the Eubacteria. The other five kingdoms are eukaryotic.
That is their cells have a nucleus, vacuoles and
other organelles and are capable of properly coordinated
cell division and sexual reproduction. Attempts
to divide unicellular eukaryotic organisms, often
called protists, into plants or animals based on feeding
style were abandoned when it was recognized that
dinoflagellates, euglenoids and heterokonts have
members that are both photosynthetic and heterotrophic,
feeding by engulfing. Since the 1970s both
ultrastructural analysis under the scanning electron
microscope and molecular sequences have been used
to elucidate protistan phylogenies and develop a largescale
classification. The new classification of Cavalier-
Smith (1981, 1987a, 1987b, 2002) has put forward two
new categories: the predominantly photosynthetic kingdom
Chromista (brown algae, diatoms and their various
relatives) and the primitive superkingdom Archezoa
(which lack mitochondria (amitochondrial)). He has
also proposed an ultrastructurally based redefinition
of the kingdom Plantae which requires the exclusion
of many aerobic protists that feed by ingestion
(phagotropy). The kingdom Protozoa is now considered
to contain as many as 18 phlya (Cavalier-Smith
1993, 2002) and their classification and phylogenetic
relationships, which is in a state of flux, is largely based
upon cell ultrastructure and increasingly sophisticated
analyses of new molecular sequences. The kingdom
Protozoa includes two subkingdoms, the Gymnomyxa
and Corticata. Members of the Gymnomyxa have a
‘soft’ cell wall often with pseudopodia or axopodia
(e.g. foraminifera). The Corticata are ancestorally
biciliate (e.g. dinoflagellates).
Members of the superkingdom Archezoa differ from
most Protozoa in having ribosomes, the RNA-protein
structures on which messenger RNA is ‘read’ during
protein synthesis, found in all other eukaryotes, and
they also lack certain other organelles (e.g. mitochondria,
Golgi bodies). The Archezoa comprise three phyla:
the Archamoebae, Metamonada and Microsporidia.
There is reasonable rDNA phylogenetic evidence to
suggest that the latter two represent surviving relics of
a very early stage in eukaryote evolution. The evolution
of the eukayotes can thus be divided into two
major phases. The origin of the eukaryote cell (the
first archezoan) is marked by the appearance of the
membrane-bounded organelles, cytoskeleton, a threedimensional
network of fibrous proteins that give
order and structure in the cytoplasm, nucleus and cilia
with a 9+2 structure. This was apparently followed
by the symbiotic origin of mitochondria and
peroxisomes (Margulis 1981; Cavalier-Smith 1987c)
to produce the first aerobically respiring protozoan.
The change in their ribosomes may have occurred
somewhat later in their evolution.
The kingdom Chromista is a predominantly photosynthetic
category in which the chromoplasts are
located in the endoplasmic reticulum but separated
by a unique smooth membrane, thought to be a relic
of the cell membrane of the photosynthetic eukaryotic
symbiont that was ‘engulfed’ by the protozoan
host, leading to the emergence of the Chromista
(Cavalier-Smith 1981, 1987c). The Chromista contains
a number of important microfossil groups
such as the silicoflagellates, diatoms and calcareous
nannoplankton.
The kingdon Plantae is taken to comprise two subkingdoms.
The subkingdom Viriplantae includes the green plants including the green algae (Chlorophyta),
the Charophyta and the ‘land plants’ or the Embryophyta.
The subkingdom Biliphyta includes the red algae
(Rhodophyta) and the Glaucophyta. It is not yet clear
whether these two subkingdoms are correctly placed
together in a single kingdom or should be separate
kingdoms. The Viriplantae have starch-containing
chloroplasts and contain chlorophylls a and b. The
Biliphyta have similar chloroplasts but there is a total
absence of phagotrophy in this group.
The kingdom Fungi comprises heterotrophic
eukaryotes that feed by the adsorption of pre-formed
organic matter. They are rarely preserved in the fossil
record and have received little study as fossils and are
not considered further in this book.
The kingdom Animalia comprises multicellular
invertebrate and vertebrate animals that feed by the
ingestion of pre-formed organic matter, either alive or
dead. Invertebrates that are microscopic when fully
grown, for example the ostracods, are considered as
microfossils, but we are obliged to leave aside the
microscopic remains of larger animals (such as sponge
spicules, echinoderm ossicles and juvenile individuals).

Nutrition and Reproduction Microfossil

2010-11-15T15:06:00.000-08:00

Nutrition
There are two basic ways by which an organism can
build up its body: by heterotrophy or by autotrophy.
In heterotrophy, the creature captures and consumes
living or dead organic matter, as we do ourselves. In
autotrophy, the organism synthesizes organic matter
from inorganic CO2, for example, by utilizing the
effect of sunlight in the presence of chlorophylllike
pigments, a process known as photosynthesis.
Quite a number of microfossil groups employ these
two strategies together and are therefore known as
mixotrophic.

Reproduction
Asexual (or vegetative) and sexual reproduction are
the two basic modes of cellular increase. The simple
division of the cell found in asexual reproduction
results in the production of two or more daughter cells
with nuclear contents similar in proportion to those of
the parent. In sexual reproduction, the aim is to halve
these normal nuclear proportions so that sexual fusion
with another ‘halved’ cell can eventually take place.
Information contained in each cell can then be passed
around to the advantage of the species. This halving
process is achieved by a fourfold division of the cell,
called meiosis, which results in four daughter cells
rather than two.

The cell of Microfossil

2010-11-15T15:04:00.000-08:00

A great many microfossils are the product of singlecelled
(unicellular) organisms. A little knowledge of
these cells can therefore help us to understand their
way of life and, from this, their potential value to Earth
scientists. Unicells are usually provided with a relatively
elastic outer cell membrane (Fig. 1.1) that binds
and protects the softer cell material within, called the
cytoplasm (or protoplasm). Small ‘bubbles’ within the
cytoplasm, called vacuoles, are filled with food, excretory
products or water and serve to nourish the cell
or to regulate the salt and water balance. A darker,
membrane-bound body, termed the nucleus, helps to
control both vegetative and sexual division of the cell
and the manufacture of proteins. Other small bodies
concerned with vital functions within the cell are known
as organelles. The whip-like thread that protrudes
from some cells, called a flagellum, is a locomotory
organelle. Some unicells bear many short flagella, collectively
called cilia, whilst others get about by means
of foot-like extensions of the cell wall and cytoplasm,
known as pseudopodia. Other organelles that can occur
in abundance are the chromoplasts (or chloroplasts).
These small structures contain chlorophyll or similar
pigments for the process of photosynthesis.

Why study microfossils?

2010-11-14T15:03:00.001-08:00

Most sediments contain microfossils, the kind
depending largely on the original age, environment of
deposition and burial history of the sediment. At their
most abundant, as for example in back-reef sands,
10 cm3 of sediment can yield over 10,000 individual
specimens and over 300 species. By implication, the
number of ecological niches and biological generations
represented can extend into the hundreds and
the sample may represent thousands if not hundreds
of thousands of years of accumulation of specimens.
By contrast, macrofossils from such a small sample are
unlikely to exceed a few tens of specimens or generations.
Because microfossils are so small and abundant
(mostly less then 1 mm) they can be recovered from
small samples. Hence when a geologist wishes to know
the age of a rock or the salinity and depth of water
under which it was laid down, it is to microfossils that
they will turn for a quick and reliable answer. Geological
surveys, deep sea drilling programmes, oil and
mining companies working with the small samples
available from borehole cores and drill cuttings have
all therefore employed micropalaeontologists to learn
more about the rocks they are handling. This commercial
side to micropalaeontology has undoubtedly
been a major stimulus to its growth. There are some
philosophical and sociological sides to the subject,
however. Our understanding of the development and
stability of the present global ecosystem has much
to learn from the microfossil record, especially since
many microfossil groups have occupied a place at or
near to the base of the food web. Studies into the
nature of evolution cannot afford to overlook the
microfossil record either, for it contains a wealth of
examples. The importance of understanding microfossils
is further augmented by discoveries in Precambrian
rocks; microfossils now provide the main
evidence for organic evolution through more than
three-quarters of the history of life on Earth. It is also
to microfossils that science will turn in the search for
life on other planets such as Mars.

Microfossils – what are they?

2010-11-14T15:02:00.001-08:00

A thin blanket of soft white to buff-coloured ooze
covers one-sixth of the Earth’s surface. Seen under the
microscope this sediment can be a truly impressive
sight. It contains countless numbers of tiny shells variously
resembling miniature flügelhorns, shuttlecocks,
water wheels, hip flasks, footballs, garden sieves, space
ships and chinese lanterns. Some of these gleam with
a hard glassy lustre, others are sugary white or strawberry
coloured. This aesthetically pleasing world of
microscopic fossils or microfossils is a very ancient one
and, at the biological level, a very important one.
Any dead organism that is vulnerable to the natural
processes of sedimentation and erosion may be called a
fossil, irrespective of the way it is preserved or of how
recently it died. It is common to divide this fossil world
into larger macrofossils and smaller microfossils, each
kind with its own methods of collection, preparation
and study. This distinction is, in practice, rather arbitrary
and we shall largely confine the term ‘microfossil’
to those discrete remains whose study requires the use
of a microscope throughout. Hence bivalve shells or
dinosaur bones seen down a microscope do not constitute
microfossils. The study of microfossils usually
requires bulk collecting and processing to concentrate
remains prior to study.
The study of microfossils is properly called micropalaeontology.
There has, however, been a tendency to
restrict this term to studies of mineral-walled microfossils
(such as foraminifera and ostracods), as distinct
from palynology the study of organic-walled microfossils
(such as pollen grains, dinoflagellates and
acritarchs). This division, which arises largely from
differences in bulk processing techniques, is again
rather arbitrary. It must be emphasized that macropalaeontology,
micropalaeontology and palynology
share identical aims: to unravel the history of life and
the external surface of the planet. These are achieved
more speedily and with greater reward when they
proceed together.

CONTINENTAL CHARACTERS ON VOLCANISM OF LAMONGAN VOLCANO, EAST JAVA

2010-11-11T21:39:00.001-08:00

Lamongan Volcano is a small volcano situated between Bromo-Tengger and Iyang volcanic ranges in
East Java. This volcano is supposed to be Plio-Pleistocene in age and it is characterized by the occurrence
of maar-lakes in its surroundings.
Petrographic and geochemical (major and trace elements) study on data from this volcano indicate the
lithology of basalt, basanite, basaltic-andesite, trachyandesite, absarokite and shosonite, having magmatic
affinity in transition from alkaline to calc-alkaline. Based on MgO and TiO2 contents the volcanic
products can be subdivided into 4 volcanic groups. Group-1 (TiO2>1.3%; MgO >6%) and Group-2
(TiO2>1.3%; MgO<6%) indicate gradational modification in chemical compositions from continental to
subduction system. Variations on Ba vs K/Rb contents indicate the contribution of lower crust in forming
magma of Group-1. This process tends to be influenced by continental magmatic system. These volcanic
groups are also characterized by the presence of silicate undersaturated rocks (basanite and trachyandesite),
as well as petrographical textures representing the magma mixing process. Group-3
(TiO2<1.3%; MgO >6%) and Group-4 (TiO2<1.3%; MgO >6%) indicate characters of subduction related
magmatism with variations in MgO contents.
Lacking of age data in volcanic products of Lamongan Volcano, lead to the interpretation of volcanic
successive as follows : Magmatism of continental type was formed in the area and resulting magma
chambers filled with magma of continental characters. The area, then, was affected by subduction activity
producing magmas of subduction characters. As the latters were introduced to ‘the already formed’
magma chambers, they might cause mixing of two kinds of magmas, and the volcanic products would
present a gradation of mixing as represented by Volcanic Group-1 and 2. As the subduction continues,
the following magmatic characters tend to be more of subduction-related system (Volcanic Group-3 and
4) rather than the continental system.
In point of view of the East Java geodynamic system, the basement of Lamongan Volcano may represent
a micro-continent coming from somewhere in south-southeast of Sundaland, and it has already had
volcanism of continental character. As the micro-continent approached and embedded in the Sundaland, it
was then affected by north trending subduction to give 4 groups of volcanic products.

By:

Jhonny1, Bambang Priadi1, and Rosgandika Mulyana2
1Department of Geology, Bandung Institute of Technology
2Volcanological Survey of Indonesia

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2010-11-11T10:27:00.001-08:00

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Introduction geology

2009-02-03T21:37:00.001-08:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Geology (from Greek: γη, gê, "earth"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. to talk about the earth) is the science and study of the solid matter that constitutes the Earth. Encompassing such things as rocks, soil, and gemstones, geology studies the composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape Earth's components. It is one of the Earth sciences. Geologists have established the age of the Earth at about 4.6 billion (4.6x10⁹) years, and have determined that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates that move over a rheic upper mantle (asthenosphere) via processes that are collectively referred to as plate tectonics. Geologists help locate and manage the Earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as metals such as iron, copper, and uranium. Additional economic interests include gemstones and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium. Geology is also of great importance in the applied fields of civil engineering, soil mechanics, hydrology, environmental engineering and geohazards.

Planetary geology (sometimes known as Astrogeology) refers to the application of geologic principles to other bodies of the solar system. Specialised terms such as selenology (studies of the moon), areology (of Mars), etc., are also in use. Colloquially, geology is most often used with another noun when indicating extra-Earth bodies (e.g. "the geology of Mars").

The word "geology" was first used by Jean-André Deluc in the year 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the year 1779. The science was not included in Encyclopædia Britannica's third edition completed in 1797, but had a lengthy entry in the fourth edition completed by 1809.An older meaning of the word was first used by Richard de Bury to distinguish between earthly and theological jurisprudence.

Palynomorph

2009-02-03T18:40:00.001-08:00

Palynomorph

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Palynomorph is the geological term used to describe a particle of a size between five and 500 micrometres, found in rock deposits (sedimentary rocks) and composed of organic material such as chitin, pseudochitin and sporopollenin. The word is derived from Greek, meaning "strewn or sprinkled forms." Palynology is the study of palynomorph fossils and can be considered a subdiscipline of micropaleontology or paleobotany. Expressed more simply, palynology is the study of organic microfossils.

Palynomorphs form a geological record of importance in determining the type of prehistoric life that existed at the time the sedimentary formation was laid down. As a result, these microfossils give important clues to the prevailing climatic conditions of the time. Their paleontological utility derives from an abundance numbering in millions of cells per gram in organic marine deposits, even when such deposits are generally not fossiliferous. Palynomorphs, however, generally have been destroyed in metamorphic or recrystallized rocks.

Typically, palynomorphs are dinoflagellates, acritarchs, spores, pollen, fungi, scolecodonts (scleroprotein teeth, jaws and associated features of polychaete annelid) worms, arthropod organs (such as insect-mouth parts), chitinozoans and microforams.

Stratigraphic principles

2009-01-22T22:32:00.001-08:00

1. The Law of Superposition

A sedimentary layer is more recent than the one it covers

It mean that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.

2. The Principle of Continuity

The principle of continuity, which is the basis for geological correlation, is defined as follows :

A sedimentary layer limited by a base and top and defined by a given facies has the same age throughout.

In other words, when a layer was laid down the same sedimentary processes occurred at the same time at numerous points in the sedimentary environment. In Practice, it is impossible to follow a layer or series of layers continuously except in places that lack vegetation. The principle of continuity must not be applied unless a facies has been completely defined and its paleontological characteristics are unambiguous. It will be shown later that it is always preferable to define the palaeological identity before asserting the continuity of layer or series of layers.

Link to www.foraminifera-biostratigraphy.blogspot.com