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education

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Education

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For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).

School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province, Afghanistan.

Students at the Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Students in Kagugu Primary School of Rwanda.

Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.

Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, research, or simply through autodidacticism.^[1] Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts.

Etymology

Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from ēdūcō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead, I conduct").^[2]

The role of government

A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions: Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality.^[3] At the global level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.^[4]
Throughout history various governments have made it illegal to educate children privately or at home. Various totalitarian regimes, for example, have mandated indoctrination through propaganda in the Hitler Youth and propaganda in education under various communist regimes.

Systems

School children line, in Kerala, India

Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in the system. Schools systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula.

Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum, Curriculum theory, and List of academic disciplines

School children in Durban, South Africa.

In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university–or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.^[5]
Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theater.^[6]

Preschools

Main article: Preschool education

The term preschool refers to a school for children who are not old enough to attend kindergarten. It is a nursery school.
Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate.^{[citation needed]} While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is "to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."^[7]

Primary schools

Main article: Primary education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.

Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.^[8] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.
In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Secondary schools

Main article: Secondary education

Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand

Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.
The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment.
In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history.

A violin student receiving music education at the Royal Academy of Music, London, 1944.

Autodidacticism

Main article: Autodidacticism

Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-directed learning that is related to but different from informal learning. In a sense, autodidacticism is "learning on your own" or "by yourself", and an autodidact is a self-teacher. Autodidacticism is a contemplative, absorbing process. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director),and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).

Vocational

Main article: Vocational education

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts.

Indigenous

Main article: Indigenous education

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."^[9]

Anarchistic free schools

Main article: Anarchistic free school

An anarchistic free school (also anarchist free school and free school) is a decentralized network in which skills, information, and knowledge are shared without hierarchy or the institutional environment of formal schooling. Free school students may be adults, children, or both. This organisational structure is distinct from ones used by democratic free schools which permit children's individual initiatives and learning endeavors within the context of a school democracy, and from free education where 'traditional' schooling is made available to pupils without charge. The open structure of free schools is intended to encourage self-reliance, critical consciousness, and personal development. Free schools often operate outside the market economy in favor of a gift economy.^{[citation needed]} Nevertheless, the meaning of the "free" of free schools is not restricted to monetary cost, and can refer to an emphasis on free speech and student-centred education.^{[citation needed]}

Alternative

Main article: Alternative education

Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.
Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, homeschooling and autodidacticism vary, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community.
Alternative education may also allow for independent learning and engaging class activities.^[10]

Special

Main article: Special education

In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.^[11]

Education through recreation

The concept of education through recreation was first applied to childhood development in the 19th century.^[12] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.^[13] Educationalist Lawrence L.P. Jacks, who was also an early proponent of lifelong learning, best described the modern concept of education through recreation in the following quotation "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."(Jacks, 1932).^[14] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.^[15] The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.^[15]

Systems of higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

University systems

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.

University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent, like Yale University, they can be public and State governed, like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education, or they can be independent but State funded, like the University of Virginia.

Open

Higher education in particular is currently undergoing a transition towards open education, elearning alone is currently growing at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.^[16] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.^[17] Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press.^[18] Many people despite favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.^[19]
The conventional merit system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities. Although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Currently many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "academic value" to traditional degrees.^[20] Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.^{[citation needed]}
There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on campus education that is not often directly offered from open education.^{[citation needed]} Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege.

Liberal arts colleges

Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England liberal arts college.

A liberal arts institution can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."^[21] Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,^[22] the term is more commonly associated with Universities in the United States.^{[citation needed]}

Community colleges

Main article: community colleges

A nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.

Technology

Main article: Educational technology

One of the most substantial uses in education is the use of technology. Also technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an "interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer, Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.^{[citation needed]} Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.^[23]

American students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information."^[24] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.^[25] Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.^[26] In addition to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators involved in student affairs programming have recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students. Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology based experiences in the University setting.^[27]
The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.^[28] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.^[29] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies.^[30]
The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching. Classrooms of the 21st century contain interactive white boards, tablets, mp3 players, laptops, etc. Wiki sites are another tool teachers can implement into CAL curricula for students to understand communication and collaboration efforts of group work through electronic means.^{[citation needed]} Teachers are encouraged to embed these technological devices and services in the curriculum in order to enhance students learning and meet the needs of various types of learners.

Adult

Main article: Adult education

Adult learning, or adult education, is the practice of training and developing skills in adults. It is also sometimes referred to as andragogy (the art and science of helping adults learn).Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet.
With the boom of information from availability of knowledge through means of internet and other modern low cost information exchange mechanisms people are beginning to take an attitude of Lifelong learning. To make knowledge and self improvement a lifelong focus as opposed to the more traditional view that knowledge and in particular value creating trade skills are to be learned just exclusively in youth.

Learning modalities

Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University.

There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn^[31] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli^[32] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner^[33] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter^[34] focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator^[35] follows a similar but more simplified approach.
It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities^[36] are probably the most common:

Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,^[37] recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."^[38]
A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.^[39] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.^[40]^[41]

Instruction

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar

Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.^[42]^[43] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.^[44]

Theory

Main article: Education theory

Education theory can refer to either a normative or a descriptive theory of education. In the first case, a theory means a postulation about what ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms, and standards for conducting the process of education."^[45] In the second case, it means "an hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and experiment."^[46] A descriptive theory of education can be thought of as a conceptual scheme that ties together various "otherwise discrete particulars ... For example, a cultural theory of education shows how the concept of culture can be used to organize and unify the variety of facts about how and what people learn."^[47] Likewise, for example, there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education.^[48]

Economics

Main article: Economics of education

Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.^[49] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions^[50] and the role of cognitive skills.^[51]
At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,^[52] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.^[53]^[54]
Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.^[55]

History

Main article: History of education

Nalanda ancient center for higher learning.

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994, "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc., formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.^{[citation needed]}
The first large established university is thought to be Nalanda established in 427 A.D in India.^[56]^{[unreliable source?]} At its peak, the university attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, China, Greece, and Persia. The first university establishments in the western world are thought to be University of Bologna (founded in 1088) and later Oxford university (founded around 1096).

A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607.

In the West, Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Plato was the Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician and writer of philosophical dialogues who founded the Academy in Athens which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Inspired by the admonition of his mentor, Socrates, prior to his unjust execution that "the unexamined life is not worth living", Plato and his student, the political scientist Aristotle, helped lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science.^[57]
The city of Alexandria in Egypt was founded in 330BC, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of the Western World. The city hosted such leading lights as the mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus; constructed the great Library of Alexandria; and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek (called the Septuagint for it was the work of 70 translators). Greek civilization was subsumed within the Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire and its new Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople in the East, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.^[58]
In the East, Confucius (551-479), of the State of Lu, was China's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in the East into the modern era.
In Western Europe after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church emerged as the unifying force. Initially the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe, the church established Cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.^[58] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;^[59] and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research^[60] The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university.
Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.
The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations — as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, translating Western works like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for Western audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in the West.

Modern times

Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.^[61]

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of education

John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

As an academic field, philosophy of education is a "the philosophical study of education and its problems ... its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy".^[62] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."^[63] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few.^[64] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between education theory and practice.

Criticism

Chesterton said, "Modern education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the customs of the majority."^[65]

Purpose of schools

Main article: Education theory#Normative theories of education

Individuals purposes for pursuing education can vary. However in early age the focus is generally around developing basic Interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects. After acquiring these basic abilities education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves.^[66] Satisfying personal curiosities (Education for the sake of itself) and desire for Personal development, to "better oneself" without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools.^[67]

Psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families.^[68]

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of education

School children in Laos

The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. In fact, learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied.^[44]
Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.^[69] The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological paradigm used.

Developing countries

World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report)

Development goals and issues

Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.^[70] Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue.^[70] Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa.^[71] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved. There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.
A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole.^[72] Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
strategies must be context relevant and context specific;^{[clarification needed]}
they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;^{[clarification needed]}
partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels.

Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include population statistics.)

^[when?]

Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)

Education and technology in developing countries

The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project.
The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.
In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years.^[73] An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com,^[74] started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.^[75]

Internationalization (Globalization and Education)

Education is becoming increasingly international. The most represented case is the spread of mass schooling. Mass schooling has implanted the fundamental concepts that everyone has a right to be educated regardless of his/her cultural background and gender differences. The system has also promoted the global rules and norms of how the school should operate and what is education.^[76] Though the system can have variations in local, regional, and country level, the similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share also enable the exchange among students at all levels which are also playing an increasingly important role in globalization process. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Program^[77] stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation^[78] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience.^[79] The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. This facilitates the globalization of education.

References

^ Dewey, John (1916/1944). Democracy and Education. The Free Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-684-83631-9.
^ educate. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ See the Belgian linguistic case.
^ ICESCR, Article 13.1
^ "Examples of subjects". Curriculumonline.gov.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Education World: Fine Arts
^ Ross, Elizabeth Dale (1976). The Kindergarten Crusade: The Establishment of Preschool in the United States. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 1.
^ UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education
^ May, S. and Aikman, S. (2003). "Indigenous Education: Addressing Current Issues and Developments". Comparative Education 39 (2): 139–145. doi:10.1080/03050060302549. JSTOR 3099875.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1979). "The Natural Learning Project". Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation (Elseiver North-Holland, Inc. 1979) 1: 5–12.
^ Special Education. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology. 2004.
^ Mead, GH (1896). "The Relation of Play to Education". University Record 1: 141–145.
^ Johnson, GE (1916). Education through recreation. Cleveland Foundation, Ohio.
^ Jacks, LP (1932). Education through recreation. New York: Harper and Brothers. pp. 1–2.
^ ^a ^b Ullah, Sha (2012). "Learning surgically oriented anatomy in a student-run extracurricular club: an education through recreation initiative.". Anat Sci Educ 5: 165–170. doi:10.1002/ase.1273. PMID 22434649.
^ "The State of Digital Education Infographic - #edtech #edutech #edu11". Knewton.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Lohr, Steve (19 August 2009). "Study Finds That Online Education Beats the Classroom — NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Free courses provided by Harvard, MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington". Neurobonkers.com. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Harriet Swain. "Will university campuses soon be 'over'? | Education". The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Is the Certificate the New College Degree? | Jobs on GOOD". Good.is. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Liberal Arts: Encyclopædia Britannica Concise". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Harriman, Philip (1935). "Antecedents of the Liberal Arts College". The Journal of Higher Education (The Journal of Higher Education) 6 (2): 63–71. JSTOR 1975506.
^ Tremblay, Eric. "(2010) Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(2), 217–227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.". Retrieved 2010-11-05.
^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ ICT in Education
^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student Development, v30 n1 p 86–89.
^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.". Archived from the original on 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2003-10-12.
^ Open University of the United Kingdom Official website
^ Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website
^ "Dunn and Dunn". Learningstyles.net. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Biographer of Renzulli". Indiana.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences
^ "Keirsey web-site". Keirsey.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Type Delineator description". Algonquincollege.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
^ Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser,
^ Pashler, Harold; McDonald, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2009). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x.
^ "Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website". Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Guy Claxton speaking on What's The Point of School?". dystalk.com. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Learner Responsibility in Management Education, or Ventures into Forbidden Research (with Comments)". Interfaces 13.
^ Winters, Marcus. Teachers Matter: Rethinking How Public Schools Identify, Reward, and Retain Great Educators. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4422-1077-6.
^ How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. mckinsey.com. September 2007
^ ^a ^b J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
^ Dolhenty, Jonathan. "Philosophy of Education and Wittgenstein's Concept of Language-Games". The Radical Academy. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Kneller, George (1964). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. p. 93.
^ Philip H. Phenix (1963). "Educational Theory and Inspiration". Educational Theory 13 (1): 1–64. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1963.tb00101.x.
^ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77–80, 192–193.
^ Eric A. Hanushek (2005). Economic outcomes and school quality. International Institute for Educational Planning. ISBN 978-92-803-1279-9. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.2139/ssrn.244582. JSTOR 2677930.
^ Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann (2008). "The role of cognitive skills in economic development". Journal of Economic Literature 46 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1257/jel.46.3.607.
^ Jacob Mincer (1970). "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach". Journal of Economic Literature 8 (1): 1–26. JSTOR 2720384.
^ David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds). Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999: pp. 1801–1863
^ James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds). Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006: pp. 307–458.
^ Samuel Bowles; Herbert Gintis (18 October 2011). Schooling In Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-131-8. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ "Nalanda The World's First University". Little India. 12 February 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Plato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
^ ^a ^b Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Robert Grosseteste". Newadvent.org. 1 June 1910. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Albertus Magnus". Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey, CA, USA.
^ Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8133-8429-X.
^ Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0-02-865594-X.
^ Noddings 1995, pp. 1–6
^ Chesterton, G. K. (1910). What's Wrong with the World.
^ http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/fall/oochart.pdf
^ "Reed College | Reed College Admission Office". Reed.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). "Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school". Journal of Educational Psychology 97 (2): 214–233. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.214.
^ Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education
^ ^a ^b Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? London: Overseas Development Institute.
^ news room/latest news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_AEW_launch_en. Transparency.org (23 February 2010). Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ de Grauwe, A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE [1].
^ "African nations embrace e-learning, says new report". PC Advisor. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ nabuur.com
^ "EDUSAT". ISRO. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
^ Baker, David P., and Gerald K. LeTendre. "World Culture and the Future of Schooling." The Globalization Reader. By Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 245-46. Print
^ "Socrates-Erasmus Program". Erasmus.ac.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Soros Foundation". Soros.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ Dubois, H. F. W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006). "Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study". International Nursing Review 53 (2): 110–116. doi:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2006.00464.x. PMID 16650029.

External links

Find more about Education at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Travel information from Wikivoyage

Education at the Open Directory Project
Educational Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems
OECD education statistics
Child and Teacher Educational from Kireet Joshi
Planipolis: a portal on education plans and policies
IIEP Publications on Education Systems

Videos

The Meaning of Educational Quality

[hide]

Topics in education

[show] Education by region

[show] v t e Stages of formal education

education

2013-04-25T09:16:00.005-07:00

Education

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).

School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province, Afghanistan.

Students at the Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Students in Kagugu Primary School of Rwanda.

Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.

Etymology

The role of government

Systems

School children line, in Kerala, India

Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum, Curriculum theory, and List of academic disciplines

School children in Durban, South Africa.

Preschools

Main article: Preschool education

Primary schools

Main article: Primary education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.

Secondary schools

Main article: Secondary education

Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand

Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia

A violin student receiving music education at the Royal Academy of Music, London, 1944.

Education through recreation

Systems of higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

University systems

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.

Open

Liberal arts colleges

Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England liberal arts college.

Community colleges

Main article: community colleges

A nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.

Technology

Main article: Educational technology

American students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test

Adult

Main article: Adult education

Learning modalities

Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University.

Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Instruction

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar

Theory

Main article: Education theory

Economics

Main article: Economics of education

Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar

History

Main article: History of education

Nalanda ancient center for higher learning.

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607.

Modern times

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of education

John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

Criticism

Chesterton said, "Modern education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the customs of the majority."^[65]

Purpose of schools

Main article: Education theory#Normative theories of education

Psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of education

School children in Laos

Developing countries

World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report)

Development goals and issues

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
strategies must be context relevant and context specific;^{[clarification needed]}
they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;^{[clarification needed]}
partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels.

Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include population statistics.)

^[when?]

Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)

Education and technology in developing countries

The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

Internationalization (Globalization and Education)

References

^ Dewey, John (1916/1944). Democracy and Education. The Free Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-684-83631-9.
^ educate. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ See the Belgian linguistic case.
^ ICESCR, Article 13.1
^ "Examples of subjects". Curriculumonline.gov.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Education World: Fine Arts
^ Ross, Elizabeth Dale (1976). The Kindergarten Crusade: The Establishment of Preschool in the United States. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 1.
^ UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education
^ May, S. and Aikman, S. (2003). "Indigenous Education: Addressing Current Issues and Developments". Comparative Education 39 (2): 139–145. doi:10.1080/03050060302549. JSTOR 3099875.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1979). "The Natural Learning Project". Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation (Elseiver North-Holland, Inc. 1979) 1: 5–12.
^ Special Education. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology. 2004.
^ Mead, GH (1896). "The Relation of Play to Education". University Record 1: 141–145.
^ Johnson, GE (1916). Education through recreation. Cleveland Foundation, Ohio.
^ Jacks, LP (1932). Education through recreation. New York: Harper and Brothers. pp. 1–2.
^ ^a ^b Ullah, Sha (2012). "Learning surgically oriented anatomy in a student-run extracurricular club: an education through recreation initiative.". Anat Sci Educ 5: 165–170. doi:10.1002/ase.1273. PMID 22434649.
^ "The State of Digital Education Infographic - #edtech #edutech #edu11". Knewton.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Lohr, Steve (19 August 2009). "Study Finds That Online Education Beats the Classroom — NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Free courses provided by Harvard, MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington". Neurobonkers.com. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Harriet Swain. "Will university campuses soon be 'over'? | Education". The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Is the Certificate the New College Degree? | Jobs on GOOD". Good.is. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Liberal Arts: Encyclopædia Britannica Concise". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Harriman, Philip (1935). "Antecedents of the Liberal Arts College". The Journal of Higher Education (The Journal of Higher Education) 6 (2): 63–71. JSTOR 1975506.
^ Tremblay, Eric. "(2010) Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(2), 217–227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.". Retrieved 2010-11-05.
^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ ICT in Education
^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student Development, v30 n1 p 86–89.
^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.". Archived from the original on 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2003-10-12.
^ Open University of the United Kingdom Official website
^ Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website
^ "Dunn and Dunn". Learningstyles.net. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Biographer of Renzulli". Indiana.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences
^ "Keirsey web-site". Keirsey.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Type Delineator description". Algonquincollege.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
^ Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser,
^ Pashler, Harold; McDonald, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2009). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x.
^ "Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website". Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Guy Claxton speaking on What's The Point of School?". dystalk.com. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Learner Responsibility in Management Education, or Ventures into Forbidden Research (with Comments)". Interfaces 13.
^ Winters, Marcus. Teachers Matter: Rethinking How Public Schools Identify, Reward, and Retain Great Educators. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4422-1077-6.
^ How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. mckinsey.com. September 2007
^ ^a ^b J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
^ Dolhenty, Jonathan. "Philosophy of Education and Wittgenstein's Concept of Language-Games". The Radical Academy. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Kneller, George (1964). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. p. 93.
^ Philip H. Phenix (1963). "Educational Theory and Inspiration". Educational Theory 13 (1): 1–64. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1963.tb00101.x.
^ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77–80, 192–193.
^ Eric A. Hanushek (2005). Economic outcomes and school quality. International Institute for Educational Planning. ISBN 978-92-803-1279-9. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.2139/ssrn.244582. JSTOR 2677930.
^ Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann (2008). "The role of cognitive skills in economic development". Journal of Economic Literature 46 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1257/jel.46.3.607.
^ Jacob Mincer (1970). "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach". Journal of Economic Literature 8 (1): 1–26. JSTOR 2720384.
^ David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds). Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999: pp. 1801–1863
^ James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds). Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006: pp. 307–458.
^ Samuel Bowles; Herbert Gintis (18 October 2011). Schooling In Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-131-8. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ "Nalanda The World's First University". Little India. 12 February 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Plato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
^ ^a ^b Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Robert Grosseteste". Newadvent.org. 1 June 1910. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Albertus Magnus". Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey, CA, USA.
^ Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8133-8429-X.
^ Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0-02-865594-X.
^ Noddings 1995, pp. 1–6
^ Chesterton, G. K. (1910). What's Wrong with the World.
^ http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/fall/oochart.pdf
^ "Reed College | Reed College Admission Office". Reed.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). "Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school". Journal of Educational Psychology 97 (2): 214–233. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.214.
^ Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education
^ ^a ^b Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? London: Overseas Development Institute.
^ news room/latest news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_AEW_launch_en. Transparency.org (23 February 2010). Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ de Grauwe, A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE [1].
^ "African nations embrace e-learning, says new report". PC Advisor. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ nabuur.com
^ "EDUSAT". ISRO. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
^ Baker, David P., and Gerald K. LeTendre. "World Culture and the Future of Schooling." The Globalization Reader. By Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 245-46. Print
^ "Socrates-Erasmus Program". Erasmus.ac.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Soros Foundation". Soros.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ Dubois, H. F. W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006). "Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study". International Nursing Review 53 (2): 110–116. doi:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2006.00464.x. PMID 16650029.

External links

Find more about Education at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Travel information from Wikivoyage

Education at the Open Directory Project
Educational Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems
OECD education statistics
Child and Teacher Educational from Kireet Joshi
Planipolis: a portal on education plans and policies
IIEP Publications on Education Systems

Videos

The Meaning of Educational Quality

[hide]

Topics in education

[show] Education by region

[show] v t e Stages of formal education

education

2013-04-25T09:16:00.003-07:00

Education

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).

School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province, Afghanistan.

Students at the Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Students in Kagugu Primary School of Rwanda.

Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.

Etymology

The role of government

Systems

School children line, in Kerala, India

Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum, Curriculum theory, and List of academic disciplines

School children in Durban, South Africa.

Preschools

Main article: Preschool education

Primary schools

Main article: Primary education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.

Secondary schools

Main article: Secondary education

Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand

Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia

A violin student receiving music education at the Royal Academy of Music, London, 1944.

Autodidacticism

Main article: Autodidacticism

Vocational

Main article: Vocational education

Indigenous

Main article: Indigenous education

Anarchistic free schools

Main article: Anarchistic free school

Alternative

Main article: Alternative education

Special

Main article: Special education

Education through recreation

Systems of higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

University systems

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.

Open

Liberal arts colleges

Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England liberal arts college.

Community colleges

Main article: community colleges

A nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.

Technology

Main article: Educational technology

American students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test

Adult

Main article: Adult education

Learning modalities

Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University.

Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Instruction

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar

Theory

Main article: Education theory

Economics

Main article: Economics of education

Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar

History

Main article: History of education

Nalanda ancient center for higher learning.

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607.

Modern times

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of education

John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

Criticism

Chesterton said, "Modern education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the customs of the majority."^[65]

Purpose of schools

Main article: Education theory#Normative theories of education

Psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of education

School children in Laos

Developing countries

World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report)

Development goals and issues

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
strategies must be context relevant and context specific;^{[clarification needed]}
they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;^{[clarification needed]}
partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels.

Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include population statistics.)

^[when?]

Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)

Education and technology in developing countries

The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

Internationalization (Globalization and Education)

References

^ Dewey, John (1916/1944). Democracy and Education. The Free Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-684-83631-9.
^ educate. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ See the Belgian linguistic case.
^ ICESCR, Article 13.1
^ "Examples of subjects". Curriculumonline.gov.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Education World: Fine Arts
^ Ross, Elizabeth Dale (1976). The Kindergarten Crusade: The Establishment of Preschool in the United States. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 1.
^ UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education
^ May, S. and Aikman, S. (2003). "Indigenous Education: Addressing Current Issues and Developments". Comparative Education 39 (2): 139–145. doi:10.1080/03050060302549. JSTOR 3099875.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1979). "The Natural Learning Project". Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation (Elseiver North-Holland, Inc. 1979) 1: 5–12.
^ Special Education. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology. 2004.
^ Mead, GH (1896). "The Relation of Play to Education". University Record 1: 141–145.
^ Johnson, GE (1916). Education through recreation. Cleveland Foundation, Ohio.
^ Jacks, LP (1932). Education through recreation. New York: Harper and Brothers. pp. 1–2.
^ ^a ^b Ullah, Sha (2012). "Learning surgically oriented anatomy in a student-run extracurricular club: an education through recreation initiative.". Anat Sci Educ 5: 165–170. doi:10.1002/ase.1273. PMID 22434649.
^ "The State of Digital Education Infographic - #edtech #edutech #edu11". Knewton.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Lohr, Steve (19 August 2009). "Study Finds That Online Education Beats the Classroom — NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Free courses provided by Harvard, MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington". Neurobonkers.com. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Harriet Swain. "Will university campuses soon be 'over'? | Education". The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Is the Certificate the New College Degree? | Jobs on GOOD". Good.is. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Liberal Arts: Encyclopædia Britannica Concise". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Harriman, Philip (1935). "Antecedents of the Liberal Arts College". The Journal of Higher Education (The Journal of Higher Education) 6 (2): 63–71. JSTOR 1975506.
^ Tremblay, Eric. "(2010) Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(2), 217–227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.". Retrieved 2010-11-05.
^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ ICT in Education
^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student Development, v30 n1 p 86–89.
^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.". Archived from the original on 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2003-10-12.
^ Open University of the United Kingdom Official website
^ Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website
^ "Dunn and Dunn". Learningstyles.net. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Biographer of Renzulli". Indiana.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences
^ "Keirsey web-site". Keirsey.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Type Delineator description". Algonquincollege.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
^ Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser,
^ Pashler, Harold; McDonald, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2009). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x.
^ "Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website". Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Guy Claxton speaking on What's The Point of School?". dystalk.com. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Learner Responsibility in Management Education, or Ventures into Forbidden Research (with Comments)". Interfaces 13.
^ Winters, Marcus. Teachers Matter: Rethinking How Public Schools Identify, Reward, and Retain Great Educators. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4422-1077-6.
^ How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. mckinsey.com. September 2007
^ ^a ^b J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
^ Dolhenty, Jonathan. "Philosophy of Education and Wittgenstein's Concept of Language-Games". The Radical Academy. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Kneller, George (1964). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. p. 93.
^ Philip H. Phenix (1963). "Educational Theory and Inspiration". Educational Theory 13 (1): 1–64. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1963.tb00101.x.
^ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77–80, 192–193.
^ Eric A. Hanushek (2005). Economic outcomes and school quality. International Institute for Educational Planning. ISBN 978-92-803-1279-9. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.2139/ssrn.244582. JSTOR 2677930.
^ Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann (2008). "The role of cognitive skills in economic development". Journal of Economic Literature 46 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1257/jel.46.3.607.
^ Jacob Mincer (1970). "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach". Journal of Economic Literature 8 (1): 1–26. JSTOR 2720384.
^ David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds). Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999: pp. 1801–1863
^ James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds). Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006: pp. 307–458.
^ Samuel Bowles; Herbert Gintis (18 October 2011). Schooling In Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-131-8. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ "Nalanda The World's First University". Little India. 12 February 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Plato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
^ ^a ^b Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Robert Grosseteste". Newadvent.org. 1 June 1910. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Albertus Magnus". Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey, CA, USA.
^ Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8133-8429-X.
^ Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0-02-865594-X.
^ Noddings 1995, pp. 1–6
^ Chesterton, G. K. (1910). What's Wrong with the World.
^ http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/fall/oochart.pdf
^ "Reed College | Reed College Admission Office". Reed.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). "Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school". Journal of Educational Psychology 97 (2): 214–233. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.214.
^ Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education
^ ^a ^b Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? London: Overseas Development Institute.
^ news room/latest news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_AEW_launch_en. Transparency.org (23 February 2010). Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ de Grauwe, A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE [1].
^ "African nations embrace e-learning, says new report". PC Advisor. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ nabuur.com
^ "EDUSAT". ISRO. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
^ Baker, David P., and Gerald K. LeTendre. "World Culture and the Future of Schooling." The Globalization Reader. By Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 245-46. Print
^ "Socrates-Erasmus Program". Erasmus.ac.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Soros Foundation". Soros.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ Dubois, H. F. W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006). "Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study". International Nursing Review 53 (2): 110–116. doi:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2006.00464.x. PMID 16650029.

External links

Find more about Education at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Travel information from Wikivoyage

Education at the Open Directory Project
Educational Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems
OECD education statistics
Child and Teacher Educational from Kireet Joshi
Planipolis: a portal on education plans and policies
IIEP Publications on Education Systems

Videos

The Meaning of Educational Quality

[hide]

Topics in education

[show] Education by region

[show] v t e Stages of formal education

2013-04-25T09:16:00.001-07:00

Education

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).

School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktya Province, Afghanistan.

Students at the Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Students in Kagugu Primary School of Rwanda.

Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.

Etymology

The role of government

Systems

School children line, in Kerala, India

Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum, Curriculum theory, and List of academic disciplines

School children in Durban, South Africa.

Preschools

Main article: Preschool education

Primary schools

Main article: Primary education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.

Secondary schools

Main article: Secondary education

Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand

Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia

A violin student receiving music education at the Royal Academy of Music, London, 1944.

Autodidacticism

Main article: Autodidacticism

Vocational

Main article: Vocational education

Indigenous

Main article: Indigenous education

Anarchistic free schools

Main article: Anarchistic free school

Alternative

Main article: Alternative education

Special

Main article: Special education

Education through recreation

Systems of higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

University systems

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.

Open

Liberal arts colleges

Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England liberal arts college.

Community colleges

Main article: community colleges

A nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area.

Technology

Main article: Educational technology

American students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test

Adult

Main article: Adult education

Learning modalities

Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University.

Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Instruction

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar

Theory

Main article: Education theory

Economics

Main article: Economics of education

Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar

History

Main article: History of education

Nalanda ancient center for higher learning.

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements published in 1607.

Modern times

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of education

John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

Criticism

Chesterton said, "Modern education means handing down the customs of the minority, and rooting out the customs of the majority."^[65]

Purpose of schools

Main article: Education theory#Normative theories of education

Psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

Sociology

Main article: Sociology of education

School children in Laos

Developing countries

World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report)

Development goals and issues

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
strategies must be context relevant and context specific;^{[clarification needed]}
they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;^{[clarification needed]}
partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels.

Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (Note, chart does not include population statistics.)

^[when?]

Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade)

Education and technology in developing countries

The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti

Internationalization (Globalization and Education)

References

^ Dewey, John (1916/1944). Democracy and Education. The Free Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-684-83631-9.
^ educate. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ See the Belgian linguistic case.
^ ICESCR, Article 13.1
^ "Examples of subjects". Curriculumonline.gov.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Education World: Fine Arts
^ Ross, Elizabeth Dale (1976). The Kindergarten Crusade: The Establishment of Preschool in the United States. Athens: Ohio University Press. p. 1.
^ UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education
^ May, S. and Aikman, S. (2003). "Indigenous Education: Addressing Current Issues and Developments". Comparative Education 39 (2): 139–145. doi:10.1080/03050060302549. JSTOR 3099875.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1979). "The Natural Learning Project". Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation (Elseiver North-Holland, Inc. 1979) 1: 5–12.
^ Special Education. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology. 2004.
^ Mead, GH (1896). "The Relation of Play to Education". University Record 1: 141–145.
^ Johnson, GE (1916). Education through recreation. Cleveland Foundation, Ohio.
^ Jacks, LP (1932). Education through recreation. New York: Harper and Brothers. pp. 1–2.
^ ^a ^b Ullah, Sha (2012). "Learning surgically oriented anatomy in a student-run extracurricular club: an education through recreation initiative.". Anat Sci Educ 5: 165–170. doi:10.1002/ase.1273. PMID 22434649.
^ "The State of Digital Education Infographic - #edtech #edutech #edu11". Knewton.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Lohr, Steve (19 August 2009). "Study Finds That Online Education Beats the Classroom — NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Free courses provided by Harvard, MIT, Berkeley, Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U.Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington". Neurobonkers.com. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Harriet Swain. "Will university campuses soon be 'over'? | Education". The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Is the Certificate the New College Degree? | Jobs on GOOD". Good.is. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Liberal Arts: Encyclopædia Britannica Concise". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Harriman, Philip (1935). "Antecedents of the Liberal Arts College". The Journal of Higher Education (The Journal of Higher Education) 6 (2): 63–71. JSTOR 1975506.
^ Tremblay, Eric. "(2010) Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 29(2), 217–227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.". Retrieved 2010-11-05.
^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ ICT in Education
^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-06.
^ Whyte, Cassandra Bolyard (1989) Student Affairs-The Future.Journal of College Student Development, v30 n1 p 86–89.
^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.". Archived from the original on 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2003-10-12.
^ Open University of the United Kingdom Official website
^ Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website
^ "Dunn and Dunn". Learningstyles.net. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Biographer of Renzulli". Indiana.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences
^ "Keirsey web-site". Keirsey.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ "Type Delineator description". Algonquincollege.com. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
^ Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
^ Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser,
^ Pashler, Harold; McDonald, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2009). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x.
^ "Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website". Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Guy Claxton speaking on What's The Point of School?". dystalk.com. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
^ J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Learner Responsibility in Management Education, or Ventures into Forbidden Research (with Comments)". Interfaces 13.
^ Winters, Marcus. Teachers Matter: Rethinking How Public Schools Identify, Reward, and Retain Great Educators. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4422-1077-6.
^ How the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. mckinsey.com. September 2007
^ ^a ^b J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
^ Dolhenty, Jonathan. "Philosophy of Education and Wittgenstein's Concept of Language-Games". The Radical Academy. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Kneller, George (1964). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. p. 93.
^ Philip H. Phenix (1963). "Educational Theory and Inspiration". Educational Theory 13 (1): 1–64. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1963.tb00101.x.
^ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77–80, 192–193.
^ Eric A. Hanushek (2005). Economic outcomes and school quality. International Institute for Educational Planning. ISBN 978-92-803-1279-9. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.2139/ssrn.244582. JSTOR 2677930.
^ Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann (2008). "The role of cognitive skills in economic development". Journal of Economic Literature 46 (3): 607–608. doi:10.1257/jel.46.3.607.
^ Jacob Mincer (1970). "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach". Journal of Economic Literature 8 (1): 1–26. JSTOR 2720384.
^ David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, Orley Ashenfelter and David Card (Eds). Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999: pp. 1801–1863
^ James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch (Eds). Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006: pp. 307–458.
^ Samuel Bowles; Herbert Gintis (18 October 2011). Schooling In Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-131-8. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^ "Nalanda The World's First University". Little India. 12 February 2011. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ "Plato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
^ ^a ^b Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books, 2004
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Robert Grosseteste". Newadvent.org. 1 June 1910. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Albertus Magnus". Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907. Retrieved 2011-07-16.
^ Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, 2006, Monterrey, CA, USA.
^ Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8133-8429-X.
^ Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0-02-865594-X.
^ Noddings 1995, pp. 1–6
^ Chesterton, G. K. (1910). What's Wrong with the World.
^ http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2006/fall/oochart.pdf
^ "Reed College | Reed College Admission Office". Reed.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). "Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school". Journal of Educational Psychology 97 (2): 214–233. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.214.
^ Schofield, K. (1999). The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education
^ ^a ^b Liesbet Steer and Geraldine Baudienville 2010. What drives donor financing of basic education? London: Overseas Development Institute.
^ news room/latest news/press_releases/2010/2010_02_23_AEW_launch_en. Transparency.org (23 February 2010). Retrieved on 2011-10-21.
^ de Grauwe, A. 2009. Without capacity, there is no development. Paris: UNESCO-IIPE [1].
^ "African nations embrace e-learning, says new report". PC Advisor. 16 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ nabuur.com
^ "EDUSAT". ISRO. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
^ Baker, David P., and Gerald K. LeTendre. "World Culture and the Future of Schooling." The Globalization Reader. By Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. 245-46. Print
^ "Socrates-Erasmus Program". Erasmus.ac.uk. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ "Soros Foundation". Soros.org. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
^ Dubois, H. F. W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006). "Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study". International Nursing Review 53 (2): 110–116. doi:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2006.00464.x. PMID 16650029.

External links

Find more about Education at Wikipedia's sister projects
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Travel information from Wikivoyage

Education at the Open Directory Project
Educational Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems
OECD education statistics
Child and Teacher Educational from Kireet Joshi
Planipolis: a portal on education plans and policies
IIEP Publications on Education Systems

Videos

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Terrorism

2013-04-25T09:11:00.009-07:00

Terrorism

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"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

"Terrorist organization" redirects here. For other uses, see List of designated terrorist organizations.

United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.

Terrorism
Definitions History Incidents

Types[show]
Tactics [show]
Terrorist groups[show]
State terrorism [show]
Organization[show]
Fighting terrorism[show]
v t e

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, often violent, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no legally binding, criminal law definition.^[1]^[2] Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror); are perpetrated for a religious, political or, ideological goal; and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians). Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and war. The use of similar tactics by criminal organizations for protection rackets or to enforce a code of silence is usually not labeled terrorism, though these same actions may be labeled terrorism when done by a politically motivated group. The writer Heinrich Böll and scholars Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein have suggested that attempts to protect against terrorism may lead to a kind of social oppression.^[3]^[4]
The word "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged,^[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. Studies have found over 100 definitions of “terrorism”.^[6]^[7] The concept of terrorism may be controversial as it is often used by state authorities (and individuals with access to state support) to delegitimize political or other opponents,^[8] and potentially legitimize the state's own use of armed force against opponents (such use of force may be described as "terror" by opponents of the state).^[8]^[9]
Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.^[10] An abiding characteristic is the indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual. The symbolism of terrorism can leverage human fear to help achieve these goals.^[11]

Origin of term

See also: Terror and State terrorism

"Terrorism" comes from the French word terrorisme,^[12] and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the Reign of terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terreō meaning “I frighten”.^[13] The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BC. The Jacobins cited this precedent when imposing a Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.^[14]^[15] After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse.^[8] Although "terrorism" originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people^[16] by a non-government group in such a way as to create a media spectacle.^[17] This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a "terrorist".^[18] Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.^[19]
In November 2004, a United Nations Secretary General report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act".^[20]

Definition

Main article: Definition of terrorism

Stamp of Azerbaijan with "Stop Terrorism!" description

The definition of terrorism has proved controversial. Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged.^[21] In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian Parliament, stated that

"The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination."^[1]

These divergences have made it impossible for the United Nations to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law definition terrorism.^[22] The international community has adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.
Since 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism:

"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them."^[23]

Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the “search for an adequate definition is still on” Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.”^[24]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :

ineluctably political in aims and motives

violent – or, equally important, threatens violence

designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target

conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and

perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.^[25]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states."^[26]

Oslo, Norway immediately after the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway perpetrated by Anders Behring Breivik.

Walter Laqueur, of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, noted that "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence".^{[citation needed]} This criterion alone does not produce, however, a useful definition, since it includes many violent acts not usually considered terrorism: war, riot, organized crime, or even a simple assault.^{[citation needed]} Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a violent crime,^{[according to whom?]} but some have described property destruction by the Earth Liberation Front^[27] and Animal Liberation Front^[28] as violence and terrorism; see eco-terrorism.
Terrorist attacks are usually carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact.^[29] Each act of terrorism is a “performance” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols,^[30] to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.^[31]
Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose.^[32] Terrorism is a political tactic, like letter-writing or protesting, which is used by activists when they believe that no other means will effect the kind of change they desire.^{[according to whom?]} The change is desired so badly that failure to achieve change is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians.^{[citation needed]} This is often where the inter-relationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"^[33] struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.^[34]
Very often, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings"^{[citation needed]} that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorists possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting their message out to an audience or otherwise satisfying the demands of their often radical religious and political agendas.^[35]

A collection of photographs of those killed during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act.^[36]^{[better source needed]} to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned.^{[citation needed]} For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government.^{[original research?]} This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted,^{[attribution needed]} because: it denies the existence of state terrorism;^[37] the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.^[12]^[38]^[39]^[40]
Among the various definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of legitimate use of violence by civilians against an invader in an occupied country.^{[citation needed]} Other definitions would label as terrorist groups only the resistance movements that oppose an invader with violent acts that undiscriminately kill or harm civilians and non-combatants, thus making a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence.^{[citation needed]} According to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimatedly in a political judgment.^[41]
An associated, and arguably more easily definable, but not equivalent term is violent non-state actor.^[42] The semantic scope of this term includes not only "terrorists", but while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as "terrorists", and also explicitly excludes state terrorism. According to the FBI terrorism is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.^{[citation needed]}
Barack Obama, commenting on the Boston Marathon bombings of April, 2013, declared "Anytime bombs are used to target innocent civilians, it is an act of terror."^[43]

Pejorative use

The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations.^[44] These terms are often used as political labels, to condemn violence or the threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.^[45] Those labeled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujaheddin, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words which have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties in a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.^[46]
On the question of whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing civilians, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, utilitarian philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good which could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".^[47] Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so".^[47]^[48]
In his book Inside Terrorism Bruce Hoffman offered an explanation of why the term terrorism becomes distorted:

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.^[49]^[50]^[51]

The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism, "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".^[46] This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally. During World War II, the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army was allied with the British, but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor (the Malayan Races Liberation Army), were branded "terrorists" by the British.^[52]^[53] More recently, Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the Afghan Mujahideen "freedom fighters" during their war against the Soviet Union,^[54] yet twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks were labelled "terrorism" by George W. Bush.^[55]^[56]^[57] Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.^[58]^[59]^[60] Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and said:

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.^[61]

Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] WikiLeaks whistleblower Julian Assange has been called a "terrorist" by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden.^[68]^[69]
Sometimes states which are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (the United Kingdom) which the UK branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson case.^[70]^[71]
For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality try to be careful in their use of the term.^[72]^[73]

Types of terrorism

A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983

Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed and 130 were wounded by a Hamas suicide bomber.

In early 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was entitled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.^[74] The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.

Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.^[75] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

Number of failed, foiled or successful terrorist attacks by year and type within the European Union. Source: Europol.^[76]^[77]^[78] 1 person died in terrorist attacks from a separatist groups in 2010.^[76]

Several sources^[79]^[80]^[81] have further defined the typology of terrorism:

Political terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
  - Social revolutionary terrorism
  - Nationalist-separatist terrorism
  - Religious extremist terrorism
    - Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
    - New religions terrorism
  - Right-wing terrorism
  - Left-wing terrorism
  - Single-issue terrorism
- State-sponsored terrorism
- Regime or state terrorism
Criminal terrorism
Pathological terrorism

Motivation of terrorists

Attacks on 'collaborators' are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in order to undermine state control. This strategy was used in the USA in its War of Independence and in Ireland, in Kenya, in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence struggles.
Attacks on high profile symbolic targets are used to incite counter-terrorism by the state to polarise the population. This strategy was used by Al Qaeda in its attacks on the USA in September 2001. These attacks are also used to draw international attention to struggles which are otherwise unreported such as the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the South Moluccan hostage crises in the Netherlands in 1975.
Abrahm suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness.^[82] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined.^[82]

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Demonstration in Madrid against ETA, January 2000. Roughly a million people met there.

The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most democratic nations.^[83]^[84]^[85]^[86] However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy–a state with a considerable degree of political freedom.^[87] The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.^[88]
Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco (although the group's terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco's death),^[89] the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori,^[90] the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa.^[91] Democracies, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Israel, Indonesia, India, Spain and the Philippines, have also experienced domestic terrorism.
While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties.^[92] For this reason, homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a greater threat, as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden.^[93] This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.^[94]

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism

Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Some 35,000 Pakistanis have died from terrorist attacks in recent years.^[95]

Religious terrorism is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in faith-based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion.^[96] Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint or view, but instead usually defines an individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief system's teachings.

Perpetrators

The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks, the London underground bombing, and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.^[97]
Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a terrorist profile to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors.^[98] A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%). Another analysis found only 16% of terrorists came from impoverished families, vs. 30% of male Palestinians, and over 60% had gone beyond high school, vs. 15% of the populace.^[99]
To avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful.^[100] The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.^[101] However, the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16–40.^[101]

Terrorist groups

There is speculation that anthrax mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a lone wolf terrorist.

Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

—Derrick Jensen^[102]

This terrified baby was almost the only human being left alive in Shanghai's South Station after brutal Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937

As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.^[103] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights and international humanitarian law.^[104] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law"^[105] However, he also made clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."^[106]
State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of Political Science Michael Stohl cites the examples that include Germany’s bombing of London and the U.S. atomic destruction of Hiroshima during World War II. He argues that “the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." They also cite the First strike option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management." They argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior.^[107]^[108]^[108]

Some theorists suggest genocide is a type of terrorism as committed by Adolf Hitler.^{[citation needed]}

State terrorism has also been used to describe peacetime actions by governmental agents such as the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.^[109] Charles Stewart Parnell described William Ewart Gladstone's Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the Irish Land War.^[110] The concept is also used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during the Red Terror or Great Terror.^[111] Such actions are often also described as democide or genocide which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.^[112] Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.^[113]^[114]

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding; for example, Palestine Liberation Organization, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and some other terrorist groups were funded by the Soviet Union.^[115]^[116] The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine the British Mandate for Palestine.^[117] Pakistan has created and nurtured terrorist groups as policy for achieving tactical objectives against its neighbours, especially India.^[118]
"Revolutionary tax" is another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "protection money".^[115] Revolutionary taxes are typically extorted from businesses, and they also "play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population".^[115]
Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for ransoms, smuggling, fraud and robbery.^[115]
The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body whose mandate, since October 2001, has included combatting terrorist financing.^[119]

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism

The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.

Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare will not be effective because forces vary greatly in power.^[120]
The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
Imposition of a particular form of government
Economic deprivation of a population
Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
Religious fanaticism

Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually using explosives or poison.^[121] There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized crime. Communications occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned methods such as couriers.

Responses

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:

Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
Preemptive or reactive military action
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
Preemptive humanitarian activities
More permissive interrogation and detention policies

The term counter-terrorism has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.
According to a report by Dana Priest and William M. Arkin in the Washington Post, "Some 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies work on programs related to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the United States."^[122]

Mass media

Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.^[123]
The internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.^[124]
The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.^[125]

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

—Novelist William Gibson^[126]

History

Main article: History of terrorism

Number of terrorist incidents 2010

The history of terrorism goes back to Sicarii Zealots — Jewish extremist group active in Judaea Province at the beginning of the 1st century AD. After Zealotry rebellion in the 1st century AD, when some prominent collaborators with Roman rule were killed,^[127]^[128] according to contemporary historian Josephus, in 6 AD Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii.^[129] Their terror also was directed against Jewish "collaborators", including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites.^[130]
The term "terrorism" itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the French Revolution. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre. In 1795, Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell-hounds called Terrorists...loose on the people" of France.^[131]
In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III.^[132] Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.^[132] The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early Russian terrorist groups.^[132] Russian Sergey Nechayev, who founded People's Retribution in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist", an early example of the term being employed in its modern meaning.^[18] Nechayev's story is told in fictionalized form by Fyodor Dostoevsky in the novel The Possessed. German anarchist writer Johann Most dispensed "advice for terrorists" in the 1880s.^[133]

Terrorism databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:

Human Security Gateway

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

References

^ ^a ^b Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002.
^ Thalif Deen. "POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism", Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
^ Heinrich Böll, Fürsorgliche Belagerung (Cologne: Kiepenhauer & Witsch, 1979).
^ Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein (1990). Insurgency: The Transformation of Peasant Rebellion, World Politics, 42 , pp 441-465 doi:10.2307/2010510
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. P. 32. See review in the New York Times "'Inside Terrorism'".
^ Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism". Strategic Studies Institute (SSI). Retrieved 2009-11-11. "The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. This report is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited."
^ Schmid, Alex, and Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data bases, Theories and Literature, Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.
^ ^a ^b ^c Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others"
^ Elysa Gardner (2008-12-25). "Harold Pinter: Theater's singular voice falls silent". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 2004, he earned the prestigious Wilfred Owen prize for a series of poems opposing the war in Iraq. In his acceptance speech, Pinter described the war as "a bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the concept of international law.""
^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 3. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
^ Ruby, Charles L. (2002). "The Definition of Terrorism" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
^ ^a ^b "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Kim Campbell (September 27, 2001). "When is 'terrorist' a subjective term?". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "New York Times columnist William Safire wrote that the word "terrorist" has its roots in the Latin terrere, which means "to frighten.""
^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur."
^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders."
^ Jeremy Lott (December 5, 2001). "Suicide Blunderers: Terrorists kill selves, blame Jews". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings were an unthinkable masterstroke, producing a media spectacle that rocked the world."
^ ^a ^b Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0313375217.
^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2008-07-11. "The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community–as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act""
^ Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The New York Times Inside Terrorism.
^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997-2005, p. 47.
^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.
^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
^ Ronald Bailey (February 6, 2009). "Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case _ which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ..."
^ Daniel Schorn (June 18, 2006). "Ed Bradley Reports On Extremists Now Deemed Biggest Domestic Terror Threat". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The biggest act of eco-terrorism in U.S. history was a fire ... Animal Liberation Front, whose masked members have been known to videotape themselves breaking into research labs, ..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "...terrorism is meant to produce psychological effects that reach far beyond the immediate victims of the attack."
^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
^ Style= (June 12, 2009). "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal"
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
^ Alexander Stille (May 31, 2003). "Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed, he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. 2002-02-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up."
^ "AskOxford Search Results – terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cambridge International Dictionary of English". Dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Barak Mendelsohn (2005-01). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole."
^ 'President Obama calls the Boston Marathon bombings ‘an act of terror’' on Daily News website, viewed 2013-04-17
^ Bob Thompson (May 1, 2005). "Hollywood on Crusade". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ..."
^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.
^ ^a ^b Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador (14 September 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter..."
^ ^a ^b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
^ Peter Steinfels (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Google cached copy"
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
^ Raymond Bonner (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read, at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror."
^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise.
^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08., 16 June 2003.
^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
^ "President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 2002-01-29. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009), Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.), Harvard University Press, p. 119, ISBN 9780674051348)
^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time Magazine, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”
^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.
^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in the Times published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member.
^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin".
^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin—to give just three examples—were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".
^ Beckford, Martin (2010-11-30). "Hunt WikiLeaks founder like al-Qaeda and Taliban Leaders". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ MacAskill, Ewen (2010-12-19). "Julian Assange like a hi-tech terrorist". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Quinn v. Robinson, 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)". web site of the United Settlement. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ Zachary E. McCabe (25 August 2003). "Northern Ireland: The paramilitaries, Terrorism, and September 11th". Queen's University Belfast School of Law. p. 17. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved WayBackMachine Dec 01 2007.
^ "Guardian Unlimited style guide". The Guardian (London). 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism". BBC. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).
^ "13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers". The New York Times. February 2, 1988. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a quasi-terrorist act."
^ ^a ^b "TE-SAT 2011 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2011.
^ "TE-SAT 2010 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2010.
^ "TE-SAT 2009 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2009.
^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.
^ Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.
^ Terrorism and homeland security: an introduction with applications, by Philip P. Purpura, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007, ISBN 0-7506-7843-7, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. ISSN 0162-2889. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives".
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace."
^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
^ "Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks". Time Magazine. July 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)"
^ Romero, Simon (March 18, 2009). "Shining Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics."
^ "1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16". BBC. 2005-05-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago."
^ Rick Young (May 16, 2007). "PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'". PBS: Frontline. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy."
^ Yager, Jordy (July 25, 2010). "Former intel chief: Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem". thehill.com.
^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.
^ "Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler?". BBC News. May 7, 2011.
^ Peter Rose (August 28, 2003). "Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness.""
^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". Retrieved 2009-02-14.^{[dead link]}
^ Steven D. Levitt; Stephen J. Dubner (2009). Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance. William Morrow. pp. 62, 231. ISBN 978-0-06-088957-9. citing Alan B. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians," Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no. 4 (Fall 2003 / 63.
^ Sean Coughlan (21 August 2006). "Fear of the unknown". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there.""
^ ^a ^b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.
^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58322-730-X, p. IX.
^ "Pds Sso". Eprints.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror". Un.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Lind, Michael (2005-05-02). "The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation". Newamerica.net. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi". Un.org. 2002-01-26. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Michael Stohl (April 1, 1984). "The Superpowers and International Terror". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ ^a ^b Michael Stohl (1988). "Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ Michael Slackman (March 22, 2009). "New Status in Africa Empowers an Ever-Eccentric Qaddafi". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Once vilified for promoting state terrorism, Colonel Qaddafi is now courted."
^ "The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... – Article Preview – The". New York Times. 2009-08-02. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ Kisangani, E.; Nafziger, E. Wayne (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405–414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
^ Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [1] [2] [3]
^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?^{[dead link]}, Barbara Harff, 2003.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments"
^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch (Washington: National Archives) 2717 (R & N). 1944-12-01.
^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people."
^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
- Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5). pp. 40–47.
- Pape, Robert A.. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361.
- Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". In Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 978-0-19-927699-8.
Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-6306-2.
^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
^ his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people."
^ ^a ^b ^c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
^ Crenshaw, p. 44.

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Terrorism

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Terrorism

UN conventions

United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05. "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention

Terrorism and international humanitarian law

Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross

News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism

Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
Jihad Monitor

Terrorism

2013-04-25T09:11:00.007-07:00

Terrorism

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"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

"Terrorist organization" redirects here. For other uses, see List of designated terrorist organizations.

United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.

Terrorism
Definitions History Incidents

Types[show]
Tactics [show]
Terrorist groups[show]
State terrorism [show]
Organization[show]
Fighting terrorism[show]
v t e

Origin of term

See also: Terror and State terrorism

Definition

Main article: Definition of terrorism

Stamp of Azerbaijan with "Stop Terrorism!" description

"The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination."^[1]

"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them."^[23]

Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the “search for an adequate definition is still on” Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.”^[24]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :

ineluctably political in aims and motives

violent – or, equally important, threatens violence

designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target

conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and

perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.^[25]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states."^[26]

Oslo, Norway immediately after the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway perpetrated by Anders Behring Breivik.

A collection of photographs of those killed during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Pejorative use

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.^[49]^[50]^[51]

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.^[61]

Types of terrorism

A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983

Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed and 130 were wounded by a Hamas suicide bomber.

Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.^[75] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

Several sources^[79]^[80]^[81] have further defined the typology of terrorism:

Political terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
  - Social revolutionary terrorism
  - Nationalist-separatist terrorism
  - Religious extremist terrorism
    - Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
    - New religions terrorism
  - Right-wing terrorism
  - Left-wing terrorism
  - Single-issue terrorism
- State-sponsored terrorism
- Regime or state terrorism
Criminal terrorism
Pathological terrorism

Motivation of terrorists

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Demonstration in Madrid against ETA, January 2000. Roughly a million people met there.

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism

Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Some 35,000 Pakistanis have died from terrorist attacks in recent years.^[95]

Perpetrators

Terrorist groups

There is speculation that anthrax mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a lone wolf terrorist.

Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

—Derrick Jensen^[102]

This terrified baby was almost the only human being left alive in Shanghai's South Station after brutal Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937

Some theorists suggest genocide is a type of terrorism as committed by Adolf Hitler.^{[citation needed]}

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism

The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
Imposition of a particular form of government
Economic deprivation of a population
Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
Religious fanaticism

Responses

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:

Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
Preemptive or reactive military action
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
Preemptive humanitarian activities
More permissive interrogation and detention policies

Mass media

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

—Novelist William Gibson^[126]

History

Main article: History of terrorism

Number of terrorist incidents 2010

Terrorism databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:

Human Security Gateway

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

References

^ ^a ^b Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002.
^ Thalif Deen. "POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism", Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
^ Heinrich Böll, Fürsorgliche Belagerung (Cologne: Kiepenhauer & Witsch, 1979).
^ Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein (1990). Insurgency: The Transformation of Peasant Rebellion, World Politics, 42 , pp 441-465 doi:10.2307/2010510
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. P. 32. See review in the New York Times "'Inside Terrorism'".
^ Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism". Strategic Studies Institute (SSI). Retrieved 2009-11-11. "The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. This report is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited."
^ Schmid, Alex, and Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data bases, Theories and Literature, Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.
^ ^a ^b ^c Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others"
^ Elysa Gardner (2008-12-25). "Harold Pinter: Theater's singular voice falls silent". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 2004, he earned the prestigious Wilfred Owen prize for a series of poems opposing the war in Iraq. In his acceptance speech, Pinter described the war as "a bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the concept of international law.""
^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 3. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
^ Ruby, Charles L. (2002). "The Definition of Terrorism" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
^ ^a ^b "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Kim Campbell (September 27, 2001). "When is 'terrorist' a subjective term?". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "New York Times columnist William Safire wrote that the word "terrorist" has its roots in the Latin terrere, which means "to frighten.""
^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur."
^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders."
^ Jeremy Lott (December 5, 2001). "Suicide Blunderers: Terrorists kill selves, blame Jews". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings were an unthinkable masterstroke, producing a media spectacle that rocked the world."
^ ^a ^b Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0313375217.
^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2008-07-11. "The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community–as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act""
^ Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The New York Times Inside Terrorism.
^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997-2005, p. 47.
^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.
^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
^ Ronald Bailey (February 6, 2009). "Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case _ which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ..."
^ Daniel Schorn (June 18, 2006). "Ed Bradley Reports On Extremists Now Deemed Biggest Domestic Terror Threat". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The biggest act of eco-terrorism in U.S. history was a fire ... Animal Liberation Front, whose masked members have been known to videotape themselves breaking into research labs, ..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "...terrorism is meant to produce psychological effects that reach far beyond the immediate victims of the attack."
^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
^ Style= (June 12, 2009). "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal"
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
^ Alexander Stille (May 31, 2003). "Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed, he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. 2002-02-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up."
^ "AskOxford Search Results – terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cambridge International Dictionary of English". Dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Barak Mendelsohn (2005-01). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole."
^ 'President Obama calls the Boston Marathon bombings ‘an act of terror’' on Daily News website, viewed 2013-04-17
^ Bob Thompson (May 1, 2005). "Hollywood on Crusade". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ..."
^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.
^ ^a ^b Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador (14 September 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter..."
^ ^a ^b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
^ Peter Steinfels (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Google cached copy"
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
^ Raymond Bonner (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read, at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror."
^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise.
^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08., 16 June 2003.
^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
^ "President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 2002-01-29. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009), Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.), Harvard University Press, p. 119, ISBN 9780674051348)
^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time Magazine, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”
^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.
^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in the Times published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member.
^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin".
^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin—to give just three examples—were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".
^ Beckford, Martin (2010-11-30). "Hunt WikiLeaks founder like al-Qaeda and Taliban Leaders". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ MacAskill, Ewen (2010-12-19). "Julian Assange like a hi-tech terrorist". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Quinn v. Robinson, 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)". web site of the United Settlement. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ Zachary E. McCabe (25 August 2003). "Northern Ireland: The paramilitaries, Terrorism, and September 11th". Queen's University Belfast School of Law. p. 17. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved WayBackMachine Dec 01 2007.
^ "Guardian Unlimited style guide". The Guardian (London). 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism". BBC. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).
^ "13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers". The New York Times. February 2, 1988. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a quasi-terrorist act."
^ ^a ^b "TE-SAT 2011 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2011.
^ "TE-SAT 2010 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2010.
^ "TE-SAT 2009 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2009.
^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.
^ Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.
^ Terrorism and homeland security: an introduction with applications, by Philip P. Purpura, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007, ISBN 0-7506-7843-7, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. ISSN 0162-2889. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives".
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace."
^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
^ "Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks". Time Magazine. July 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)"
^ Romero, Simon (March 18, 2009). "Shining Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics."
^ "1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16". BBC. 2005-05-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago."
^ Rick Young (May 16, 2007). "PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'". PBS: Frontline. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy."
^ Yager, Jordy (July 25, 2010). "Former intel chief: Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem". thehill.com.
^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.
^ "Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler?". BBC News. May 7, 2011.
^ Peter Rose (August 28, 2003). "Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness.""
^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". Retrieved 2009-02-14.^{[dead link]}
^ Steven D. Levitt; Stephen J. Dubner (2009). Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance. William Morrow. pp. 62, 231. ISBN 978-0-06-088957-9. citing Alan B. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians," Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no. 4 (Fall 2003 / 63.
^ Sean Coughlan (21 August 2006). "Fear of the unknown". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there.""
^ ^a ^b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.
^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58322-730-X, p. IX.
^ "Pds Sso". Eprints.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror". Un.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Lind, Michael (2005-05-02). "The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation". Newamerica.net. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi". Un.org. 2002-01-26. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Michael Stohl (April 1, 1984). "The Superpowers and International Terror". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ ^a ^b Michael Stohl (1988). "Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ Michael Slackman (March 22, 2009). "New Status in Africa Empowers an Ever-Eccentric Qaddafi". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Once vilified for promoting state terrorism, Colonel Qaddafi is now courted."
^ "The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... – Article Preview – The". New York Times. 2009-08-02. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ Kisangani, E.; Nafziger, E. Wayne (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405–414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
^ Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [1] [2] [3]
^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?^{[dead link]}, Barbara Harff, 2003.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments"
^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch (Washington: National Archives) 2717 (R & N). 1944-12-01.
^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people."
^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
- Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5). pp. 40–47.
- Pape, Robert A.. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361.
- Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". In Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 978-0-19-927699-8.
Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-6306-2.
^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
^ his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people."
^ ^a ^b ^c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
^ Crenshaw, p. 44.

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Terrorism

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Terrorism

UN conventions

United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05. "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention

Terrorism and international humanitarian law

Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross

News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism

Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
Jihad Monitor

Terrorism

2013-04-25T09:11:00.003-07:00

Terrorism

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"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

"Terrorist organization" redirects here. For other uses, see List of designated terrorist organizations.

United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.

Terrorism
Definitions History Incidents

Types[show]
Tactics [show]
Terrorist groups[show]
State terrorism [show]
Organization[show]
Fighting terrorism[show]
v t e

Origin of term

See also: Terror and State terrorism

Definition

Main article: Definition of terrorism

Stamp of Azerbaijan with "Stop Terrorism!" description

"The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination."^[1]

"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them."^[23]

Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the “search for an adequate definition is still on” Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.”^[24]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :

ineluctably political in aims and motives

violent – or, equally important, threatens violence

designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target

conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and

perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.^[25]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states."^[26]

Oslo, Norway immediately after the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway perpetrated by Anders Behring Breivik.

A collection of photographs of those killed during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Pejorative use

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.^[49]^[50]^[51]

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.^[61]

Types of terrorism

A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983

Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed and 130 were wounded by a Hamas suicide bomber.

Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.^[75] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

Several sources^[79]^[80]^[81] have further defined the typology of terrorism:

Political terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
  - Social revolutionary terrorism
  - Nationalist-separatist terrorism
  - Religious extremist terrorism
    - Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
    - New religions terrorism
  - Right-wing terrorism
  - Left-wing terrorism
  - Single-issue terrorism
- State-sponsored terrorism
- Regime or state terrorism
Criminal terrorism
Pathological terrorism

Motivation of terrorists

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Demonstration in Madrid against ETA, January 2000. Roughly a million people met there.

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism

Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Some 35,000 Pakistanis have died from terrorist attacks in recent years.^[95]

Perpetrators

Terrorist groups

There is speculation that anthrax mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a lone wolf terrorist.

Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

—Derrick Jensen^[102]

This terrified baby was almost the only human being left alive in Shanghai's South Station after brutal Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937

Some theorists suggest genocide is a type of terrorism as committed by Adolf Hitler.^{[citation needed]}

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism

The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
Imposition of a particular form of government
Economic deprivation of a population
Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
Religious fanaticism

Responses

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:

Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
Preemptive or reactive military action
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
Preemptive humanitarian activities
More permissive interrogation and detention policies

Mass media

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

—Novelist William Gibson^[126]

History

Main article: History of terrorism

Number of terrorist incidents 2010

Terrorism databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:

Human Security Gateway

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

References

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^ Thalif Deen. "POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism", Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
^ Heinrich Böll, Fürsorgliche Belagerung (Cologne: Kiepenhauer & Witsch, 1979).
^ Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein (1990). Insurgency: The Transformation of Peasant Rebellion, World Politics, 42 , pp 441-465 doi:10.2307/2010510
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. P. 32. See review in the New York Times "'Inside Terrorism'".
^ Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism". Strategic Studies Institute (SSI). Retrieved 2009-11-11. "The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. This report is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited."
^ Schmid, Alex, and Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data bases, Theories and Literature, Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.
^ ^a ^b ^c Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others"
^ Elysa Gardner (2008-12-25). "Harold Pinter: Theater's singular voice falls silent". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 2004, he earned the prestigious Wilfred Owen prize for a series of poems opposing the war in Iraq. In his acceptance speech, Pinter described the war as "a bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the concept of international law.""
^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 3. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
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^ ^a ^b "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Kim Campbell (September 27, 2001). "When is 'terrorist' a subjective term?". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "New York Times columnist William Safire wrote that the word "terrorist" has its roots in the Latin terrere, which means "to frighten.""
^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur."
^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders."
^ Jeremy Lott (December 5, 2001). "Suicide Blunderers: Terrorists kill selves, blame Jews". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings were an unthinkable masterstroke, producing a media spectacle that rocked the world."
^ ^a ^b Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0313375217.
^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2008-07-11. "The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community–as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act""
^ Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The New York Times Inside Terrorism.
^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997-2005, p. 47.
^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.
^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
^ Ronald Bailey (February 6, 2009). "Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case _ which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ..."
^ Daniel Schorn (June 18, 2006). "Ed Bradley Reports On Extremists Now Deemed Biggest Domestic Terror Threat". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The biggest act of eco-terrorism in U.S. history was a fire ... Animal Liberation Front, whose masked members have been known to videotape themselves breaking into research labs, ..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "...terrorism is meant to produce psychological effects that reach far beyond the immediate victims of the attack."
^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
^ Style= (June 12, 2009). "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal"
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
^ Alexander Stille (May 31, 2003). "Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed, he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. 2002-02-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up."
^ "AskOxford Search Results – terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
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^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Barak Mendelsohn (2005-01). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole."
^ 'President Obama calls the Boston Marathon bombings ‘an act of terror’' on Daily News website, viewed 2013-04-17
^ Bob Thompson (May 1, 2005). "Hollywood on Crusade". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ..."
^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.
^ ^a ^b Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador (14 September 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter..."
^ ^a ^b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
^ Peter Steinfels (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Google cached copy"
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
^ Raymond Bonner (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read, at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror."
^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise.
^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08., 16 June 2003.
^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
^ "President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 2002-01-29. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009), Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.), Harvard University Press, p. 119, ISBN 9780674051348)
^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time Magazine, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”
^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.
^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in the Times published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member.
^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin".
^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin—to give just three examples—were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".
^ Beckford, Martin (2010-11-30). "Hunt WikiLeaks founder like al-Qaeda and Taliban Leaders". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ MacAskill, Ewen (2010-12-19). "Julian Assange like a hi-tech terrorist". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
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^ "Guardian Unlimited style guide". The Guardian (London). 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism". BBC. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).
^ "13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers". The New York Times. February 2, 1988. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a quasi-terrorist act."
^ ^a ^b "TE-SAT 2011 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2011.
^ "TE-SAT 2010 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2010.
^ "TE-SAT 2009 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2009.
^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.
^ Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.
^ Terrorism and homeland security: an introduction with applications, by Philip P. Purpura, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007, ISBN 0-7506-7843-7, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. ISSN 0162-2889. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives".
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace."
^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
^ "Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks". Time Magazine. July 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)"
^ Romero, Simon (March 18, 2009). "Shining Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics."
^ "1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16". BBC. 2005-05-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago."
^ Rick Young (May 16, 2007). "PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'". PBS: Frontline. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy."
^ Yager, Jordy (July 25, 2010). "Former intel chief: Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem". thehill.com.
^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.
^ "Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler?". BBC News. May 7, 2011.
^ Peter Rose (August 28, 2003). "Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness.""
^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". Retrieved 2009-02-14.^{[dead link]}
^ Steven D. Levitt; Stephen J. Dubner (2009). Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance. William Morrow. pp. 62, 231. ISBN 978-0-06-088957-9. citing Alan B. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians," Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no. 4 (Fall 2003 / 63.
^ Sean Coughlan (21 August 2006). "Fear of the unknown". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there.""
^ ^a ^b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.
^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58322-730-X, p. IX.
^ "Pds Sso". Eprints.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror". Un.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Lind, Michael (2005-05-02). "The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation". Newamerica.net. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi". Un.org. 2002-01-26. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Michael Stohl (April 1, 1984). "The Superpowers and International Terror". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ ^a ^b Michael Stohl (1988). "Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ Michael Slackman (March 22, 2009). "New Status in Africa Empowers an Ever-Eccentric Qaddafi". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Once vilified for promoting state terrorism, Colonel Qaddafi is now courted."
^ "The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... – Article Preview – The". New York Times. 2009-08-02. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ Kisangani, E.; Nafziger, E. Wayne (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405–414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
^ Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [1] [2] [3]
^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?^{[dead link]}, Barbara Harff, 2003.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments"
^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch (Washington: National Archives) 2717 (R & N). 1944-12-01.
^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people."
^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
- Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5). pp. 40–47.
- Pape, Robert A.. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361.
- Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". In Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 978-0-19-927699-8.
Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-6306-2.
^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
^ his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people."
^ ^a ^b ^c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
^ Crenshaw, p. 44.

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Terrorism

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Terrorism

UN conventions

United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05. "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention

Terrorism and international humanitarian law

Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross

News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism

Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
Jihad Monitor

Terrorism

2013-04-25T09:11:00.001-07:00

Terrorism

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"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

"Terrorist organization" redirects here. For other uses, see List of designated terrorist organizations.

United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.

Terrorism
Definitions History Incidents

Types[show]
Tactics [show]
Terrorist groups[show]
State terrorism [show]
Organization[show]
Fighting terrorism[show]
v t e

Origin of term

See also: Terror and State terrorism

Definition

Main article: Definition of terrorism

Stamp of Azerbaijan with "Stop Terrorism!" description

"The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination."^[1]

"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them."^[23]

Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted:

It is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. In the first edition of his magisterial survey, 'Political Terrorism: A Research Guide,' Alex Schmid devoted more than a hundred pages to examining more than a hundred different definition of terrorism in an effort to discover a broadly acceptable, reasonably comprehensive explication of the word. Four years and a second edition later, Schimd was no closer to the goal of his quest, conceding in the first sentence of the revised volume that the “search for an adequate definition is still on” Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his monumental work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt.”^[24]

Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that:

The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is :

ineluctably political in aims and motives

violent – or, equally important, threatens violence

designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target

conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and

perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.^[25]

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states."^[26]

Oslo, Norway immediately after the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway perpetrated by Anders Behring Breivik.

A collection of photographs of those killed during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Pejorative use

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.^[49]^[50]^[51]

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.^[61]

Types of terrorism

A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983

Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed and 130 were wounded by a Hamas suicide bomber.

Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.^[75] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

Several sources^[79]^[80]^[81] have further defined the typology of terrorism:

Political terrorism
- Sub-state terrorism
  - Social revolutionary terrorism
  - Nationalist-separatist terrorism
  - Religious extremist terrorism
    - Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
    - New religions terrorism
  - Right-wing terrorism
  - Left-wing terrorism
  - Single-issue terrorism
- State-sponsored terrorism
- Regime or state terrorism
Criminal terrorism
Pathological terrorism

Motivation of terrorists

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Demonstration in Madrid against ETA, January 2000. Roughly a million people met there.

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism

Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Some 35,000 Pakistanis have died from terrorist attacks in recent years.^[95]

Perpetrators

Terrorist groups

There is speculation that anthrax mailed inside letters to U.S. politicians was the work of a lone wolf terrorist.

Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

—Derrick Jensen^[102]

This terrified baby was almost the only human being left alive in Shanghai's South Station after brutal Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937

Some theorists suggest genocide is a type of terrorism as committed by Adolf Hitler.^{[citation needed]}

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism

The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920 killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
Imposition of a particular form of government
Economic deprivation of a population
Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
Religious fanaticism

Responses

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:

Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
Preemptive or reactive military action
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
Preemptive humanitarian activities
More permissive interrogation and detention policies

Mass media

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

—Novelist William Gibson^[126]

History

Main article: History of terrorism

Number of terrorist incidents 2010

Terrorism databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism:

Human Security Gateway

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

References

^ ^a ^b Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002.
^ Thalif Deen. "POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism", Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005.
^ Heinrich Böll, Fürsorgliche Belagerung (Cologne: Kiepenhauer & Witsch, 1979).
^ Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein (1990). Insurgency: The Transformation of Peasant Rebellion, World Politics, 42 , pp 441-465 doi:10.2307/2010510
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. P. 32. See review in the New York Times "'Inside Terrorism'".
^ Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism". Strategic Studies Institute (SSI). Retrieved 2009-11-11. "The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. This report is cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited."
^ Schmid, Alex, and Jongman, Albert. Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data bases, Theories and Literature, Amsterdam ; New York : North-Holland ; New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988.
^ ^a ^b ^c Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For the next 150 years the word "terrorism" led a double life – a justifiable political strategy to some an abomination to others"
^ Elysa Gardner (2008-12-25). "Harold Pinter: Theater's singular voice falls silent". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 2004, he earned the prestigious Wilfred Owen prize for a series of poems opposing the war in Iraq. In his acceptance speech, Pinter described the war as "a bandit act, an act of blatant state terrorism, demonstrating absolute contempt for the concept of international law.""
^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 3. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
^ Ruby, Charles L. (2002). "The Definition of Terrorism" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
^ ^a ^b "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Kim Campbell (September 27, 2001). "When is 'terrorist' a subjective term?". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "New York Times columnist William Safire wrote that the word "terrorist" has its roots in the Latin terrere, which means "to frighten.""
^ |quote= The French were the first to coin the term, he says.
^ Geoffrey Nunberg (October 28, 2001). "Head Games / It All Started with Robespierre / "Terrorism": The history of a very frightening word". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "In 1792 the Jacobins came to power in France and initiated what we call the Reign of Terror and what the French call simply La Terreur."
^ Robert Mackey (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders."
^ Jeremy Lott (December 5, 2001). "Suicide Blunderers: Terrorists kill selves, blame Jews". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The World Trade Center and Pentagon bombings were an unthinkable masterstroke, producing a media spectacle that rocked the world."
^ ^a ^b Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
^ Arnold, Kathleen R., ed. (September 23, 2011). Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia II. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 461. ISBN 978-0313375217.
^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2008-07-11. "The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community–as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act""
^ Hoffman (1998), p. 32, See review in The New York Times Inside Terrorism.
^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997-2005, p. 47.
^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60 ,"Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism," of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 34.
^ Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2 ed., Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 41.
^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
^ Ronald Bailey (February 6, 2009). "Earth Liberation Front Terrorist Gets 22 Years in Prison for Anti-Biotech Arson". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Marie Mason decided to "elevate her grievances beyond the norms of civilized society" through fire and destruction, U.S. District Judge Paul Maloney said. The case _ which was prosecuted as domestic terrorism ..."
^ Daniel Schorn (June 18, 2006). "Ed Bradley Reports On Extremists Now Deemed Biggest Domestic Terror Threat". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The biggest act of eco-terrorism in U.S. history was a fire ... Animal Liberation Front, whose masked members have been known to videotape themselves breaking into research labs, ..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "...terrorism is meant to produce psychological effects that reach far beyond the immediate victims of the attack."
^ Rick Hampson (2009-07-06). "Statue of Liberty gets her view back". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "On Saturday, the statue, closed above its base since the terror attacks, will reopen to visitors — a relative few, in small groups, specially ticketed, carefully screened and escorted by a park ranger."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
^ Style= (June 12, 2009). "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal"
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
^ Alexander Stille (May 31, 2003). "Historians Trace an Unholy Alliance; Religion as the Root Of Nationalist Feeling". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Now the context in which we see nationalism has completely changed, he said. Faced with the threat of Islamic fundamentalism, the West is more open to looking at the role of religion in the formation of nationalism."
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. 2002-02-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up."
^ "AskOxford Search Results – terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cambridge International Dictionary of English". Dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 1979-10-20. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Barak Mendelsohn (2005-01). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole."
^ 'President Obama calls the Boston Marathon bombings ‘an act of terror’' on Daily News website, viewed 2013-04-17
^ Bob Thompson (May 1, 2005). "Hollywood on Crusade". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... terrorism. He was widely chastised for using a word that carries major negative connotations ..."
^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel.
^ ^a ^b Paul Reynolds, quoting David Hannay, Former UK ambassador (14 September 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter..."
^ ^a ^b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
^ Peter Steinfels (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war..."
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Google cached copy"
^ Bruce Hoffman (1998). "Inside Terrorism". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
^ Raymond Bonner (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". The New York Times: Books. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read, at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror."
^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise.
^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08., 16 June 2003.
^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
^ "President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 2002-01-29. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009), Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.), Harvard University Press, p. 119, ISBN 9780674051348)
^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time Magazine, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”
^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003.
^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in the Times published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member.
^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin".
^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin—to give just three examples—were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman".
^ Beckford, Martin (2010-11-30). "Hunt WikiLeaks founder like al-Qaeda and Taliban Leaders". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ MacAskill, Ewen (2010-12-19). "Julian Assange like a hi-tech terrorist". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Quinn v. Robinson, 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)". web site of the United Settlement. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
^ Zachary E. McCabe (25 August 2003). "Northern Ireland: The paramilitaries, Terrorism, and September 11th". Queen's University Belfast School of Law. p. 17. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved WayBackMachine Dec 01 2007.
^ "Guardian Unlimited style guide". The Guardian (London). 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
^ "BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism". BBC. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976).
^ "13 Beagles Stolen From Researchers". The New York Times. February 2, 1988. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Animal-rights proponents have removed 13 beagles used for medical research ... A campus spokeswoman, Kathy Jones, called the theft a quasi-terrorist act."
^ ^a ^b "TE-SAT 2011 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2011.
^ "TE-SAT 2010 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2010.
^ "TE-SAT 2009 EU TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT". Europol. 2009.
^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.
^ Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahaed in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.
^ Terrorism and homeland security: an introduction with applications, by Philip P. Purpura, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007, ISBN 0-7506-7843-7, p. 16
^ ^a ^b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. ISSN 0162-2889. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives".
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Bruce Hoffman (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The terrorists appear to be deliberately homing in on the few remaining places where Israelis thought they could socialize in peace."
^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
^ "Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks". Time Magazine. July 31, 2009. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Europe's longest-enduring terrorist group. This week, ETA (the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera, the Basque language)"
^ Romero, Simon (March 18, 2009). "Shining Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The Shining Path, a faction of Peruvian militants, has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes. The war against the group, which took nearly 70,000 lives, supposedly ended in 2000. ... In the 1980s, the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets, assassinations and other terrorist tactics."
^ "1983: Car bomb in South Africa kills 16". BBC. 2005-05-20. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "The outlawed anti-apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack ... He said the explosion was the "biggest and ugliest" terrorist incident since anti-government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago."
^ Rick Young (May 16, 2007). "PBS Frontline: 'Spying on the Home Front'". PBS: Frontline. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "... we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post-9/11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy."
^ Yager, Jordy (July 25, 2010). "Former intel chief: Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem". thehill.com.
^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp. 467.
^ "Pakistan: A failed state or a clever gambler?". BBC News. May 7, 2011.
^ Peter Rose (August 28, 2003). "Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Almost everyone Stern interviewed said they were doing God's will, defending the faithful against the lies and evil deeds of their enemies. Such testimonials, she suggests, "often mask a deeper kind of angst and a deeper kind of fear – fear of a godless universe, of chaos, of loose rules, and of loneliness.""
^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0-8122-3808-2.
^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". Retrieved 2009-02-14.^{[dead link]}
^ Steven D. Levitt; Stephen J. Dubner (2009). Superfreakonomics: global cooling, patriotic prostitutes, and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance. William Morrow. pp. 62, 231. ISBN 978-0-06-088957-9. citing Alan B. Krueger, What Makes a Terrorist (Princeton University Press 2007); Claude Berrebi, "Evidence About the Link Between Education, Poverty, and Terrorism among Palestinians," Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper, 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova, "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no. 4 (Fall 2003 / 63.
^ Sean Coughlan (21 August 2006). "Fear of the unknown". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "A passenger on the flight, Heath Schofield, explained the suspicions: "It was a return holiday flight, full of people in flip-flops and shorts. There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn't belong there.""
^ ^a ^b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism.
^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58322-730-X, p. IX.
^ "Pds Sso". Eprints.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror". Un.org. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Lind, Michael (2005-05-02). "The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation". Newamerica.net. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi". Un.org. 2002-01-26. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Michael Stohl (April 1, 1984). "The Superpowers and International Terror". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ ^a ^b Michael Stohl (1988). "Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism". International Studies Association, Atlanta.
^ Michael Slackman (March 22, 2009). "New Status in Africa Empowers an Ever-Eccentric Qaddafi". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Once vilified for promoting state terrorism, Colonel Qaddafi is now courted."
^ "The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... – Article Preview – The". New York Times. 2009-08-02. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ Kisangani, E.; Nafziger, E. Wayne (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405–414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
^ Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [1] [2] [3]
^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?^{[dead link]}, Barbara Harff, 2003.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Detection of Terrorist Financing, U.S. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA), 2002.
^ Jeremy Lott (October 6, 2004). "Tripped Up". Reason Magazine. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "and before the Soviet Union fell, terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments"
^ "Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine". Research and Analysis Branch (Washington: National Archives) 2717 (R & N). 1944-12-01.
^ Nelson, Dean (2009-07-08). "Pakistani president Asif Zardari admits creating terrorist groups". The Daily Telegraph.
^ "Terrorist Financing". The Financial Action Task Force. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^ "Hackers warn high street chains". BBC News. 25 April 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "That's the beauty of asymmetric warfare. You don't need a lot of money, or an army of people."
^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
- Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5). pp. 40–47.
- Pape, Robert A.. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361.
- Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". In Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 978-0-19-927699-8.
Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0-7195-6306-2.
^ Priest, Dana; Arkin, William (July 19, 2010). "A hidden world, growing beyond control". The Washington Post.
^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
^ his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
^ Edmund Burke (1795). "Letter No. IV. To the Earl Fitzwilliam". Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 308–76, 371. Retrieved 2010-01-11. "Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people."
^ ^a ^b ^c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38.
^ Crenshaw, p. 44.

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Terrorism

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Terrorism

UN conventions

United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05. "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention

Terrorism and international humanitarian law

Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross

News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism

Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
Jihad Monitor

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What is Advertising?

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Giant 6x3 video screen ad display courtesy of East Texas Marketing Solutions (ETMS) where the professionals have more than 20 years combined experience in marketing, sales promotion and advertising, Target, Diversify, Enhance. ADVERTISING is mass media content intended to persuade audiences of readers, viewers or listeners to take action on products, services and ideas.

The idea is to drive consumer behavior in a particular way in regard to a product, service or concept.

Definition of advertising

There is not a single generally accepted definition of advertising.

Instead, there are several ways to define it. In summary:

Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from an identified sponsor disseminated through channels of mass communication to promote the adoption of goods, services or ideas.

Any mass medium can deliver advertising. Some random examples:

newspapers, magazines, radio and television broadcasts, films, stage shows, websites,

billboards, posters, wall paintings, town criers, human billboards, flyers, rack cards,

the back of event tickets, elastic bands on disposable diapers, bathroom stall doors,

cars, taxicabs, buses, trains, subway platforms, bus stop benches, street furniture,

airplanes, in-flight seat-back trays, overhead bins, passenger screens, skywriting,

shopping carts, stickers on fruit in supermarkets, supermarket receipts, coffee cups,

mobile phone screens, opening billboards in streaming audio and video.

How is advertising different from public relations?

One simple answer is the advertiser has full control of the message all the way to the audience while the public relations professional has control only until the message is released to media gatekeepers who make decisions about whether to pass it on to the audience and in what form.

Some lingo

Truck ad courtesy of Toxel

Advertisers want to generate increased consumption of their commercial products and services.
Advertising messages are media content paid for bysponsors.
Sponsors finance the production of advertisements and buy space for them in print media or online, or time for them to be broadcast in radio or television programs.
An advertisement is a paid announcement. For example, a persuasive message selling a product.
Advertisements are placed in traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio and outdoor signs, and in new media such as websites, text messages and social media. Placing is the buying of specific space in print and online or time on the air. Placement is where the ad is positioned in a medium.
Branding involves the frequent repetition of a product's name or image in an attempt to have the desirable qualities of that product stick in the minds of consumers.
An Infomercial is a long television commercial of five minutes to an hour in length designed to create an immediate impulse purchase.

Advertising agencies
An advertising agency is a service business that helps client businesses sell goods and services by producing and placing advertisements.
A client is a customer who buys and receives services, help and advice from an advertising professional. Ad agency clients include businesses and corporations, non-profit organizations, educational institutions, government agencies and others.
Non-commercial advertisers, such as charities, political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, governmental agencies and other non-profits, also use advertising to sell their causes and services.
Non-profit or not-for-profit organizations are agencies, institutions or organizations that are not commercially motivated and have no interest in profit. They rely sometimes on paid advertising and most heavily on free messaging, such as a public service announcements, which are not considered to be advertising.
Free media is persuasive information produced by advertising and public relations professionals for publicity purposes and placed in mass media at no cost to the originator. Such PR messaging is not advertising. While there may be production costs, the advertising or public relations professional and the client do not pay a fee for placement of their publicity information in media.
An integrated media campaign combines paid advertising with free media. These also are referred to as integrated marketing communications.

Advertising media
Newspaper and magazine advertising return money for space on their pages. An ad placement can cost from a few dollars for a small display ad in a newspaper up to more than $100,000 for a full page 4-color ad in a magazine. That doesn't include the cost of producing the ad.
Radio and television advertising return money for time on their air. An ad placement can cost from a few dollars for a few seconds on the air at a local radio station up to nearly $3 million for 30 seconds in the Super Bowl telecast. That doesn't include the cost of producing the ad.
Online advertising sells products and services at websites with banner ads, contextual ads, email marketing, spam, social networking couponing, etc. Couponing is the collection of coupons from websites to buy brand-name products at low cost. Banner adson a website could cost $25 a month or less and up to several hundred dollars a month depending on the traffic passing through the site. Traffic is the number of visitors in a period time and the number of pages on the site they visit.
Classified ads are small messages in newspapers, magazines and online grouped together under content listings. Generally, they are the most inexpensive way to advertise.
In-store advertising appears beside product displays and at check-out lines to catch a shopper's eye and promote a purchase.
Billboard advertising is outdoor advertising on large signs that can be seen at a distance.
Global advertising refers to a worldwide advertising campaign to build a brand internationally while speaking with one voice.

Advertising elements
Copy is the text printed or words spoken in an advertisement. Copywriting is the creating and arranging of words for an advertisement.
Artwork includes the Illustrations, photographs, paintings, drawings, graphs and other non-text artistic works prepared for an advertisement.
An ad layout is a rough draft or sketch that shows the general arrangement and appearance plan for a finished advertisement.
Slogans are memorable phrases used in advertising campaigns. The ad agency N.W. Ayer & Son coined some of the best known advertising slogans in history:
- When it rains it pours Morton Salt, 1912
- I'd walk a mile for a Camel R.J. Reynolds, 1921
- A diamond is forever De Beers, 1947
- Reach out and touch someone AT&T, 1979
- Be all you can be United States Army, 1981

First World War, 1914-1918

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Causes of the War

The period before the First World War was one of increasing tension between the European powers. The decay of the Turkish Empire had been the cause of many, with various parts of the Empire snapped up by the major powers, while in the Balkans the Turks had been forced back almost to the gates of Constantinople. A second cause of friction was the perceived decay of the Hapsburg Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary, when the majority of Slavs agitated for either independence, or a greater role in government, while the Austrian and Hungarian elites held out for the statue-quo, led by the elderly Emperor, Franz-Joseph, a force for autocracy and tradition. Austria's main ally was the recently unified Germany, always worried about potential Russian gains as Austria weakened, especially in the Balkans. The Germans were also engaged in a naval arms race with Great Britain, which in turn moved Britain closer to France, and thus to her ally Russia. Despite all of the potential causes of tension, Europe in 1914 looked to be more peaceful than for some years. However, on 28 June 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a Serb terrorist, while visiting Sarajevo. The mood in Austria was already hostile towards Serbia, and now it turned towards war. The Austrians were certain that the Serbian government had been in some way involved in the murder, and while it is not certain how far that was true, the leader of the terrorists was also head of Serbian Intelligence. On 23 July, Austria delivered a note to the Serbia government that, if agreed to, would have almost ended Serbian independence. This was clearly intended to be refused, and in the most it was. On 28 July 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. Now the alliance system swung into play. On 30 July, Russia started mobilisation. In reaction, Germany declared war against Russia on 1 August. On the next day, Germany invaded Luxembourg, and demanded free passage across Belgium. On 3 August, Belgium refused the German demand, Germany declared war on France, and Britain pledged to support Belgium. On 4 August a British ultimatum to Germany was refused, and Britain declared war on Germany, while Germany declared war on Belgium, and launched an invasion of Belgium. Finally, on 5 August Austria declared war on Russia, and the First World War had begun.

The Western Front

1914

German plans for a two front war against France and Russia were based on the Schlieffen Plan, which, relying on the French to attack Germany at once via Alsace and Lorraine, called for a massive German attack through Belgium into northern France, taking Paris and cutting off the French armies, thus winning the war in the west before turning to deal with the slower Russian mobilisation. However, General von Moltke, the German commander, had tinkered with the plan, weakening the strength of the blow on the right wing, and reducing the distance into Germany that the French attack would be allowed to progress. Thus, when the French, as expected, launched their attack (Battle of Lorraine, 14-22 August 1914), they were unable to make any progress, and were even soon in danger themselves. Thus the French armies were further west than the German plan required. Another factor not properly considered in the plan was that Britain would join the war on the violation of Belgium neutrality. The advancing German troops were the first to discover the British Expeditionary Force, a small but professional army, who they encountered at the battle of Mons (23 August 1914), where the British troops took a heavy toll of the Germans before the British were forced to retreat. Nevertheless, the German advance was still going well. However, the French commander, General Joseph Joffre, managed his battle better than Moltke managed his. Reacting to the unexpected German attacks, Joffre adjusted his armies to resist the onrushing Germans, and by the end of August the Schlieffen plan, with its aim of passing west of Paris, had already been abandoned in practice, as the German armies prepared to pass east of the city.

This left the German right flank exposed to any troops that could come out from Paris. From 5-10 September, the French launched their counterattack - the battle of the Marne. By the end of this battle, which included some troops carried to the battlefield by taxi from Paris, the German attack had failed, and they withdrew towards what would become the stable line of trench warfare for most of the war. For the next month, both sides took part in the Race to the Sea (15 September-24 November), each hoping to outflank the other before the line of trenches reached the sea. The final German drive against the Channel Ports was halted by the BEF in the First Battle of Ypres (30 October-24 November 1914), which almost destroyed the BEF, but also prevented the Germans reaching the ports. The trenches now marched from the North Sea to the Swiss border. All mobility was gone from the war on the western Front until 1918.

1915

The second year of the war saw both sides desperate to break through the line of trenches and resume manoeuvre warfare. As the year began, the French were engaged in the First Battle of Champagne (20 December 1914-30 March 1915), a determined attempt to regain the French territory held by the Germans. At the second battle of Ypres (22 April-25 May), the Germans introduced poisoned gas into the war, but despite the initial, horrific, impact of the gas, made very little progress, having failed to provide sufficient support for their new weapon, and for the rest of the year a series of failed attacks followed one after one. On 17 December Field Marshal French was replaced by General Sir Douglas Haig as commander of the BEF.

1916

This year was dominated by two big battles on the Western Front. The town and fortress of Verdun, in French hands, formed a salient into the German lines. Falkenhayn, now German commander, decided to use Verdun to bleed the French dry, and on 21 February began his assault on the fortress (battle of Verdun, 21 February-18 December 1916). For the first few days of the battle, it looked as if Verdun would fall, but Joffre decreed that the city would not fall, and sent General Henri Petain to hold it. While the Germans paused at their first objectives, and Petain was able to move reinforcements of men and equipment into the city. Petain managed to organise a supply line that ran down a single minor road. The fighting was bitter and very costly, costing 542,000 French casualties and 434,000 German. By the time the battle ended, the French had regained almost all of the ground lost in the initial German attacks, while Falkenhayn had been replaced by the team of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, famous after victories in the east, who decided to go on to the defensive in the west.

While Verdun was eating at French strength, it fell to the British to launch the offensive that had been planned for 1916. Accordingly, after a week long artillery bombardment, the British infantry attacked the German lines (battle of the Somme, 24 June-13 November 1916). In the initial assault on 1 July the British army suffered 19,000 killed and 41,000 wounded, still the greatest one day loss in the history of the British army. The battle continued for four months, and did make some advances, including breaking the second German line of defences on 13 July, which allowed the last use of cavalry on the Western Front, and also diverted some German troops from Verdun, but the human cost was appalling. The British took 420,000 casualties, the French 195,000 and the Germans 650,000, mostly in futile counter attacks of their own. While the allies only advanced eight miles during the entire battle, the Germans lost the cream of their experienced small unit officers - the non-commissioned officers, an irreplaceable loss.

1917

The Germans began 1917 by falling back to a new defensive line (known to the allies as the Hindenburg Line), where the front stabilised by 5 April, destroying the territory they were abandoning. The allies gained a boost, with the US declaration of war (6 April 1917), but that would take time to have any effect. In the meantime, the new French commander, General Nivelle, planned a general offensive that, he claimed, would win the war. This started with the Battle of Arras (9-15 April), a minor British victory, best known for the battle of Vimy Ridge (9-13 April), a well planned attack that saw the Canadian Corps fight together for the first time.

Nivelle then launched his main offensive (16-20 April). The Germans were totally aware of Nivelle's plans, indeed he had been boasting about them for some time, and the French attacks were a total failure, and cost 120,000 casualties. The French armies had had enough, and between 29 April and 30 May widespread mutinies broke out in the French army, who refused to take part in any more offensive operations. For two weeks, the French parts of the line were almost without defenders, but a combination of amazing censorship and British attacks in the north stopped the Germans hearing about the weakness until it had passed. Now Haig decided on an attack of his own. On 7 June, after exploding a mine that could be heard in London, the British took the Messines Ridge (battle of Messines, 7 June 1917). This allowed the launch of the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele), 31 July-10 November 1917. This floundered for two reasons. First, the long preparations and bombardment had given the Germans time to build up their defences in great depth. Second was the terrain of Flanders, low lying, and wet at the best of times, days of rain combined with the bombardment had turned the battlefield into a swamp. Men who fell off the paths made above the mud frequently drowned in the mud under the weight of their own kit. Eventually, after capturing Passchendeale the battle was ended, having gained 5 miles at a cost of 300,000 casualties. However, the year ended with the first signs of change. At the battle of Cambrai (20 November-3 December), Haig launched the first major tank assault of the war, with 200 tanks. There was no preliminary bombardment, and surprise was achieved. The tanks made a five mile deep breakthrough along a six mile front, but there was inadequate support, and the Germans were able to seal the breach before any serious damage could be done.

1918

When 1918 opened, change was in the air. The defeat of Russia meant that large numbers of experienced German soldiers were now free to move to the western front, while for the allies an increasing number of American troops were arriving in Europe. The allied plan for the year was to stay on the defensive until American numbers allowed an attack. Ludendorff could see this, and saw Germanys only hope to be a knockout block early in 1918, before the Americans could play a part. Between March and July, Ludendorff launched five great offensives, that threatened to break the allied lines, but never did (Somme, Lys, Aisne, Noyon-Montdidier and Champagne-Marne). The Germans soon found themselves launching attacks with no overall purpose, and struggling to advance over land they had themselves devastated in 1917. By July, the German attacks had ground to a halt, and the mood in the German command was one of great despondency. Meanwhile, the allies had finally put a combined command in place, under Ferdinand Foch, allowing for a much more coordinated war. The allies now took the offensive (the Hundred Days). On 8 August, the Amiens Offensive was started, with a short bombardment followed by a combined tank and infantry attack, which forced the Germans back eight miles, in what Ludendorff called the 'black day' of the German Army. In the fighting that followed, the Germans were forced back to the Hindenburg line. In early October, the allies were able to maintain pressure all along the line, taking the Hindenburg line, and forcing the Germans onto the retreat. Although this final stage of the war saw the greatest advances, it also saw some of the fiercest fighting. Now, Germany started to crumble. At home revolution sparked across the country, while at the front resistance crumbled. The first requests for an Armistice came on 6 October, and after negotiations from 7 November, the Armistice was signed on the morning of 11 November, with the fighting to stop at 11 A.M. The war was over.

The Eastern Front

1914

At the outbreak of war, the Germans planned a defensive war against the Russians, with a slow defensive retreat until the French were defeated, and the Germans could turn to deal with the Russians. In contrast, the Austrians began with an offensive plan based on attacks into Russian Poland. The results were very different. In East Prussia, the Russian First and Second armies made initial progress, although the First Army was temporarily halted at the Battle of Stalluponen (17 August 1914). After a drawn battle (Gumbinnen, 20 August 1914), the German commanders were replaced by General Paul von Hindenburg, with General Erich Ludendorff as his chief of staff. First, they moved against the Russian Second Army. At the battle of Orlau-Frankenau (24 August), the Russians were stopped for a day, after which the Germans withdrew, and the Russians advanced to Tannenberg. Two days later, at the battle of Tannenberg (26-31 August 1914), the Russians were encircled, and the entire Second Army surrendered. Now, the Germans moved against the Russian First Army, catching them on 9-14 September at the battle of the Masurian Lakes, although this time the Russians were not encircled, and some of the army escaped.

The Austrian campaign was less successful. The Austrians crossed into Russian Poland on 23 August, but after a series of battles were defeated at Rava Ruska (3-11 September 1914), a decisive Russian victory, which forced the Austrians back some hundred miles, to the Carpathian mountains, well inside the pre-war borders. Alarmed, the Germans moved an army to the Austrian flank, where they campaigned in south west Poland, and after the battle of Lodz (11-25 September) stopped Russian plans to invade German Silesia, the main German source of minerals.

1915

Hindenburg started 1915 with a great winter offensive (January-March), which had limited success. However, the German Spring-Summer Offensive (May-August) was much more successful. Between 2 May and 27 June, the Gorlice-Tarnow breakthrough saw the Russian salient in Poland crumble. Warsaw fell in early August, and by the end of the advance, the Russians had been forced back some three hundred miles, although Grand Duke Nicholas was able to hold his armies together, in return for which he was sacked, and replaced by Tsar Nicholas II in person. At the end of the year, the line had stabilised again, with the winter stopping all fighting.

1916

The main feature of fighting on the eastern front in 1916 was the Brusilov Offensive (4 June-20 September 1916). A planned general Russian offensive failed to take place, but the southern most part, intended as a support attack, did take place. General Brusilov, one of the most capable Russian generals, launched what by the standards of 1916 was a most unorthodox campaign, launched along his entire line, and without the normal massive bombardment. The Austrian troops he was facing were taken totally by surprise, and for a moment it looked as if he could eliminate Austria from the war, but the offensive soon bogged down. His wide front and limited resources meant that Brusilov had nothing with which to follow up his successes, while an increasing number of German troops came to the Austrians aid, and eventually Brusilov was forced backed to his original lines for the loss of 1.4 million casualties.

1917

The eastern front in 1917 was dominated by the Russian Revolution and its aftermath. After the 12 March revolution, the new government pledged to support the allies, but 2 million desertions in March and April alone, combined with the efforts of the Communists to destroy the effectiveness of the army meant that a final midsummer offensive failed. The most important military development of the year was the Riga Offensive of 1 September 1917. This was commanded by General Oscar von Hutier, and saw the first appearance of what became known at Hutier Tactics. These involved abandoning the massive bombardment, replacing it with a short sharp burst of fire followed quickly by infantry attacks, masked by smoke and gas, which stopped enemy strong points being effective. The infantry bypassed any strong points, leaving them for follow up troops, and kept moving, preventing the enemy from reforming. These tactics were used during the 1918 offensives. Meanwhile, events in Russia moved on, and on 7 November the Bolshevik Revolution brought Lenin to power. They immediately sued for peace, and on 15 December signed the Armistice of Brest Litovsk, surrendering vast areas of land to the Germans, and ending the war in the east, although during the negotiations following the Armistice the Germans started an advance east on 18 February, followed rapidly by the peace of Brest Litovsk, which confirmed the terms of Russian surrender.

The Balkans

The war in the Balkans was different in character to most of the rest of the war. Here, instead of long battles of attrition, there were a series of shorter, and normally decisive campaigns with clear results. The whole war had begun with the Austro-Hungarian declaration of war against Serbia on 28 July 1914. Two weeks later, the Austrians launched an invasion of Serbia further west than the Serbs had expected, and caught them by surprise. Even so, the Serb response was so fierce (battle of the Jadar, 12-21 August 1914), that the Austrians were forced to withdraw back into Austria. The Austrians launched another attack on 7 September, and after the Serbs were unable to push them back (battle of the Drina, 8-17 September 1914), were able to take Belgrade (2 December). That was the high point of Austrian success for 1914, and on 3-9 December (battle of Kolubra), the Austrians, trapped against a flooded river, were once again forced out of Serbia. However, a typhus epidemic now swept Serbia, weakening the army, and stopping any new supplies reaching them. However, little happened for nearly a year. It was only when Bulgaria finally joined the war, on the side of the Central Powers, on 14 October 1915, that a new attack of Serbia was launched. In anticipation of this, the Central Powers had launched their attack on 6 October. With Bulgaria in, they had 600,000 men involved, twice as many as Serbia could muster, and by the end of November Serbia was overrun, and the Serbian army engaged in a hazardous retreat over the Albanian mountains towards Salonika, where still neutral Greece had allowed the allies to land an army to aid Serbia. Eventually, the Serbs were taken off the coast by ship to Corfu, while the allied troops in Salonika settled down for a long period of inactivity. Next to get involved was Romania, finally tempted to join the allied side on 27 August 1916, by promises of large territorial gains at Austrian expense. After initial attacks into Transylvania, they found themselves being invaded by German and Bulgarian armies. Bucharest fell on 6 December, and by the end of 1916 the Romanian army found itself in exile in Russia. 1917 saw little fighting, but did see the entry of Greece into the war on the allied side on 27 June 1917, this time with less disastrous effects. Indeed, the entire front stayed quiet until late in 1918. By this time, Bulgaria was in dire trouble, with food shortages affecting even the front line troops facing Salonika, and when the allies launched their attack in September (Battle of the Vardar, 15-29 September 1918), the Bulgarian army collapsed. On 29 September 1918, Bulgaria signed an Armistice, and by the time Austria surrendered, the allies had freed the Balkans and were preparing to invade Hungary.

The Italian Front

Before the war, Italy had been part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria. However, in 1914 Italy remained neutral, claiming that their alliance was only valid if Austria had been attacked, and as Austria had herself started the war this did not count. Both sides then took part in frantic diplomacy in an attempt to gain Italian support. Here the allies had a great advantage, in that all of Italy's demands were at the expense of the Austrians, and so the allies could happily go along with them. The main cause of dispute between Italy and Austria was over the Trentino, a large area populated by Italians, centred on the city of Trent, which butted deep into northern Italy. Thus, on 23 May 1915 Italy joined the war on the side of the allies. The entire Austro-Italian border was mountainous. The only possible areas for fighting were around the Trentino salient, or to the east over the valley of the Izuno. With the Austrians happy to remain on the defensive, the Italians launched an attack on the Trentino as soon as war was declared, but soon came up against Austrian defences that stopped any further advance until very late in the war. The main Italian attacks thus came in the east, where a series of battles of the Izuno gained little ground for great cost (1st-4th Izuno in 1915, 5th-9th in 1916 and 10th Izuno early in 1917. Finally, in 1917 11th Izuno (18 August-15 September 1917) saw the Italians finally make a great advance, causing the Austrians to call on Germany for help. With the aid of German troops, the Austrians launched the battle of Caporetto (12th Izuno) (24 October-12 November), which swept the Italians back for miles, right back to the Trentino salient, before running out of steam. The battle was a disaster for Italy, but the new line soon stabilised, and in 1918 the Germans pulled their troops out of the front, expecting the Austrians to be able to deal with Italy on their own now that the Russian front was won. An Austrian summer offensive failed(Battle of Piave), and Italy launched her own attack (aided by British and French troops) in October (battle of Vittorio Veneto, 24 October-4 November 1918). After initial resistance, the Austrian army collapsed, and the Italians made great progress, before Austria signed an armistice (3 November), ending the fighting on the following day. Despite some apparent successes, the Italian front had bled the Austro-Hungarian Empire dry, and within months the entire edifice had collapsed.

War against Turkey

Turkey joined the war on the side of the Central Powers on 29 October 1914, with a naval bombardment of Russian ports on the Black Sea. This had the immediate effect of denying the allies any access to Russia via the Dardanelles, preventing them from providing serious material aid to their ally. The allies did not take Turkey seriously as a military power, and expected a quick collapse of the 'sick man of Europe'. They were to be disappointed. The Turkish war effort was commanded by Enver Pasha, war minister and vice-generalissimo (under the figurehead of Sultan Mehmet V), only 32 in 1914. The Turkish part of the war was fought on several fronts.

Caucasus

Fighting in the Caucasus was started by the Russians, who crossed the Turkish border and made good progress, before a Turkish counter attack in mid December pushed them back across the border, and then under the personal control of Enver Pasha, further back, before themselves being thrown back by the Russians in the battle of Sarikamish (29 December 1914-3 January 1915), which allowed the Russians to advance into Turkey, although failure to take full advantage led to the appointment of General Nikolai Yudenich, one of the best Russian generals of the entire war. Little significant fighting occurring during 1915, but this period saw the start of the Armenian Deportations which led to the genocide of the Armenians still causing controversy to the present day. It also saw the Russians prepare for their 1916 offensive, which lasted from January-April 1916, and saw the Russians make great advances, moving over one hundred miles inside the Turkish border all along the front, and capturing the port of Trebizond, a great aid to their campaign. A Turkish counterattack in June-August 1916 failed, and fighting ended for the year. In March 1917, the Russian Revolution completely changed the situation, and the Turks were able to divert troops away to deal with other threats. After the November revolution, an armistice was signed between Turkey and Russia, but when the Turks saw the Caucasus throw off Russian rule, they decided to try and regain those areas lost to the Russians in previous wars, and by the middle of September had captured Baku, on the Caspian Sea, giving them control of a great oil producing area. Sadly for the Turks this came just before the Allied victory, and in November 1918 they were forced to withdraw to their original borders.

Mesopotamia (Iraq)

Major-General Charles
Vere Ferrers Townshend

One danger presented by the Turks was that they could disrupt Britain's oil supply from Persia. To prevent this, The India Office sent a force under General John Nixon to secure the head of the Persian gulf, and by the end of November 1914 they had captured Basra. This secured the pipeline, and should perhaps have been the end of this campaign, but Nixon and his subordinate, Major General Charles Townshend, wanted to advance further up the Tigris towards Baghdad. They gained permission to do so, and Townshend was sent up the river, advancing to Kut-el-Amara, well over half way to Baghdad, where he defeated a Turkish army (battle of Kut, 27-28 September 1915) and occupied the city. Townshend wanted to stop here, but now the India office decided on an attack on Baghdad, and from 11-22 November Townshend marched up the river before reaching Ctesiphon, where he was turned back by the Turks (battle of Ctesiphon, 22-26 November 1915), and forced to retreat to Kut, where he was soon besieged by the Turks (7 December 1915-29 April 1916). After three attempts to relief him failed, Townshend was forced to surrender, along with some 8,000 men, remaining in Turkish captivity for the rest of the war. In August, Nixon was replaced by General Frederick Maude. By the end of 1916 he had rebuilt his force, and with 166,000 men started another advance up the Tigris. On 22-23 February 1917 he won the second battle of Kut, on 11 March captured Baghdad and on 27-28 September 1917 after an advance up the Euphrates won the battle of Ramadi (27-28 September 1917), but before he could continue north up the Tigris towards the oilfields of Mosul died of Cholera (18 November 1917). He was replaced by General William Marshall, but no more significant campaigning happened until October 1918, when a successful attempt was made to capture the Mosul oilfields before the war ended, with Mosul itself captured on 14 November 1918, after the end of the war.

Arabia

Perhaps the most famous individual to emerge from this part of the war of T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), the British officer who helped the Arab revolt. In June 1916, Hussein, grand sherif of Mecca, proclaimed the revolt. An attack on Mecca was quickly successful, but the Turkish Garrison of Medina held out until the end of the war. Aided by Lawrence, the Arabs then harassed the Turks in Arabian. By 1918, the Arabs had cut off Medina, and were able to play a major part in General Allenby's final campaigns in Palestine and Syria, taking Damascus themselves. Lawrence resigned at the end of the campaign, in rightful indignation over the mistreatment of the Arabs by the British, who had promised the kingdom of Arabian to a series of candidates. Hussein himself had at one point declared himself King of the Arabs, and been promised the Hejaz (The Red Sea coast of Arabia), but eventually ended up as king of Transjordan.

Egypt and Palestine

The campaign in Palestine developed out of a desire to protect the Suez Canal, the vital artery of the British Empire. In January-February 1915 a Turkish army crossed the Sinai, and even managed to cross the canal before being driven back, and the threat of future attack tied down large numbers of troops. In the first half of 1916, the British extended their defences into the Sinai, and repulsed a major attack on their railhead (Battle of Rumani, 3 August 1916), and by the end of the year had reached El Arish, almost across the desert. On 8-9 January 1917 the battle of Magruntein or Rafa ended the Turkish presence in the Sinai, and left the British free to concentrate on Palestine. After two failed attacks on Gaza (1st Battle of Gaza, 26 March 1917 & 2nd Battle of Gaza, 17-19 April 1917), General Allenbywas placed in command and ordered to take Jerusalem by Christmas. After reorganising the command structure, he won the 3rd Battle of Gaza (31 October 1917), forcing the Turks to retreat. Despite a strong Turkish defence, organised by General von Falkenhayn,Jerusalem fell on 9 December 1917. There he was forced to stop, as his force was weakened to reinforce the Western Front, but in September 1918 he was able to launch another attack. By this point the Turks had put in place a strong defended line, from Jaffa on the coast to the River Jordan, although the British outnumbered them. Keeping his plans secret, Allenby launched a concentrated attack on the coast, burst through the Turkish line, sent his cavalry into the hinterland, and used his infantry to sweep up the remains of the Turkish line (battle of Megiddo, 19-21 September 1918). The resulting pursuit northwards was only ended by the Turkish surrender (30 October 1918).

Gallipoli

The Gallipoli campaign was one of the great military disasters of the war. Control of the Dardanelles, the narrow sea lane connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, was essential if the allies were to get any aid to Russia. With Turkish entry on the side of the Central Powers that access was cut. The initial allied plan was to run a fleet up the Dardanelles to Constantinople and force the passage at gunpoint. This was attempted early in 1915, but the attempt was abandoned on March 18 after three old battleships were sunk by mines, and when probably close to success. A new plan was hatched, this time a landing on the Gallipoli peninsular. The first landings were made on 25 April 1915, but by this time the Turks had had time to improve the defences of the area, and it soon turned into a smaller version of the Western Front. By the end of the year it was clear that the plan had failed, and from November the evacuation began, ending with a perfect evacuation of the last 35,000 men on 8-9 January 1916 without any losses, one of the few well executed elements of the campaign.

The War at Sea

At the start of the war, the public on both sides expected a major naval battle to follow quickly. However, neither navy was overeager for the test. The Germans knew that they had the smaller navy, and would probably lose any test of strength, leaving their coast vulnerable to British bombardment. Meanwhile, the British were aware that a naval defeat would be a disaster with the potential to lose them the war, while a victory would be unlikely to give them victory. The two great battle fleets thus spent most of the war facing each other across the north sea, tensely waiting for a battle.

The Battles

Those battles that did occur tended to confirm the German in their inaction. First was the battle of Heligoland Bight (28 August 1914), which began as an British attempt to stop German patrols, and escalated when the Admiralty sent in Cruisers from the Grand Fleet, and the Germans sent out some of their own Cruisers. The tide stopped any heavier German ships leaving harbour, and they lost three cruisers while the British lost none. This defeat, just off their coast, with the High Seas Fleet powerless, had a significant impact on German thinking, and the Kaiser decided to take a personal veto over any fleet actions. They were lucky to escape without greater loss atDogger Bank (24 January 1915), where a German raid against British patrols was intercepted after naval intelligence learnt of it, and only escaped after British errors. Finally came the battle of Jutland (31 May-1 June 1916), the end of an era in Naval warfare as the last battle where the two battlefleets fought within eyesight of each other and with no airpower intervening. The battle was drawn, further proving to the Germans that they could not hope to defeat the Royal Navy, and maintaining British control of the North Sea, and thus maintaining the naval blockade of Germany.

Blockade of Germany

That Blockade was the most important aspect of allied naval strategy. Starting initial just against Germany, but soon expanded to include all neutral nations known to deal with the Germans, the allied blockade soon caused friction with the United States, who when it suited them could get very annoyed about any restrictions on the actions of neutrals, but that tension faded as trade with the allies made many Americans dependant on an allied victory for financial security. In Germany, the blockade had a slow, but eventually decisive impact within Germany, resulting in shortages of many basic goods, including, by the end of the war, essentials such as coal. One of the factors in the decline of the German army in 1918 was the presence of luxuries long gone from Germany in allies trenches captured in their great 1918 offensives.

Submarine Warfare

The main German answer to the Blockade was Submarine Warfare. From early 1915, German submarines engaged in a blockade of their own against ships in British waters, although with limited effect, and after the sinking of the Lusitania on 7 May 1915, Germany agreed not to attack passenger liners or neutral merchant ships, effectively removing the Submarine from the war. By 1917, Germany was becoming increasing convinced that the U.S. was already supporting the allies, and believing that the Submarine could bring Britain to her knees within months, Germany resumed full, unrestricted Submarine warfare on 2 February 1917. Two months later, provoked by this and the Zimmermann Note, American declared war on Germany. In the meanwhile, the Submarine came close to starving Britain out of the war. Stubbornly refusing to form convoys, the Admiralty left British and allied shipping scattered across the Atlantic, an easy target for the submarines, and losses were horrific, half a million tons sunk in February and 875,000 in April. Eventually, under the pressure of these losses, the allies were forced to use convoys, and they proved to be effective against the Submarine, with their escorts hunting down the submarines, combined with a huge campaign of mining that closed off the channel and also the gap from Scotland to Norway. By the end of 1917 the Submarine menace was over.

The Peace

The peace was never going to be a mild one. Years of devastation, and the huge losses of life saw to that. The Armistice agreement set the tone, and was in all but name a German surrender, with the Germans agreeing to evacuate all occupied territory and Alsace Lorraine, disarm, surrender their navy, and allow three occupied bridgeheads over the Rhine. When the Paris Peace Conference finally started on 18 January 1919, the mood was savage. Even President Wilson, who had been seen as the voice of reason, had been hardened by American losses. The French leader, Clemenceau, wanted to make sure Germany could never again threaten France. Lloyd George, who had already gained Britains pre-war aims before the conference, wanted to ensure a stable and prosperous Europe to aid British recovery after the war. It was Clemenceau who was came clossest to his aims. The Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919), has ever since been seen as overly harsh, but the German demands if they had won would have been more severe, and included the annexation of Belgium and Holland, as well as large chunks of Eastern Europe. The main clauses of the treaty were German admission of war guilt; the loss of her overseas colonies; the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, the Saar to be held by France until a 1935 referendum (when the overwhelming vote was to return to Germany), Schleswig to go Denmark, and most of Silesia to go to the newly reformed Poland; reparations of $56 billion (totally unrealistic), and finally that Germany would be disarmed, with an army of 100,000 men, the navy reduced to a coastal defence force, and no airforce at all. This was a war that saw over eight million military dead, and it is hardly surprising that the victors wished to make sure that Germany could never again threaten the peace of Europe.

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