STUDIO4CIVIL

Civil Engineering Salaries in Architectural Design Field: What You Need to Know

2023-06-03T22:23:00.000+05:30

Civil Engineering Salaries in Architectural Design Field: What You Need to Know

Civil engineering is a diverse field that offers many career opportunities, including working in architectural design. Civil engineers in the architectural design field are responsible for designing and overseeing the construction of buildings and other structures. They work closely with architects and other professionals to ensure that buildings are safe, functional, and aesthetically pleasing. If you're considering a career as a civil engineer in architectural design, it's important to understand the salary expectations and potential earning opportunities.

Salary Expectations for Civil Engineers in Architectural Design

The salary for civil engineers in the architectural design field can vary widely depending on a number of factors, including the engineer's level of education, years of experience, and geographic location. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the median annual wage for civil engineers in the United States was $87,060 as of May 2020. However, this figure can be higher or lower depending on the specific industry and job position.

For civil engineers working in the architectural design industry, the median annual wage as of May 2020 was $88,820, according to the BLS. However, those working in the lowest 10% of the industry earned less than $57,040 per year, while those in the top 10% earned more than $143,250 per year.

Factors Affecting Salary in Architectural Design

As mentioned, there are several factors that can influence the salary of civil engineers in the architectural design field. Here are some key considerations:

1. Education and Experience:

Civil engineers with advanced degrees and several years of experience are often able to command higher salaries.

2. Geographic Location:

The cost of living and demand for civil engineers can vary depending on the region of the country. For example, civil engineers working in urban areas may earn more than those working in rural areas.

3. Industry:

Civil engineers working in specialty areas such as structural or environmental engineering may earn higher salaries than those working in general civil engineering.

4. Employer:

The type of employer can also affect salary. Civil engineers working for government agencies may earn less than those working for private companies.

5. Certifications:

Civil engineers who hold professional certifications such as the Professional Engineer (PE) license may be able to command higher salaries.

Career Advancement Opportunities

Civil engineers in the architectural design field may also have opportunities for career advancement and higher salaries. For example, they may be able to move into management positions, such as project manager or engineering manager. Alternatively, they may be able to specialize in a specific area of civil engineering, such as structural or environmental engineering, which can lead to higher salaries.

Conclusion

Civil engineers in the architectural design field can expect to earn a competitive salary, with the potential for advancement and increased earning opportunities over time. However, it's important to consider factors such as education, experience, and geographic location when evaluating salary expectations. Additionally, civil engineers may have opportunities for career advancement and specialization that can lead to higher salaries. If you're considering a career in civil engineering in architectural design, be sure to research the industry and potential employers to determine the best path for your career goals.

Management || Important facts || various definitions

2021-04-16T09:17:00.002+05:30

Management

Some important facts about management

Father of administrative management Henry Fayol (1916)

Father of scientific management Frederick Winslow Taylor or F. W. Taylor (1911)

Father of modern management Peter Ferdinand Drucker

Father of Personnel Management Robert Owen

Father of Bureaucracy management Weber

Father of economics Adam Smith

Different types of definitions of management given by different experts

• According to Henry Fayol

To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, and to control.

• According to Mary Parker Follet

Management is the art of getting things done through people.

• According to F. W. Taylor

The art of knowledge what you want to do in best and cheapest way.

• According to Peter Ferdinand Drucker

Management is a multipurpose organ that manage a business, manage a manager, and manage work and worker.

• According to Allen

Management is what a manager does.

• According to Donald J. Caugh

Management is the art and science of decision making and leadership.

Brick masonry

2020-10-24T05:00:00.001+05:30

Brick masonry

Introduction

When building unit are constructed with bricks and bounded with the help of mortar are called as brick masonry.

In 1 m^3 cube brick masonry 500 bricks are used.

Technical term used in brick masonry

Stretcher

When brick is laid longer face of brick containing length and height is called as a stretcher.

The course containing parallel to the face of wall is called stretcher course.

Header

When brick is laid them shorter face containing breadth and height is called as header.

The course containing header only are called as header course

Face

The surface of brick on which impression is made are called as face of brick.

Arisers

When the header and stretcher intersect each other the edge form is called as a ariser.

Perpend

The vertical joint separating the brick in either or cross-section direction are known as perpend.

For a good bond the perpend in alternate course should be vertical and in same plumb line.

Lap

The horizontal distance between the vertical in successive course is termed as lap.

For a good bond it should be one-fourth of the length of brick.

Closer

A piece of brick which is cut along its length is called closer.

Types of closer

Queen closer
King closer
Mitred closer
Bevelled closer

Bat

This is a piece of brick work obtained by cutting the brick along its width.

There are following types bat

Half bat
Three quarter bat

Rankine back

Thee termination of in stepped fashion is called as rankine back.

Toothing

The termination of wall in such a fashion that each alternate coarse at the end project outwards is known as toothing.

Bond in brick

Stretcher Bond
Header Bond
English bond and
Flemish Bond
Garden wall bond
Rankine bond
Dutch bond
Brick on edge bond
English cross bond
Facing bond

Stretcher bond

In this type of bond all bricks are arranged such that a stretcher is shown on the face of wall.

It is also called running Bond. It provided generally in half brick wall.

Partition wall, cavity wall, etc.

To obtained the overlap in stretcher bond half bat is provided at starting in each course.

Header Bond

The type of Bond in which all bricks are so arranged such that header is shown on the face of wall, is called as header Bond.

Overlap is obtained by joining three quarter bat in each alternate course.

Overlapped should be equal to half the width of brick.

English bond

In english bond alternate course of header and alternate course of stretcher is provided and to obtained necessary overlap a Queen closer is provided just after the first header of each course.

There are following points used in English bond

Alternate course consists of header and stretcher.

A queen closer is provided just after quoin header.

Overlap is equal to half width of brick.

If the wall thickness is an even multiple of half brick thus same course of a stretcher and header are shown in both back and front of wall.

If the wall thickness is odd multiple of half brick then in front face of wall if a stretcher is shown and in the back header course is shown and vice-versa.

Flemish bond

In this type of bond the header and stretcher are placed alternatively in each coarse.

There are following points in Flemish bond

In every coarse the header and stretcher are placed alternatively.

The queen closer is put next to quoin header in alternate coarse to developed the face lap / overlap.

Every header is centrally supported over stretcher below it.

Flemish bond is divided into two types

Single Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond

Single Flemish bond

It is a type of bond in which at the face of wall both header and stretcher are shown but at the back of wall only stretcher or only header of brick is seen.

The minimum thickness of this bond is one and half brick wall.

Double Flemish bond

The type of a bond in which header and stretcher are placed alternatively in front as well as in back of wall.

The minimum thickness of this bond is one brick wall.

Laying of bricks

The process of placing of brick to construct wall is called as brick laying.

Procedure

STEP - 1

Prepare mortar near the job and place it to the mortar pad and start work.

STEP - 2

Start with corner and lay of dry brick.

STEP - 3

Check it with spirit level or plumb bob.

STEP - 4

Run a line from laid brick to the opposite corner of wall.

STEP - 5

Lay brick meter or so long and check with plumb bob and spirit level.

STEP -6

Fill the space between brick with the mortar

STEP - 7

Proceed this process in each coarse of construction of wall.

Check in laying of bricks

Gauge

In this height of coarse of wall is measured during construction of wall it is necessary that the height of each coarse should be equal at corner and in the middle.

Gauge board is used to measure the height of coarse.

Level

In this spirit level is used to measure / level the coarse of wall.

For exactly level of the coarse of wall the bottom of spirit level touches the face of wall.

Plumbing

In this face of wall is kept vertical by using plumb bob.

Plumb bob is used only one side of wall not on both sides.

Precaution in construction of brick masonry

• The brick face containing frog should be at top face.

• Brick used should be well burnt and uniform in colour and shape.

• Bricks should be wetted before used.

• Brick should be laid in proper bond.

• Mortar used to fill between bricks should be of good quality.

Job layout || Introduction || Principle || Procedure || Classification || Necessity

2020-10-17T05:00:00.071+05:30

Job layout in civil engineering

Introduction

The site layout is the plan of any construction site. In which, showing the different uses of materials and their area in construction. In addition, it explains the relationship with the site to the facilities, materials, etc. located nearby. Meaning whether the materials used in construction are available in that area or not. If it is, then it will take less construction cost. Job layout definition

Job layout

Principle of job layout

There are following principles of job layout.

• There should always be two doors or openings at the construction site to allow easy entry and exit. If for some reason we are unable to provide two openings, then we make a cross over near that opening.

• The General Office should always be given near the main gate

• The warehouse should always be behind the General Office. This makes it easier for workers to carry and bring goods. Another advantage of this is that the observer is easy to maintain. Job layout for construction site

• The site layout design process should take into account the number of temporary facilities required for construction, the size and shape of the site, as well as the construction schedule.

• The following temporary facilities should be available at the construction site like temporary office, cranes, storage areas for materials and equipments, workshops, access roads, rest areas, safety and health facilities, and security features. Job layout plan drawing

• Temporary road should be constructed on the construction site so that materials can be easily exchanged and construction happens quickly.

There are following procedure for doing job layout on the construction site :--

Site clearance

➡️ Site clearance is an important factor to be considered in job layout.

➡️ It is first step for preparing construction site it involves cleaning of stone, vegetation, etc. and removal of soil to reduce level according to propose site.

➡️ It ensures that the site should be free from vegetation and should have a suitable bearing capacity to improve the stability of building.

Preparation of job layout

➡️ A plan in which placing of the site office, medical store, material storage house, labour quarter, and other facilities are properly prepared is called as job layout or site layout.

➡️ The arrangement of process in such that the work is done smoothly and economically where should be proper co-relation for co-ordination among different unit.

➡️ Substructure involves foundation and before construction of it we have to perform various activities such as site clearance, job layout, marking, etc.

Job layout depends upon following factor

Location, Area, and Topography
Method of construction
Type of work and structure

Job layout on the ground

It can be done by two methods are following

Centre line method
Face line method

1. Centre line method

Procedure

From the plan of drawing centre line of wall are calculated and set out on the ground.

STEP - 1

Suppose 1, 2, 3, ........., 11 the center line. These lines are extended 1.5 metres to 2 metres away from the outer edge of the excavation.

STEP - 2

Corners point are marked using peg. Centre lines are marked clearly by stretching rope, and then after it is marked by line.

STEP - 3

Corners point of rooms are checked by diagonal AC, BD, EG, FH.

STEP - 4

Width of excavation is to be marked on the ground by using peg at appropriate position.

STEP -5

Now width of excavation is shown by using line furrow with a spade.

STEP -6

If plan of building is complicated than layout of building is done by using pegs at suitable interval.

Center line method

2. Face line method

Procedure

From the drawing calculate the length of wall exterior to exterior which is called as face of wall.

STEP - 1

Measure the distance on ground with the help of measuring tape and mark it with line.

STEP - 2

The width of wall is then mark on the ground by the help of rope, lime, etc.

STEP - 3

The face line of the wall is extended 2 metres from the face of wall, it is so because during excavation the face line may get disappear.

STEP - 4

For the proper rectangulation of room diagonals where checked, such as AC, BD, EG, FH, IK, & JL.

STEP - 5

If the plan of building is more complicated then use of pegs is according to ground condition.

Face line method

Necessities of job layout

• For continuous supply of material.

• To properly utilize the area available on the construction site.

• To use the material properly and check its waste.

• To provide space for vehicles on the same site.

• To reduce confusion and prevent accident.

Precautions during Job layout

The following precautions should be kept in account when marking layout on the ground.

• Take correct measurement of distance by using steel tape.

• Levelling is done by carefully either by dumpy level or meason level.

• Take correct plumb bob for transferring the point to the ground.

• Mark the correct centre line and phase line on the ground.

Site clearance

Principle of site selection of building

For good planning and development of building the site selection is very important.

• The purpose of building and privacy is important.

• Before site selection one should study by law of local community.

• The purpose of building which is to be constructed is pre-determined.

• The site should be located in fully developed area or fast developing area.

• The site should be situated at elevated place with uniform slope.

• The soil of site should have good bearing capacity.

• The site should be situated in that area where community services like police station, fire station, street cleaning, etc. and amenities services like hospitals, schools, markets, etc. and utilities services like electricity, drainage system, etc are easily available. Job layout

Defects in timber || Introduction || Classification

2020-10-10T05:00:00.082+05:30

Defect in timber

When a good Timber is subjected to any defect it losses following property.

Colour
Strength
Decay
Sound and
Smell

Defect in Timber is divided into five types

Defect due to conversion
Defect due to insect
Defect due to fungi
Defect due to natural forces
Defect due to seasoning

1. Defect in timber due to conversion

This defect is caused when it is converted into different commercial shape and sizes.

There are following types :-

A. Cheap stain

This defect is indicated by signed or mark on finished surface of timber which is formed due to planning machine. Chip mark in timber

B. Torn stain

This defect is formed due to falling of instrument on timber during finishing. This defect is indicated by a small depression on finished surface of timber.

C. Diagonal stain

This effect is formed due to improper sawing in timber. It is indicated by a diagonal mark on straight ground surface.

D. Wane

This defect is indicated by rounded mark on the finished surface of timber. In this defect original bark of timber is present on finished surface.

2. Defect in timber due to insects

This defect is mainly caused due to eating up to by insects. There are following types of defect due to in insects

A. Beetles/Borers

They form fine hole of diameter 2 mm in size. Conversion of timber into powder like substance without affecting top surface of timber. All types of timber get affected by Beatles.

B. Marine borers

They are found in is salty water. They form tunnel of size 25 mm in diameter and 60 mm in length. The timber which is affected by marine borers losses its strength and colour. There is no any timber which has completely immune from attack of marine borers.

C. Termites

These insects are also called as a white ant. It always lives in colony, and very fast in eating away the wood. Makes tunnel in different directions, and usually not disturb outer layer of timber. Few timber like teak, sal, etc. can resist the action of termite.

3. Defects in timber due to fungi

There are following types

A. Blue stain

The sap wood of timber is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain fungi called as blue stain. It causes loss in appearance of wood.

B. White rot

This effect is mainly occurs due to the attack of fungi on the cellulose of timber convert it into white colour.

C. Brown rot

The brown rot is used to indicate decay of timber thus the fungi of certain types attack on cellulose of brown colour.

D. Heart rot

It is the type of defect in which certain type of fungi attacks on the heart wood of timber is called as heart rot.

E. Wet rot

Some fungi cause chemical deposition on timber which converts into powder form. The alternate wet and dry condition favors the development of fungi which ultimately causes wet rot. To prevent the wet rot we can use well seasoned wood or by painting Timber with Coal Tar.

F. Dry rot

Some types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding it converts it into dry powder form called as dry rot. Dry rot occurs when proper ventilation & no free circulation of air is found. When a part of tree is seriously affected by dry rot, the damage portion may be completely removed and remaining portions should be painted with cuso4.

4. Defect in timber due to natural forces

A. Burls

These are formed when a tree is subjected to injury or shocks in its young age. Due to sock irregular projection appears on the surface of timber. This defect is called as burls. It is also known as excrescences. Burls defects in timber

B. Chemical stain

Some trees causes to excrete the chemical and these chemicals ultimately cause stain on the surface of timber is called as chemical stain. Due to chemical stain the appearance of timber may get affected. What are natural defects in timber

C. Knots

This defect is mainly caused due to cut off branches of tree. The portion from which branch is removed receive nourishment from the adjacent stem for long time, and it ultimately results in formation of dark ring called as knots. It is hard and tough.Types of knots in timber

D. Rind Gall

Rind Gall is made up of two words. The first word is rind which means bark and the second word is gall which means abnormal growth. In this defect, a projection is formed on the stem of timber due to improper cutting of branches of tree called as rind gall.

It is rarely found in trees. The part of the timber that is in it is very weak and not durable. And different parts of that timber have different strengths.

E. Druxiness

It is indicated by white decay spot or stain on the surface of timber is called as druxiness.

F. Foxiness

It is indicated by red or yellow colour around the pith towards the outer layer. It generally happens to improper ventilation.

G. Shake

Actually shakes made in timber are cracks which cause high heat, wind, frost at the time of growth of the tree. It is that crack which separate the fibers of wood completely and partially.

It is following types of shakes depending upon their shapes and positions.

Cup shape

• It is circular crack which not whole ring of timber.

Heart shake

• It is crack which extended from centre cross section or Pith towards the outer surface of timber is called as heart shake.

Ring shake

• It is a type of cup shape which covers whole circular ring.

Star shake

• It is a crack which extends from outer edge towards the shape wood.

Radial shake

• It is type of star which is generally find cracks.

5. Defect in timber due to seasoning

Seasoning is the process of removal of moisture from the timber by providing proper ventilation. The moisture content of seasoning wood about 10 to 12% of it dry weight.

There are following types of seasoning defects

A. Bow

The curvature formed along the length wise direction this defect is called as bow.

B. Cup

The curvature formed along the width wise direction this defect is called as cup.

C. Check

Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it does not extend from end to another.

D. Split

The defect in which cracks formed from one end to other end is called split.

E. Twist

These type of defects are formed by twisting of timber during seasoning.

F. Honey combing

Stress is developed in the heart wood during the drying process or seasoning for these stresses, cracks, etc. are created in the form of honey combing texture.Defects in timber

Timber || Introduction || Classification || Properties || Functions

2020-10-03T05:00:00.005+05:30

Timber

Introduction

It is large piece of wood which is used in building, carpentry, and other engineering purpose. The word Timber is derived from the old English word Timberian, meaning to build. Timber is also known as Lumber in the US and Canada.

Timber is a natural construction material that has been used for thousands of centuries. Due to the research being done on Timber in modern times, we can know its properties better. As a result, its production and applications have increased more than ever.What is timber

It is also used in structural purpose as well as interior design because it is a natural material, due to which it is completely eco-friendly, renewable, and recyclable material. Due to being a natural material, its properties look different in different environment or area.

All the wood which is used in construction work is called Timber or Lumber. In other words, we can say that every wood which has minimum yield strength, and which can be changed to standard size is called Timber.

In this blog, we will discuss what is Timber, its different types, its properties and function.

There are three types of timber :-----

Stand timber
Rough timber and
Converted timber

1. Stand timber

The timber contained in a living tree.

Stand Timber

2. Rough timber

The timber which is obtained from after falling of tree.

Rough Timber

3. Converted timber

The timber which is sawn and cut into commercial size.

Converted Timber

Classification of timber

1. Softwood

2. Hardwood

1. Softwood

The softwood species are coniferous and include spruces, pines, and firs. These trees generally retain their needle-like leaves throughout the year. These trees are generally evergreen. Hence, softwood trees are also known as evergreens. Types of timber in civil engineering

Botanically, softwood is also known as gymnosperms. The origin of the word gymnosperms is a Greek word meaning "naked seed". This means that gymnosperms give seeds in cones instead of giving seeds from flowers. Generally these trees are grown in cold climates.

2. Hardwood

The hardwood species are deciduous and include oaks, birches, and maples. They have broad leaves, which they lose in winter.

The hardwoods of the temperate zone are usually weather-based, while most tropical hardwoods retain their leaves throughout the year. Hardwoods mainly consist of large longitudinal cells and complex cell structures.

Difference between softwood and hardwood :--

• The wood from both species is used for structural timber, but softwoods are much more common in Europe due to their greater availability and lower costs.Importance of timber

• Never get confused about the word of both that Softwood does not mean that its timber is soft and hardwood does not mean that its wood is hard because balsa is a hardwood but is softer and less dense than any softwood, whereas pitch pine is a softwood that is very hard and more dense than all hardwoods.

• Softwoods are light in color and hardwoods are dark in color.

• Softwoods are light in weight and hardwoods are heavy in weight.

• Softwoods have resinous structure and hardwoods have close grained structure.

• Softwood is strong to withstand direct tension but weak to withstand compression or shear and the hardwood withstand equally in tension, compression, and shear.

Physical property of timber

Appearance

A good timber should have good look or appearance naturally if it is not it should adopt painting.

Hardness

A good timber should have sufficient hardness, so that it can be resist loss due to friction.

Toughness

A good Timber should be sufficient tough, so that it can resist impact load.

Strength

A good timber should have sufficient strength, so that it can resist compressive force sufficiently.

Fire resistance

Timber is bad conductor of heat. It should resist fire so that a proper duration of time should be their to leave out the fire building. What is the properties of timber

Smell

A good Timber should have a sweet smell. Bad smell of timber indicates its low strength.

Sound

A timber should give ringing sound when stretched.

Shape

A good Timber should be able to retain its shape during cutting, seasoning, etc. It should not wrap, or twist during seasoning.

Working conduction

A good Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw, capable of easily planned, etc.

Defect in timber

A good timber should not have serious effect.

Mechanical properties of timber

Density

The wood substance / unit volume and moisturizing content present in a timber is called density of that timber. In other words, we can say that the timber in which the quantity of wood is more, its density will be more. Characteristics of timber

Density is an important indicator of the properties and strength of timber. The timber which has high density shrinks quickly.

Moisture content

Timber is a hygroscopic material, which means that it exchanges its moisture, which affects its properties.

Moisture content is the most important of all woods factors that affect its strength, properties, and durability.

Temperature

Timber has low co-efficiency of thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity. In other words, we can say that Timber is an excellent heat insulator. Its strength also is depends on thermal properties.

Durability

There is always a risk of different organism attacks on Timber. Fungi use it as their food source. Due to which its strength, durability, appearance, etc. also decreases.

It is very important to have a moisture to produce fungi in timber. If we control the moisture content present in the timber, then we can reduce the damage caused by these organisms.

Apart from this, many insects and pests like termites, white ants, borers, etc. attack on timber and destroy it. So the amount of moisture content in the timber should always be maintained at 20%.

For more information go through below link

Uses of timber

• It is used in frame of a door and window, shutter of a door and window, furniture, like chair, table, bed, etc.

• It is used in manufacturing of musical instruments like harmonium, tabla, drum, flute, etc. What is the use of timber

• It is used in manufacturing of agricultural instruments like axe, plough, etc.

• It was also used in railway sleeper, packing case, etc.

• It is used in construction of formwork, structural component like beam, column, lintel, etc.

• It is used in construction of temporary bridges, boats, etc.

• It is used for decorator purpose like showcases, furniture, etc.

• It is used in the body of making vehicles such as buses, lorries, trains, boats etc.

• It is used for industrial purposes such as making paper, cardboard, wallpaper, etc.

• Timber is an important source of energy. It is used in domestic works such as keeping the house warm, cooking, heating water.Experts believe that 40% of the timber harvested from the forest is used as fuel source.

Mortar || Introduction || Types || Function || Properties

2020-09-26T05:00:00.029+05:30

Mortar

It is a workable paste which is a mixture of sand, cement, lime stone, dust, water, etc.
It is used to bind building blocks such as stone, brick, concrete, etc. together.
It is used to fill the tracks, holds, etc.
In the vast area we use pitch, asphalt, and soft mud and clay as mortar with brick.What is mortar used for
The word mortar originated from the Latin word morterium which means crushed.
Nowadays we use Portland cement to make mortar which is called cement mortar, but in olden times lime was used to make mortar which is called lime mortar.Mortar gun
Lime mortar was used in making special buildings and monuments.

Types of mortar

Cement mortar
Lime mortar
Surkhi mortar
Gauge mortar
Gypsum mortar

1. Cement mortar

The type of mortar in which cement is used as a binding material and sand as fine aggregate with water, called as a cement mortar. Cement mortar ratio and uses

Cement mortar has more strength, and it can be used in water logged area.
Cement mortar is used in large area like masonry works, patching, filling, plastering, floor levelling, repairing damaged concrete, rendering, and development of precast products.
Fine aggregate of 2 mm size is used in cement mortar.
Generally the ratio of cement to sand is 1:2 and 1:6 in the cement mortar, and the ratio of cement to sand depends on what kind of work it is being used in.
Cement and water are set and harden due to a special chemical process called hydration.
There are different types of cement available in market but generally Portland cement is used for masonry works.

2. Lime mortar

The type of mortar in which lime is used as a binding material is called as lime mortar.

The assumption behind using lime mortar was that after it evaporates water and absorb carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere it becomes hard and strong, but it was only theoretically correct. Actually it took a very long time to strengthen.

Lime may be two types :-

A. Fat lime

B. Hydraulic lime

A. Fat lime

The lime which has 95% pure calcium oxide (Cao) and less than 7.5 % clay is called fat lime.

It shrinks to greater extend so, it is used two to three times of volume of sand. It is used in plaster work, painting work, distempering, etc.

B. Hydraulic lime

The lime in which more than 7.5 % clay and remaining pure calcium oxide (Cao) is found called as hydraulic lime.

It is used in mortar in ratio 1:2.
Hydraulic lime has more strength than fat lime.
Fat lime is not used in damp conduction but hydraulic lime may be used in damp conduction.
Hydraulic lime is used in foundation, brick work in super structure, etc.

3. Surkhi mortar

The type of mortar in which surkhi is used as fine aggregate in instead of sand lime / cement is used as a binding material is called as surkhi mortar. Surkhi mortar uses and ratio

Surkhi powder is sieve through I. S. no. - 9 , so that the residue left is not more than 10% .
In England, surkhi are also known as trass or brick-dust.
Surkhi are not used in plastering and pointing because after some time it springs. Mud mortar
It is used only in general work such as foundations and super structures.
Use of surkhi is useful in sea water construction.
It is used in some of the largest dams and mass structures in India in association with cement concrete as an admixture.Advantages and disadvantages of surkhi mortar
This reduces the temperature produced during the formation of mass cement concrete, and also reduced cracking.

4. Gauge mortar

The type of mortar in which cement is used to improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength of lime mortar is called as gauge mortar. Gauged mortar uses and ratio

• The process of mixing cement with lime is called as gauging and mortar obtained called gauge mortar.

5. Gypsum mortar

The type of mortar in which gypsum is used as a binding material, sand as fine aggregate is called gypsum mortar. Gypsum mortar mix ratio

It is also known as plaster of Paris.
It is used in historical or monumental building.
The plaster of paris was used to repair structures.
It was used by the Egyptians in building the pyramid.
It was also used to rebuild the city of Paris.
Gypsum does not form hydrates, due to which it is stable even in water.Gypsum mortar uses

Function of mortars

It is used to fill the gap / cracks in building.
To bind building unit, such as bricks, stone, concrete block, etc. to act as a single unit.
To provide strength to the building unit to resist vertical and horizontal load.
To provide weatherproof property.
Mortar is used to fill the empty space or irregular shape present in the brick masonry or block masonry.
In this, we decorate the brick masonry by mixing different colors or making a pattern.Application of mortar

Properties of mortar

The mortar should have greater adhesion properties, so that, it can joint two or more component strongly. Properties of mortar in masonry
Mortar should be economically.
It should resist penetration of water.
Mortar should be desirable.
It should resist weathering action due to neutral force.
When the mortar is cured, it becomes hard, and takes the form of rigid structures.
The mortar mix should be workable, meaning it can be used easily and can be easily transported to the construction site.
To form joints of pipes.Properties of good mortar
It should be set and hardened easily and quickly to speed up the construction speed.
It should have the ability to develop a designed stress.

Brick

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Brick wall

Brick

• Brick is a material made of clay that is used in a large area.

• It is the core of almost all construction work.

• It is a building material which is used to construct super structure like wall, column, slab, etc. Uses of brick

Sizes of brick

Traditional brick 230 × 114 × 76 cm

Nominal / Standard brick 19 × 9 × 9 cm

Modular brick 20 × 10 × 10 cm

Frog

It is an impression made on the top of the brick. The dimension of frog is 100 mm in length, 40 mm in width, and 10-20 mm in depth.

The purpose of providing a frog is to create good bond between mortars, and bricks on the adjacent layer of course.

Constituents of brick soil

1. Silica

• The brick clay consists silica in 50-60 %.

Function

• Responsible for providing strength and hardness.

• Prevent from shrinkage and cracking.

If it is excess

• Brick becomes hard and brittle in nature.

2. Alumina

• Percentage of alumina present in brick clay is 20-30 %.

Function

• It imparts the plasticity property, so that brick can be easily moulded.

• If it is present in high quantity, makes the brick refractory.

If it is excess

• Cause crack of brick and become to hard on burning.

3. Lime

• The brick clay consists lime in less than 5 %.

Function

• It acts as flux.

• Cause silica to fuse during burning, and bind the brick particles together.

If it is excess

• It forms lumps cause bricks to distort shape.

4. Iron oxide

• The brick clay consists iron oxide in 5 % - 6 %.

Function

• Provide colour

a.) Red cherry - Presence of O2
b.) Dark cherry - Absence of O2

• Improve durability and impermiability

If it is excess

• Change in colour

• Cause efflorescence

5. Magnesia

The brick clay consists magnesia in 1 %.

Function

• Decrease shrinkage
• Impart yellow colour to the brick, when it is in small quantity.

If it is excess

• Causes decay of brick.

6. Other components

• There are some other components of brick clay like CaCO3, mgCO3, etc. present in it. What materials are used to make bricks

Manufacturing of brick

Preparation of clay
Moulding of brick
Drying of brick
Burning of brick

1. Preparation of clay

The manufacturing of How are clay brick made brick is done with the help of soil. First of all, soil is dug out to a depth of 20 cm, and thrown. Now soil is excavated to require depth, and spread on the ground. It is cleared of from stone, pebbles, plastic, roots of vegetation, etc.

The excavated soil is left to the ground for weathering for two, or four weeks. Now the soil is mixed with other ingredients of brick if it is in less quantity with water. In pug mil or by human or cattle.

The process of Kneading of brick mixing clay, water, and other ingredients is known as kneading. And the whole process is called as tempering.

2. Moulding of brick

After preparation of clay moulding of brick is done.

There are two methods of moulding of brick

A. Hand moulding

B. Machine moulding

In hand moulding a mould is made up of wood or steel is used. The size of mould is generally 12% greater than the size of brick. Tempered clay Brick manufacturing process in India is forced into the mould such that it fill the corners of mould and excesses clay is removed. The mould is then lifted, and row of bricks are left on the ground.

When a large number of brick is to be prepare, then machine mould is used.

3. Drying of brick

After moulding of brick drying of brick is done either naturally or artificially.

In natural process the bricks are placed in the sunlight 1 to 2 days for becoming a sufficient hard so that it can handle from one place to another place.

Drying of bricks are also done by placing the brick into the shed with open side.

So that it ensure a free circulation of air. The drying period of bricks varies from 7 to 14 days.

4. Burning of bricks

After drying of bricks burning of bricks is done by using either clamp or kilns.

There are two methods of burning of bricks. Burning process of brick

A. Kilns burning

B. Clamp burning

A. Kilns burning

In this, the temperature is maintained 900 °C to 1100 °C to burn the brick. The efficiency of kilns burning is 90%. In kilns burning brick was burnt for 24 hours, and left 12 days for cooling. These burning is used for mass production of bricks.

B. Clamp burning

In clamp burning the bricks where burnt for 2 to 3 weeks as per requirement. The efficiency of clamp burning is a 60% . The loading period of clamp burning is about 6 months.

Classification of bricks

There are four What are types of bricks types of bricks based on water absorbent at 27 °C in 24 hours.

First class of brick
Second class of brick
Third class of brick
Fourth class of brick

1. First class of brick

These bricks are uniform in shape and size and also uniformly red in colour.

• These bricks have minimum compressive strength 10.5 MPa.

• It should not have a water absorbent more than 20% .

• When bricks are strucked, it produces ringing sound (metallic).

• When it is scratching Types of brick with our nails, it does not produce any mark on the surface of brick.

• Reddish in colour.

2. Second class brick

• These bricks are slightly over burn.

• These bricks have rough surface and generally hard.

• The compressive strength of these bricks are greater than 7 MPa.

• Reddish orange in colour.

• The moisture absorbent of these bricks are less than 22 % .

• When it is strucked together it produces ringing sound (less metallic).

3. Third class brick

• These bricks are slightly under burnt

• The minimum compressive strength of these bricks are 5 MPa. Properties of brick

• The moisture absorbent of these bricks are less than 25% .

• It does not produce metallic ringing sound when strucked together.

• When it is scratching with nail produce mark on the surface of bricks.

• It is light red in colour or reddish yellow.

• It is soft, so that it can break easily.

4. Fourth class brick /Jhamma brick

• These bricks are over burnt, and irregular in shape.

• It gets twisted due to excess fusion & temperature.

• It is dark bluish, and reddish brown in colour.

• These bricks are used as aggregate in construction of flour, road, foundation, etc.

For more information go through 👇 🔗

Accessories of linear measurement

Interpolation of contour

Principle of surveying

Classification of surveying

Special bricks

Squoint brick
Bull nose brick
Pavement brick
Hollow brick
Fly ash brick

1. Squoint brick

• These bricks are manufactured with angular corner.

• It is commonly used in construction of Squoint quions or corner.

2. Bull nose brick

• These bricks are manufactured with rounded corner.

• It is used in construction of circular columns, wall, etc.

3. Pavement brick

• This types of bricks are used in construction of pavement, garden, floor, workshop flour, etc.

• The brick clay consists higher percentage of iron oxide which is responsible for providing strength, and it is sufficient hard.

Pavement brick

4. Hollow / Perforated bricks

• These bricks are also known as cavity bricks.

• It is light in weight and generally one-third weight of normal bricks ,whereas, weight of normal brick is about (3-3.5)kg.

• It is used in partition wall to reduce transmission of heat, dampness, sound, etc.

Hollow bricks

5. Fly ash brick

• Fly ash is the residue which is obtained from combustion of coal.What are constituents of good brick

• Fly ash brick contains fly ash, lime or cement, silica, water, etc. compressed at 28 MPa, and cured with steam for 24 hours.

Interpolation of contour-grade-contour-method-of-contour

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Contouring

Content

Interpolation of contour
By estimation
By arithmetic
By graphical
Grade contour
Procedure for establishing the grade contour on the ground
Methods of contouring
Direct method
Indirect method
Square method
Cross-section method
Tacheometric method

Interpolation of contour

The procedure of spacing the contour equally among plotted the ground point is known as interpolation of contour.Interpolation of contour

The principle of interpolation of contour is based on slope of the ground among two points is homogeneous. There are three methods of interpolation of contour which are as follows:-

By estimation
By arithmetic
By graphical

Grade contour

It is the contour establish on a specific grade or gradient along the hill side.Grade contour in surveying

The line joining the points of equal grades or gradient is termed as grade contour.

Procedure for establishing the grade contour on the ground:-

The grade contour along the hill side can be establishing the following procedure:-

Suppose a grade contour of 1 in 30 is to be established on the ground. The points of grade contour can be marked approximately using abbey level (Clinometer).
By setting the instrument of tripod to all temporary Establishing grade contour adjustments. Take the reading of benchmark of R.L say 100 m as back side reading 0.4 meter, so height of instrument will be 100.4 m.
Therefore, R.L of point (40 m peg intervals in the straight line). Then will be 100.4 - 40/30 =99.067 m. Therefore, to get this R.L on ground, the staff reading should be 100.4 - 99.067 =1.33 m.
Now a staff is held 40 meters away from benchmark (B. M) up & down movement to get 1.33 m readings and then point is marked on the ground with peg.
The above procedure is continue in the same step line, and corresponding points are marked on the ground.
Finally, the line joining all the marked point give us the required great contour of 1 in 30 accurately.

Methods of contouring

There are mainly two methods of locating the contouring :-

Direct method
Indirect method

1. Direct method of contouring

This method is very accurate but slow and complex. In the direct method the contour to the located directly in the field by locating and making a number of points on each contour. In this method a lot of time is wasted in searching the point Indirect Method of contouring of same elevation.

This is suitable for a small area where greater accuracy is required.

Direct method is suitable for hilly area.

2. Indirect method of contouring

This method is generally adopted for all kinds of survey and this method is cheaper, quicker, less complex as compared to direct method.

In this method same guide points are selected along the system of straight line, and their elevations are found. By using the interpolation, contours are drawn by plotting the points which are selected.

Generally there are three methods :-

Square method
Cross - section method
Tacheometric method

1. Square method of contouring

Square method is used when area to be survey is small and ground is not very much undulating. Square method is also termed as aspat level method.

A number of square is formed on the whole area and vary from 5 m to 25 m and side of square hinge on the nature of ground, nature of contour, contour interval, scale of the map, etc.

First of all, by the using of levelling instrument and staff we can calculate the height of the corner of a square. After then corner of the square mark on the ground, and then contour of desired values of drawn by interpolation.

2. Cross - section method of contouring

This method is suitable for narrow areas just like road, railway, canal, etc.

In this method cross-section lines are drawn perpendicular to the center line of area. The spacing of cross-section depending upon the nature of ground, nature of contour, contour interval, scale of map, etc. In general spacing of cross section is taken 20 meters in hilly area and 100 meters in flat area. After this elevation of all points are determined by levelling instrument and staff then contour of desired values are drawn by interpolation.

3. Tacheometric method of contouring

In this case of hilly area the tacheometric method is used.

In a tacheometric method a number of radial lines at the position of points at equal distances are marked. After then R.L of all points are calculated and then desired values of contour lines are drawn.

NOTE :-

This method is a particularly suitable when contour map of hilly area is required.
Number of radial lines are depends upon the nature of ground.

For more information go through below link

Classification of surveying

Accessories of linear measurement

What is field work and field work book

Principle of surveying

Contouring

Some questions related from contouring

1. How many ways to do contouring?

A. One

B. Two

C. Three

D. Four

Correct answer : B. Two

Direct and indirect method

2. Direct method is suitable for

A. Hilly area

B. Plain area

C. Both

D. None of these

Correct answer : A. Hilly area

3. The spacing of cross-section in hilly area is usually

A. 5 m

B. 10 m

C. 15 m

D. 20 m

Correct answer : D. 20 m

4. Contour lines cross valley lines at

A. 30°

B. 45°

C. 60°

D. 90°

Correct answer : D. 90°

5. The points on a contour gradient will have the same elevation

A. True

B. False

Correct answer : B. False

Contouring in surveying

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Contouring

Content

Contour or contour line
Contouring
Contour map
Contour interval
Horizontal equivalent
Contour gradient
Use of contour map
Characteristics of contour map
Contour interval depends upon following factors
Scale of the map
Nature of the ground
The purpose of the map
Time & expense of the field work
Instruments used for measurements of area any plan
Polar planimeter
Digital planimeter

Contour or contour line

An imaginary line which joints the all points of equal elevation on the surface of earth is termed as Contour or contour line.

Contouring

The process of drawing the contour line is termed as contouring.

Contour map

The map showing the all contour lines are termed as contour line.

Contour interval

The constant perpendicular distance between two successive contours is termed as contour interval.

Horizontal equivalent

The shortest horizontal distance between two consecutive contour is termed as horizontal equivalent. It is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.

Contour gradient

The constant slope between two consecutive contour with a horizontal is termed as contour gradient. It is denoted by TanΦ and represented in the ratio of vertical distance to the horizontal distance.

i.e.

tanΦ = Contour interval / Horizontal equivalent

Uses of contour map

The study of general character of the region of the country without visiting the ground.
To decide the most economical section and sides for engineering work such as bridges, canals, reservoirs, etc.
To compute the sufficient cutting or filling of soil for the projects like canals, roads, etc.
To trace (draw) a contour gradient for roads, and railway alignment.
To calculate the water capacity of the reservoirs approximately.

Characteristics of contour map

The following characteristics may be used while reading the contour plan:-

All points in a contour line has a same elevation or height.
When the contour lines are uniformly spaced it indicates a standardized slope. When the control lines are straight, and equal spaced then it indicates an inclined plan surface.
When control lines are widely, it indicates a flat surface and when they run close together it indicates steep slope.
A series of closed control lines on a map indicates a hill if the higher values are inside.
If the higher values of contour lines are outside then a series of closed contour lines on a map shows a valley.
Contour lines across the ridge line and valley lines at right angle.
If the higher values are inside the loop or bent in the contour, it indicates a ridge line and convexity of contour lines are downwards.
If the higher values are outside the loop in the contour line it indicates a valley line and convexity of the contour lines are upwards.

The contour always become closed either within or outside the map.

A contour of a different elevation cannot be cross each other either except in the case of overhanging cliff.

Contour never unites (collapse) to each other except in the case of vertical cliff.

What is surveying and its classification
Principle of surveying and types of scale
Accessories of linear measurement

For more information go through above link 👆

Contour interval depends upon following factors

Scale of the map
Nature of the ground
The purpose of the map
Time & expense of the field work

1. Scale of the map

Contour interval is inversely proportional to the scale of the map that is a large the scale, smaller the contour interval and small the scale, larger the contour interval.

2. Nature of the ground

For flat surface contour interval should be small, and for hilly surface it should be large.

3. The purpose of the map

Contour interval largely depends upon purpose of the map. For small areas and designing work, contour interval is small but for large areas such as roadway, railway, Canals, etc is taken large.

4. Time & expense of the field work

If more time is available contour interval is taken small but if less time is available contour interval is taken large.

Instruments used for measurements of area of any plan

1. Polar planimeter

It is an instrument which is used in surveying to compute the area of any given plan. Planimeter only needs plan drawn on the sheet to calculate the area.

Generally it's very difficult to see the realm of irregular plot. So by using planimeter we will easily calculate the given area of any shape.

There are following parts of planimeter

Tracing arm
Tracing point
Anchor arm
Anchor point
Measuring wheel
Vernier scale
Counting disc
Index mark
Weight & needle point
Adjustable support

2. Digital planimeter

The digital planimeter is a computerized instrument with polar arm and roller. This instrument is used for measure the area of map of any scale.

The digital planimeter is widely used nowadays, it helps in providing the foremost accurate results. Digital planimeter can measure any area with 100 times larger than ordinary planimeter.

This instrument (Contouring) is generally utilized by surveyor's, foresters, geologist, engineers, and architectures.

What is field work / field book and optical square /prism square /cross staff

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Content

Field work
Field book
Single line field book
Double line field book
Instruments used for setting out right angle
Cross staff
Open cross staff
French cross staff
Adjustable cross staff
Optical square
Prism square
Cross staff survey

Field work

The following are the first of equipment required for chain survey

20 m /30 m chain
10 Arrows
3 Ranging rods
Offset rod
Peg (wooden hammer / chalk)
Tape 10 m / 20 m
Pencil, field book
Plumb bob
An instrument for setting out right angle (optical square)

Field book

The notebook within which field measurements are noted is termed as Field book.The size of field book is 20 cm * 12 cm.

There are two types of field book :-

Single line field book
Double line field book

1. Single line field book

In this field book a single line is drawn through the center of the each page. The line represents a chain line, and chainage are written on it. The chainage is recorded with sketch to the bottom page, and it's left or right to the chain line.

Single line field book is used for large project and more detail dimension work.

2. Double line field book

In this field book lines are draw about the 1.5 cm - 2 cm to the middle of each page. The column represents the chain line, and chainage are written in it.

Field book is usually used for ordinary work.

Note:-

The main stations are marked by a triangular shape and tie stations are marked by oval shape.

Instruments used for setting out right angle

There are following instruments which are used for setting out right angle :-

Cross staff
Optical square
Prism square

1. Cross staff

It is an instrument which is made of frame or box having two or more pairs of vertical slits.

There are following types of cross staff:-

A. Open cross staff

It consists of two pairs of vertical slits in which two line of sight cross each other at right angle, for setting out right angle is placed on the survey line in such a way that one pair of slit a ranging rod is bisected and at the same time from another pair of slit rod is bisected. Hence, right angle is setting out.

B. French cross staff

It consists of an octagonal hollow box in which slits are made in the middle of each faces. It may be used for drawing oblique offset 45° and perpendicular offset at 60°.

C. Adjustable cross staff

It is made up of a circular box and provided with some special graduations are made there it is possible to set out any angle with these instrument.

2. Optical square

It is made of a circular box in which three slits are made and it has two plane mirrors which is fixed at 45° angle to each other. First mirror is not fully silvered that is half silvered and another mirror is fully silvered. It's supported the principle of double reflection.

3. Prism square

It is an instrument which is used to set out the perpendicular offset. Prism square is working same as optical square ,but it is differs as in prism square pentagonal prism is used in place of two mirrors. Prism square is also more accurate instrument.

Cross staff survey

It is used for finding the area of the field. For this purpose a chain line is drawn in the middle or center of the field which is divided into a number of triangle and trapezoidals. The instruments used for the cross staff survey are chain, tape, arrow, pegs, ranging rod, offset rod, and cross staff etc.

Accessories of linear measurement

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Accessories of linear measurement

A. Chain
B. Tape
C. Peg
D. Arrow
E. Ranging rod
F. Offset rod
G. Plumb bob

A. Chain

It is a type of linear measurement. It is formed by several links having a fixed length provided with circular ring with handles at both ends with swivel joints.

chain in surveyingSo that, the chain may be turned without twisting. The chain is available in several in numerous different lengths. Generally it's in 5 m,10 m,20 m,and 30 m.

There are following types of chain are as follows :-

Metric chain
Guntor'S chain
Engineer's chain
Revenue chain
Steel band chain

1. Metric chain

The chain in which a reading is taken in metric system is called metric chain. It is generally available in 5 m, 10 m, 20 m,and 30 m. In 5 m and 10 m chain, tally are provided at each one meter length.

It is made up of galvanized mild steel wire.
Handle is made up of brass.
In 20 m, and 30 m chain, tally are provided at each 5 m length and every 1m length ring is provided.

2. Guntor's chain

In this chain, 100 links are attached to form a length of 66 feet and each link length is 0.66 foot. This chain is used in convenience land measure due to following advantages.

10 square chains = 1 Acre

10 chains = 1 Furlong

80 chains = 1 Mile

8 furlong = 1 mile

3. Engineer's chain

The length of this chain is 100 feet. They consist of 100 links. Any link length is 1 foot. Tally are provided at every 10 links (10 feet) and central tally can be round.

4. Revenue chain

The length of this chain is 33 feet and consist of 16 links. Hence, each link will be two and one sixteenth feet. It is mainly used in codastral survey.

5. Steel band chain( Band chain)

It is consist of a steel having width 12 mm to 16 mm and thickness 0.32 mm to 0.66 mm. It is available in length of 20 m,and 30 m.

It has a brass handle at each ends. The readings are marking in meter, decimeter, or centimeter one side.

The steel band is used in projected area where more accuracy is required.

Advantages of chain

They can be ready easily & quickly.
They can with stand wear and tear.
They can be easily repaired in the field.

Disadvantages of chain

They are heavy and take an excessive amount of time to open or fold.
They become longer or shorter because of continuos use.
When the measurement is taken in suspension the chain sag excessively.

B. Tape

It is also linear measuring instrument by which a distance can be measured more accurately than a chain.

Generally it is available in 2 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, 25 m, 50 m, 100 m,and also in feet such as 33 feet, 50 feet, 66 feet, and 100 feet available in market.

There are following types of chain are as follows :-

Cloth or linen tape
Metallic tape
Steel tape
Inver tape

C. Peg

It is used to mark the position of the station or terminal point of a survey line. It is made up of seasoned timber.

Generally upper surface of peg is 2.5 cm square or 3 cm square and 15 cm length tapered at the end. They are driven into the ground with the help of wooden hammer.

D. Arrow

It is made up of steel wire of 4 mm diameter. One end of the arrow is bent into a ring of 50 mm diameter and other end is inserted in the ground. It is used for the counting number of chains.

E. Ranging rod

It is made up of well seasoned straight timber which is used ranging rod and offset rod ranging rods are used forranging rod in surveyingfor ranging the intermediate points in the survey line. Generally it is available in 2 m & 3 m length.

It can be easily inserted in the ground. It is painted in alternative colour/ band of either black or white. Each bands being 20 cm or 0.2 m depend upon ranging rod.

F. Offset rod

It is similar to ranging rod which is used for drawing offset on survey line. It is available in 3 m and alternatively coloured in black & white.

It is painted with iron shoe at one end and provided with notch or hook on the other end.

G. Plumb bob

It is an instrument which is used for transferring the height to the ground. It is also used in centring the theodolite, compass and plane table in survey.

plumb bob in civil engineering

Principle of surveying and scale & its types

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Principle of surveying

There are following types of principle of surveying are as follows

Working from whole to part
Location of a point by measurement from two points reference

1. Working from whole to part

According to this principle , the surveying is to work from whole to part either in plane or geodetic surveying.

First, the whole area is enclosed by main stations, and main station line. The area is divided into a number of parts by forming well condition triangles (30°< α >120°).

The main station lines are measured very accurately with standard chain or tape, then the side of the triangle are measured. The aim of this process is to be prevent accumulation of errors.

During this procedure if there's any error within the measurement of any side of triangle then it will not be affect the whole work. The error will be always detected & eliminated .

2. Location of a point by measurement from two points reference

According to this principle relative position of a point should always be fixed by measurement (linear or angular) from two points of reference through the help of chain, tape, compass, or theodolite.

Let A & B be the two reference points on the ground. The distance of AB can be measured accurately and its relative position C can be plotted on the sheet paper with a suitable scale.

Distance AC and BC can be measured and point C can be plotted by using the chain or tape.
A perpendicular CD can be measured on the reference line AB and length AD and BD are measured. The point C can be plotted with the help of Set Square or cross staff.
The distance AC and BC are not measured but angle BAC & angle ABC are measured with a theodolite or compass survey

What is scale :-

The drawing of objects are not possible to represents the actual length of an object on a drawing sheet paper.

Scale is that the fixed ratio that any distance on the plan with a corresponding distance on the surface. Scale is the generally necessary to draw then to a convenient scale.

There are following types of scales:-

Plane scale
Diagonal scale
Vernier scale
Comparative scale

1. Plane scale

It is used to read only two dimensions successively of such as meter and decimeter.

2. Diagonal scale

It is used to read only three dimensions successively of such as meter, decimeter, and centimeter.

3. Vernier scale

It is used for the measuring fractional part of the smallest division of the main scale.

4. Comparative scale

A scale which is used for common representative fraction (R. F) but read in measure is called comparative scale.

Note:-

Representative fraction (R. F)

It is the ratio of the corresponding distance of a map to the corresponding distance on the ground is known as representative fraction.

Terms used in vernier scale

* Direct vernier

The smallest division of a vernier is shorter than a smallest division of the primary scale.

* Retrograde

The smallest division of a vernier is longer than the smallest division of the primary scale.

* Least count

The ratio of the smallest division on the main scale to the quantity of division on the vernier is known as least count.

Mathematically,

Least count = x/n

Where, x = smallest division on main scale.

n = No. of division on the vernier.

What is surveying and classification of surveying and its classification

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What is surveying?

Surveying is the important topics in civil engineering. In this we have to determine the relative positions between the objects which is on, above or beneath the earth surface. It is done by means of direct or indirect measurement and surveying meaning finally representing them on the sheet of paper with suitable scale which is known as a plan or map. It is done by various equipments like chain, tape, compass, theodolite, tacheometer etc

Object of surveying

The purpose or aim of surveying is to be prepared a map to point out the relative positions of the item on the surface of earth. Types of surveying The map is drawn with the assistance of an appropriate scale. The surveying shows the natural features of a rustic like rivers, forest, hills, valley ,etc and artificial features like dam, reservoirs, roads, railway ,etc.

Uses of surveying :-

Surveying may be used for the following various application are as follows -

To prepare an engineering map while shows the details of engineering Works such as roads, railway, canals, bridges, etc.
Prepare a codastral map showing the boundaries of a field, house, and other properties
To prepare a geological map showing area including the underground resources or different strata in the earth crust.
To prepare an archaeological map including the un-eathening relics of antiquity.
To prepare topographical map which showing rivers, forests, etc.

Classification of surveying

A) Primary surveying

B) Secondary surveying

A) Primary surveying

There are two types of primary surveying :-

1) Plane surveying

The surveying in which the curvature of earth is not taken into consideration is known as plane surveying.

It is carried out over a small area. So the surface of earth is considered plane. The level line is considered as straight and plump bob line is considered as parallel.

All triangles formed by survey line is considered as plane trianges. Generally, area less than 250 kilometre square are treated as a plan.

2) Geodetic surveying

The surveying in which the curvature of earth is taken into surveying mcq question consideration is known as geodetic surveying. It is also known as trigonometry surveying.

All lines lying in the surface are curved and plump bob line intesect each other and the triangles are spherical triangles. This survey extended over a large area (more than 250 kilometre square) I and where degree of accuracy required high.

B) Secondary surveying

According to base on instrument

Chain surveying
Compass surveying
Theodolite surveying
Tacheometric surveying
Plane table surveying
Photographical or aerial surveying

1) Chain surveying

It is type of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field. The principal of chain surveying is triangulation.

2) Compass surveying

It is type of surveying in which the length of survey line is measured by chain or tape and the direction of survey line is measured by compass is known as compass surveying.

3) Theodolite surveying

The theodolite is an accurate instrument which is used for the measurement of vertical angle and horizontal angle.

4) Tacheometric surveying

A branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distance of a point are obtained by angular observations with a tacheometer is known as tacheometric surveying.

5) Plane table surveying

Plane table may be a graphical method of surveying within which the sector observations and plotting proceed simultaneously.

6) Photographic or aerial surveying

It is type of surveying in which camera is used from the helicopter or ground surface is known as aerial surveying.

According to based on method

Triangulation surveying
Traverse surveying

1) Triangulation surveying

It is type of Surveying in which large area is divided into the number of small wells triangles and find out about it is known as a triangulation surveying.

These methods are generally occurs in chain surveying.

2) Traverse surveying

A traverse surveying consists of a series of connected lines with the help of chain or tape and direction are determined by compass or theodolite.

There are two types of traverse surveying

Open traverse surveying
Close traverse surveying

According to based on objects

Geological surveying
Archeological surveying
Military surveying
Mine surveying

1) Geological surveying

It is type of surveying which is related to different strata in the earth crust.

2) Archaeological surveying

It is type of surveying which is used to collect the data related to the relics of antiquity.

3) Military surveying

It is type of surveying which is done for the strategic importance of defense is known as military surveying.

4) Mine surveying

It is type of surveying which is used for the mineral wealth or collecting the information related to mine is called mine surveying.

According to based on the nature of field

Land surveying
Marine surveying
Astronomical surveying

1) Land surveying

It is type of surveying which is done to find out relative positions of any point on the ground.

There are following types of land surveying

City surveying
Codastral surveying
Engineering surveying
Topographical surveying

City surveying

It is type of land surveying which

is done for the construction of street, water supply, sanitary, etc.

Codastral surveying

It is type of land surveying which is done for fixing the property line such as boundaries of a field is called codastral surveying.

Engineering surveying

It is type of land surveying which is done for the construction of engineering works surveying diploma such as roads, railway, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc is called engineering surveying.

Topographical surveying

It is type of land surveying surveying and levelling by nn basak which located the relative positions of natural features such as rivers, hills etc and artificial features such as dam, roads, railway, etc is called topographical surveying.

2) Marine or hydrographical surveying

It is type of surveying which is related to water bodies for the purpose of navigation & harbor is known as marine surveying.

3) Astronomical surveying

It is type of surveying which is done for the determination of relative positions of heavenly bodies such as sun, stars, moon, etc is known as astronomical surveying.