my study ncert notes

MAPS

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GEOGRAPHICAL EPITHETS-WORLD

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America’s Motor City Detroit
Britain of the South New Zealand
China’s Sorrow River Hwang Ho
City of Dreaming Spires Oxford (England)
City of Eternal Springs Quito (S.America)
City of Flowers Cape Town (S.Africa)
City of Golden Gate San Francisco (USA)
City of Magnificient Buildings Washington (USA)
City of Quiet thoroughfares Venice
City of Seven Hills Rome (Italy)
City of Skyscrapers New York (USA)
Cockpit of Europe Belgium
Dark Continent Africa
Emerald Isle Ireland
Empire City New York
Eternal City of Hopes Rome, Italy
Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet)
Garden City Chicago
Garden in the desert Ethiopia
Garden of England Kent (England)
Gate of tears Strait of bab-el-Mandeb
Golden City Johannesburg
Gibraltar of Indian Ocean Aden
Gift of Nile Egypt
Granite City Aberdeen
Hanging Valleys Valley of Switzerland
Hermit Kingdom Korea
Herring Pond Atlantic Ocean
Holy Land Palestine
Human Equator of the Earth Himalayas
Island Continent Australia
Island of Cloves Zanzibar
Island of Pearls Bahrain (Persian Gulf)
Islands of Sunshine West Indies
Kashmir of Europe Switzerland
Key to Mediterranean Gibraltar
Land of Five Seas South West Asia
Land of Lakes Scotland
Land of Golden Pagoda Myanmar
Land of Kangaroo Australia
Land of Golden Fleece Australia
Land of Lilies Canada
Land of Maple Canada
Land of Midnight Sun Norway
Land of Morning Calm Korea
Land of Rising Sun Japan
Land of Setting Sun United Kingdom
Land of Thousand Elephants Laos
Land of Thousand Lakes Finland
Land of Thunderbolt Bhutan
Land of White Elephant Thailand
Loneliest Island Tristan De Gumha
(Mid. Atlantic)
Manchester of Japan Osaka (Japan)
Pillars of Hercules Straits of Gibraltar
Play Ground of Europe Switzerland
Quaker City Philadelphia
Queen of the Adriatic Venice
Roof of the World The pamirs (Tibet)
River in the Sea Gulf Stream
Sickman of Europe Turkey
Sugar Bowl of the world Cuba
Venice of the East Bangkok
Venice of the North Stockholm
White City Belgrade
Windy City Chicago
Workshop of Europe Belgium
World’s Loneliest Island Tristan Da Cunha
Yellow River River Hwang Ho
(China)

AP2 Feed

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SEVEN WONDERS

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SEVEN WONDERS
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
1. The Pyramids of Khufu
2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
3. The Temple of Artem is at Ephesus
4. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
5. The Mausolus at Halicarnassus
6. The Colossus of Rhodes
7. The Pharos (Lighthouse) at Alexandria
SEVEN WONDERS
OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
1. The Colosseum of Rome
2. The Great Wall of China
3. The Porcelain Tower of Nanking, Cahina
4. The Mosque at St.Sophia (Constantinople)
5. The Stonehenge of England
6. The Catacombs of Alexandria
7. The Leaning Tower of Pisa

SEVEN NATURAL WONDERS
OF THE WORLD
1. Mount Everest, on the border of Tibet and Nepal.
2. The Nile River, Egypt.
3. Rio de Janeiro Harbour.
4. Iguassu Falls, Argentina.
5. Yosemite Valley and the Giant Sequioas of California.
6. The Grand Canyon, Colorado River, Arizona.
7. The Northern Lights, especially from Northern
Canada and Alaska.
SEVEN WONDERS OF TODAY
1. The Taj Mahal of Agra, India.
2. The Great Pyramid of Egypt and the adjacent Great
Sphinx of Gizeh.
3. Hagia Sophia, 6th Century, in present day Istanbul.
4. Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy.
5. The Eiffel Tower, Paris.
6. The Washington Monument, Washington.
7. The Empire State Building, New York City.

THE WORLD

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The seasons are due to the change of the Earth’s

position in the course of its revolution about the Sun,

and to the inclination of its axis. The Equator is an

imaginary line drawn round the Earth midway between

the Poles. There are two other lines, namely, Tropic of

Cancer (23½ 'N) and the Tropic of Capricon (23½' S).

The word tropic means, ‘turning place’. The inclination

of the Earth’s axis together with its revolution round the

Sun is the cause of the varying length of day and night in

different parts of the world. On March 21 (Vernal Equinox)

and September 23 (Autumnal Equinox) the Sun is overhead

at the Equator. On these dates, except at the Poles,

(a) days and nights are equal all over the world; and (b)

the Sun rises exactly due east and set exactly due west at

all places on the Earth’s surface. At the Equator itself

days and nights are equal throughout the year. Between

March 21 and September 23, when the North Pole is tilted

towards the Sun, the days are longer than the nights

throughout the Northern Hemisphere and there is

continuous daylight at the North Pole. Similar conditions

are experienced in the Southern Hemisphere and the

South Pole between September 25 and March 21.

Latitude and Longitude:

Latitude is distance, measured in degrees, north or

south of the Equator. Longitude is distance, measured in

degrees, east or west of any fixed meridian. The meridian

passing through Greenwich is numbered 0'. On a globe

the meridians are numbered from 0' to 180'E (East) or W

(West). At the equator the degrees are 69 to 70 miles

apart (25000÷360). Since earth completes one rotation on

its axis in 24 hours, 360 meridians pass under the Sun in

that time. Therefore, 1 degree passes under the Sun every

4 minutes.

International Date Line:

If we travelled westward to a place X on longitude

180o W, the time there would be 12 hours behind

Greenwich time (180 x 4 minutes = 720 minutes = 12 hours).

If we journeyed eastward to a place Y on longitude 180o

E, the time there would be 12 hours ahead of Greenwich

time. Thus X and Y both on 180o have the same time but

The Earth and the Solar System :

The Earth is a member of the Solar System. It is one

of nine major planets revolving round the Sun. Of these,

Mercury and Venus are nearer, and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are farther away from the

Sun than the Earth.

The planets radiate no light of their own, but shine

with that reflected from the Sun. The Sun has a diameter

of 864,000 miles (1,390,000 Kms) and it is 93,000,000 miles

(150,000,000 Kms) from the Earth. The Sun is a star. The

stars, unlike the planets, are self-luminous bodies. The

other stars appear small because they are so far away;

the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is 200,000 times more

distant from us than the Sun.

The Moon is a dead planet. It is about 240,000 miles

(386,000 Kms) from the Earth. The Moon revolves round

the Earth taking approximately 29 days to complete one

round. The phases of the Moon are the result of its

position in relation to the Earth and the Sun.

The Moon’s orbit is ecliptical and inclined at an

angle of 5o to the plane of the Earth’s orbit. This explains

why we do not have a total eclipse of the Sun every time

there is a new moon.

The Earth:

The Earth is a sphere but it is not a perfect sphere.

It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the

equator. The circumference of the earth is approximately

25,000 miles (40,000 Kms).

It rotates on its axis once in every 24 hours, spinning

from west to east. Besides spinning on its axis, it also

moves round the Sun, called the revolution.

Its orbit round the Sun is oval or ecliptical. The

time taken to complete one revolution is approximately

365¼ days or one year. For convenience, one year is

taken as 365 days and the shortfall of ¼ day each

year is made good in the Leap Year which consists of

366 days. The Earth’s axis inclined to the plane of its

orbit at an angle of 66½'.

differ in date by a day (12 hours + 12 hours = 24 hours).

To overcome the confusion that would otherwise arise,

the International Date Line has been established. It runs

along 180o E or W. Westward-bound vessels crossing

the Date Line drop a day from the calendar, while those

going eastward add a day by giving the same date to two

consecutive days. Instead of changing the time exactly

according to change in degrees at the rate of 4 minutes

per degree, certain time zones have been established. All

places in the same area or time zone or time belt, use

what is called Standard Time. Thus we have the

Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T) and the Indian Standard

Time (I.S.T). There are five time-belts in Canada and four

in United States.

The Lithosphere:

The mass of the Earth is generally divided into three

layers, namely, Crust, Mantle and Core. The Lithosphere

is the name given to the outer Crust which is not more

than 10 miles thick. It is made up of a great variety of

rocks, soils, etc.

Rocks:

1. Sedimentary Rocks:These rocks are made up of

deposits laid down on the floor of river beds, lakes

and seas.

Examples:Sand and sandstone, clay, lime stone,

chalk and carbonaceous rocks, such as lignite, coal

and anthracite.

2. Igneous Rocks:These are primary rocks which are

formed by cooling and solidification of molten lava.

When such rocks are poured out on the surface

they are known as Volcanic rocks, e.g. basalt. When

the molten material solidifies at considerable depth,

plutonic rocks are formed, e.g. granite.

3. Metamorphic Rocks:These rocks are formed as a

result of alteration by extreme heat and or pressure

of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Example, slate,

gneiss, schist etc.

Soil:

The upper layers of rocks weather to form the soil.

There are three distinct layers of soil. The uppermost

layer forms the top soil. The second layer is called the

subsoil. The third layer is made up of decomposing and

much-broken rock, known as mantle- rock. The type of

soil depends on a number of factors, namely, climatic

conditions, the nature of the parent rock, relief, vegetation

and the period over which it has been worked by man.

Soils may by broadly classified as (a) Forest, (b) Grassland

and (c) Desert types.

Mountains:

In past geological ages disturbances in the Earth’s

interior have caused crumpling and cracking of the crust.

This has resulted in great upholds forming Fold-

Mountains which are mainly made up of folded strata of

sedimentary rocks, e.g. the Alps, the Rockies, the Andes,

and the Himalayas. The mountain structures worn down

by prolonged denudation are known as Residual

Mountains, e.g. Highlands of Scotland and Scandinavia.

Denudation:

The process known as denudation or the wearing

away of the land is continually going on. The chief causes

of such erosion are (a) changes in temperature; (b) frost;

action of the sea. Steps to combat soil erosion include (i)

terracing; (ii) contour ploughing; (iii) strip cropping (iv)

planting shelter belts of trees; and (v) plugging the gullies

by building small dams etc.

The Atmosphere:

The air is composed mainly of nitrogen (78%) and

oxygen (21%) with small proportions of carbon dioxide,

water vapour and rarer gases like argon and neon.

Atmosphere is 200 miles thick, but nine-tenths of the air

composing it is found within 12 miles, and half within 3½

miles of the earth’s surface. We are concerned mainly

with the lower layer of troposphere. The upper layers in

the ascending order are Stratosphere, Mesosphere and

Ionosphere. Troposphere extends to a distance of about

ten kilometres. Stratosphere is a region extending from

an altitude of about 11 Km to 50 Km above the earth. The

upper part of stratosphere has plenty of ozone which

protects us from the fatal effects of Sun’s ultraviolet

radiation. Mesosphere is the next layer extending from 50

to 80 Kms above the earth. It is a very cold region.

Ionosphere extends from about 60 Kms upwards. It

includes Thermosphere and Exosphere which marks the

outer limits of the earth’s atmosphere.

Wind is air in motion:

The chief cause of wind is difference in atmosphere

pressure. One of the main reasons for differences in

pressure is unequal heating of the air. From the high

pressure belts the air flows outwards to the regions of

low pressure. Owing to the rotation of the earth, the winds

do not blow due north and south, but are deflected. In

this deflection they obey Ferrel’s Law which states, “Any

moving body on the earth surface including a current of

air, tends to be deflected, the deflection being to the right

in the northern hemisphere and to the left in southern

hemisphere.” Land and seabreezed are local winds caused

by the unequal heating of land and water. During the day

the land becomes very much hotter than the sea, with the

result that there is marked low pressure over the land.

Thus the air over the sea flows rapidly loses heat, but the

sea remains warm for a longer time. Thus at night, heavy

cool air blows from the land to take the place of warm air

rising over the sea. The monsoon or seasonal winds may

be regarded as land and sea breezes on a large scale, in

which the time-frame is a year instead of a day. This

phenomenon is to be found in south-east Asia, but is

especially marked in the subcontinent of India. A cyclone

is a portion of the atmosphere in which the pressure is

lowest in the centre. The winds blow inwards in anticlockwise

direction in the Northern Hemisphere. In the

Southern Hemisphere cyclonic winds blow in a clockwise
direction in accordance with Ferrel’s Law. An anticyclone
is a portion of the atmosphere in which the pressure is
highest in the centre. The winds blow outwards in a
clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in
an anti-clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Oceans:
It is estimated that 72% of the surface of the globe
is covered with water. The Pacific, which is the greatest
of all oceans, covers a third of the earth’s surface, its
total area being greater than that of all the dry land.
Atlantic is slightly less than half the size of the Pacific,
yet so many great rivers flow into it that it receives half
the drainage of the world. The other oceans are Indian,
Mediterranean, Antarctic and Arctic. The average depth
of the ocean is 12,500 feet, compared with the average
height of the land which is about 2,500 feet. The greatest
known depth is that of the Marianas Trench in the Pacific,
where a depth of 35,800 feet has been recorded.
Tides:
Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction -
the ‘pull’ of the moon on the earth, sometimes assisted
by and sometimes hindered by the Sun.At new and full
moon, when the Sun, Moon and Earth are practically in a
straight line the attractive force of the Sun increases that
of the Moon. Such high tides are called spring tides.
Weather and Climates:
Weather may be defined as the condition of the
atmosphere at any place at a particular time. The average
weather conditions determine the climate. Humidity,
temperature, elevation, distance from the sea, ocean
currents, atmosphere pressure and prevailing winds
combine to affect the climate of a region.
Humidity:
Humidity, the term used to express the dampness
of the atmosphere, is due to the pressure of water vapour.
Evaporation is the mean by which water is drawn off as
invisible water vapour from oceans, lakes, rivers, etc.,
when the air contains as much water vapour as it can
hold is said to be saturated. When saturated air is cooled,
condensation takes place and some of the water which
form the clouds grow larger, they precipitate i.e., fall to
the earth as rain. The proportion of water vapour in the
air, compared with the maximum it can hold at the same
temperature, is known as Relative Humidity. Dew is
caused by the condensation of water vapour on the cold
ground during the night. The temperature at which such
condensation takes place is called the Dew Point. When
condensation takes place near the surface (and not on
the ground) the result is usually mist or fog. When
condensation takes place at some distance from the
ground, clouds are formed. When water vapour is
condensed at a temperature below freezing point it forms
snow. There are various kinds of clouds. The layer like
clouds often seen on the horizon at sunrise and sunset
are called stratus clouds. The light wispy clouds formed
high in the sky are called cirrus clouds. The heaped up
clouds, looking rather like masses of cotton wool are called
cumulus clouds. The black rain clouds are known as
nimbus.
Temperature:
Of all climatic factors, temperature is the most
important. It affects man’s food, crops, dress and the
type of dwelling he builds. Temperature decreases 1oF
for every 300 feet above the sea-level. This decrease
is largely due to the fact that the rarified air, found
in elevated regions, absorbs less heat than the denser
air at lower levels.

THE EARTH DATA

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Surface Area : 510,100,500 Sq.Kms.
Land Surface : 148,950,800 Sq.Kms.
(29.08%)
Water Surface : 361,149,700 Sq.Kms.
(70.92%)
Equatorial circumference : 40,075 Kms.
Polar circumference : 40,008 Kms
Equatorial radius : 6,377 Kms.
Equatorial Diameter : 1,22,756 Kms.
Polar radius : 6,357 Kms.
Polar Diameter : 12,714 Kms.
Mean distance from the
Sun : 14,95,97,900 Kms.
Period of revolution : 365 days 5 hours 48 mts.
45.51 Sec.
Period of rotation : 23 hrs. 56 mts. 4.091 Sec.
Escape Velocity from
the earth : 11 Km per Sec. (minimum)

SOLAR SYSTEM - STATISTICS

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The solar system consists of the Sun and 9 planets
revolving around it in different orbits. The statistics of
the sun and the planets are given below :
SUN
Age : About 5 Billion years
Distance : 149.8 Million Kms
Diameter : 1,38,400 Kms.
Photosphere temperature : 5,770 K
Core temperature : 150,000,000 K
Absolute visual magnitude : 4.75
Rotation (as seen from the
earth at the equator) : 25.38 days
Rotation (near the poles) : 33 days
The sun consists of 71% of Hydrogen, 26.5% Helium and
2.5% of other elements.
The rays of the Sun take about 8 minutes to reach the
earth.

PLANETS
(1) MERCURY : It is the planet nearest to
the earth.
Average distance
to the Sun : 57.6 Million Kms.
Diameter : 4,849.6 Kms.
Period of revolution : 88 days
Period of rotation : 58 days 15 hrs 30 mts. 34
sec.
(2) VENUS : It is also known as the
Morning Star or the
Evening Star. It is the
brightest of all the
planets.
Diameter : 12,032 Kms.
Period of revolution : 225 days
Period of rotation : 243 days 14mts.
(3) EARTH
Equatorial diameter : 12,756 Kms.
Polar diameter : 12,714 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 149,597,900 Kms.
Period of revolution : 365 days 5 hrs, 48 mts,
45.51 sec.
Period of rotation : 23 hrs 56 mts. 4.09 sec.
LATEST STUDY MATERIALS WITH KEY POINTS
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
(4) MARS
Diameter : 6,755.2 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 225.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 687 days
Period of rotation : 24 hrs 37 mts. 22.663 sec.
(5) JUPITER : This is the largest planet
in the solar system.
Diameter : 141,968 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 772.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 11.9 years
Period of rotation : 9 hrs 50 mts. 30 sec.
(6) SATURN : It was discovered by
Galileo.
Diameter : 119,296 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 1,417.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 29.5 years
Period of rotation : 10 hrs 14 mts.
(7) URANUS
Diameter : 52,096 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 2,852.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 84 years
Period of rotation : 16 hrs 10 mts.
(8) NEPTUNE
Diameter : 49,000 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 4,497 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 165 years
Period of rotation : 18 hrs 26 mts.
(9) PLUTO : This is the coldest and
smallest of all planets. It
is also the most distant
one.
Diameter : 3,040 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 5,865.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 248 years
Period of rotation : 6 days 9 hrs and 18 mts.
MOON : Moon is earth's satellite.
Its period of rotation and
Period of Revolution are
the same. i.e.29.5
days.

human geography question

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1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following statements does not describe geography?
(a) an integrative discipline
(b) study of the inter-relationship between humans and environment

(c) subjected to dualism
(d) not relevant in the present time due to the development of technology.
(ii) Which one of the following is not a source of geographical information?
(a) traveller’s accounts
(b) old maps
(c) samples of rock materials from the moon
(d) ancient epics
(iii) Which one of the following is the most important factor in the interaction
between people and environment?
(a) human intelligence (c) technology
(b) people’s perception (d) human brotherhood
(iv) Which one of the following is not an approach in human geography?
(a) Areal differentiation (c) Quantitative revolution
(b) Spatial organisation (d) Exploration and description
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Define human geography.
(ii) Name some sub-fields of human geography.
(iii) How is human geography related to other social sciences?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) Explain naturalisation of humans.
(ii) Write a note on the scope of human geography.

macroeconomic decision

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who are the macroeconomic decision makers (or ‘players’)?
Macroeconomic policies are pursued by the State itself or statutory bodies like
the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
and similar institutions. Typically, each such body will have one or more public
goals to pursue as defined by law or the Constitution of India itself.

These goals are not those of individual economic agents maximising their private profit or welfare. Thus the macroeconomic agents are basically different from the
individual decision-makers.
Secondly, what do the macroeconomic decision-makers try to do? Obviously
they often have to go beyond economic objectives and try to direct the deployment
of economic resources for such public needs as we have listed above. Such
activities are not aimed at serving individual self-interests. They are pursued for
the welfare of the country and its people as a whole.

Macroeconomics deals with the aggregate economic variables of an economy.
It also takes into account various interlinkages which may exist between the
different sectors of an economy. This is what distinguishes it from
microeconomics; which mostly examines the functioning of the particular sectors
of the economy, assuming that the rest of the economy remains the same.
Macroeconomics emerged as a separate subject in the 1930s due to Keynes.
The Great Depression, which dealt a blow to the economies of developed
countries, had provided Keynes with the inspiration for his writings. In this
book we shall mostly deal with the working of a capitalist economy. Hence it
may not be entirely able to capture the functioning of a developing country.
Macroeconomics sees an economy as a combination of four sectors, namely
households, firms, government and external sector

Trade with the external sector can
be of two kinds
1. The domestic country may sell goods to the rest of the world. These are
called exports.
2. The economy may also buy goods from the rest of the world. These are called
imports. Besides exports and imports, the rest of the world affects the
domestic economy in other ways as well.
3. Capital from foreign countries may flow into the domestic country, or the
domestic country may be exporting capital to foreign countries.

questions

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a. The Soviet political system was based on ___________________
ideology.
b. _________________ was the military alliance started by the USSR.
c. ____________________ party dominated the Soviet Union’s
political system.
d. ______________________ initiated the reforms in the USSR in 1985.
e. The fall of the ____________________ symbolised the end of the
Cold War.

Which among the following is NOT an outcome of the disintegration
of the USSR?
a. End of the ideological war between the US and USSR
b. Birth of CIS
c. Change in the balance of power in the world order
d. Crises in the Middle East

Arrange the following in chronological order:
a. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
b. Fall of the Berlin Wall
c. Disintegration of the Soviet Union
d. Russian Revolution

Which among the following statements that describe the nature
of Soviet economy is wrong?
a. Socialism was the dominant ideology
b. State ownership/control existed over the factors of production
c. People enjoyed economic freedom
d. Every aspect of the economy was planned and controlled by
the State

EQUALITY-1

2011-12-22T10:35:00.000-08:00

INTRODUCTION

Of all the basic concepts of social, economic, moral and political philosophy, none is more
confusing and baffling than the concept of equality because it figures in all other concepts like
justice, liberty, rights, property, etc. During the last two thousand years, many dimensions of
equality have been elaborated by Greeks, Stoics, Christian fathers who separately and collectively
stressed on its one or the other aspect. Under the impact of liberalism and Marxism, equality
acquired an altogether different connotation. Contemporary social movements like feminism,
environmentalism are trying to give a new meaning to this concept.
Basically, equality is a value and a principle essentially modern and progressive. Though the
debate about equality has been going on for centuries, the special feature of modern societies
is that we no longer take inequality for granted or something natural. Equality is also used as
a measure of what is modern and the whole process of modernisation in the form of political
egalitarianism. Modern politics and modern political institutions are constantly subjected to social
pressures to expand opportunities equally irrespective of ethnicity, sexual identity or age. Equality
is a modern value in the sense that universalistic citizenship has become a central feature of
all political ideologies in modern industrial democracies. Again, equality can also be taken as a
criteria for radical social change. It is related to the development of democratic politics. Modern societies are committed to the principle of equality and they no longer require inequality as
automatically justifiable. The principle of equality enunciated by the American and French
revolutions has become the central plank of all modern forms of social change and the social
movements for the reorganisation of societies.

EQUALITY vs. INEQUALITY

Before we discuss the meaning of equality, we must understand that equality is a relative
concept. The demand for equality has always been against the prevailing inequalities of the
times. The existence of social inequalities is probably as old as human society and the debate
about the nature and cause of inequalities is an ancient topic of political philosophy. In classical
Greece, Aristotle in his book Politics distinguished three social classes and noted the significant
difference between citizens and slaves, men and women in terms of rational and civic capacities.
Participation in the Polis was restricted to the citizens only. Similarly, in our Hindu Society,
according to the classical text, the society was divided into four (varnas) categories: Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras. All rights and duties were based upon this classification.
During medieval feudalism, legal privileges were based upon status and birth. In short, different
types of inequalities have been long enduring, giving rise to the notion that inequality is inevitable
in social relations. In fact, the pre-eighteenth century teachings argued that men were naturally
unequal and that there was a natural human hierarchy. Different ideologies justified inequality
on grounds of superior race, ancestry, age, sex, religion, military strength, culture, wealth,
knowledge, etc. According to Turner, inequality is multi-dimensional and the elimination of one
aspect of inequality often leads to the exaggeration of other aspects of social, political and
cultural inequalities. In fact, all human societies are characterised by some form of social
inequalities in terms of class, status, power and gender. While studying the concept of equality,
the contradiction between equality as a general value of modern society and inequality at a
practical level, as a fact of all human societies must be kept in mind.

Struggle for Equality
If inequality has been a universal phenomenon, protest against the inequalities based upon
privileges and birth had also been voiced right from their emergence. Thus in the history of
western political ideas, the doctrine of equality is practically as old as its opposite. For example,
the most prominent star in the Greek philosophy was Zeno who founded the Stoic School and
supported equality among men. The Stoics concluded that all human beings possess reason and
thereby all mankind is differentiated from other animals and is united. Humanity does not admit
of degree. As such all men are equal as men. The Stoic philosophers gave the idea of universal
brotherhood and they were opposed to slavery. The promulgation of the law of the people by
the Roman Empire was another way in which the Romans attempted to give effect to the
principle that all men are equal and as an extension to that, they conferred citizenship both on
the individuals and entire communities. The climax was reached in 212 AD when a notable edict
of Emperior Caracalla conferred citizenship of Rome upon all free inhabitants of the empire.
Similarly, St. Paul said to Gelatians ‘There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor
free, there is neither male or female, for year are one in Jesus Christ’. From the fifth to the
fourteenth century, the demand for equality was a cry against serfdom, medieval gradations or
rank and hereditary nobility and the equality for career opportunities in the church. From the
15th to the 17th centuries, the cry for equality was against the landowners’ status and religious
intolerance and was raised by Puritans, Levellers, doctrine of natural rights and John Locke.
Simultaneously, the movements of Renaissance and Reformation raised a powerful voice against
the legal privileges of the clergy and nobility based upon birth and demanded equality by birth.

ARMS CONTROL TREATIES

2011-12-20T10:28:00.000-08:00

LIMITED TEST BAN TREATY (LTBT)
Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water.
Signed by the US, UK and USSR in Moscow on 5 August 1963.
Entered into force on 10 October 1963.
NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY (NPT)
Allows only the nuclear weapon states to have nuclear weapons and stops others from
aquiring them. For the purposes of the NPT, a nuclear weapon state is one which has
manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1
January 1967. So there are five nuclear weapon states: US, USSR (later Russia), Britain, France
and China. Signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on 1 July 1968.
Entered into force on 5 March 1970. Extended indefinitely in 1995.
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS I (SALT-I)
The first round of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969. The Soviet
leader Leonid Brezhnev and the US President Richard Nixon signed the following in Moscow
on 26 May 1972 – a) Treaty on the limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM Treaty); and
b) Interim Agreement on the limitation of strategic offensive arms.
Entered into force on 3 October 1972.
STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS II (SALT-II)
The second round started in November 1972. The US President Jimmy Carter and the Soviet
leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the Treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms in Vienna
on 18 June 1979.
STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY I (START-I)
Treaty signed by the USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev and the US President George Bush (Senior)
on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 31 July 1991.
STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY II (START-II)
Treaty signed by the Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the US President George Bush (Senior)
on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 3 January 1993.

THE COLD WAR TIMELINE

2011-12-19T10:22:00.000-08:00

1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine
about the containment of communism
1947 - 52 Marshall Plan: US aid for the reconstruction of
the Western Europe
1948 - 49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union and the
airlift of supplies to the citizens of West Berlin
by the US and its allies
1950 - 53 Korean War; division of Korea along the 38th
Parallel
1954 Defeat of the French by the Vietnamese at
Dien Bien Phu
Signing of the Geneva Accords
Division of Vietnam along the 17th Parallel
Formation of SEATO
1954 - 75 American intervention in Vietnam
1955 Signing of the Baghdad Pact, later CENTO
1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary
1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba
Construction of the Berlin Wall
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1965 American intervention in the Dominican
Republic
1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia
1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China
1978 - 89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
1979 - 89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
1985 Gorbachev becomes the President of the
USSR; begins the reform process
1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall; mass protests against
governments in eastern Europe
1990 Unification of Germany
1991 Disintegration of the Soviet Union
End of the Cold War era

Racism, Colonialism and Human Rights

2011-12-18T08:24:00.000-08:00

The issues grouped in this section are close to India’s heart. Foremost among them is the racism— the controversy centred on South Africa’s official policy of racial discrimination. In the very first session of the General Assembly, India took up the matter and mobilised support from the world community to pressure South Africa to end apartheid. India worked hard to build an anti-apartheid coalition in world politics that did not hesitate to launch actions like ban on participation in sports events, ban on participation in international forums and ban on sale of military equipment, to pressurise the White minority government of South Africa. In this context, it is a matter of great satisfaction that in 1993- South Africa declared itself apartheid-free following which a freely elected democratic government assumed power under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, Mahatma Gandhi’s spiritual heir. India is credited for taking up liberation of subject population, i.e. the peoples under the yoke of colonial rule in different parts of the world. Being one of the first to gain freedom after the end of the Second World War, to continue the struggle against colonialism elsewhere is natural to India. The cause of Indonesia for freedom from the Dutch colonialism was one of the first issues India took up in the late 1940s. The freedom fighters in numerous parts of Asia and Africa—Indo- China, Algeria, Angola, Namibia, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Tunisia—looked to India for diplomatic and political support and guidance. During the 1960s, India led the anti-colonial cause by heading the UN Committee charged with speedy implementation of the Declaration on Decolonisation. Statistics speak for themselves: There were nearly 75 crore colonised peoples

when the UN was founded and now only half a crore remain to be decolonised. Most of the
liberated territories have become members of the United Nations taking the tally from the original
figure of 51 to 191 now.
As a democratic country, India is naturally wedded to the cause of human rights like civil rights,
viz. right to life, freedom, to be free from torture or unlawful detention, etc. But India, joined by
nearly the whole of the Third World countries and also the former socialist countries felt that the
civil and political rights would have to be achieved in conjunction with, and are indeed inseparable
from, the economic, social and cultural rights. They go hand in hand, not one at the expense of
the other. Among the political rights, the right to self-determination is among the most controversial
issue. Whether the right is to be applied in the context of foreign, colonial rule in the context of
foreign, colonial occupation, or to be extended to the ethnic, cultural minorities to secede from a
country is among the most hotly debated questions. Another issue is: whether those using violence
to secede from a country could enjoy the protection of rights as freedom fighters, or are to be put
on a different plane as terrorists? Are states accountable to the world outside on account of gross
violation of human rights? Can foreign powers militarily intervene citing human rights violations?
India has taken a tougher, if not conservative, stand in favour of the unity and sovereign authority
of states.

Development
Economic and social development is an issue at the core of human rights debate as well. Again it
is a vital concern that makes India and the United Nations partners. India’s basic position is twofold.
First, economic development is a necessary precondition for peace. World peace can be
durable only when conditions like poverty, hunger, exploitation that breed conflict are alleviated.
Secondly, the newly acquired political independence of most of the erstwhile colonial countries
would be incomplete without the economic and social development. In other words, the
development element of the world order is critical. India devoted considerable energies for the
establishment of scores of UN bodies dedicated for assisting the economically backward nations,
viz. the regional economic commissions, the UN Development Programme, and UN Conference
on Trade and Development. In the 1960s and 1970s, India was in the forefront raising demands
and grievances with regard to unstable prices of agricultural products in the Western export
markets and also the unhelpful terms of trade that worked to the benefit of the rich and industrially
advanced countries. The Third World (also known as the “Group of 77”) came to be identified
as a distinct (though diverse) entity in diplomatic conferences and negotiations. One of the dream
themes of this group that echoed in the UN forums in the 1970s was the establishment of New
International Economic Order based on the principles of democracy, equity, and justice.
Let us also note here that India and other developing countries have promoted a holistic approach
towards development. As per this approach, major problems like environment, population control,
food, human rights, and women empowerment are closely linked to development. For example,
the idea of sustainable development underlines the importance of conserving environment in a
manner that the present generation can make use of the biological resources without denying the
same privileges to the coming generations of humankind. The Earth Summit advocated this
approach; and in that Conference India proposed the setting up of the planet protection fund.
Let us not ignore the setbacks to the efforts of India and other developing countries. The anticipated

dialogue between the developed North and the developing South failed to take place. The
government to government development assistance levels had progressively declined. So was
the case with the resources made available to the development activities of the United Nations
agencies. On the other side, the sharp rise in the debt of the developing countries (standing
currently at some US$ 2,500 billion) was a source of alarm. Nearly 80 developing countries
including India had to turn to the International Monetary Fund for loans to tide over their short
term economic difficulties, but at the same time go through a back breaking regime of
conditionalities.
You need to appreciate the fact that the development activities of the United Nations signify two
things. India has been a major beneficiary of the multilateral development assistance, some of
which have been channelled through UN agencies like the UN Development Programme. Side
by side, as one of the leading lights of the Third World countries in terms of its technical manpower,
India has often contributed in a big way through the UN wings like UNIDO, UNESCO, and
UNDP for the advancement of other developing nations

Committee

2011-12-18T00:30:00.001-08:00

Butler Committee - Relation between Indian states & paramount power

Hurtog Committee - Growth of British India education-its effects

Muddiman Committee - Working of Diarchy as in Montague Chelmsford reforms

Malhotra Committee - Insurance Reforms

Janaki Ram Committee - Security Scam

Ajay Vikram Singh Committee - Faster promotions in Army

Rajinder Sachar Committee 1 - Companies and MRPT Act

Rajindar Sachar Committee 2 - Report on the social, economic and educational status of the Muslims of India.

Jyoti Basu Committee - Report on Octroi abolition.

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee - Recommendations on decentralization system

Sawant Committee - Enquiry on corruption, charges against ministers & Anna Hazare

Chelliah Committee - Eradicating black money

Wanchoo Committee - Tax enquiry

Bhanu Pratap Singh Committee – Agriculture

Agarwal Committee - Nepotism in granting petrol pump, LPG connections

Rangarajan Committee - Reforms in private sector

Naresh Chandra Committee - Corporate governance

Chakravarti Committee - Banking sector reforms

Rekhi Committee - Structure of indirect taxation

G.V.Ramakrishna Committee - Disinvestment in PSU shares

Kelkar Committee 1 - First committee on backward castes

P.C.Hotha Committee - Restructuring of civil services

Justice B.N.Kirpal Committee - 1st chairman National Forest Commission

Godbole Committee - Enron Power Project

J.C.Kumarappa Committee - Congress agrarian Reforms Committee

Swaminathan Committee - Population policy

Rangaraju Committee – Statistics

Wardha Committee - Inquiry on murder of Graham Staines

Vohra Committee - Criminalization of politics

Kelkar Committee 2 - Direct-Indirect Taxes

Alagh Committee - Civil Service Examinations

Abid Hussain Committee - Recommendations on Small scale industries

Narasimham Committee - Banking sector reforms

Chelliah Committee - Tax reforms

Mashelkar Committee - National Auto Fuel Policy

Boothalingam Committee - Recommendations on integrated wages, income and price policy.

Omkar Goswami Committee Industrial sickness

Yashpal Committee - Review of School Education system

Ram Nandan Prasad Committee - Constitution of creamy layers among Backward Castes.

Kelkar Committee 3 - Enquiry on Kargil defense deals.

Saharya Committee - Tehelka tapes

List of Commissions

U.C.Benerjee Commission - Enquiry into Godhra carnage (Railways)

Nanavati-Shah - commission Posy Godhra riots

Palekar Tribunal - Journalist pays reforms

Hunter Commission - Jallianwalabagh massacre

Nanavati Commission - 1984 Sikh riots

Mukherjee Commission - Death/Disappearance of Subhash Chandra Bose

Librehan Commission - Babri Masjid demolition case

Sarkaria Commission - Centre-State relations

Sri Krishna Commission - 1992 Bombay riots

Thakkar Commission - Indira Gandhi assassination case

Phukhan Commission - Tehelka tapes

Malimath Commission - Criminal Justice

Upendra Commission - Inquiry on rape and murder Thangjem Manorama Devi

G.C.Garg Commission - Train accident near Khanna, Punjab

Mandal Commission - Reservation of seats for Backward castes

Kothari Commission - Educational reforms

Thinking about language

2011-12-17T10:57:00.000-08:00

Although this text speaks of factual events and situations of
misery it transforms these situations with an almost poetical
prose into a literary experience. How does it do so? Here are
some literary devices:
• Hyperbole is a way of speaking or writing that makes
something sound better or more exciting than it really is.
For example: Garbage to them is gold.
• A Metaphor, as you may know, compares two things or ideas
that are not very similar. A metaphor describes a thing in
terms of a single quality or feature of some other thing; we
can say that a metaphor “transfers” a quality of one thing to
another. For example: The road was a ribbon of light.
• Simile is a word or phrase that compares one thing with
another using the words “like” or “as”. For example: As white
as snow.
Carefully read the following phrases and sentences taken from the
text. Can you identify the literary device in each example?
1. Saheb-e-Alam which means the lord of the universe is directly
in contrast to what Saheb is in reality.
2. Drowned in an air of desolation.
3. Seemapuri, a place on the periphery of Delhi yet miles away
from it, metaphorically.
4. For the children it is wrapped in wonder; for the elders it is a
means of survival.
5. As her hands move mechanically like the tongs of a machine,
I wonder if she knows the sanctity of the bangles she helps
make.
6. She still has bangles on her wrist, but not light in her eyes.
7. Few airplanes fly over Firozabad.
8. Web of poverty.
9. Scrounging for gold.
10. And survival in Seemapuri means rag-picking. Through the
years, it has acquired the proportions of a fine art.
11. The steel canister seems heavier than the plastic bag he would
carry so lightly over his shoulders.

Sociology Glossary

2011-12-17T10:05:00.000-08:00

Arithmetic progression: See ‘progression - arithmetic’
Assimilation: A process of cultural unification and homogenisation by which newly
entering or subordinate groups lose their distinctive culture and adopt the culture of
the dominant majority. Assimilation may be forced or voluntary, and usually
remains incomplete or blocked where the subordinate or entering group is not
accorded full membership on equal terms. For example, if an immigrant
community is discriminated against by the dominant majority, and is not allowed to
intermarry.
Authoritarianism: A system of government that does not derive its legitimacy from the
people. Not a democratic or republican form of government.
Birth Control: The use of techniques of contraception to prevent conception and birth.
BPO (Business Process Outsourcing): A practice whereby a particular part of the
production process or component of a service industry is contracted out to be
performed by a third party. For example, a telephone company that provides phone
lines and services, may outsource its customer service division, i.e., get another
smaller company to handle all calls and complaints by customers.
Capital: An accumulated fund of investible resources. Usually used for ‘active’ funds,
i.e., funds that are not just being hoarded or saved, but are being held for
investment. Capital seeks to grow, to add to itself – this is the process of
accumulation.
Capitalism: A mode of production based on generalised commodity production, or a
social system where (a) private property and the market have penetrated all
sectors, converting everything including labour power into a saleable commodity;
(b) two main classes exist – a mass of wage labourers who own nothing but their
labour power (their capacity to perform labour), and a class of capitalists who, in
order to survive as capitalists, must invest their capital and earn ever increasing
profits in a competitive market economy.
Checks - positive: A term used by T.R. Malthus to refer to constraints on the rate of
population growth that are imposed by nature regardless of the wishes of human
beings. Examples of such checks include – famines, epidemics and other natural
disasters.
Checks - preventive: A term used by T.R. Malthus to refer to constraints on the rate of
population growth that are voluntarily imposed on themselves by human beings.
Examples of such checks include – postponing marriage; and practicing celibacy or
birth control.
Civil Society: The sphere of society that lies beyond the family but is not part of either
state or market. The arena of voluntary associations and organisations formed for
cultural, social, religious or other non-commercial and non-state collective pursuits.
Class: An economic grouping based on common or similar position in the social relations
of production, levels of income and wealth, life style and political preferences.

Colonialism: The ideology by which a country seeks to conquer and colonise (forcibly
settle, rule over) another. The colony becomes a subordinate part of the
coloniser’s country, and is exploited in various ways for the colonising country’s
gain. Related to imperialism, but involves a more sustained interest in settling
down to live in and govern the colony (i.e., exercising detailed and local control)
rather than (as with imperialism) plundering and departing, or ruling from a
distance.
Commodification (or commoditisation): The transformation of a non-commodity
(i.e., something that is not bought and sold for money in a market) into a
commodity.
Commodity: A good or service that may be bought or sold in the market.
Commodity fetishism: A condition under capitalism under which social relations become
expressed as relations between things.
Communalism: Chauvinism based on religious identity. The belief that religion
supersedes all other aspects of a person’s or group’s identity. Usually
accompanied by an aggressive and hostile attitude towards persons and groups of
other religious (or non-religious) identities.
Community: A general term for any disctinctive group whose members are connected to
each other by consciously recognised commonalities and bonds of kinship,
language, culture and so on. Belief in these commonalities is more important than
actual proof of their existence.
Consumption: Final use of goods and services by people who have purchased them
(consumers).
Democracy: A form of government which derives its legitimacy from the people, and
relies on explicit popular endorsement through elections or other method of
ascertaining the people’s opinion.
Discourse: The framework of thinking in a particular area of social life. For instance, the
discourse of criminality means how people in a given society think about criminality.
Discrimination: Practices, acts or activities resulting in the unjustified exclusion of the
members of a particular group from access to goods, services, jobs, resources,
etc., that are normally accessible to others. Discrimination has to be distinguished
from prejudice, although the two are usually quite closely associated.
Diversity (Cultural Diversity): The presence within the larger national, regional or other
context of many different kinds of cultural communities such as those defined by
language, religion, region, ethnicity and so on. A multiplicity or plurality of identities.
Dominant Caste: A middle or upper-middle ranking caste with a large population and
newly acquired land ownership rights. This combination makes these castes
politically, economically and therefore socially dominant in the countryside in many
regions of India. Dominant castes replace the older castes which exercised
dominance; unlike these earlier castes, these are not ‘twice born’ castes (i.e., not
from the brahmin, kshatriya or vaishya varnas.

Economic anthropology: A subfield of socio-cultural anthropology that studies the entire
range of economies and cultures found in the prehistoric, historic and ethnographic
records, especially non-market economic systems.
Embedded: (As in ‘socially embedded’) Existing within a larger context of society or
culture which ‘frame’ or contextualise the process or phenomenon in question. To
say that the economic institutions are embedded in society is to say that they exist
within society and are able to function because of the background rules and
arrangements made possible by society.
Endogamy: Requires an individual to marry within a culturally defined group of which he
or she is already a member, as for example, caste.
Enumeration: Literally, ‘numbering’; refers to processes of counting and measurement,
specially those relating to people, such as a census or survey.
Epidemic: Derived from the Greek (epi = upon; demos = the people). Refers to a
sudden increase in the rate at which a disease affects the people of a given
geographic area at a specific time. The key factor here is that the rate of incidence
(the number of fresh cases reported per unit of time, such as a day, week, or
month) has to be substantially higher than the ‘normal’ rate. This can be a partly
subjective judgement. If a disease has a high but constant rate of incidence in a
specific geographical area (i.e., there is no sudden increase) it is called an endemic
disease. An epidemic that is not restricted to a given geographical area but is more
widespread (i.e., it is at a national, international or even global level) is called a
pandemic.
Ethnic cleansing: The creation of ethnically homogenous territories through the mass
expulsion of other ethnic populations.
Ethnicity: An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a
common cultural identity, separating them from other groups around them.
Exogamy: Requires the individual to marry outside of his/her own group.
Family: Is a group of persons directly linked by kin connections, the adult members of
which assume responsibility of caring for children.
Fertility: In the context of human population, this refers to the ability of human beings to
reproduce. Since reproduction is primarily a female-centred process, fertility is
calculated with reference to the female population, that is, in the child-bearing age
group.
Gender: In social theory, the term reserved for the socially and culturally produced
differences between men and women. (As different from ‘sex’ which refers to the
physical-biological differences between men and women) Nature creates sexes,
society creates genders.
Geometric progression: See ‘progression – geometric’
Globalisation: A complex series of economic, social, technological, cultural and political
changes that have increased the interdependence, integration, and interaction
among people and economic actors (companies) in disparate locations.

Integration: A process of cultural unification whereby cultural distinctions are relegated
to the private domain and a common public culture is adopted for all groups. This
usually involves the adoption of the dominant culture as the official culture.
Expressions of cultural difference or distinctiveness are not encouraged or
sometimes even prohibited in the public domain.
Jajmani system: Non-market exchange of produce, goods, and services within the
(north) Indian village, without the use of money, based on the caste system and
customary practices.
Jati: The word for caste; a region-specific hierarchical ordering of castes that marry
within their boundaries, pursue hereditary occupations and are fixed by birth. This
is the traditional system, but it has undergone many changes over time.
Kinship: Ties are connections between individuals, established either through marriage
or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives (mothers, fathers,
siblings, offspring, etc.)
Labour power: Capacity for labour; the mental and physical capabilities of human beings
that are used in the process of production. (As different from labour, which is work
performed)
Laissez-faire: (French; literally, ‘let be’ or ‘leave alone’) – an economic philosophy that
advocates free market system and minimal government intervention in economic
matters.
Liberalisation: The process whereby state controls over economic activity are relaxed
and left to the market forces to decide. In general, a process of making laws more
liberal or permissive.
Lifechances: The potential opportunities or possible achievements available to a person
during their life.
Lifestyle: A way of life; more concretely, the specific kinds and levels of consumption that
define the everyday life of particular social groups.
Marketisation: The use of market based solutions to solve social, political, or economic
problems.
Marriage: A socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult
individuals. When two people marry, they become kin to one another.
Minority groups: A group of people in a minority in a given society who, because of their
distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of
inequality within that society. Such groups include ethnic minorities.
Mode of production: In Marx’s historical materialism, a specific combination of forces of
production and relations of production that create a historically distinct social
formation.
Reciprocity: Informal, culturally regulated exchange (trade) of goods and services in a
non-market economy.
Role Conflict: Conflict between the different social roles that the same individual is
expected to play. For example, a working father may experience a role conflict
between his role as a worker and his role as a father or husband.

Monogamy: Restricts the individual to one spouse at a time. Under this system, at any
given time a man can have only one wife and a woman can have only one
husband.
Natal family: The family into which one is born, family of birth. (As different from the
family into which one is married.)
Nation: A community that believes itself to be a community, based on several shared
characteristics such as: common language, geographical location, history, religion,
race, ethnicity, political aspirations, etc. However, nations may exist without one or
more of such characteristics. A nation is comprised of its people, who are the
ultimate guarantors of its existence, meaning and powers.
Nation - state: A particular type of state, characteristic of the modern world, in which a
government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area, and the mass of
the population are citizens who know themselves to be part of a single nation.
Nation-states are closely associated with the rise of nationalism, although
nationalist loyalties do not always conform to the boundaries of specific states that
exist today. Nation-states developed as part of an emerging nation-state system,
originating in Europe, but in current times spanning the whole globe.
Nationalism: Commitment, usually passionate commitment, to one’s nation and
everything related to it. Putting the nation first, being biased in its favour, etc. The
ideology that commonalities of language, religion, history, race, ethnicity, etc., make
the community distinctive and unique.
Prejudice: The holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are
resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice may be either
positive or negative, but the common usage is for negative or derogatory
preconceptions.
Preventive - checks: See ‘checks - preventive’
Productivity of agriculture: The amount of agricultural output (i.e., quantity of
foodgrains or other crops) produced per unit area (e.g., acre, hectare, bigha, etc.).
Increases in productivity refer to increases in agricultural output obtained solely
through changes in the methods of farming and the quality of inputs, but without
any expansion of the cultivated area. Examples of such changes include use of
tractors, fertilisers, improved seeds, etc.
Progression - arithmetic: A series or sequence of numbers that may start with any
number, but where each succeeding number is obtained by adding a fixed amount
(number) to the preceding number. For example: 6, 10, 14, 18 and so on, where 6
is an arbitrary starting point, but 10 = 6 + 4; 14 = 10 + 4; 18 = 14 + 4; and so on.
Progression - geometric: A series or sequence of numbers that may start with any
number, but where each succeeding number is obtained by multiplying the
preceding number by a constant multiple. For example: 4, 20, 100, 500 and so on,
where 4 is an arbitrary starting point, but 20 = 4 x 5; 100 = 20 x 5; 500 = 100 x 5;
and so on.

Reflexive: Literally, turning back on oneself. A reflexive (or self-reflexive) theory is one
that seeks to explain not only the world but also its own operations within the world.
Thus, a reflexive sociology will try to explain sociology itself as a social
phenomenon, along with the other things it seeks to explain. Normally, theories
seek to explain their object, not themselves.
Regionalism: The ideology of commitment to a particular regional identity which could be
based on language, ethnicity and other characteristics in addition to geography.
Relations of production: Relations between people and groups with regard to
production, especially those related to property and labour.
Replacement level: The level of fertility at which the existing generation produces just
enough children to replace itself , so that the next generation is of the same size
(total population) as the current one. This translates to the rule of thumb that a
woman needs to have approximately 2.1 children to ensure that she and her
spouse are ‘replaced’ (the extra 0.1 is required to compensate for the risk of
unforeseen or accidental deaths). In other words, the replacement level of the total
fertility rate is usually said to be 2.1.
Sanskritisation: A term invented by M.N. Srinivas to refer to the process by which middle
or lower castes seek upward social mobility by imitating the ritual and social
behaviour/practices of castes above themselves, usually brahmins or kshatriyas.
Scavenging: The practice of manual cleaning of human excreta and other garbage and
waste products. Still practiced where sewerage systems are not in place. This can
also be a service that the untouchable castes are forced to perform.
Secularism: There are different versions: (a) The doctrine by which the state is kept
strictly separate from religion, i.e., separation of ‘church and state’ as in western
societies. (b) The doctrine by which the state does not discriminate between
different religions and shows equal respect to all. (c) The popular sense of the
anti-thesis of communalism, i.e., an attitude that is not biased in favour of or
against any religion.
Social constructionism: The perspective that emphasises society over nature in
explaining reality. It views social relations, values and interactions – rather than
biology or nature – as being decisive in determining the meaning and content of
reality. (For example, social constructionism believes that things like gender, old
age, famine, etc., are more social than physical or natural.)
Social exclusion: The combined outcome of deprivation and discrimination, which
prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social and
political life of the society in which they live. Social exclusion is structural, i.e., the
result of social processes and institutions rather than individual action.
Son preference: The social phenomenon where members of a community prefer to have
sons rather than daughters, i.e., they value sons more than daughters. The
existence of son preference can be established by observing social behaviour
towards sons and daughters, or by asking people directly about their preferences
and perceptions.

State: An abstract entity consisting of a set of political-legal institutions claiming control
over a particular geographical territory and the people living in it. A set of interlinked
institutions for maintaining a monopoly over the use of legitimate violence in a
specified territorial area. Includes institutions like the legislature, judiciary,
executive, the army, policy and administration. In another sense, the name given
to a regional government within a larger national structure, as in state government
of Tamil Nadu, etc.
Stereotype: A fixed and inflexible characterisation of a group of people.
Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of different segments of society into ‘strata’
or sub-groups whose members share the same general position in the hierarchy.
Stratification implies inequality; egalitarian societies are in theory lacking in strata,
though they may have other forms of sub-grouping which are not arranged in
hierarchical terms.
Stock Market: A market for ‘stocks’ or shares in companies. Joint stock companies raise
capital by selling shares – a share is a specified portion of the company’s assets.
Share holders pay money to own shares in a company, and the company uses this
money to conduct its business. The shareholders are paid dividends, or a share of
the profits made by the company that is distributed according to the number of
shares held by each shareholder. A stock market is the place or mechanism for
the buying and selling of such shares.
Surplus value: Increase in the value of investment, or return to capital; under capitalism,
surplus value is derived from surplus labour, or labour performed that is in excess
of what is needed to equal the wage paid to the labourer.
Syncretism: A cultural phenomenon characterised by the inter-mingling or mixing of
different religions or traditions. A hybrid of two distinct religious or cultural
traditions.
Transgression: The violation of some rule or norm; going beyond socially or culturally
determined rules and customs; breaking a social or cultural ‘law’ (which may not be
a legal or formally written law).
Tribe: A social group consisting of collections of families and lineages (or clans) based
on shared ties of kinship, ethnicity, common history or territorial-political
organisation. Distinguished from a caste in that caste is a hierarchical system of
mutually exclusive castes whereas a tribe is a single inclusive grouping (though it
may have divisions based on clans or lineages).
Untouchability: A social practice within the caste system whereby members of the
lowest castes are considered to be ritually impure to such an extent that they cause
pollution by mere touch. Untouchable castes are at the bottom of the social scale
and are excluded from most social institutions.
Varna: Literally, ‘colour’; a nation-wide version of the caste system dividing society into
four hierarchically ordered varnas or caste groups named – brahmin, kshatriya,
vaishya and shudra.

quicker maths

2011-12-16T06:16:00.001-08:00

ALGEBRA :

1. Sum of first n natural numbers = n(n+1)/2
2. Sum of the squares of first n natural numbers = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
3. Sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers = [n(n+1)/2]^2
4. Sum of first n natural odd numbers = n^2
5. Average = (Sum of items)/Number of items

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.):

An A.P. is of the form a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ...

where a is called the 'first term' and d is called the 'common difference'

1. nth term of an A.P. tn = a + (n-1)d
2. Sum of the first n terms of an A.P. Sn = n/2[2a+(n-1)d] or Sn = n/2(first term + last term)

Geometrical Progression (G.P.):

A G.P. is of the form a, ar, ar2, ar3, ...

where a is called the 'first term' and r is called the 'common ratio'.

1. nth term of a G.P. tn = arn-1
2. Sum of the first n terms in a G.P. Sn = a|1-rn|/|1-r|

Permutations and Combinations :

nPr = n!/(n-r)!
nPn = n!
nP1 = n

nCr = n!/(r! (n-r)!)
nC1 = n
nC0 = 1 = nCn
nCr = nCn-r
nCr = nPr/r!

Number of diagonals in a geometric figure of n sides = nC2-n

Tests of Divisibility :

A number is divisible by 2 if it is an even number.
A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3.
A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4.
A number is divisible by 5 if the units digit is either 5 or 0.
A number is divisible by 6 if the number is divisible by both 2 and 3.
A number is divisible by 8 if the number formed by the last three digits is divisible by 8.
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
A number is divisible by 10 if the units digit is 0.
A number is divisible by 11 if the difference of the sum of its digits at odd places and the sum of its digits at even places, is divisible by 11.

H.C.F and L.C.M :

H.C.F stands for Highest Common Factor. The other names for H.C.F are Greatest Common Divisor (G.C.D) and Greatest Common Measure (G.C.M).

The H.C.F. of two or more numbers is the greatest number that divides each one of them exactly.

The least number which is exactly divisible by each one of the given numbers is called their L.C.M.

Two numbers are said to be co-prime if their H.C.F. is 1.

H.C.F. of fractions = H.C.F. of numerators/L.C.M of denominators

L.C.M. of fractions = G.C.D. of numerators/H.C.F of denominators

Product of two numbers = Product of their H.C.F. and L.C.M.

PERCENTAGES :

If A is R% more than B, then B is less than A by R / (100+R) * 100
If A is R% less than B, then B is more than A by R / (100-R) * 100
If the price of a commodity increases by R%, then reduction in consumption, not to increase the expenditure is : R/(100+R)*100
If the price of a commodity decreases by R%, then the increase in consumption, not to decrease the expenditure is : R/(100-R)*100

PROFIT & LOSS :

Gain = Selling Price(S.P.) - Cost Price(C.P)
Loss = C.P. - S.P.
Gain % = Gain * 100 / C.P.
Loss % = Loss * 100 / C.P.
S.P. = (100+Gain%)/100*C.P.
S.P. = (100-Loss%)/100*C.P.

RATIO & PROPORTIONS:

The ratio a : b represents a fraction a/b. a is called antecedent and b is called consequent.
The equality of two different ratios is called proportion.
If a : b = c : d then a, b, c, d are in proportion. This is represented by a : b :: c : d.
In a : b = c : d, then we have a* d = b * c.
If a/b = c/d then ( a + b ) / ( a – b ) = ( d + c ) / ( d – c ).

TIME & WORK :

If A can do a piece of work in n days, then A's 1 day's work = 1/n
If A and B work together for n days, then (A+B)'s 1 days's work = 1/n
If A is twice as good workman as B, then ratio of work done by A and B = 2:1

PIPES & CISTERNS :

If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours, then part of tank filled in one hour = 1/x
If a pipe can empty a full tank in y hours, then part emptied in one hour = 1/y
If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours, and another pipe can empty the full tank in y hours, then on opening both the pipes,

the net part filled in 1 hour = (1/x-1/y) if y>x

the net part emptied in 1 hour = (1/y-1/x) if x>y

TIME & DISTANCE :

Distance = Speed * Time
1 km/hr = 5/18 m/sec
1 m/sec = 18/5 km/hr
Suppose a man covers a certain distance at x kmph and an equal distance at y kmph. Then, the average speed during the whole journey is 2xy/(x+y) kmph.

PROBLEMS ON TRAINS :

Time taken by a train x metres long in passing a signal post or a pole or a standing man is equal to the time taken by the train to cover x metres.
Time taken by a train x metres long in passing a stationary object of length y metres is equal to the time taken by the train to cover x+y metres.

Suppose two trains are moving in the same direction at u kmph and v kmph such that u>v, then their relative speed = u-v kmph.
If two trains of length x km and y km are moving in the same direction at u kmph and v kmph, where u>v, then time taken by the faster train to cross the slower train = (x+y)/(u-v) hours.
Suppose two trains are moving in opposite directions at u kmph and v kmph. Then, their relative speed = (u+v) kmph.
If two trains of length x km and y km are moving in the opposite directions at u kmph and v kmph, then time taken by the trains to cross each other = (x+y)/(u+v)hours.
If two trains start at the same time from two points A and B towards each other and after crossing they take a and b hours in reaching B and A respectively, then A's speed : B's speed = (√b : √

SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTERESTS :

Let P be the principal, R be the interest rate percent per annum, and N be the time period.

Simple Interest = (P*N*R)/100
Compound Interest = P(1 + R/100)N – P
Amount = Principal + Interest

LOGORITHMS :

If am = x , then m = logax.

Properties :

log xx = 1
log x1 = 0
log a(xy) = log ax + log ay
log a(x/y) = log ax - log ay
log ax = 1/log xa
log a(xp) = p(log ax)
log ax = log bx/log ba

Note : Logarithms for base 1 does not exist.

AREA & PERIMETER :

Shape Area Perimeter

Circle ∏ (Radius)2 2∏(Radius)

Square (side)2 4(side)

Rectangle length*breadth 2(length+breadth)

Area of a triangle = 1/2*Base*Height or
Area of a triangle = √ (s(s-(s-b)(s-c)) where a,b,c are the lengths of the sides and s = (a+b+c)/2
Area of a parallelogram = Base * Height
Area of a rhombus = 1/2(Product of diagonals)
Area of a trapezium = 1/2(Sum of parallel sides)(distance between the parallel sides)
Area of a quadrilateral = 1/2(diagonal)(Sum of sides)
Area of a regular hexagon = 6(√3/4)(side)2
Area of a ring = ∏(R2-r2) where R and r are the outer and inner radii of the ring.

VOLUME & SURFACE AREA :

Cube :

Let a be the length of each edge. Then,

Volume of the cube = a3 cubic units
Surface Area = 6a2 square units
Diagonal = √ 3 a units

Cuboid :

Let l be the length, b be the breadth and h be the height of a cuboid. Then

Volume = lbh cu units
Surface Area = 2(lb+bh+lh) sq units
Diagonal = √ (l2+b2+h2)

Cylinder :

Let radius of the base be r and height of the cylinder be h. Then,

Volume = ∏r2h cu units
Curved Surface Area = 2∏rh sq units
Total Surface Area = 2∏rh + 2∏r2 sq units

Cone :

Let r be the radius of base, h be the height, and l be the slant height of the cone. Then,

l2 = h2 + r2
Volume = 1/3(∏r2h) cu units
Curved Surface Area = ∏rl sq units
Total Surface Area = ∏rl + ∏r2 sq units

Sphere :

Let r be the radius of the sphere. Then,

Volume = (4/3)∏r3 cu units
Surface Area = 4∏r2 sq units

Hemi-sphere :

Let r be the radius of the hemi-sphere. Then,

Volume = (2/3)∏r3 cu units
Curved Surface Area = 2∏r2 sq units
Total Surface Area = 3∏r2 sq units

Prism :

Volume = (Area of base)(Height)

Racism, Colonialism and Human Rights

2011-12-10T13:04:00.000-08:00

The issues grouped in this section are close to India’s heart. Foremost among them is the racism—
the controversy centred on South Africa’s official policy of racial discrimination. In the very first
session of the General Assembly, India took up the matter and mobilised support from the world
community to pressure South Africa to end apartheid. India worked hard to build an anti-apartheid
coalition in world politics that did not hesitate to launch actions like ban on participation in sports
events, ban on participation in international forums and ban on sale of military equipment, to
pressurise the White minority government of South Africa. In this context, it is a matter of great
satisfaction that in 1993- South Africa declared itself apartheid-free following which a freely
elected democratic government assumed power under the leadership of Nelson Mandela,
Mahatma Gandhi’s spiritual heir.
India is credited for taking up liberation of subject population, i.e. the peoples under the yoke of
colonial rule in different parts of the world. Being one of the first to gain freedom after the end of
the Second World War, to continue the struggle against colonialism elsewhere is natural to India.
The cause of Indonesia for freedom from the Dutch colonialism was one of the first issues India
took up in the late 1940s. The freedom fighters in numerous parts of Asia and Africa—Indo-
China, Algeria, Angola, Namibia, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Tunisia—looked to India for
diplomatic and political support and guidance. During the 1960s, India led the anti-colonial cause
by heading the UN Committee charged with speedy implementation of the Declaration on
Decolonisation. Statistics speak for themselves: There were nearly 75 crore colonised peoples

when the UN was founded and now only half a crore remain to be decolonised. Most of the
liberated territories have become members of the United Nations taking the tally from the original
figure of 51 to 191 now.
As a democratic country, India is naturally wedded to the cause of human rights like civil rights,
viz. right to life, freedom, to be free from torture or unlawful detention, etc. But India, joined by
nearly the whole of the Third World countries and also the former socialist countries felt that the
civil and political rights would have to be achieved in conjunction with, and are indeed inseparable
from, the economic, social and cultural rights. They go hand in hand, not one at the expense of
the other. Among the political rights, the right to self-determination is among the most controversial
issue. Whether the right is to be applied in the context of foreign, colonial rule in the context of
foreign, colonial occupation, or to be extended to the ethnic, cultural minorities to secede from a
country is among the most hotly debated questions. Another issue is: whether those using violence
to secede from a country could enjoy the protection of rights as freedom fighters, or are to be put
on a different plane as terrorists? Are states accountable to the world outside on account of gross
violation of human rights? Can foreign powers militarily intervene citing human rights violations?
India has taken a tougher, if not conservative, stand in favour of the unity and sovereign authority
of states.

Development
Economic and social development is an issue at the core of human rights debate as well. Again it
is a vital concern that makes India and the United Nations partners. India’s basic position is twofold.
First, economic development is a necessary precondition for peace. World peace can be
durable only when conditions like poverty, hunger, exploitation that breed conflict are alleviated.
Secondly, the newly acquired political independence of most of the erstwhile colonial countries
would be incomplete without the economic and social development. In other words, the
development element of the world order is critical. India devoted considerable energies for the
establishment of scores of UN bodies dedicated for assisting the economically backward nations,
viz. the regional economic commissions, the UN Development Programme, and UN Conference
on Trade and Development. In the 1960s and 1970s, India was in the forefront raising demands
and grievances with regard to unstable prices of agricultural products in the Western export
markets and also the unhelpful terms of trade that worked to the benefit of the rich and industrially
advanced countries. The Third World (also known as the “Group of 77”) came to be identified
as a distinct (though diverse) entity in diplomatic conferences and negotiations. One of the dream
themes of this group that echoed in the UN forums in the 1970s was the establishment of New
International Economic Order based on the principles of democracy, equity, and justice.
Let us also note here that India and other developing countries have promoted a holistic approach
towards development. As per this approach, major problems like environment, population control,
food, human rights, and women empowerment are closely linked to development. For example,
the idea of sustainable development underlines the importance of conserving environment in a
manner that the present generation can make use of the biological resources without denying the
same privileges to the coming generations of humankind. The Earth Summit advocated this
approach; and in that Conference India proposed the setting up of the planet protection fund.
Let us not ignore the setbacks to the efforts of India and other developing countries. The anticipated
dialogue between the developed North and the developing South failed to take place. The
government to government development assistance levels had progressively declined. So was
the case with the resources made available to the development activities of the United Nations
agencies. On the other side, the sharp rise in the debt of the developing countries (standing
currently at some US$ 2,500 billion) was a source of alarm. Nearly 80 developing countries
including India had to turn to the International Monetary Fund for loans to tide over their short
term economic difficulties, but at the same time go through a back breaking regime of
conditionalities.
You need to appreciate the fact that the development activities of the United Nations signify two
things. India has been a major beneficiary of the multilateral development assistance, some of
which have been channelled through UN agencies like the UN Development Programme. Side
by side, as one of the leading lights of the Third World countries in terms of its technical manpower,
India has often contributed in a big way through the UN wings like UNIDO, UNESCO, and
UNDP for the advancement of other developing nations.

POLITICAL AND DIPLOMATIC ISSUES

2011-12-09T13:00:00.000-08:00

INTRODUCTION
The world affairs we witness today are no doubt very complex. The problems the humankind
and the basic territorial units—which we may call states—face are diverse with issues like peace,
human rights, development, environment protection, trade, and so forth. States—whether big or
small—are unable to address these problems individually, without working with other states,
near and far, for negotiating, for narrowing differences and expanding areas of agreement. Since
the problems and the parties (states) involved are multiple, country-to-country contacts may not
always be sufficient. Forums engage governments in dialogue and negotiations on pressing or
long standing issues on a regular basis and have become beneficial features of the modern world
affairs. India has gained long and rich experience in tackling issues of concern to itself and also to
the international community in global forums like the United Nations and the Non-aligned
Movement and the regional level organisations like SAARC, ASEAN.

UNITED NATIONS
To India, the United Nations holds the key to a world order wedded to peace and prosperity.
The United Nations represents universal values like democracy, equality and justice, which guided
India’s history through ages. In fact, one of the basic principles of India’s foreign policy has been
active cooperation with the United Nations and international bodies, which are seen as protectors
of the interests of the newly independent countries. India has actively participated in the activities
of the United Nations with reference to the maintenance of world peace, peace keeping,
achievement of economic progress, protection of human rights, etc. Let us turn to some of these
issues and India’s role.

War and Peace
Independent India saw its security as part and parcel of the world security. But world security
and stability has faced problems of different kind right from the early days of the establishment of
the United Nations in 1945. Those days, the prime cause for worry to India was the East-West
Cold War, pitting the United States and the former Soviet Union against each other as rivals.

While constantly engaged in the acquisition of sophisticated nuclear and other weapons, these
two big powers acquired superpower status with global influence. They fought their battles (proxy
wars) not in Europe but by fanning tensions and conflicts between states in Africa and Asia.
Divided Korea became the first major battle ground for staging the Cold War competition. In
addition, neighbouring countries fought wars often with the military and political support from the
Cold War blocs over disputed borders or over other problems. Wars in West Asia between
Israel and the Arab countries, the Iran-Iraq war, in the horn of Africa between Ethiopia and
Somalia come under this category. Besides, the United States or the Soviet Union militarily
intervened in some countries. Dominican Republic, Grenada in the case of the United States and
Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan by the Soviet Union exemplify this trend. There has been clear
Cold War dimension to the conflicts in Cambodia, Nicaragua, and last but not the least in India-
Pakistan subcontinent. In all, nearly 250 small and big wars occurred during the Cold War
period.

Although the clouds of Cold War had vanished in the early days of the decade of 1990s, global
order of peace and stability has continued to be threatened in both old and new ways.
Notwithstanding the two wars on Iraq, foreign invasion as a major danger to peace has diminished
in importance. Instead, the civil strifes in state after state in Africa, Asia and Latin America have
played havoc with political systems, economies of nations and even the lives and rights of innocent
men, women and children. Societies of Yugoslavia, Haiti, Somalia, Rwanda, Angola, Afghanistan,
Sierra Leone and many more countries have become victims of this disturbing trend. Nearly 6
million people lost their lives in such wars in the past 12-13 years.
At the United Nations, India disapproved forcible occupation of the territory of any state or
interference by one state in the matters of other states, which are violation of the principles of
sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, and advocated settlement of problems through
negotiation and other peaceful methods. India strongly supported the sovereign rights of Egypt,
Hungary, the Congo, Lebanon, and demanded immediate and unconditional ending to fighting
whoever started it for whatever reason. India remarkably was flexible in its approach for peace.
We preferred moderation whereby the countries that might have violated rules are given an
honourable escape route for restoration of normalcy. This approach was successful and effective
in the context of the invasion of Egypt by the United Kingdom, France and Israel in 1956.
Similarly after the 1967 war between Israel and its Arab neighbours, India joined other members
in the Security Council in providing a framework for the coexistence of both Israel and its Arab
neighbours within secure boundaries after withdrawal from occupied territories.
The blend of principles with pragmatism became more necessary to respond to situations after
the end of the Cold War. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 and refused to withdraw, India
supported the military action by the US-led coalition—blessed by the United Nations Security
Council—to free Kuwait. Although many would see softness towards the United States in India’s
positions in the United Nations, India opposed the American military action (2003) to remove
president Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq, an action the United States launched unilaterally
in violation of the UN Charter. India is among the many countries that are worried about the
weakening of international institutions and the tendency to impose unilateral preferences over
others.
To guard against these unhelpful trends, the wings of the United Nations must be suitably
strengthened. There is no more important organ of the United Nations than the Security Council,
which needs to be reformed to correct some of the founding weaknesses in its composition and
powers. India has argued since 1992 that the Security Council needs democratisation in tune
with the changed realities. There is something specific to be noted here. Based on its contribution
for world peace and security, the appreciation it receives as the world’s largest and functioning
democracy, its economic performance and potential, many in India are convinced that India
deserves a permanent seat along with a few other developing countries. With only China as a
permanent member presently, Asia is grossly underrepresented, whereas Africa and Latin America
do not have any representation in the inner circle of this important organ. Although consensus on
the issue is yet to be reached, India is patiently waiting for a favourable outcome at a future date.
India believes that the cause of peace could be promoted not just through cautionary advice but
through concrete action on ground. The peacekeeping activity is the strongest symbol of that
action under the United Nations umbrella. UN peacekeepers in military uniform and also from
various civilian professions worked to cool tempers in a war-torn nation either by impartially
helping the warring armies, honour their word not to resume fighting or helping reconciliation
through implementation of a negotiated accord already signed. Among nearly 55 peacekeeping
operations the United Nations launched so far in Europe, Asia, Central America, Africa and
Europe, India is counted among top 10-15 nations contributing soldiers and civilians not to fight
wars but terminate them peacefully. As a nation we should be gratified about our contributions in
35 such operations – whether in Suez, the Congo, Cambodia, Mozambique, Haiti, Rwanda,
Somalia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The United States sought India’s contribution in a force being
mobilised outside of the United Nations framework for restoring order in the occupied Iraq in
2003. India refused to send its troops without an explicit UN mandate.

Easy Maths and Calculation Secrets Simplified Exam...2

2011-12-08T15:18:00.000-08:00

Using VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISE you do not need the multiplication tables beyond 5 X 5. Suppose you need 8 x 7
8 is 2 below 10 and 7 is 3 below 10. Think of it like this:

8x7=

8 2
7 3
------
5 6 ( 8-3=5=7-2) ( 2x3=6)

9x9 (9-1=8 1x1=1) and answer is 81

it is better than you remembered multiplication table

Here's how to use VERTICALLY AND CROSSWISEfor multiplying numbers close to 100

take standard 100 and move on

88x98= 88=100-2 98=100-2

88-2=86 or 98-12=86 12x2= 24

ans is 8624

************************
A clock shows the time as 6 a.m. If the minute hand gains 2 minutes every hour, how many minutes will the clock gain by 9 p.m.?

9 pm = 12+9th hr=21st hour

time diff= 21-6=15
and got min = 15*2= 30

and in one line solution = (12+9-6)x 2=30

Find the right number, from the given options, at the place marked by the question mark: 2, 4, 8, 32, 256, ?

first test power of two and series of power 1,2,3,5,8 but slight complex,it is true ( check later and deeper)
so left it
2x4=8
8x4=32
8x32=256
so next is 256x32= 256x4x8 = 1024x8= 8192

Easy Maths and Calculation Secrets Simplified Example By Example part-1

2011-12-07T01:07:00.001-08:00

tip- 1

Use the formula ALL FROM 9 AND THE LAST FROM 10 to
perform instant subtractions.

For example 1000 - 357 = 643

We simply take each figure in 357 from 9 and the last figure from 10

Simplified understanding : subtracting from 999 is easy and later add 1 to keep balance

1000-357= 999-357+1= 642+1=653

this is easy and comprehensive way to remember

you can pick 9999 for 10000 ,19999 for 20000 and even 399999999 for 4000000000

it is easy just try to understand...

other variations

if have to subtract 987- 392 then

{it is called mathematical common sense }

987-392 = 992-392-5=600-5=595

or

987-392= 999-392-12 = 607-12= 607-7-5=595

or

987-392= 987-400+8= 587+8=595

In dynamic mode,you can do it in fraction of seconds but

you need some smart practice( practice with observation)

Do you know these words.

2011-12-06T20:34:00.001-08:00

analyse
analysis
analyst
analytic
analytical
analytically
analyze
approach
approachable
area
assess
assessable
assessment
assume
assumed
assuming
assumption
authoritative
authoritatively
authority
availability
available
beneficial
beneficiary
benefit
blinker
concept
conception
conceptual
conceptualize
conceptually
consist
consistency
consistent
consistently
constituency
constituent
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constitution
constitutional
constitutionally
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context
contextual
contextualization
contextualize
contextually
contract
contractor
create
creation
creative
creatively
creativity
creator
data
definable
define
definition
derivation
derivative
derive
disestablish
disestablishment
dissimilar
dissimilarity
distribute
distribution
distributional
distributive
distributor
economic
economical
economically
economics
economist
economy
environment
environmental
environmentalism
environmentalist
environmentally
establish
established
establishment
estimate
estimation
evidence
evident
evidential
evidently
export
exporter
factor
finance
financial
financially
financier
finance
formula
formula milk
formulate
formulation
period
function
functional
functionally
ID
identifiable
identification
identify
identity
illegal
illegality
illegally
income
inconsistency
inconsistent
inconsistently
indicate
indication
indicative
indicator
indiscreet
indiscreetly
individual
individualism
individualist
individualistic
individuality
individually
insignificance
insignificant
insignificantly
interpret
interpretable
interpretation
interpretative
interpretive
invariable
invariably
involve
involved
involvement
isolating
issue
issuer
labor
labour
legal
legality
legally
legislate
legislation
legislative
legislator
legislature
major
majority
method
methodical
methodically
methodological
methodologically
methodology
misinterpret
misinterpretation
occur
occurrence
overestimate
overestimation
percentage
period
periodic
periodical
periodically
policy
principle
principled
procedural
procedure
proceed
proceeding
proceeds
process
processing
reassess
reassessment
recreate
recreation
redefine
redefinition
redistribute
redistribution
redistributive
reformulate
reformulation
reinterpret
reinterpretation
reoccur
require
requirement
research
researcher
research
respond
respondent
response
responsive
responsively
responsiveness
restructure
restructuring
role
section
sector
significance
significant
significantly
signify
similar
similarity
similarly
source
specific
specifically
specification
specificity
specifics
structural
structurally
structure
theoretical
theoretically
theoretician
theorist
theory
turn signal
unapproachable
unavailability
unavailable
unconstitutional
unconstitutionally
undefined
underestimate
underestimate
uneconomic
uneconomical
unidentifiable
uninvolved
unprincipled
unresponsive
unstructured
variability
variable
variably
variance
variant
variation
varied
vary

chap 1 English reading and comprehension

2011-12-06T20:19:00.001-08:00

Reading

THERE once lived a bird and her two new-born babies in a forest. They had a nest in a tall, shady tree and there the mother bird took care of her little ones day and night. One day, there was a big storm. There was thunder, lightning and rain, and the wind blew down many trees. The tall tree in which the birds lived also came down. A big, heavy branch hit the nest and killed the bird. Fortunately for the baby birds, the strong wind blew them away to the other side of the forest. One of them came down near a cave where a gang of robbers lived. The other landed outside a rishi’s ashram a little distance away. Days passed and the baby birds became big birds. One day, the king of the country came to the forest to hunt. He saw a deer and rode after it. It ran deep into the forest followed by the king. Soon the king lost his way and didn’t know where he was. He rode on for a long time till he came to the other side of the forest. Very tired by now, he got off his horse and sat down under a tree that stood near a cave. Suddenly he heard a voice cry out, “Quick! Hurry up! There’s someone under the tree. Come and take his jewels and his horse. Hurry, or else he’ll slip away.” The king was amazed. He looked up and saw a big, brown bird on the tree under which he was sitting. He also heard faint noises issuing from the cave. He quickly got on to his horse and rode away as fast as he could. Soon, he came to a clearing which looked like an ashram. It was the rishi’s ashram. The king tied his horse to a tree and sat down in its shade. Suddenly he heard a gentle voice announce, “Welcome to the ashram, Sir. Please go inside and rest. The rishi will be back soon. There’s some cold water in the pot. Please make yourself comfortable.” The king looked up and saw a big, brown bird in the tree. He was amazed. ‘This one looks like the other bird outside the cave,’ he said to himself aloud. “You are right, Sir,” answered the bird. “He is my brother but he has made friends with robbers. He now talks as they do. He doesn’t talk to me any more.” Just then the rishi entered the ashram. “Welcome, Sir,” he said to the king. “Please come inside and make yourself at home. You look tired. Rest for a while. Then you can share my food.” The king told the rishi the story of the two birds and how each had behaved so differently though they looked so alike. “The forest is full of surprises,” he said. The holy man smiled and said, “After all, one is known by the company one keeps. That bird has always heard the talk of robbers. He imitates them and talks about robbing people. This one has repeated what he has always heard. He welcomes people to the ashram. Now, come inside and rest. I’ll tell you more about this place and these birds.”

Questions
Arrange them in right sequence :

A. He came to know the birds’ true story.
B. A mother bird and her two young ones lived in a forest.

C. The king was amazed to hear a similar voice again.

D. The mother was killed in a storm and the young birds were
separated from each other.

E. He met the rishi who explained the behaviour of each bird.

F. Each found a different home

Additional reading :

• A mother bird and her two young ones lived in a forest.
• The mother was killed in a storm and the young birds were
separated from each other.
• Each found a different home.

• The king was amazed to hear a similar voice again.
• He came to know the birds’ true story.
• He met the rishi who explained the behaviour of each bird.

English Series

2011-12-06T20:18:00.001-08:00

This english series will help you a lot. So just start reading it.... Comments are most welcomed to improve quality.