My wings of Dreams.

THE BEAUTIFUL POEMS

2012-03-15T09:12:00.001-07:00

The Garden Of Love by William Blake

I went to the Garden of Love.
And saw what I never had seen:
A Chapel was built in the midst,
Where I used to play on the green.

And the gates of this Chapel were shut,
And Thou shalt not, writ over the door;
So I turn'd to the Garden of Love,
That so many sweet flowers bore,

And I saw it was filled with graves,
And tomb-stones where flowers should be:
And priests in black gowns, were walking their rounds,
And binding with briars, myjoys&desires.

Waiting At The Window by A.A. Milne

These are my two drops of rain

Waiting on the window-pane.

I am waiting here to see

Which the winning one will be.

Both of them have different names.

One is John and one is James.

All the best and all the worst

Comes from which of them is first.

James has just begun to ooze.

He's the one I want to lose.

John is waiting to begin.

He's the one I want to win.

James is going slowly on.

Something sort of sticks to John.

John is moving off at last.

James is going pretty fast.

John is rushing down the pane.

James is going slow again.

James has met a sort of smear.

John is getting very near.

Is he going fast enough?

(James has found a piece of fluff.)

John has quickly hurried by.

(James was talking to a fly.)

John is there, and John has won!

Look! I told you! Here's the sun!

I Love You - Brynne S.

Just three little words

don't seem like enough

for someone whose smile

still brightens my day,

whose touch can make me forget

the rest of the world.

They don't seem like enough

for someone who's always been there

to celebrate with me

when everything goes my way

and to hold my hand

when my whole world

seems to fall apart.

But even though "I Love You"

can't express the depth

of my feelings for you.

I hope you know what's in my heart.

Because loving you

means more to me

than anything in the world

and it always will.

THE RAIN DROPS

2012-03-15T08:33:00.000-07:00

Waiting At The Window by A.A. Milne

These are my two drops of rain
Waiting on the window-pane.

I am waiting here to see
Which the winning one will be.

Both of them have different names.
One is John and one is James.

All the best and all the worst
Comes from which of them is first.

James has just begun to ooze.
He's the one I want to lose.

John is waiting to begin.
He's the one I want to win.

James is going slowly on.
Something sort of sticks to John.

John is moving off at last.
James is going pretty fast.

John is rushing down the pane.
James is going slow again.

James has met a sort of smear.
John is getting very near.

Is he going fast enough?
(James has found a piece of fluff.)

John has quickly hurried by.
(James was talking to a fly.)

John is there, and John has won!
Look! I told you! Here's the sun!

Nokia with Nano

2012-02-10T18:15:00.000-08:00

Nokia's Morph nanotechnology

(Nanowerk News) Morph is a joint nanotechnology concept developed by Nokia Research Center (NRC) and the University of Cambridge (UK). Morph is a concept that demonstrates how future mobile devices might be stretchable and flexible, allowing the user to transform their mobile device into radically different shapes. It demonstrates the ultimate functionality that nanotechnology might be capable of delivering: flexible materials, transparent electronics and self-cleaning surfaces.
Morph, will act as a gateway. It will connect the user to the local environment as well as the global internet. It is an attentive device that adapts to the context – it shapes according to the context. The device can change its form from rigid to flexible and stretchable. Buttons of the user interface can grow up from a flat surface when needed. User will never have to worry about the battery life. It is a device that will help us in our everyday life, to keep our self connected and in shape. It is one significant piece of a system that will help us to look after the environment.
Without the new materials, i.e. new structures enabled by the novel materials and manufacturing methods it would be impossible to build Morph kind of device. Graphene has an important role in different components of the new device and the ecosystem needed to make the gateway and context awareness possible in an energy efficient way.

Graphene will enable evolution of the current technology e.g. continuation of the ever increasing computing power when the performance of the computing would require sub nanometer scale transistors by using conventional materials. With graphene it will be possible to enhance the performance and reach THz frequencies for the transistors without cooling problems that would be a show stopper with high frequency traditional electronics. This will enable energy efficient computing in the CPU of the mobile device as well as within the self powered sensors combined with processing and the super computers needed to collect context data and perform the hard processing. Enhanced processing is also an essential part for connectivity, to make the radio of the gateway perform on a level the current wired connections do.
Graphene is transparent and thin. These properties will lead to a new generation of components and devices with novel form factors. At first it will replace ITO, which is fragile, toxic and more and more expensive. Flexible displays are coming to the market, already. Using graphene ribbon network it will be possible to build stretchable connectors. The stretchable device will be a combination of miniaturized rigid components, stretchable substrate and stretchable and bendable components.
Novel materials - such as graphene - and environmentally friendly, low cost manufacturing - such as bottom up methods and printed electronics - are crucial for the future of the electronics. Also, new methods to treat multiscale systems, e.g. to transfer information between molecular and macroscopic parts of the system, will open up totally new kind of applications based on different kind of effective laws of nature we have been used to. The ability to control the electrical properties of graphene on line will enable new kind of reconfigurable electronics, and most probably Morph will get properties that we might not be able to think from the beginning.

Key Features and Specifications:
First ever stretchable device that will allow you choose and interact more with your cellphone.
Has three changeable designs: as a regular touchscreen phone, a tablet and a watch. (Ever felt like talking to your watch?)
Self-cleaning and self-aware device which means no water or liquid can damage it.
Solar charged (isn’t that sweet?) and smaller batteries which will allow to charge at higher speeds and yet last long.

Intels 3D Transistor

2012-01-28T17:47:00.000-08:00

Intel's 3D transistors are no small feat. Some are calling it a breakthrough that will allow Intel to continue to make chips that adhere to Moore's Law (i.e. the number of transistors that can be placed on a circuit will double every two years).

Even that impressive feat is just business as usual. After all, Moore's Law has been in effect for decades. The bigger news would be if Moore's Law no longer applied to Intel chips.

So what's the big deal with Intel's 3D transistors? The answer lies in more than just smartphones, tablets, and set-top boxes. This fundamental new way of making the circuits of microchips could have a dramatic impact on everything from the smallest handheld devices to the biggest datacenters.

The Future of Computing

There's no denying that the future of computing lies in small, low-power solutions coupled with big-iron cloud services. Smartphones are becoming personal computers, powerful enough to run simple desktop computing environments. Tablets are cannibalizing laptops. Entire home entertainment experiences are being jammed into tiny set-top boxes and embedded into televisions. Even Microsoft's next version of Windows will run on low-power ARM-based chips.

Intel hasn't excelled in all of these areas. It has a presence in televisions, thanks to Google TV and the Boxee Box, but so far the company hasn't gained much traction in smartphones and tablets. Intel's Moorestown chips are largely ignored. Its Medfield chips aren't due to appear in any products until later this year, and they still may not fare well against the more-established ARM processors.

With 3D transistors, Intel may finally have the ammunition it needs to do battle in the smartphone and tablet markets. Intel claims its new transistors can switch 37 percent faster than those made with its existing 32-nm process in chips that operate at low voltage, or 18% faster in chips that operate at high voltage. Transistors switching at the same speed as those in the company's 32nm chips can operate at significantly lower voltage, cutting power consumption in half. This change in how chips are produced is expected to raise production costs by a modest 2 or 3%, which is well worth the dramatic improvement in performance.

What It Means for You

The first products to hit the market using this new manufacturing technique will be Intel's "Ivy Bridge" line, the successor line to the current "Sandy Bridge" line. This means the new technology will first appear in laptops, desktops, and servers that use Intel's chips. The faster switching speeds, lower voltage operation, and lower leakage should make Ivy Bridge processors considerably more energy-efficient than the Sandy Bridge CPUs in systems today. These products are expected to hit the market in early 2012.

It will take more time for the 22nm process, and its associated 3D transistor technology, to show up in Intel's low-power Atom CPU lineup and system-on-chips designed for smartphones and tablets. In April, Intel said it would release its first true ARM competitor in 2013. This manufacturing technology is what will make that product possible.

Intel will use this 3D transistor structure on all chips produced on its 22nm manufacturing process, regardless of the type of chip or to which market it is targeted. The upsides should be considerable and the downsides minimal. Other chip fabrication companies have been working on 3D gate structures, but aren't expected to bring them to market for some time. Most of Intel's competitors aren't expected to ship 22nm high-performance products until at least late 2012, and won't use a 3D gate structure similar to Intel's until the next major manufacturing process step, a couple of years later.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIkMaQJSyP8

Smallest petrol engine found

2012-01-28T17:11:00.000-08:00

If you thought batteries are greener Technology for tomorrow, let us raise the curtain over a Internal combustion engine that runs on Petrol and is more efficient that any other electrical equivalent.

Scientists have built the world’s smallest petrol engine that is tiny enough to power a Watch.

The mini-combustion engine can run for two years on a single dose of a light fuel.

To give you an estimate of the power, it produces 700 times more energy than a conventional battery despite having a size less than a centimetre long . If the technology continues to innovate with the same pace, it could be used to power laptops and mobile phones for months.

Energy evangelists believe that this new mini-motor can make batteries look conventional and even phase them out in half decade.

The engine has been produced by engineers at the University of Birmingham.

“We are looking at an industrial revolution happening in peoples’ pockets. The breakthrough is an enormous step forward. Devices which need re- charging or new batteries are a problem but in six years will be a thing of the past.”

These tiny engines would find applications in other fields such as medical, military gadgets, and future robots.

Today, charging an ordinary battery to deliver one unit of energy involves putting 2,000 units into it. This is due to the fact that energy is wated at several steps before it is effectively stored. On the contrary this engine produces energy locally, and hence is far more efficient.

Micro engines have been produced several times in the past, but all of them failed at dissipating heat to surroundings, and burned themselves over a small period of operation. The Birmingham team overcame this by using heat-resistant materials such as ceramic and silicon carbide. They brought together all the engineering disciplines, both materials, chemical engineering, civil engineering, and mechanical engineering.

Read more: http://geeknizer.com/worlds-smallest-petrol-engine

WORLDZ FASTEST INTERNET SPEED RECORDED186GP/SEC

2012-01-27T15:21:00.000-08:00

Scientists and researchers have set a new Internet speed record by managing to transfer data at a sustained rate of 186 gigabits per second (Gbps), a rate equivalent to moving two million gigabytes -- or 100,000 full Blu-ray discs -- in a single day.

The blazing transfer speed was accomplished at the SuperComputing 2011 conference in Seattle in November by an international team seeking ways to more efficiently share and distribute the massive amount of data coming from the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) particle accelerator at the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN) with scientists all over the world.

"Enabling scientists anywhere in the world to work on the LHC data is a key objective, bringing the best minds together to work on the mysteries of the universe," David Foster, CERN's deputy IT department head said in a CalTech media release.

According to CalTech, the amount of data produced by the LHC is only expected to grow in the coming years:

More than 100 petabytes (more than four million Blu-ray disks) of data have been processed, distributed, and analyzed using a global grid of 300 computing and storage facilities located at laboratories and universities around the world, and the data volume is expected to rise a thousand-fold as physicists crank up the collision rates and energies at the LHC.

By comparison, Verizon's FIOS network, which offers some of the fastest speeds available to the public in the U.S., comes in at a mere 150 Mbps, less than one one-thousandth of the speeds achieved in this test, according to NPR.

Also reporting on the record-setting speeds, the BBC noted that the fastest transfer rates available to the public in the U.K. is a 1.5 Gbps connection currently being tested in East London by Virgin Media.

The group responsible for the transfer between Seattle and Victoria, Canada, was comprised of high-energy physicists, computer scientists, and network engineers and the study was led by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), the University of Victoria, the University of Michigan, the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN), Florida International University and others, according to CalTech.

FUTURE WEAPON

2012-01-27T14:48:00.000-08:00

| SCAR-Light

Developer FNH USA (USA)

Caliber 5.56mm

Features More accurate and less prone to jamming than the standard-issue M16 and M4 rifles, the SCAR uses quick-change barrels that can be swapped using a minimal number of tools.

Progress The manufacturer had initially expected the weapon to be deployed in 2006, but after a limited production run last year, there's hope for the SCAR.

The effort to replace the M-16 rifle, as well as its more compact variant M4,the , has been a long, epic and largely tragic tale. One attempt would have created a modular weapon system, called the Objective Individual Combat Weapon (OICW), with an integrated grenade launcher and laser-rangefinder. That all-in-one system was scrapped because of excessive weight, and subsequent attempts to salvage the core of that weapon—the XM8 assault rifle—have also failed, highlighting some of the worst aspects of the weapons procurement process.

Fed up with the rest of military's inability to replace the M-16 and M4, and apparently uninterested in an OICW-type multipurpose weapon, the Special Operations Command (SOCOM) held a competition for a new assault rifle, to be deployed with special forces personnel. Having passed muster as a more accurate and reliable weapon than the M4, FNH USA landed the contract with its FN SCAR, which comes in two calibers—5.56 for the SCAR-Light, and 7.62 for the SCAR-Heavy. The weapon also meets SOCOM's requirements for quick changes in the field. Within a few minutes, a SCAR-Light's 18-in.-long, precision-fire barrel can be replaced with a standard-length 14-in. barrel, or a shorter, 10-in. barrel for use in cramped, urban environments. Although the SCAR-Light is likely to be more common than the more powerful SCAR-Heavy, the two weapons share 99 percent of the same parts, making field repairs easier and streamlining the overall logistics.

XM-25

Developer Alliance Techsystems (USA)

Caliber 25mm

Features A computer-aided targeting system that allows the user to quickly aim at a target and to adjust the range of the air-bursting round.

Progress The XM-25 is still in development, but in this industry—and particularly for a system that survived the OICW debacle—that amounts to very good news.

As the Objective Individual Combat Weapon (OICW) program withered on the vine, the system's most revolutionary element—microchip-embedded explosive rounds that could be detonated at precise ranges, raining fragmentation down on enemies hiding in foxholes or behind barricades—has managed to put down roots. Once envisioned as an under-the-barrel weapon attached to an assault rifle, the self-contained XM-25 is an entirely new take on the grenade launcher. Using the onboard ballistic computer and laser rangefinder, the firer can quick set the exact range at which the 25mm round will explode.

This is precision-guided munitions for infantry, with the goal of negating nearly any kind of cover a target could find, particularly in urban environments. Rounds could be set to go off, in midair, just past the corner of building, just inside a sniper's window, or directly above a group of hostiles hunched behind a concrete barrier. Alliance Techsystems, which is developing the XM-25, credits overhead airbursts with the potential for five times greater lethality, compared with the current M203 grenade launcher, because shrapnel will be more likely to drop onto the target's head. It's a ghoulish point of pride, but, as with other precision munitions, a more precise grenadier could also mean fewer civilian casualties.

SAR 21

Developer Singapore Technologies Kinetics (Singapore)

Caliber 5.56mm

Features Integrated visible/ infrared laser sight and 1.5x optical scope, translucent ammo magazines.

Progress The SAR 21 became standard issue for Singapore's armed forces in 1999, but there are no plans for adoption elsewhere.

While the United States has repeatedly—and spectacularly—failed to replace the aging M-16, Singapore has been using a newer and possibly better-performing assault rifle since 1999. The SAR 21 replaced Singapore's licensed version of the M-16, and has gained a reputation among gun experts as one of the best "bullpup" assault rifles—where the action and magazine are behind the trigger—on the market. It has a smaller overall profile than the M-16, without sacrificing barrel length (the shorter the barrel, the less accuracy at longer ranges) and significantly more manageable recoil, due in part to the weapon's center of balance. The recoil tends to drive directly back against the firer, instead of pushing the barrel upwards.

All of this is useful in an assault rifle, but particularly for urban warfare, where more compact weapons are crucial to maneuvering indoors, and where close-range, fully-automatic fire is more common. The SAR 21 has a Kevlar cheek plate to deal with chamber explosions occurring next to the user's face, a regular safety issue for bullup weapons. It's also one of the few assault rifles in the world equipped with an integrated laser aiming device.

Corner Shot Launcher

Developer Corner Shot (Israel), Dynamit Nobel Defence (Germany)

Caliber 60mm

Features A collapsible firing-post, which is fitted with a camera and video screen, attaches to a disposable, one-shot 60 mm grenade launcher. Rounds can be fired at a 90 degree angle—other Corner Shot devices fire at up to 60 degrees.

Progress Unveiled in 2004, the system does not appear to have been deployed yet.

The Corner Shot is a brutally simple contraption: a modified gun that, thanks to a hinged frame, under-the-barrel camera and handy video screen, allows the user to shoot around corners. Currently, there are three versions available, each with a different weapon at the business end of the frame—a pistol, a compact assault rifle or a 40mm grenade launcher. The device is designed for urban environments, where the ability to peek around corners with impunity is useful, but being able to open fire while behind cover is even better.

With the Corner Shot Launcher, the concept is the same, but the result is less subtle. Essentially a sideways-firing rocket launcher, it allows the user to aim with the same kind of integrated camera and video screen, and fire a massive 60mm round into an enemy vehicle or reinforced position, such as a bunker. This device, which could be an overwhelming weapon in urban engagements, is a collaboration between Israeli and German defense firms.

FMG9 Folding Machine Gun

Developer Magpul Industries (USA)

Caliber 9mm

Features Spring-loaded design transitions from box to gun with a single button-push, with a 31-round Glock 18 magazine loaded and ready to fire.

Progress Nonfiring semiautomatic prototype shown in March 2008. No word yet on when a firing model—much less a fully automatic one—might be available.

The concept of a discreet, foldable submachine gun is at least two decades old. Legendary gun designer Eugene Stoner developed one in the 1980s, but Magpul Industries made news this past March with its own updated take on the lethal cult classic. The FMG9, short for Folding Machine Gun, looks like some sort of toolbox with a flashlight mounted on top.

One moment, that flashlight is in your eyes, and one moment later—one very pregnant, James-Bond-by-way-of-Cyberpunk moment—and you're being fired at by a 9mm submachine gun. It's a quicker transition than anything Stoner was able to pull off, and that could make the weapon an effective tool for lightning raids on terrorist hideouts where surprise could play a major part. The gun also has an integrated laser sight, and can be carried without the handle and flashlight, for a sleeker, more pocketable profile.

TDI KRISS

The TDI KRISS Super V XSMG subgun is an interesting tactical firearm to say the least, and should give Mil/LE tactical operators a viable choice vs. the Heckler & Koch (HK) UMP45 (a.k.a. HK UMP 45) .45 ACP subgun, once it goes into production, provided the new 30-shot box mag and the weapon itself are totally reliable under adverse environmental/combat conditions and high round count, and the weapon proves to be combat-accurate. If they accomplish that, the KRISS will be tough to beat in the .45 ACP subgun market. TDI did its homework and designed the weapon around the need of Mil/LE tactical operators, particularly with regards to ergonomics and external control layout.

DefenseReview likes the .45 ACP subgun concept for urban warfare / Direct Action missions, since very few tactical firearms can put a man down as quickly as a .45 Cal. SMG at extreme CQB/CQC (Close Quarters Battle / Close Quarters Combat) ranges. Even if a subject is wearing NIJ Level IIIA body armor that can prevent the .45 ACP rounds from penetrating into the body, the effect of the multiple impacts from a quick burst (let’s say three rounds, for example) should still theoretically be enough to put the BG (Bad Guy) down, since he would be absorbing close to the full energy of the rounds, as the vest would be stopping the rounds completely. Then again, if the operator is utilizing Le Mas BMT APLP 85gr .45 CQB .45 ACP submachine gun ammo, the bad guy’s going to be SOL (Shit Out of Luck), as the LeMas round can penetrate NIJ Level IIIA body armor. While speaking with Mr. Finn, today, I suggested that he test the Le Mas .45 ACP subgun ammo through the KRISS, and make sure that th KRISS can function reliably with it on full-auto.

CHEYTAC INTERVENTION M200

The Cheytac Intervention M-200 is an American made bolt-action heavy duty sniper rifle designed by Cheytac LLC. for long range soft target interdiction (i.e. Anti-personnel/sniper). Delivering either a .408 Cheytac or a .375 Cheytac round up to 2286 meters, thus making the Cheytac Intervention one of the longest ranged modern-day sniper rifles.

Ares has lovingly recreated the M200 Intervention complete with licensing from Cheytac LLC. so you can be sure that all the markings are complete. With most parts CNC-milled from high-grade aluminum, with Nylon Fiber furniture. The Ares M200 features 2 different types of bolts and magazines, one for Gas operation, and the other for Spring operation. Changing the bolts is as easy as changing your batteries on your TVs remote! Able to fire up to 23rds with the Gas Magazine or 100rds with the Spring Magazine with a match-grade adjustable hop-up, the Ares M200 is bound to please.

Like the real steel, the Ares M200 Cheytac Intervention features an integrated fully adjustable folding bipod and rear monopod, a retractable butt stock, adjustable cheek rest, and a QD barrel. Ares has also included a 3.5-10x50mm scope and mount. Last but certainly not least, the Ares M200 Cheytac Intervention is able to be taken apart into 3 separate pieces for transport. Exactly like the Real Steel. When completely separated, the three pieces measure in length to a standard M4A1 carbine with a retracted stock, perfect for storage and transportation!

Length (Retracted): 1240mm

Length (Extended): 1390mm

AcitiveDenialTechnology

Active Denial Technology is a breakthrough non-lethal technology that uses millimeter-wave electromagnetic energy to stop, deter and turn back an advancing adversary from relatively long range. It is expected to save countless lives by providing a way to stop individuals without causing injury, before a deadly confrontation develops.

The technology was developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory and the Department of Defense's Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate. Approximately $40 million has been spent on this technology over the past ten years.

In July 2005 it was reported that the Active Denial System would be deployed to Iraq before the end of the year. Under an initiative called Project Sheriff, troops will receive a total of 15 vehicles. These deployments did not take place, and as of early 2007 the initial deployment was slated no sooner than 2010.

This non-lethal technology was developed in response to Department of Defense needs for field commanders to have options short of the use of deadly force. Non-lethal technologies can be used for protection of Defense resources, peacekeeping, humanitarian missions and other situations in which the use of lethal force is undesirable. The system is intended to protect military personnel against small-arms fire, which is generally taken to mean a range of 1,000 meters. The system is described as having a range of 700 yards.

Countermeasures against the weapon could be quite straightforward - for example covering up the body with thick clothes or carrying a metallic sheet - or even a trash can lid - as a shield or reflector. Also unclear is how the active-denial technology would work in rainy, foggy or sea-spray conditions where the beam's energy could be absorbed by water in the atmosphere.

Active Denial Technology uses a transmitter to send a narrow beam of 95-GHz millimeter waves towards an identified subject. Traveling at the speed of light, the energy reaches the subject and penetrates less than 1/64 of an inch into the skin, quickly heating up the skin's surface. The 95-GHz energy penetrates 1/64 inch into the skin and produces an intense burning sensation that stops when the transmitter is switched off or when the individual moves out of the beam. Within seconds, an individual feels an intense heating sensation that stops when the transmitter is shut off or when the individual moves out of the beam. According to reports, a 2-second burst from the system can heat the skin to a temperature of 130F. At 50 C, the pain reflex makes people pull away automatically in less than a second. Someone would have to stay in the beam for 250 seconds before it burnt the skin.

Despite the sensation, the technology does not cause injury because of the low energy levels used. It exploits a natural defense mechanism that helps to protect the human body from damage. The heat-induced sensation caused by this technology, is nearly identical to the sensation experienced by briefly touching an ordinary light bulb that has been left on for a while. Unlike a light bulb, however, active denial technology will not cause rapid burning, because of the shallow penetration of the beam and the low levels of energy used. The transmitter needs only to be on for a few seconds to cause the sensation.

Air Force scientists helped set the present skin safety threshold of 10 milliwatts per square centimetre in the early 1990s, when little data was available. That limit covers exposure to steady fields for several minutes to an hour - but heating a layer of skin 0.3 mm thick to 50 C in just one second requires much higher power and may pose risks to the cornea, which is more sensitive than skin. A study published last year in the journal Health Physics showed that exposure to 2 watts per square centimeter for three seconds could damage the corneas of rhesus monkeys.

CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon

The CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon cluster munition combines 10 submunitions with 4 skeet type warheads in a single dispenser, providing 40 weapons total. After release, a fuze causes the dispenser to disperse the 10 submunitions, each stabilized by a parachute. At a preset altitude a rocket fires, propelling the submunition in an upward vector. As the submunition climbs, it is spun to disperse the 4 internal skeet warheads randomly by centrifugal force. An IR sensor in each warhead searches for a target, and upon discovery detonates over it, firing a kinetic fragment. The fragment drives itself through the lightly armored top of the target. If no target is found, the sensor detonates the warhead above ground to spray the battlefield with a myriad of lethal fragments. This weapon is good against armor and soft skinned targets, covering a 4,800 square yard area.

The CBU-97 is a 1,000-pound class weapon containing sensor-fused submunitions for attacking armor. The SFW is the centerpiece of the Air Force concept of operations for engaging an adversary's main armored force in the "halt" or "hold" phase of a Major Regional Contingency, in which the USAF would disrupt and stop an attack, providing time for other combatant forces to reinforce to the theater.

As of November 2001 the Sensor Fuzed Weapon had not been reported to have been used in combat. As of September 2002 Textron had delivered 2,600 SFW canisters.

The primary components of this 1,000 pound class weapon are the SUU-66/B Tactical Munitions Dispenser (TMD), 10 BLU-108/B submunitions, and 40 "hockey puck" shaped skeet infrared sensing projectiles. The weapon is designed to be employed from US Air Force tactical aircraft from altitudes between 200 feet Above Ground Level (AGL) to 20,000 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) at speeds between 250 to 650 knots. Each CBU-97/B can cover an area of about 500 feet by 1,200 feet. Test results indicate that CBU-97 submunitions have a propensity to cluster and that impact patterns are unevenly distributed. This is contrary to the uniform distribution assumption employed in the Joint Munitions Effectiveness Manual (JMEM). Because of the clustering effect, it appears that JMEM overestimates damage and more weapons may be required to destroy the target then predicted.

The Sensor Fuzed Weapon [SFW] is an unpowered, top attack, wide area, cluster munition, designed to achieve multiple kills per aircraft pass against enemy armor and support vehicles. After release, the TMD opens and dispenses the ten submunitions which are parachute stabilized. Each of the 10 BLU-108/B submunitions contains four armor-penetrating projectiles with infrared sensors to detect armored targets.

The SFW can be deployed from operational U.S. or NATO tactical aircraft. It is presently certified on various USAF fighter and bomber aircraft. Any fighter or attack aircraft, whose weapon pylons can accommodate a 1,000-pound class weapon and has 14-inch lug suspension mounts, can carry SFW.

Metal storm

The Metal Storm Stacked Projectile combines the barrel and magazine, and eliminates the need for a traditional firing mechanism. When the weapon’s trigger is pulled electronic impulses are sent directly to the bullets, which ignite them at an incredibly fast rate of 16,000 rounds a second. The bullets are fired from several barrels at once. This is essentially the same design as a "Roman Candle" firework. Metal Storm also has the ability to fire grenades at a rate of a half-a-million rounds per minute.

Motion Detection System

Adding to the Metal Storm weapon’s deadly power is the fact that it can operate autonomously using an advanced motion detection system. Metal Storm can be left unattended on a battlefield to detect enemy soldiers or vehicles passing by and then open fire on them. Military analysts claim that the Metal Storm Stacked Projectile could be used against tough vehicles such as tanks and armoured personnel carriers. The weapon has been featured on television programs on the BBC and Discovery Channel.

Despite the attention being paid to the Metal Storm Stacked Projectile, it remains a weapon that is under development. Issues have also been raised about the ethics of using such a lethal weapon on modern battlefields.

Boeing YAL-1 - Airborne Laser

Modified 747 Aircraft

The U.S. Air Force has been testing the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser, which has been developed to target and destroy Tactical Ballistic Missiles. The weapon system uses a Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser that has been affixed to the nose of a modified Boeing 747 aircraft. Once targeted, the laser system heats a ballistic missile from the inside out and causes it to explode. Tests have shown that the YAL-1 system is capable of shooting down a missile within 10 seconds from a distance of several hundred miles.

The U.S. Air Force first tested the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser in 2002. Several more tests were conducted in 2007 and 2010. In the tests, the laser system successfully identified and destroyed several incoming missiles. The system has attracted a lot of attention from defense and security experts who see it as a way to protect U.S. soldiers and, potentially, U.S. territory from attacks by ballistic missiles. Some defense experts predict that a laser system similar to the Boeing YAL-1 could be developed and used in the future against enemy fighter jets, satellites and cruise missiles.

Over Budget

The Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser system is being developed by a consortium of leading defense contractors that includes Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Lockheed Martin Corp., and Northrop Grumman Corp. Despite the initial success of the tests involving the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser, the advanced program has gone more than $6 billion over budget. As of late 2010 the U.S. Air Force has not requested additional funding for the project or scheduled more tests of the system.

GUNZ

2012-01-25T17:11:00.000-08:00

M14

Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Rifle
Caliber: 7.62 x 51 mm (.30 inch)
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,799 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 700-750 rounds per minute

By the end of World War II, with an American infantry platoon carrying as many as four different weapons -- and four types of ammo -- the U.S. Army decided to develop a single weapon that could fulfill multiple roles. The result was the M14. First fielded in 1957, the rugged, accurate new rifle had plenty of stopping power with the standard NATO 7.62 mm round. It first saw major action in Vietnam, where soldiers liked its performance but struggled with the weight of both gun and ammunition. Before long it was phased out in favor of the lighter M16, but a few frontline units still use the classic weapon, primarily as a sniper rifle.

Caliber: 7.62x51 mm NATO (.308 Winchester)
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Length: 1120 mm
Barrel Length: 559 mm
Weight loaded: 5,1 kg (6.6 kg M14A1)
Magazine: 20 rounds, detachable box
Rate of fire: 700 -750 rounds per minute

The experience gained by US troops during the Second World war showed that the M1 Garand rifle has a lot of things to be improved. The first was the feeding system with 8-rounds en-bloc clips that does not allowed the refilling of the partially full magazine. Others were excessive length and weight of the rifle. The cartridge used in M1 Garand and known as .30-06 (7.62x63mm) was too long and too heavy, effectively limiting the load of ammunition carried by each soldier. First attempts to improve M1 were made during the war, and numerous experimental modifications in .30-06 were built, mostly using the 20-rounds detachable magazines from Browning BAR M1918 automatic rifle. One of such prototypes was the T20 ("T" means "test") of 1944. T20 was basically the M1 Garand rifle fitted with 20 rounds BAR magazine and with selective fire capability. This prototype latter evolved into the T37 rifle, which had gas cylinder moved back a little and was chambered for newest American prototype cartridge - T65. The T65 was no more than .30-06 case, shortened by 1/2 inch (12 mm), but retaining the original ballistic properties due to modern propellants used. It was slightly lighter and cheaper to made than .30-06, and has long effective range and good potential for accuracy, both desired by US Army. The idea of truly intermediate round was not acceptable to the US Military at that period. In the early 1950s T37 evolved into the T44 experimental rifle, which featured redesigned, self-regulated gas system with short stroke gas piston. Further development and tests lead to the slightly modified T44E4 and T44E5 (heavy barreled squad automatic weapon) prototypes, which were finally adopted by US Army as M14 and M15 rifles in the 1957. The M15, a heavy barreled weapon, however, was never brought into production. It must be noted that T44E4 was extensively tested against the only other entree in the US trials, the T48 rifle (Belgian FN FAL rifle made under license in USA by H&R Inc.). Both rifles passed the trials with equally high results, but US finally settled on the T44 because it was slightly lighter, similar to M1 Garand in manufacturing and operation, and, above all, a "Native American" design.

The contracts to produce M1 rifles were issued to some US companies, such as Thompson-Ramo-Wooldridge (TRW Inc), Harrington and Richardson Arms Co (H&R), Winchester-Western Arms Division of Olin Mathieson (Winchester) and Springfield Armory Inc (Springfield). Production was ceased by US Government in 1964, with some 1 380 000 weapons made. The termination of the production was the result of combat experience in the SE Asia, particularly in Vietnam. The M14 was too long and too heavy to be carried all day long in hot and wet climate. The 7.62mm NATO ammunition was too heavy, limiting the amount of ammunition carried by soldiers on patrols. The selective fire capability was mostly useless, since the M14 was way too light for powerful cartridge it fired, and climbed excessively when fired in bursts. In fact, most of the M14s were issued to troops with fire selectors locked to semi-automatic mode, to avoid useless waste of ammunition in automatic fire. The squad automatic version, known as M14E2, also was not too successful in its intended role. As soon as those deficiencies of the M14 became obvious for US Army Command, they started the search for lighter rifle, and finally settled on the Colt/Armalite AR-15 5.56mm assault rifle, adopting it as the M16A1. M14 was replaced as a first line weapon in the late 1960s, but is still used in small numbers by US Navy. It also served as a platform to build M21 Sniper rifles. Semi-automatic only versions of the M14 rifle are commercially manufactured for civilian and police markets by the Springfield Armory Inc since 1974 under the name of M1A. Some other US companies are assembling the M14-type semi-automatic rifles using military surplus M14 parts kits. Beginning in the early 1970s thousands of M14 rifles were given to several nations under military aid programs. In the 1990s alone, over 100,000 of these rifles have been given away to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, and Turkey. In USA, for some time M14 was mostly relegated to Honor Guard and similar duties, but during recent campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan many old M14 rifles were withdrawn from warehouses, dusted off and issued to troops in the field to improve range and lethality of troops armed with 5.56mm weapons. Some M14 rifles are issued as is, some are fitted with new telscope sights to serve as a para-sniper / designated marksman rifles (concept similar to Russian SVD rifle). US Marine Corps also re-issued M14 rifles for use in Designated Marksman role (DMR), and those rifles are fitted with newly made polymer stocks with adjustable buttstocks and pistol grips, and other accessories such as detachable bipods or sound moderators (silencers). Recently US Special Forces, operating under the US Navy flag, stepped forward with the Mk.14 Mod.0 Enchanced Battle rifle, which is an M14 fitted with many new commercially available parts, new stock with adjustable butt and plenty of Picatinny rails, and new accessories such as noise suppressors and optical equipment. The Mk.14 Mod.0 EBR is currently being used by US Navy SEAL's and possibly some other special operation forces within US Military.

In general, the M14 was a comtroversial weapon. It had the accuracy and range of the "old time" military rifles, but was too long, heavy and lacked the automatic fire firepower of a true assault rifle, often required in the modern close combat. Nevertheless, it was a reliable and powerful weapon, often favored by users for high lethality, long range and good penetration - features much appreciated by US soldiers during recent operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.

The M14 is a gas operated, magazine fed, selective fire (originally) design. The gas system is located under the barrel, and has a short stroke (about 1 1/2 inch - 37 mm) gas piston which operates the M1 Garand style action rod. The gas system features an automatic gas cutoff feature, which limits the amount of gases used to operate the weapon. The rotating bolt is quite similar to one found in M1 Garand but it has a roller instead of the simple lug, which connects the bolt to the operating rod. The fire mode selector is located at the right side of the receiver, above the trigger, and could be removed if rifle should not be fired in bursts, or re-installed if required. The rear receiver bridge features the stripper clips guides, so the detachable magazine could be refilled in place by using standard stripper clips. The bolt stop device is incorporated into the left wall of the receiver and holds the bolt open when last round from the magazine is fired. The safety switch is similar to M1 Garand and is located at the front of the triggerguard. Standard sights consist of the blade front sight with two protective "ears" and diopter-type adjustable rear sight, mounted on the rear of the receiver. Barrel is equipped with long flash suppressor. To be used in selective fire mode, M14 can be equipped with light detachable bipod. The M14A1 Squad Automatic rifle differs from M14 in the following: the fire selector is always installed. The standard wooden single-piece stock with semi-pistol grip is replaced by the "straight line" wooden stock with separate pistol grip and with folding front grip under the forearm. The hinged shoulder rest is attached to the buttplate. Special removable muzzle jump compensator is fitted to the barrel, as well as lightweight bipod.

STURMGEWEHR 44
Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Assault Rifle
Country of Origin: Germany
Caliber: 7.92 x 33 mm
Cartridge Capacity: 30 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,133 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 500 rounds per minute

The Wehrmacht hadn't been at war with the Soviet Union for long when it became clear that German infantry with their bolt-action Mausers were often at a disadvantage in firefights with Russian automatic weapons. In response, German armament developers came up with a revolutionary new weapon: the first "assault rifle" (the literal translation of the German Sturmgewehr). The key to its success was a shorter 7.92 mm round that allowed for effective automatic fire and permitted soldiers to carry sufficient ammunition. The Sturmgewehr came too late to play a significant role in World War II, but it wins high marks for innovation.

                                      The German Army was the final product of almost a century devoted continuously to a nation wide study of all aspects of the science of war. The German weapons were the best that its accomplished scientific and military minds could devise and which the country’s economy could produce.

One of the finest examples of success is the Sturmgewehr 44 - StG44 assault rifle. After the war the StG44 served as the model and inspiration for all assault gun designs including the Russian Kalashnikov AK-47. By the end of the war, over 400,000 StG44 variants of all types were produced.

The German Army determine that most firefights took place at short ranges, around 400 meters. This conclusion resulted from a detail analysis of engagements during the years of 1939 and 1940. The primary German weapon of the time, the bolt-action Kar98K rifle, was ill-suited for the mission.   It was designed for longer-range precision fire between the ranges of 800 -1000 meters.   On the other side, the existing sub-machine guns like the MP40 lacked the range or stopping power with the 9mm ammunition. The solution: first design compact ammunition, ideal for a new automatic weapon, with the proper balance between range and power.   The cartridge designed was the 7.92x33 Kurtz cartridges, which provided an excellent balance between hitting power and control.

Next came the rifle design. Carbine submachine gun specifications were issued to the firms of Haenel and Walther in 1942. Limited numbers of trail weapons were produced and tested on the Eastern Front. The Maschinkarabiner 42 (H) or MKb42(H) came from Haenel while the Walther weapon designation was Maschinkarabiner 42 (W) or MKb42(W).   Trials for both proved quite successful. Troops embraced these first ever assault guns. Yet Hitler decided that these development programs should be stopped. Haenel did not comply with the order and resorted to subterfuge to be able to continue development. The Haenel weapon was renamed to hide its true identity, now the carbine designation changed to a sub-machine gun, the Maschinenpistole 43 or sub-machine gun 43, or MP43. With further modification and improvement, came the first production version, the Maschinenpistole 44 or MP44. Limited numbers reached the troops. His generals raved about its capabilities and boldly demanded more.   Hitler decided to support the weapon, giving it the new designation, the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG44) or Storm Assault Rifle 44.

First deployed in 1944, it proved to be a revolutionary weapon. A StG44 equipped solider had a greatly improved tactical repertoire, in that he could effectively engage targets at long range across open terrain, or in close range urban fighting, as well as provide cover fire in all situations as a machine gun role. Most gun parts were constructed from steel stampings, but the weapon was very serviceable with reliable operation and accuracy.

German weapons innovated extended itself into the design of StG 44 accessories.   One was the first night small-arms infra-red sight, called the Vampir.   In the realm of the bizarre came the infamous 'Krummlauf.'   This 'curved barrel' attachment was intended to allow the StG packing soldier to shoot around corners at angles between 30 to 45 degrees. Even a special mirrored sight provided an aiming point. The 'Krummlauf' never worked correctly.

The Sturmgewehr was, at first, distributed almost exclusivly to the German elite forces. Units like the Waffen SS formations Leibstandarte, SS-Panzer-Division Das Reich, 3rd Totenkopf, 5th "Wiking", the 12th "Hitler Jugend" and Grossdeutschland held priority in all matters including access to the new war potential winning weapons like the StG44. When production volumes improved around December 1944, the StG44 saw widespread distribution in all types of units in the German military including the newly formed Volksgrenadier divisions.

1903 SPRINGFIELD
Type: Bolt-Action Rifle
Country of Origin: United States
Caliber: 7.62 x 63 mm (.30-06 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 5 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,700 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 10 rounds per minute

The relatively poor performance of the Norwegian Krag-Jorgensen rifle used by U.S. troops in the Spanish-American War led American planners to look elsewhere for a standard infantry weapon. They "borrowed" the more effective action found on the German 7mm Mauser, added a few modifications, and produced a magazine-fed rifle that boasted phenomenal accuracy. The 1903 quickly gained a reputation as an outstandingly accurate and powerful firearm -- at the Battle of Belleau Wood in 1918, U.S. Marines armed with Springfields cut down enemy counterattacks from 700 to 800 yards away. The rifle continued in service through World War II and Korea and even saw combat as a sniper rifle in Vietnam.

The 1903 adoption of the Springfield Bolt Action was preceded by nearly 30 years of struggle and politics, using lessons learned from the recently adopted U.S. versions of the Krag-Jørgensen rifle and contemporary German Mauser G98 bolt-action rifles. The M1903 not only replaced the various versions of the U.S. Army's Krag, but also the Lee Model 1895 and M1885 Remington-Lee used by the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps, as well as all remaining single shot trap-door Springfield Model 1873's. While the Krag had been issued in both a long rifle and carbine, the Springfield was issued only as a short 24 in. barrel rifle in keeping with current trends in Switzerland and Great Britain to eliminate the need for both long rifles and carbines.

The two main problems usually cited with the Krag were its slow-to-load magazine and its inability to handle higher chamber pressures for high-velocity rounds. The United States Army attempted to introduce a higher-velocity cartridge in 1899 for the existing Krags, but its single locking lug on the bolt could not withstand the extra chamber pressure. Though a stripper-clip or charger loading modification to the Krag was designed, it was clear to Army authorities that a new rifle was required. After the U.S. military's experience with the Mauser rifle in the 1898 Spanish American War, authorities decided to adopt a stronger Mauser-derived design equipped with a charger- or stripper clip-loaded box magazine.

STEYR AUG
Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Bull-Pup Assault Rifle
Country of Origin: Austria
Caliber: 5.56 x 45 mm (.22 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 30 and 42 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 3,084 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 650 rounds per minute

Looking more like a weapon from a science-fiction movie, the Steyr's only serious "flaw" is the advanced design that seemed to scare away potential customers after its introduction in 1977. In this radically new "bull-pup" configuration most of the barrel, receiver and action, instead of being in front of the operator's firing hand, is all moved back in the stock, resulting in a remarkably compact weapon that is light and easy to handle. The Steyr also features an interchangeable barrel system, a transparent magazine, and optional left or right shell ejection capability.

Caliber: 5.56mm NATO (.223rem)
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Overall length: 805 mm (with standard 508 mm barrel)
Barrel length: 508 mm (also 350 mm SMG, 407 mm Carbine or 621 mm LMG heavy barrel)
Weight: 3.8 kg unloaded (with standard 508 mm barrel)
Magazines: 30 or 42 rounds box magazines
Rate of fire: 650 rounds per minute
Effective range of fire: 450-500 meters with standard assault rifle barrel

The Steyr AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr - Universal Army Rifle) had been indevelopment since the late 1960s, as a replacement for venerable but obsolete Stg.58 (FN FAL) battle rifles for Austrian army. It was developed by the Austrian Steyr-Daimler-Puch company (now the Steyr-Mannlicher AG & Co KG) in close conjunction with Austrian Army. The major design is attributed to the three men - Horst Wesp, Karl Wagner and Karl Möser, who developed most of the rifle features. From the Austrian Office of Military Technology the project was supervised by the Colonel Walter Stoll. The new rifle has been adopted by the Austrian Army in 1977, as the Stg.77 (Assault rifle, model of 1977), and production began in 1978. Since then, the AUG gained serious popularity, being adopted by the armed forces of Australia, Austria, New Zealand, Oman, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Ireland and some others. It also was widely purchased by various security and law enforcement agencies worldwide, including the US Coastal Guard. The Steyr AUG can be considered as the most commercially successful bullpup assault rifle to date. Since the 1997, the Steyr-Mannlicher produced an updated version of the AUG, the AUG A2.
In around 2005, Steyr-Mannlicher introduced the most recent version of AUG, the AUG A3. This version is characterized by addition of four Picatinny-type accessory rails - one at the top of the receiver, and three around the barrel, in front of the receiver - at both sides and below it. Therefore there AUG A3 has no standard / integral sighting equipment; instead, any open, telescope or night vision sights can be installed on the upper rail, using appropriate mountings. Lower rail can be used to mount various attachments like tactical front grips, flash-lights, and a specially designed 40mm grenade launcher. Side rails can be used for equipment like laser-aiming devices.

Some said that the AUG rifle was revolutionary in many respects when it first appeared, but this is not true. In fact, the AUG is a clever combination of the various previously known ideas, assembled into one sound, reliable and aesthetically attractive package. Let's look at this a little closer. Bullpup configuration: The Steyr AUG is not a first military bullpup ever devised. In fact, British Enfield EM-2 and Soviet Korobov TKB-408 bullpup assault rifles precede the AUG by some 25-30 years. The French FAMAS bullpup also appeared on the scene at the very same time, as the AUG did. Plasticfirearm housing: Another Soviet experimental bullpup design, Korobov TKB-022, had the plastic housing as early as in 1962, and the FAMAS rifle, again, has this same feature at the same time as AUG did. Telescope sight as a standard: The British EM-2 bullpup rifle of late 1940s, as well as the experimental Canadian FN FAL prototypes of early 1950s, also featured a low-magnification telescope sights as their prime sighting equipment. A modular design: First systems, consisting of various firearms based on the same receiver and action (automatic rifle, light machine gun, carbine) were originally developed in 1920s in France by Rossignol and in Soviet Russia by Fedorov. Considering all said above, one must agree that the AUG was a logical development of various well known ideas,and a really successful one.

In general, the AUG is known for good ergonomics,decent accuracy and a good reliability.

Technical description.
The Steyr AUG is a gas operated, magazine fed, selective fire rifle of bullpup layout.

AUG is built around the aluminium casting receiver, with steel reinforcement inserts. One such insert is used to provide the locking to the removable barrels and the rotating bolt, thus relieving the receiver from most of the firing stress. Other inserts are used as a bearings for the bolt carrier guide rods.

The AUG uses a short piston stroke, gas operated action, with the gas piston mounted inside the compact gas block, which is fixed to the barrel. The gas cylinder is offset to the right from the barrel. Gas piston has its own return spring, contained inside the gas block. The gas system features a three positions gas regulator, which allows for two open positions (for normal and fouled conditions) and one closed position (for launching the rifle grenades). The gas block also contains a barrel fix / release lock and a front grip hinge. Each barrel has eight lugs, that lock into the steel insert in the receiver, and there's four basic barrel patterns for the AUG: standard rifle barrel is 508 mm (~20 in) long. "Compact" or "Submachine gun" barrel is 350 mm (13.8 in) long, "Carbine" barrel is 407 mm (16 in) long, and the heavy / LMG (light machine gun) barrel is 621 mm (24.4 in) long. On each rifle barrels can be exchanged in the matter of seconds. Each barrel is fitted with the flash hider, and the heavy 621 mm barrel also is fitted with lightweight folding bipods. There's no bayonet lug on Austrian service rifles, but it can be installed if required.

Barrel replacement procedure, as noted above, takes only few seconds (assuming that the shooter has the spare barrel handy). To remove the barrel, one must take off the magazine, and clear the rifle by operating the cocking handle. Then, grasp the barrel by the front grip, push the barrel retaining button at the gas block, and rotate the barrel and pull it out of the rifle. To install a new barrel, simply push the barrel down into the front of the receiver all the way and then rotate it until it locks. The rifle now is ready to be loaded and fired.

The bolt system consists of the bolt carrier, which has two large hollow guide rods, attached to its forward part. The left rod also serves as a link to the charging handle, and the right rod serves as the action rod, which transmits the impulse from the gas piston to the bolt carrier. The rotating bolt has 7 locking lugs, claw extractor and a plunger-type spring loaded ejector. Standard bolt has its extractor on the right side, to facilitate right-side ejection, but the left-side bolts (with mirrored positions of extractor and ejector) are available for those who need left-side ejection. The two return springs are located behind the bolt carrier, around the two string guide rods, that are located inside the bolt carrier guide rods. The cocking handle is located at the left side of the gun and normally does not reciprocate when gun is fired, but it can be solidly engaged to the bolt group if required by depressing the small button on the charging handle. On the latest AUG A2 variant, the charging handle was made folding up and of slightly different shape. The AUG action features a bolt stop device, that holds the bolt group open after the last round of ammunition from the magazine is fired. To release the bolt after the magazine replacement, one must pull the charging handle.

The hammer unit is made as a separate assembly and almost entirely of plastic (including the hammer itself). Only springs and pins are steel. The hammer unit is located in the butt and is linked to the sliding trigger by the dual trigger bars. The safety is of the cross-bolt, push-button type and located above the pistol grip. There's no separate fire mode selector on the AUG rifles. Instead, the trigger itself is used to control the mode of fire. Pulling it half the way back will produce single shots, while the full pull will produce automatic fire. The enlarged triggerguard encloses the whole hand and allows the gun to be fired in winter gloves or mittens.

The standard sighting equipment of the Steyr AUG rifle is the 1.5X telescope sight, with aiming reticle made as a circle. This circle is so dimensioned so its visible inner diameter is equal to the visible height of the standing man at 300 meters range. The adjustment knobs on the sight are used only for zeroing. The sight housing, which is integral to the receiver on the AUG A1 models, also features an emergency backup iron sights at the top of the telescope sight housing. Some early production AUG rifles of A1 pattern were fitted with receivers that had an integral scope mounts. On the AUG A2 models, the standard scope mount can be quickly removed and replaced by the Picatinny-type mounting rail.

The housing of the AUG rifles, integral with the pistol handle and triggerguard, is made from the high impact-resistant polymer, and is usually of green (military) or black (police) colour. The housing has two symmetrical ejection ports, one of which is always covered by the plastic cover. The rubber-coated buttplate is detachable and, when removed, opens the access to the rifle internals, including the hammer unit and the bolt group. The buttplate is held in position by the cross-pin, which also serves a s a rear sling swivel attachment point.

The AUG is fed from the detachable box magazines, that hold 30 (standard rifle) or 42 (light machine gun) rounds. The magazines are made from semi-translucent, strong polymer. The magazine release button is located behind the magazine port and is completely ambidextrous (some said that it is equally NOT comfortable for either hand use).

MAUSER K98k CARBINE

Type: Bolt-Action Rifle
Country of Origin: Germany
Caliber: 7.92 x 57 mm (.30 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 5 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: approximately 2,822 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 10-15 rounds per minute

First produced at the end of the 19th century, the Mauser 98 was the perfect synthesis of the many innovations that rifles had undergone during the late 19th century: smokeless powder, clips that could be fed into magazines and, most of all, its superb bolt action that is still the basis for most modern hunting rifles. The original model 98 was used during World War I to great effect, but when Germany started rearming in the 1930s the rifle received upgrades that made it lighter and easier to sight and shoot. Inevitably outgunned by automatic weapons, the Mauser nevertheless stands as one of the legendary rifles of the modern age.

The Mauser company, established by the two Mauser brothers, established its reputation in firearms making in the last decades of the XIX century, and continued to build a very well thought-out and skillfully built firearms until the end of the World War 2. Some years after the WW2, the Mauser company was restored in the West Germany and continued to build firearms, but mostly a larger-caliber ones, like the aircraft cannons etc. But some of earlier Mauser works became the standards against which all others designs are judged, even after some 100 years after its introduction. One of such designs, is undoubtfully a Mauser model 1898 rifle, also known as Gew. 98 or simply G98 (G = Gewehr, rifle in German). This rifle was designed from the experience, gained on previous Mauser designs, and was first appeared in 1898 as a standard German army infantry rifle. It was carried by Germans through the First World war, along with carbine shortened version, known as K98 (or Kar-98, from Karbiner = carbine). In the 1904 Germans were first to introduce the new, "spitzer" bullet (with pointed tip, instead of the older blunt, round-shaped tip). New bullet had much better long-range ballistic, so all sights were regraduated for new ammunition.

During the interwar period this fine design was slightly altered to became the K98k - Karbiner Kurz, or short carbine - a somewhat shorter, lighter and handier version of the original one. This version appeared in 1935 and was manufactured until the 1945 in large numbers not only by Germans, but also in numerous countries, occupied by Germans. Many versions of this design also were licensed to other countries, which also used to build their own versions of the G98. Most famous of those "foreign Mausers" are Persian Mausers, Turkish Mausers, Czech VZ-24 Mausers, Yugoslavian Mausers and some others. The list of the vast variety of the Mauser-type versions could easily cover a number of pages, but, for the sake of compactness, I will describe only the basic, German model.

The model 98 rifle is a manually operated, magazine fed, bolt action rifle. The magazine and the bolt action are the two most famous features of the model 98. Magazine is a two-row, integral box, with quickly detachable floorplate. Magazine could be topped either with single rounds, by pushing rounds into the receiver top opening, or via the stripper clips. Each clip can hold 5 rounds, enough to fill the magazine, and is inserted into the clip guides, machined into the rear receiver bridge. After the loading, empty clip is ejected automatically when bolt is closed. Magazine could be unloaded by operating the bolt (safety must be in the middle position!) or by removing the magazine floorplate (not recommended).

Mauser bolt is a simple, extremely strong and well thought out design. The bolt has three locking lugs, two at the bolt head and one at the rear part of the bolt. The bolt handle is rigidly attached to the bolt body. On the original Gew 98 rifles it was straight and located horizontally when bolt was in the closed position. On the K98k the bolt handle was bent down, which allowed for more comfortable carrying and bolt operations. Bolt has a gas vent holes that are designed to move the hot gases away from the shooters face and into the magazine opening in the case of the cartridge case or primer rupture. Next famous feature of the model 98 bolt is a "controlled feed" extractor. Massive, non-rotating claw extractor was designed to engage the cartridge rim as soon as cartridge left the magazine, and held the cartridge case firmly until it was ejected by the ejector, fixed inside the receiver. Combined with a slight bolt retraction at the last stage of the bolt turn-open rotation, caused by the cammed surface on the rear receiver bridge, this resulted in very positive primary extraction. Model 98 is a striker-fired weapon. Striker is cocked when bolt is rotated to open, allowing for smoother forward bolt pull. The rear part of the striker is protruded from within the bolt, so state of the action (cocked or not) can be checked visually or even manually. The bolt group can be easily removed from the receiver simply by pulling out the bolt stop, located at the left wall of the receiver, and then by rotating and pulling the bolt out. The safety switch is located at the rear of the bolt and has three positions: in the left position (when looking from behind the rifle) it locks the sear and also locks the bolt in place, so it could not be rotated and opened. in the middle (raised) position it still locks the sear, but bolt is unlocked and could be operated, to load and unload the rifle; and in the right position, the rifle is ready to fire. Safety could be easily operated by the right thumb finger.

Model 98 rifle featured a one-piece wooden stock with semi-pistol grip. Gew 98 and Kar 98K differ not only in the length of the barrel and the front part of the stock - they also have different sling mountings. While Gew 98 has two sling swivels, the K98k has only one, forward swivel. Instead of the rear swivel there's a through cut in the buttstock, through which the sling is passed. Those rifles also have different rear sights: Gew 98 have a curved, tangent sight, while K98k has more modern, leaf type rear sight. Front sights are of open, barleycorn type, on some carbines with removable semi-circular front sight hoods.

FN FAL
Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Rifle
Country of Origin: Belgium
Caliber: 7.62 x 51 mm (.30 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 20 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,700 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 650-700 rounds per minute

Inspired by the Sturmgewehr 44, the Belgian manufacturer Fabrique Nationale (FN) originally developed the FAL around the same intermediate round used by the German gun, but when NATO issued the requirement for the longer 7.62 mm, FN altered the design and created a heavy hitter that packs a punch -- and a potent kick. The FAL soon became one of the classic weapons of the Cold War, used by over 50 countries, even if it proved tough to handle in full auto mode. The rifle gave good service to the Australian army in the jungles of Vietnam, to Israeli troops during the Six-Day War and was used by both sides in the fight for the Falkland Islands.

The Fusil Automatique Leger (FAL) or Light Automatic Rifle (LAR) manufactured by Fabrique National, was originally designed to fire the 7.92mm Kurz cartridge developed by the Germans in World War II. However, post-war pressure for a more powerful cartridge produced the compromise 7.62mm x 51 (.308 Winchester), which could easily be manufactured on machines producing the .30 caliber service cartridge. The new more powerful round was selected as the NATO standard.

FN rebuilt their rifle to fit the new cartridge and created what is possibly the classic post-war battle rifle. Tough, reliable, and accurate, the new design promptly cornered the market, selling to armed forces in more than 90 countries around the world including Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, India, Israel, Libya, Peru, Singapore and the UK. All FALs share the reliability that solid construction and attention to detail creates. Most are also capable of automatic fire.

he FAL operates by means of a gas-operated action very similar to that of the Russian SVT-40. The gas system is driven by a short-stroke, spring-loaded piston housed above the barrel, and the locking mechanism is what is known as a tilting breechblock. To lock, it drops down into a solid shoulder of metal in the heavy receiver much like the bolts of the Russian SKS carbine and French MAS-49 series of semi-automatic rifles. The gas system is fitted with a gas regulator behind the front sight base, allowing adjustment of the gas system in response to environmental conditions, and a separate gas plug can be closed completely to allow for the firing of rifle grenades and manual loading. The FAL's magazine capacity ranges from 5 to 30 rounds, with most magazines holding 20 rounds. In fixed stock versions of the FAL, the recoilspring is housed in the stock, while in folding-stock versions it is housed in the receiver cover, necessitating a slightly different receiver cover, recoil spring, and bolt carrier, and a modified lower receiver for the stock.

FAL rifles have also been manufactured in both light and heavy-barrel configurations, with the heavy barrel intended for automatic fire as a section or squad light support weapon. Most heavy barrel FALs are equipped with bipods, although some light barrel models were equipped with bipods, such as the Austrian StG58 and the German G1, and a bipod was later made available as an accessory.

Among other 7.62x51mm NATO battle rifles at the time, the FN FAL had relatively light recoil, due to the gas system being able to be tuned via regulator in fore-end of the rifle, which allowed for excess gas which would simply increase recoil to bleed off. In fully automatic mode, however, the shooter receives considerable abuse from recoil, and the weapon climbs off-target quickly, making automatic fire only of marginal effectiveness. Many military forces using the FAL eventually eliminated full-automatic firearms training in the light-barrel FAL.

The Fusil Automatique Léger ("Light Automatic Rifle") or FAL is a self-loading, selective fire battle rifle produced by the Belgian armaments manufacturer Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN). During the Cold War it was adopted by many North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries, with the notable exception of the United States. It is one of the most widely used rifles in history, having been used by over 90

M1 GARAND

Type: Semiautomatic
Rifle Country of Origin: United States
Caliber: 7.62 x 63 mm (.30-06 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 8 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,838 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 30 rounds per minute

Adopted by the U.S. Army in 1936, the M1 Garand proved to be a tough, heavy battle rifle when it entered combat five years later. General Patton remarked at the end of World War II that the M1 may have been the greatest battle implement ever devised. A bit of a stretch perhaps, but there's no doubt that the M1 was the first successful semiautomatic rifle issued in any quantity that had the ruggedness and accuracy to dominate the battlefield. Over 6.25 million Garands had been manufactured by the time it was taken out of service in the early 1960s.
Type: Semiautomatic
Rifle Country of Origin: United States
Caliber: 7.62 x 63 mm (.30-06 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 8 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 2,838 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 30 rounds per minute

Caliber: .30-06 (7.62x63 mm)
Action: Gas operated, rotating bolt
Overall length: 1103 mm
Barrel length: 610 mm
Weight: 4.32 kg
Feeding: non-detachable, clip-fed only magazine, 8 rounds

The story of the first semi-automatic rifle ever widely-adopted as a standard military arm began after the start of the First World War, when the inventor John C. Garand (Canadian, then living in USA) began to develop a semi-automatic (or self-loading) rifles. He worked at the government-owned Springfield armory and during the 1920s and early 1930 developed a number of design. Early rifles were built using somewhat rare system of the cartridge primer blowback, but due to some reasons this system was unsuitable for a military rifle, so he switched to the more common gas-operated system. He filed a patent for his semiautomatic, gas operated, clip-fed rifle in 1930, and received an US patent for his design late in 1932. This rifle was built around then-experimental .276 caliber (7mm) cartridge. At the same time, his rifle was tested by the US Military against its main competitor, a .276 caliber Pedersen rifle, and was eventually recommended for adoption by US Army early in the 1932. But a little bit later an US general MacArthur stated that the US Military should stick to the old .30-06 cartridge. Foreseeing that, Garand already had a variation of his design chambered for 30-06. Finally, at the 6th January, 1936, the Garands' rifle was adopted by the US Army as an "rifle, .30 caliber, M1". Early issue rifles, however, showed a quite poor characteristics, jamming way too often for a decent military arm, so a lot of noise was raised that eventually reached the US Congress. In the 1939, the major redesign was ordered, and Garand quickly redesigned a gas port system, which greatly improved the reliability. Almost all M1 rifles of the early issue were quickly rebuilt to adopt a new gas system, so very few "original" M1 Garand rifles survived to present days, and those are extremely expensive collectors items. When the USA entered the World War 2, the mass production of the M1 rifles was set at the Springfield armory and at the Winchester. During the war, both companies developed about 4 millions of M1 rifles, so M1 Garand is a most widely used semi-automatic rifle of the World War 2. During the war, M1 Garand proved itself as a reliable and powerful weapon. There were minor attempts to improve it during the war, but these did not left experimental stages, except for two sniper modifications, M1C and M1D. Both were approved for service in the 1945 and bothfeatured a telescope sight which was off-set to the left due to the top-loading feature of the M1. After the end of the WW2 the production of the M1 in the USA was stopped, and some rifles and also licenses to built it were sold to other countries, such as Italy and Denmark. With the outbreak of the Korean war in 1950 the production of theM1 for US forces was resumed early in 1952. Rifles were manufactured at Springfield armory, and also at Harrington & Richardson Company (H&R) and International Harvester Company. Those companies manufactured M1s until the 1955, and Springfield Armory produced the Garands until 1956. With the official adoption of the new rifle and ammunition in 1957, M14 and 7.62x51mm NATO, respectively, for US service, the M1 rifle became obsolete. It was still used during the later years, however, due to the lack of M14 and M16 rifles, and saw some service during the early period of the Vietnam war. Later, many M1s were transferred to the US National Guard, used as a training weapons by US Army or sold to civilians as a military surplus. Few M1 are still used by all branches of the US Military as a ceremonial weapons. Other than USA, M1s were used by Italy (where these rifles were lately redesigned and rebuilt into 7.62mm BM-59 rifles). Denmark, France and some other countries. There also were attempts to rebarrel the M1 for 7.62mm cartridge in the USA and to adopt a detachable 20-rounds magazines from Browning BAR rifles, but these were less than successful and haven't seen any significant service.

M1 is a gas operated, magazine fed, semiautomatic rifle. Original M1 were using the gas, that was tapped from muzzle by the special muzzle extension, but this was provenunreliable, and since the 1939, M1 rifles were built with gas system that used a gas port, drilled in the barrel near the muzzle. The tapped gas was directed into the gas cylinder, located under the barrel, where it operated a long-stroke gas piston, integral with the operating rod. Long operating rod housed inside it a return spring, and ended with the extension, that carried a bolt operating groove at the left and a charging handle at the right. The groove was connected with the rotating bolt, located inside the receiver. Bolt had two locking lugs that locked into the receiver walls. When gun was fired, hot powder gases were led to the gas chamber and to the gas piston, that drove back the operating rod. The bolt operating grove, interacting with the stud on the bolt, rotated bolt to unlock it and then retracted it to commence the reloading cycle.

M1 was fed from the integral box magazine, which was probably the weakest point of the whole design. The magazine was fed using only the 8-rounds clips, which stayed inside the magazine until all 8 rounds were shot. As soon as the magazine (and clip) became empty, bolt was stopped at its rearward position by the bolt catch, and the empty clip was automatically ejected from the magazine with the distinctive sound. The main drawback of the system was that the clips could not be easily reloaded during the action. However, there still was the possibility to refill the clip in the rifle, but this was not the fastest procedure.

M1 featured a wooden stock with separate handguards and a steel buttplate. The forwardmost part of the muzzle served as a bayonet mounting point. Sights of the M1 consisted of the front sight with dual protecting "wings", dovetailed into the gas block at the muzzle, and the adjustable peephole rear sights, built into the rear part of the receiver. Sniper versions (M1C and M1D) also featured scope mounts on the receiver, offset to the left from the axis of the rifle, so it was possible to load it with clips and also to use its iron sights with scope installed (in the case of the scope damage, for example).

There were some attempts to make a handier and more compact version of the M1 by shortening the barrel by some 6 inches (152 mm), with standard wooden or skeleton metallic buttstocks, but these attempts never left the experimental stages. Some short barreled "tankers" M1 rifles, appeared in the post-war period, are not the genuine designs, but the "sawed-off" variations of the standard "long" rifles.

LEE-ENFIELD SMLE
Type: Bolt-Action Rifle
Country of Origin: United Kingdom
Caliber: 7.7 x 56 mm (.30 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 10 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: approximately 2,438 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 15-20 rounds per minute

The standard infantry weapon of British troops from World War I to the 1956 Suez crisis, the Lee-Enfield SMLE (pronounced "smelly") built its reputation on reliability, accuracy and a phenomenal rate of fire. Its magazine carried 10 bullets, the largest capacity of any rifle on the battlefield during the first half of the 20th century. Its short bolt action cocked on closing, and its muzzle cap prevented dirt from clogging the weapon. In the hands of a well-trained infantryman, the Lee-Enfield could perform what was called the "mad minute," i.e., thirty rounds hitting a target 200 meters distant in one minute, a volume of fire that rivals modern semiautomatic weapons.

	Lee-Enfield Mk .1	SMLE Mk. III (No.1 Mk.3)	SMLE No.4 Mk.1	SMLE No.5 Jungle carbine
Caliber	.303 British (7.7x56mm R)
Action	manually operated, rotating bolt
Overall length	1260 mm	1132 mm	1129 mm	1003 mm
Barrel length	767 mm	640 mm	640 mm	478 mm
Weight	4.19 kg	3.96 kg	4.11 kg	3.24 kg
Magazine capacity	10 rounds in detachable box magazine

The Lee-Enfield series of rifles was born in 1895 as a marriage between the magazine and bolt action, designed by the J. P. Lee, and the new pattern of barrel rifling, designed at the Royal Small Arms Factory (RSAF) at Enfield. Originally known as Lee-Metford, this design was adopted by British army in 1888 and used a Metford pattern rifling with shallow groves, intended to be used with ammunition loaded with black powder. Introduction of the smokeless powders in the form of the Cordite showed that the Metford rifling was very short-living, so it was soon replaced with Enfield rifling, with 5 traditional land and grooves and left hand pitch. Early Lee-Enfield rifles, officially known as a ".303 caliber, Rifle, Magazine, Lee-Enfield", were carried by the British army through the Boer war (South Africa) of 1899-1902, and Boers, armed with their Mausers, taught to the Brits some hard lessons. And, unlike some other Empires, Brits were quick lo learn. In 1903, they introduced a new design, which improved over the older Lee-Metfords and Lee-Enfields in some important respects. The main improvements was the introduction of the "universal" rifle idea. The common thinking of the period was to issue the long rifle for infantry and the carbine for cavalry, artillery and other such troops. The Brits decided to replace this variety of sizes with one, "intermediate" size, that will fit all niches. This "one size fits all" rifle was called ".303 caliber, Rifle, Short, Magazine, Lee-Enfield, Mark 1", or, in short SMLE Mk.I, where "short" referred to the length of the rifle. This rifle passed some improvements during the following pre-WW1 years, finalizing in the 1907 as a SMLE Mk.III. Development and introduction into service of this rifle was accompanied with constant complaints of some "theorists", which stated that this rifle would be no good neither for infantry, nor for cavalry, so RSAF was set do design another rifle, patterned after the German Mauser, which also should be more suitable for mass production, than the SMLE. This rifle finally appeared in 1914 as an ".303 caliber Enfield Pattern 1914 rifle", or simply a P-14. With the outbreak of the Great war British troops were still armed with the "poor" SMLE Mk.III rifles, which soon turned far from any "poor", giving some hard time to the Germans. In fact, the SMLE Mk.III was a really good rifle, quite accurate, reliable and suitable for rapid and accurate firing. British soldiers were rigorously trained for both individual and volley fire marksmanship, and were routinely capable of firing 30 aimed shots per minute, which was quite a rate of fire for any non-automatic rifle. There were times when advancing Germans were impressed that they were under the machine gun fire, when Tommie used their salvo-firing techniques. During the war time the basic Mk.III design was slightly simplified to better suit the mass production needs, with omission of "volley" sights and magazine cutoffs, and with some production shortcuts. When the World War One was over, there were no questions of quality of basic SMLE design, but some improvements were suggested and introduced in later patterns, such as peep-hole, receiver mounted sights. These "interwar" patterns were not issued in any significant quantities until the 1941. In 1926, Britains, quite confused with numerous 'Marks' and 'Marks with stars' of their weaponry, decided to adopt a new numbering system, so the SMLE Mark III became the "Rifle, No. 1 Mark 3". The "Rifle No.2" was a training version of the SMLE No.1 but chambered to .22LR ammunition. The "No.3" was assigned to the P-14 rifle, which was used in limited numbers. And the "Rifle No.4 Mark 1", widely known as a SMLE No.4 Mk.1, appeared in 1941. This was an improved and strengthened SMLE design, with heavier and stronger receiver, which also was faster and easier to machine, and with heavier barrel. The stock shape was shortened at the front part, giving away with the characteristic Mark III snub-nosed appearance. The barrel-mounted open rear sights were replaced with the receiver-mounted peep-hole sights, which were micrometer-adjustable. The latter feature was substituted by the simplified flip-up rear sights for wartime production, and this version became the No.4 Mk.1* rifle. By the end of the World War 2, when British and Commonwealth troops (also armed with SMLEs) started to fight in jungles of the South-East Asia, it was soon discovered that a "short" SMLE was still not short enough for the jungle combat, so a carbine version was adopted late in the 1944 in the form of the No.5 "jungle carbine". This gun was somewhat lighter and handier than No.4, but suffered from the "wandering zero" problems, which meant that the point of impact wandered during the time. The muzzle flash and recoil were also too strong, despite the flash-hider and rubber buttpad. The last, and by some opinions the finest "general issue" version of the SMLE was the No.4 Mk.2 rifle, which appeared in 1949. It was made by higher peacetime standards of fit and finish, than a wartime No.1 Mk.3s and No.4 Mk.1s, and served with British army until the mid-1950s, when the self-loading L1 SLR (semi-auto copy of the Belgian FN FAL) rifle in 7.62mm NATO was introduced into general service. But some SMLEs were left in military service, as a training, target and, especially, sniper rifles, known as Enfield L39 and L41, rechambered to the new standard 7.62mm NATO ammunition, and served well until the late 1980s, when there were replaced by the L96 sniper rifles. It should be noted, that SMLE rifles were produced and used not only in the UK. Australian, Canadian and Indian factories turned out more than million of the No.1 rifles with various improvements, which were used during both World wars and thereafter. During the WW2, Britain also acquired quantities of SMLE No.4 (marked No.4 Mk.1*) made under contract at the Savage Arms company in USA. In the 1950s, Indian Isaphore arsenal turned out some SMLEs rechambered to the 7.62mm NATO (.308 win) ammunition. These are distinguishable from .303 caliber rifles by the more squared outline of the magazine. Total numbers of all 'Marks' and 'Numbers' of the SMLE made during the 60 years in various countries is not less than 5 000 000 (yes, five millions) rifles.

The SMLE is a manually operated, rotating bolt action magazine fed rifle. The Lee-designed SMLE magazine is a first easily distinguishable feature. It holds 10 rounds of ammunition in staggered column form, and while the magazine itself is detachable, it is not intended to be reloaded when detached from rifle. Early Lee-Enfields (Long Lee-Enfields and SMLEs prior to Mark III) were loaded only by single rounds via the top receiver opening. Latter, the clip (charger) loading was introduced, and a rear receiver bridge with charger clip guides was added to the design. Some of the earlier marks were then retrofitted with charger loading ability during the 1907 - 1910. To load the magazine, one must use two standard 5-rounds clips. Loading by loose rounds was still available, but some care must be taken when loading cartridges into clips or in the magazine, due to the rimmed ammunition cases. Prior to the 1916, all SMLEs (and earlier Long Lee-Enfields) were issued with so called "magazine cut-off" - a simple device, located at the right side of the receiver and intended to cut off the cartridge supply from magazine to the action when engaged, so rifle could be used as a single-loader, and ammunition in the magazine could be saved for the hottest moments of combat. This was an outdated idea even when it was first introduced, so it was easily discarded when the need to speed up production arose. The magazine itself should be detached only for cleaning, maintenance and repair, and every rifle was issued with only one magazine. The magazine catch is located inside the triggerguard.

The bolt action, another invention of the James Paris Lee (along with magazine), is the other most famous feature of the SMLE. The rotating bolt has two lugs that lock into the receiver walls at the rear part of the bolt, thus saving some part of the bolt length and bolt pull, when comparing to the forward lugs locking. This shorter bolt pull, along with charging handle, located at the rear part of the bolt and bent down, lent itself to quick reloading. Add a relatively high capacity magazine with fast clip reloading and here you have one of the fastest practical rates of fire along with contemporary designs. The SMLE was a striker fired gun, with cocking on the bolt close action and a dual-stage trigger. The bolt head with the extractor was a separate, non-rotating unit, screwed into the bolt body. The safety was located at the rear left side of the receiver and was easily operated by the firing hands' thumb finger. One notable feature of the Lee bolt action was that the bolts were not interchangeable between different rifles of the same mark Each bolt must have been fitted to its respective action, thus making the production and in-field bolt replacement more complicated. The insufficient headspace problem on the pre-No.4 SMLEs was solved my manual sandpapering the respective bolt-head, and since the No.4 rifle, there were 4 standard sizes of the bolt heads, from which armourer could select one, most suitable for the particular action.

The sights of the Mark III / No.1 Mk.3 SMLEs were a combination of the barleycorn front (an inverted V-shape) and V-notch adjustable rear sights, mounted on the barrel. The front sights were protected by the two "ears" on the stock nose-cap. Latter the front sight were changed to post type, and the rear - to the U-notch type, and since the introduction of the No.4 rifle the barrel-mounted open rear sight was replaced with peep-hole one, mounted on the receiver, which made the sighting line much longer and improved the long-range accuracy. Sniper No.4 Mk.1(T) rifles, made during the WW2, were equipped with detachable optical scope mounts at the left side of the receiver. The scope was carried in the separate box when not in use. No.4 Mk1* rifles, made during the WW2, were equipped with the simplified, two position aperture (peep-hole) sights, marked for 300 and 600 yards ranges only. Pre-1916 Lee-Enfields were also equipped with interesting device, called the "volley" sights. This device was mounted at the left side of the stock, ahead of the magazine, and was used to provide an indirect fire capability at the ranges from 2 000 and up to outstanding 3 900 yards (1800 - 3550 meters). While the individual marksmanship at such ranges with rifle was a nonsense, the salvo firing by large squads at the distant and large targets (such as tight infantry or cavalry formations) can do some damage to the enemy. This was, obviously, an idea of the pre - machine gun and pre - light artillery period, and it was happily dropped during the WW1.

The famous by its distinguishable shape stock of the SMLE featured a semi-pistol grip, a steel buttplate with a trapdoor and a compartment in the butt for tools and cleaningequipment. The "flat-nosed" forend covered the barrel up to the muzzle, and has a small stud, protruding forward under the muzzle for bayonet mounting. Most SMLEs have a small brass disc inset into the right side of the butt, which was used for regimental markings (unlike the German Mausers, where the similar steel disc was used as a bolt unit disassembly tool). The conventional sling swivels were mounted on the frond handguard band and under the butt. Mk.4 No1.(T) sniper rifles also featured an additionalwooden cheek rest on the top of the butt for more comfortable sighting while using the scope.

In general the SMLE were ones of the best bolt action battle rifles, fast-firing, powerful and reliable. While being less suitable for "sporterizing" than Mausers, they are still popular among civilians as a hunting and plinking weapons, and also as a part of the history. The key deficiencies of the SMLE were probably the rimmed ammunition and non-interchangeability of bolts, but the advantages of this design were mush bigger and Lee-Enfields in all its guises served the Britain and the British Commonwealth for more than 60 years in the front line service and much longer as a specialized weapon (training and sniper).

M16
Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Assault Rifle
Country of Origin: United States
Caliber: 5.56 x 45 mm (.223 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 20-30 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: Approximately 3,281 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 700-950 rounds per minute

Although it took a little time to work out the gun's jamming problems during its combat trials in the early 1960s, the M16 has proven to be an outstanding performer with superb accuracy, handling, service length and combat effectiveness. The rifle fulfilled the U.S. military's desire to develop a lightweight modern assault rifle that could replace the semiautomatic M1 and its selective-fire counterpart, the M14. Its innovative features include lighter metal alloy and plastic construction, a simple gas reload system and the use of 5.56 mm ammunition, allowing soldiers to carry twice the amount of ammunition for the same weight of 7.62 mm rounds.

The M16 is an American assault rifle designed by The Armalite Corporation in 1957. It was first put into service in 1963, becoming the standard US assault rifle by 1969, replacing theM14 rifle. The M16 fires the 5.56x45mm NATO round, and, with its long barrel, can be very accurate at medium to long ranges. The M16 has a rate of fire of around 700-950 rounds per minute, depending on the model of AR15. The M16A1, A2 and A4 variants fire in three-round, while the original M16 and A3 variants can fire fully-automatic. Variants of the M16 rifles have been featured throughout the Battlefield series.

The M16 is a lightweight, 5.56 mm, air-cooled, gas-operated, magazine-fed assault rifle, with a rotating bolt, actuated by direct impingement gas operation. The rifle is made of steel, 7075 aluminum alloy, composite plastics and polymer materials.

In the early 1960s, the U.S. Air Force's rifle, the M16, and the Army's XM16E1, were the first versions of the M16 rifle fielded. Soon the U.S. Army standardized an upgrade of the XM16E1 as the M16A1 rifle, an M16 with a forward assist feature and other improvements requested by the Army. All of the early versions were chambered to fire the M193/M196 cartridge in the semi-automatic and the automatic firing modes. This occurred in the early 1960s, with the Army issuing it in late 1964.Commercial AR-15s were first issued to Special Forces troops in spring of 1964.

A U.S. soldier on NBC exercise, holding an M16A1 rifle and wearing an M40 Field Protective Mask. Note the receiver,forward assist and the barrel flash suppressor.

The M16A2 rifle entered service in the 1980s, being ordered in large scale by 1987, chambered to fire the standard NATO cartridge, the Belgian-designed M855/M856 cartridge.The M16A2 is a select-fire rifle (semi-automatic fire, three-round-burst fire) incorporating design elements requested by the Marine Corps: an adjustable, windage rear-sight; a stock ⁵⁄₈ inches (16 mm) longer; heavier barrel; case deflector for left-hand shooters; and cylindrical handguards.The fire mode selector is on the receiver's left side.

The M16A3 rifle is an M16A2 rifle with an M16A1's fire control group (semi-automatic fire, automatic fire) that is used only by the U.S. Navy.

The M16A4 rifle was standard issue for the United States Marine Corps in Operation Iraqi Freedom since 2004; it replaced the M16A2 in front line units. In the U.S. Army the M16A2 rifle is being supplemented with two rifle models, the M16A4 and the M4 carbine as the standard issue assault rifle. The M16A4 has a flat-top receiver developed for the M4 carbine, a handguard with four Picatinny rails for mounting a sight, laser, night vision device, forward handgrip, removable handle, or a flashlight.

The M16 rifle is principally manufactured by Colt and Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (under a U.S. military contract since 1988 by FNH-USA; currently in production since 1991, primarily M16A2, A3, and A4), with variants made elsewhere in the world. Versions for the U.S. military have also been made by H & R Firearms. General Motors Hydramatic Division and most recently by Sabre Defence. Semi-automatic versions of the AR-15 are popular recreational shooting rifles, with versions manufactured by other small and large manufacturers in the U.S.

AK-47
Type: Semi or Fully Automatic Assault Rifle
Country of Origin: Soviet Union
Caliber: 7.62 x 39 mm (.30 inch)
Cartridge Capacity: 30 rounds
Muzzle Velocity: 2,329 feet per second
Rate of Fire: 600 rounds per minute

With over 75 million built worldwide, the AK-47 (a.k.a., "Kalashnikov") is a firearms legend that has probably inflicted more lethal results than any other single weapon system ever produced. Built on the same basic design as the German Sturmgewehr, it chambered an intermediate round and was built from stamped parts. The AK-47 was not only easy to produce and relatively cheap, is also proved remarkably easy to maintain and virtually immune to conditions that could easily take out other guns. Accuracy is average, but the

The Kalashnikov assault rifle, also known to the West as the AK-47 (Avtomat Kalashnikova - 47, Kalashnikov automatic rifle, model of 1947), and its derivatives, also known under the common name of AK, is the most prolific small arm of the 2nd half of the XX century. It had been and still is (in more or less modified form) manufactured in dozens of countries, and used in hundreds of countries and conflicts since its introduction. The total number of the AK-type rifles made worldwide during the last 60 years is estimated at 90+ millions. This is a true legendary weapon, known for its extreme ruggedness, simplicity of operation and maintenance, and unsurpassed reliability even in worst conditions possible. It is used not only as a military weapon, but also as a platform for numerous sporting civilian rifles and shotguns (see Saiga semiautomatic shotguns, for example). The AK is an amalgam of previously known features and solutions, combined in the most effective way. The effectiveness, however, depends on the criteria used to measure it, and the key criteria for any and every Soviet and Russian military arm are: Reliability, Simplicity of operation and maintenance, Suitability for mass production. There never was any significant demand for good ergonomics or superb accuracy, though.

The true story of AK began late in 1942, when Soviet troops captured several specimen of the very new German MKb.42(H) machine carbine(assault rifle), along with some 7.92 Kurz ammunition. By mid-1943 the MKb.42(H) along with US-supplied M1carbine were evaluated by Soviet experts, and it was decided on top level that similar weapons, firing the intermediate power cartridge, must be developed for Soviet army as soon as possible. The task of initial development of new ammunition was accomplished in rather short time. By November 1943 technical specifications for the 7.62x41mm cartridge, having bottlenecked, rimless case and firing 8-gram pointed bullet, were sent out to all Soviet small arms design bureaus and organizations. By the spring of 1944, there were at least ten designs of automatic weapons in the works (not counting semi-automatic carbines that resulted in adoption of SKS and bolt-action carbines that went nowhere). In mid-1944, trials commission selected the AS-44 assault rifle, designed by Sudaev, as the over all best, and ordered a limited production run for troops trials. Some AS-44 rifles were manufactured in spring of 1945, and these were evaluated by troops in summer of 1945, just after the Victory in Europe. Troops generally liked the AS-44, as it has longer effective range compared to PPSh-41 submachine gun, and provided better accuracy in semi-automatic fire. The problem was that AS-44 was overly heavy (more than 5 kg empty), and trials commission ordered next round of development and trials, which started early in 1946.

Enter Mikhail Kalashnikov, the young sergeant ofSoviet tank forces, who, after being wounded in combat in 1942,designed a prototype submachine gun while on medical leave. His first weapon was rejected on the grounds of complexity, but the designer himself was assigned to the Red Army's Small Arms and Mortar Research & Proving ground(NIPSMVO) near the Moscow to continue his education and work on other weapons. Here Kalashnikov designed a semi-automatic carbine,heavily influenced by American M1Garand rifle. This carbine, while not successful by itself, served as a starting point for the first Kalashnikov's assault rifle, provisionally known as AK No.1 or AK-46. In November of 1946 the AK-46 project was chosen for prototype manufacture along with 5 other projects (out of 16 submitted to commission), and Kalashnikov was sent to the city of Kovrov (also not far from the Moscow), to manufacture his weapon at the small arms factory there. The AK-46 was gas operated, rotary bolt weapon that utilized short-stroke gas piston above the barrel, and two-part receiver with separate trigger unit housing and dual controls (separate safety and fire selector switches on the left side of the trigger unit).
In December 1946 new assault rifles were tested at NIPSMVO range, with AS-44 being used as a control (its development has ceased earlier in 1946 due to untimely death of the Sudaev, who was severely ill by the 1945). As an initial result of these tests, the AK-46 was selected for further development by trials commission, with two more weapons selected for further evolution being rifles from designers Dementiev and Bulkin. The second round of trials, which included three weapons (AK-46 by Kalashnikov, AB-46 by Bulkin and AD by Dementiev), resulted in rejection of the improved AK-46, which was inferior to other rivals in many aspects. Despite that failure, Kalashnikov, using his contacts and support from some member of trials commission (whom he knew from his earlier work at NIPSMVO in 1943-46) pursued the head of the trials commission to review the results, and finally got a green light to continue his development for next round of trials. Following the technical failure of the AK-46, Kalashnikov and his companion designer Zaitsev (who was a staff weapons designer at Kovrov plant) decided to completely rework the design, using successful technical solutions borrowed from various weapons, including direct competitors. For example, the long-stroke gas piston, attached to the bolt carrier, along with captive return spring assembly and receiver cover were apparently inspired by Bulkin's AB-46 rifle; the idea of large clearances between bolt group and receiver walls, with minimum friction surfaces, was inspired by the Sudaev's AS-44, the safety / dust cover lever was copied from Browning designed Remington model8 hunting rifle etc.
It must be noted here, that such copying and borrowing of ideas was actually encouraged by the trials commission (and the whole Soviet ideology), as all intellectual property in USSR was considered to be property of 'the people', or the state. Thus, any state-owned intellectual property could (and must) have been used to the benefit of the people / the state by anyone. And creating a new, most effective assault rifle for the victorious Soviet army was certainly on the top of the list of things, beneficial for the Soviet state at the time.

After extensive tests, conducted in December 1947 - January 1948, which included slightly improved Dementiev KB-P-410, Bulkin TKB-415 and all-new Kalashnikov AK-47 rifles, results were somewhat inconclusive. The AK-47 was found to be most durable and reliable out of three contestants, but it also dragged behind the other two in the accuracy department, especially in full automatic (which was, and still is considered the primary mode of fire for assault rifle in Russia). In fact, the only weapon that fulfilled accuracy requirements was the Bulkin AB-47 / TKB-415, but it had certain problems with parts durability. After lengthy discussion, trials commission finally decided that the better is the enemy of the good, and it is advisable to have not-so accurate but reliable weapon now, rather than to wait indefinitely for accurate-and -reliable weapon in the future. This decision ultimately lead commission to recommend AK-47 for troops trials in November, 1947. It was decided that the production of the new weapon must be commenced at Izhevsk arms plant (now Izhevsk Machine building Plant or IzhMash in short). Kalashnikov has moved from Kovrov to Izhevsk to help with production of the new weapon, which commenced in mid-1948. Official adoption followed late in 1949, with standard nomenclature being '7.62mm avtomat Kalashnikova AK' (7.62mm automatic carbine Kalashnikov). At the same time, a folding buttstock version was adopted for airborne units use, as '7.62mm avtomat Kalashnikova skladnoy AKS'.
It must be noted that the original design of the receiver, which was assembled from stamped steel 'box' with large machined steel insert pinned at the front, caused a lot of troubles at factory. The technology (equipment and labor) level of the time resulted in extremely high percentage of rejected receivers due to misformed walls, improper pinning of parts, bad geometry etc. After critical revision of the process at the factory it was calculated that it will be more economically feasible to return to the 'old-school' machined receivers. New, machined receiver was designed by one of factory's staff designers, and after approval by military, it was put into production at IzhMash in 1951, under the same basic designation.

Through the following years, design of AK incorporated many minor changes and updates, but it was the experimental Korobov TKB-517 assault rifle(tested by Soviet army in mid-fifties) that spurred further development of AK. The Korobov TKB-517 assault rifle was a great deal lighter than AK, about 1/3 cheaper to manufacture, and significantly more accurate in full automatic fire. This lead the Soviet army to issue new requirements for a lighter and more effective assault rifle, which were formulated in 1955. These requirements were also complemented by requirement for a companion squad automatic / light support weapon (light machine gun in Russian nomenclature). Trials for new weapons were held in 1957-58. Kalashnikov team from Izhevsk submitted an improved AK with new type of stamped receiver and other minor improvements, which competed against a number of weapons from other design teams from the Kovrov and Tula. In technical terms, the Kalashnikov entry fared about average in these trials, with certain rival weapons proving to be more combat-effective and less expensive to make. The trials commission, however, decided again that the better is the enemy of the good, and recommended the improved AK for adoption due to its proven performance and familiarity to the industry and troops. It was officially adopted in 1959 as the AKM ( Avtomat Kalashnikova Modernizirovannyj - Kalashnikov Automatic rifle, Modified) along with companion RPK squad automatic weapon light machine gun.

The key changes in AKM, as compared to AK, were the introduction of the stamped steel receiver instead of the milled one, and improved trigger/hammer unit, with added hammer release delay device (often incorrectly referred as a rate reducer). Other changes were the redesigned, slightly raised buttstock and the pistol grip, and the addition of the removable muzzle flip compensator. This spoon-like compensator is screwed onto the muzzle and utilized the muzzle blast to reduce muzzle climb during the automatic fire. The compensator could be replaced by the screw-on "PBS-1 noiseless firing device", generally known as a silencer. This silencer requires a special, sub-sonic ammunition with heavier bullets to be used. Another change from AK to AKM was a slightly improved rear sight, with settings from 100 to 1000 (instead of the 800 on AK) meters. Both 800 and 1000 meters, however, are way too optimistic for any practical use, since the effective fire is limited roughly to 300-400 meters, if not less.

In the 1974, Soviet Army officially adopted the 5.45mm ammunition and the appropriately chambered AK-74 assault rifle as its new standard shoulder arm. The AKM, however, was never officially declared obsolete and removed from service, and is still in Russian army stocks. Some non-infantry units of the Russian Army are still armed with 1960s vintage AKM assault rifles. There's also an increasing interest in the 7.62mm weapons since many troops were disappointed by the effectiveness of the 5.45mm ammo during the local conflicts in the 1990s. Some Russian special forces troops (mostly police and Internal Affairs Ministry), currently operating in Chechnya, are using the venerable 7.62mm AKM rifles.

The AK and AKM rifles were widely exported to the pro-Soviet countries and regimes all around the world. Manufacturing licenses along with all necessary technical data packages were transferred (for free or at nominal fee) to many Warsaw Pact countries (Albania, Bulgaria, China, East Germany, Hungary, North Korea, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia). Certain 'non-communist', but friendly countries, such as Egypt, Finland and Iraq, also received manufacturing licenses.

At the present time, despite the world-wide proliferation of the small-bore (5.56 / 5.45mm) weapons, many companies still manufacture 7.62mm assault rifles for military or police use (for example, there's an AK-103, made in limited numbers by the IZHMASHin Russia). Also, production of the semi-automatic only civilian AK derivatives is continued in many countries, including Russia, Bulgaria,Romania,China and others.

The AKM is a gas operated, selective fire assault rifle.

The gas operated action has a massive bolt carrier with a permanently attached long stroke gas piston. The gas chamber is located above the barrel. The bolt carrier rides on the two rails, formed on the receiver walls, with the significant clearances between the moving and stationary parts, which allows the gun to operate even when its interior is severely fouled with sand or mud. The rotating bolt has two massive lugs that lock into the receiver. Bolt is so designed that on the unlocking rotation it also makes a primary extraction movement to the fired case. This results in very positive and reliable extraction even with dirty chamber and cases. The rotation of the bolt is ensured by the curved cam track, machined in the bolt carrier, and by the appropriate stud on the bolt itself. The return spring and a spring guide are located behind the gas piston and are partially hidden in its hollow rear part when bolt is in battery. The return spring base also serves as a receiver cover lock. The cocking handle is permanently attached to the bolt carrier and does reciprocate when gun is fired.

The receiver of the AKM is made from the stamped sheet steel, with machined steel inserts riveted into the place where required. Earliest AK-47 receivers were also made from the stamped and machined parts, riveted together, but this soon proved to be unsatisfactory, and most of the AK (made between 1951 and 1959) rifles were made with completely machined receivers. The receiver cover is a stamped sheet metal part, with stamped strengthening ribs found on the AKM covers.

The relatively simple trigger/hammer mechanism is loosely based on the 1900's period Browning deigns (much like the most other modern assault rifles), and features a hammer with two sears - one main, mounted on the trigger extension, and one for the semi-automatic fire, that intercepts the hammer in the cocking position after the shot is fired and until the trigger is released. Additional auto sear is used to release the hammer in full auto mode. The AKM trigger unit also featured a hammer release delay device, which is served to delay the hammer release in the full auto fire by few microseconds. This does not affects the cyclic rate of fire, but allows the bolt group to settle in the forwardmost position after returning into the battery. The combined safety - fire selector switch of distinctive shape is located on the right side of the receiver. In the "Safe" position (topmost) it locks the bolt group and the trigger, and also served as a dust cover. The middle position is for automatic fire, and the bottom position is for single shots. The safety / fire selector switch is considered by many as the main drawback of the whole AK design, which is not cured in the most of derivatives until now. It is slow, uncomfortable and sometimes stiff to operate (especially when wearing gloves or mittens), and, when actuated, produces a loud and distinctive click. There's no bolt stop device, and the bolt always goes forward when the last shot from the magazine is fired.

AKM is fed from the 30 rounds, stamped steel magazines of heavy, but robust design. Early AK magazines were of slab-sided design, but the more common AKM magazines featured additional stamped ribs on the sides. Positive magazine catch is located just ahead of the trigger guard and solidly locks the magazine into the place. Insertion and the removal of the magazine requires slight rotation of the magazine around its front top corner, that has a solid locking lug. If available and required, a 40 round box magazines of similar design, or the 75 rounds drums (both from the RPK light machine gun) can be used. Late in production plastic magazines of the distinctive reddish color were introduced.

AKM rifles were issued with wooden stocks and pistol handles. Late production AKM rifles had a plastic pistol grip instead of wooden one. The wooden buttstock has a steel buttplate with mousetrap cover, that covers the accessory container in the butt. The AK buttstock are more swept-down than the AKM ones. The folding stock version had been developed for the airborne troops and its had an underfolding steel shoulder stock. These modifications of the AK and AKM were designated the AKS and AKMS, respectively. AK were issued with the detachable knife-bayonets, and the AKM introduced a new pattern of the shorter, multipurpose knife-bayonet, which can be used in conjunction with its sheath to form a wire-cutter. All AK and AKM rifles were issued with the canvas carrying slings.

The sights of the AKM consist of the hooded front post and the U-notch open rear. Sights are graduated from 100 to 1000 (800 on AK) meters, with an additional "fixed" battle setting that can be used for all ranges up to 300 meters.

AKM rifles also can be fitted with the 40mm GP-25 grenade launchers, that are mounted under the forend and the barrel. Grenade launchers had its own sights on the left side of the unit.

Shot gun

A pump-action Remington 870, two semi-automatic Remington 1100 shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three boxes of clay pigeons

A shotgun (also known as a scattergun and peppergun, or historically as a fowling piece) is a firearm that is usually designed to be fired from the shoulder, which uses the energy of a fixed shell to fire a number of small spherical pellets called shot, or a solid projectile called a slug. Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes, ranging from 5.5 mm (.22 inch) bore up to 5 cm (2 inch) bore, and in a range of firearm operating mechanisms, including breech loading, single-barreled, double or combination gun, pump-action, bolt-, and lever-action, semi-automatic, and even fully automatic variants.

A shotgun is generally a smoothbore firearm, which means that the inside of the barrel is not rifled. Preceding smoothbore firearms, such as the musket, were widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was also used in a similar variety of roles from self defence to riot control. It was often used by cavalry troops due to its generally shorter length and ease of use, as well as by coachmen for its substantial power. However, in the 19th century, these weapons were largely replaced on the battlefield with breechloading rifled firearms, which were more accurate over longer ranges. The military value of shotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, when American forces used 12-gauge pump action shotguns in close-quarters trench fighting to great effect. Since then, it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications.

The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon leaving the barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets, which means that the energy of any one ball of shot is fairly low. In a hunting context, this makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds and other small game. However, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or a defensive weapon. Shotguns are also used for target shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons, thrown in various ways.

The M2 Machine Gun, Browning .50 Caliber Machine Gun, is a heavy machine gun designed towards the end of World War I by John Browning. It is very similar in design to Browning's earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, which was chambered for the .30-06 cartridge. The M2 uses the larger and more powerful .50 BMG cartridge, which was named for the gun itself (BMG standing for Browning Machine Gun). The M2 has been referred to as "Ma Deuce",[5] or "the fifty" in reference to its caliber. The design has had many specific designations; the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications and low-flying aircraft.

The Browning .50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and for aircraft armament by the United States from the 1920s to the present. It was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and during operations in Iraq and Afghanistan in the 2000s (decade). It is the primary heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries. The M2 has been in use longer than any other small arm in U.S. inventory except the .45 ACP M1911 pistol, also designed by John Browning.

The M2HB is manufactured in the United States by General Dynamics[6] and U.S. Ordnance [7] for use by the United States government, and for US Foreign Allies via FMS sales. FN Herstal has manufactured the M2 machine gun since the 1930s.[8][verification needed] U.S. Ordnance developed their M2 Quick Change Barrel system after years of manufacturing machine guns for the U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. allies.[9]

The M2 has varying cyclic rates of fire, depending upon the model. The M2HB (heavy barrel) air-cooled ground gun has a cyclic rate of 450-575 rounds per minute.[11] The early M2 water-cooled AA guns had a cyclic rate of around 450–600 rpm.[12] The AN/M2 aircraft gun has a cyclic rate of 750–850 rpm; this increases to 1,200 rpm or more for AN/M3 aircraft guns fitted with electric or mechanical feed boost mechanisms.[4] These maximum rates of fire are generally not achieved in use, as sustained fire at that rate will wear out the bore within a few thousand rounds, necessitating replacement. For the M2HB, slow fire is less than 40 rounds per minute and rapid fire more than 40 rounds per minute.[13]

A U.S. Marine mans a .50 caliber machine gun as part of a security force during an exercise

The M2 has a maximum range of 7.4 kilometers (4.55 miles), with a maximum effective range of 1.8 kilometers (1.2 miles) when fired from the M3 tripod. In its ground-portable, crew-served role as the M2HB, the gun itself weighs in at a hefty 84 pounds (38 kg), and the assembled M3 tripod another 44 pounds (20 kg). In this configuration, the V-shaped "butterfly" trigger is located at the very rear of the weapon, with a "spade handle" hand-grip on either side of it and the bolt release the center. The spade handles are gripped and the butterfly trigger is depressed with one or both thumbs. Recently new rear buffer assemblies have used squeeze triggers mounted to the hand grips, doing away with the butterfly triggers.

When the bolt release is locked down by the bolt latch release lock on the buffer tube sleeve, the gun functions in fully automatic mode. Conversely, the bolt release can be unlocked into the up position resulting in single-shot firing (the gunner must press the bolt latch release to send the bolt forward). Unlike virtually all other modern machine guns, it has no safety (although a sliding safety switch has recently been fielded to USMC armorers for installation on their weapons). Troops in the field have been known to add an improvised safety measure against accidental firing by slipping an expended shell casing under the butterfly trigger.[14]

Twin M2HB .50 caliber machine gun during a Pre-aimed Calibration Fire (PACFIRE) exercise.

Because the M2 was intentionally designed to be fit into many configurations, it can be adapted to feed from the left or right side of the weapon by exchanging the belt-holding pawls, and the front and rear cartridge stops (three-piece set to include link stripper), then reversing the bolt switch. The operator must also convert the top-cover belt feed slide assembly from left to right hand feed as well as the spring and plunger in the feed arm. This will take a well trained individual less than two minutes to perform.

The charging assembly may be changed from left to right hand charge. A right hand charging handle spring, lock wire and a little know how are all that are required to accomplish this. The weapon can be battle ready and easily interchanged if the weapon is fitted with a retracting slide assembly on both sides of the weapon system to eliminate the need to have the weapon taken in to accomplish this task.

Ammunition

There are several different types of ammunition used in the M2HB and AN aircraft guns. From World War II through the Vietnam War, the big Browning was used with standard ball, armor-piercing (AP), armor-piercing incendiary (API), and armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds. All .50 ammunition designated "armor-piercing" was required to completely perforate 0.875" (22.2 mm) of hardened steel armor plate at a distance of 100 yards (91 m), and 0.75" (19 mm) at 547 yards (500 m).[15] The API and APIT rounds left a flash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on enemy targets; they were primarily intended to incapacitate thin-skinned and lightly armored vehicles and aircraft, while igniting their fuel tanks.[16]

Current ammunition types include: M33 Ball (706.7 grain) for personnel and light material targets, M17 tracer, M8 API (622.5 grain), M20 API-T (619 grain), and M962 SLAP-T. The latter ammunition along with the M903 SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Penetrator) round can perforate 1.34 in (34 mm) of HHA (high hard armor, or face-hardened steel plate) at 500 meters, 0.91 in (23 mm) at 1,200 meters, and 0.75 in (19 mm) at 1,500 meters. This is achieved by using a 0.30-inch-diameter (7.6 mm) tungsten penetrator. The SLAP-T adds a tracer charge to the base of the ammunition. This ammunition was type classified in 1993.

When firing blanks, a large blank-firing adapter (BFA) must be used to keep the gas pressure high enough to allow the action to cycle. The adapter is very distinctive, attaching to the muzzle with three rods extending back to the base. The BFA can often be seen on M2s during peacetime operations.

Specifications

Weight 38 kg (83.78 lb)

58 kg (127.87 lb) with tripod and T&E

Length 1,656 mm (65.2 in)

Barrel length

1,143 mm (45.0 in)

________________________________________

Cartridge

.50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO)

Action

Short recoil-operated

Rate of fire

450–635 rounds/min (M2HB)[3][4]

750–850 rounds/min (AN/M2)

1,200 rounds/min (AN/M3)

Muzzle velocity

2,910 ft/s (890 m/s) for M33 ball

Effective range 1,800 m (2,000 yd)[3]

Maximum range 2,000 m (2,200 yd)

Feed system Belt-fed (M2 or M9 links)

HOW A GUN WORKZ!

2012-01-25T15:30:00.000-08:00

A gun launches a projectile at high velocity.

The two most common ways to propel the projectile are using gas produced by a chemical reaction of burning solid propellant such as gunpowder (firearms) and using compressed gas or air (airguns). There are also more exotic designs, such as a Gauss gun which uses magnetic fields, and the Gyrojet which had miniature rockets for ammunition.

Contrary to popular opinion, the process that propels the projectile in a firearm is not an explosion, but rather a very fast burn that releases hot gas. Black powder is only explosive under certain conditions and smokeless powder is not an explosive at all.

Generally, all firearms from the antique cannons to modern day rifles and pistols have the following basic components:

Projectile (bullet)
Barrel
Propellant (powder)
Ignition source (spark or flame)

A most basic gun consists of a barrel closed at one end and an ignition system of some sort. Earliest guns were matchlocks. They used a slow match - a smoldering piece of string. Then came flintlocks which produced sparks from flint striking steel, later to be replaced by percussion caps which used a small amount of chemical that ignited on impact from a spring-loaded hammer. The percussion caps then evolved into cartridge primers that use the same principle. Matchlocks and flintlocks also required the use of a small amount of very fast burning and easy to ignite powder called a priming charge to set off the main charge inside the barrel.

An interesting footnote to this is a modern muzzle-loading rifle made for hunting that uses an electric spark to set off the charge.

Modern guns use either a combination of a hammer and firing pin or a striker. The hammer or the striker are spring-loaded and held back by the sear. Pulling the trigger moves the sear out of the way allowing the hammer to fall on the firing pin or the striker to move forward and to smash the primer of a cartridge which produces a flame to ignite the propellant charge inside the the cartridge case. The burning powder produces gas, which rapidly expands. The pressure from the gas expands the casing slightly making it seal the breech and pushes the projectile out of the case and down the barrel.

Manual repeaters, such as bolt and lever action rifles are cocked through operating the action by hand. Semi-auto guns and auto guns either use some of the gases generated by cartridge, or energy of the recoil to operate the gun automatically.

An interesting exception to the above are the automatic cannons/large caliber machine guns mounted on tanks and airplanes. Some of them use electricity to set off the charge and some use electric or hydraulic motors to work the action rather than recoil or gas energy.

SKY Heroes

2012-01-17T17:26:00.000-08:00

De Havilland DH100 Vampire F.3

The De Havilland D.H. 100 Vampire fighter jet was developed during the Second World War and it became the second jet fighter aircraft in service with the British Royal Air Force (RAF). The prototype was built to be powerd by a Halford-designed de Havilland H-1 Goblin I straight-flow-combustion turbine engine and flew first in 1943. The front fuselage was made of plywood and balsawood, with the remainder being made of metal. It is a single seat aircraft with a pressure cabin. The armament consisted of four 20-mm connons located in the front fuselage and its maximum speed was 813 km/h. The Mk 1, built by English Electric (EEC) had a modified engine with more power (Goblin II) and 174 were built for the RAF. It was also used by Sweden (70, delivery in 1946), Switzerland (4 on trial), France (30 ex-RAF), Dominica (25 bought from Sweden in 1952) and by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF, 1 unit). The aircrafdt can be used in both tropical and temperate climates Several versions were produced and this web page provides information on the Vampire F Mark 3 and its cockpit lay-out as given in the Pilot's notes for this version.

The Mk 3 was similar to the Mk 1, but had a larger fuel capacity as it was fitted to carry 100 imp. gallon drop tanks and had a modified tail unit with lower tail plane, rounded rudders and and tailplan and fin acorn fairings. The RAF bought 117, the RCAF bought 85, of which 15 were later sold to Mexico in 1961.

F-15

A demonstration version of the F-15SE was first displayed by Boeing on 17 March 2009. The F-15SE will use fifth generation fighter technologies to reduce its radar cross-section (RCS). Distinguishing features of this version are the conformal weapons bays (CWB) that replace the conformal fuel tanks (CFT) to hold weapons internally and the twin vertical tails canted outward 15 degrees to reduce radar cross section. Weapons storage takes the place of most of each CWB fuel capacity. This variant will also have radar absorbing material where needed. The Silent Eagle is aimed at current F-15 users such as Israel, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and South Korea, among other

The F-15SE is to have the level of stealth allowed for export by the US government. Boeing has stated that this stealth will only be in the range of fifth generation aircraft such as the F-35 Lightning II from the frontal aspect. The F-15SE will have a Raytheon AESA radar, and a new electronic warfare system from BAE Systems.This stealth will be

The F-15 Eagle is an all-weather, extremely maneuverable, tactical fighter designed to gain and maintain air superiority in aerial combat.

Primary Function: Tactical fighter

Crew: One (F-15A/C), two (F-15B/D/E)

Powerplant: Two P&W F100 turbofan engines in 29,000 lb (13,154 kg) thrust class with afterburning

Speed: 1,875 mph (Mach 2.5 plus)

Ceiling: 65,000 feet

Range: 3,450 miles ferry range with conformal fuel tanks and three external fuel tanks

Armament: One internally mounted M-61A1 20mm 20-mm, six-barrel cannon with 940 rounds of ammunition; four AIM-9L/M Sidewinder and four AIM-7F/M Sparrow air-to-air missiles, or eight AIM-120 AMRAAMs, carried externally.

Unit Cost: A/B models $27.9 million (about Rs 126 crore), C/D models $29.9 million (about Rs 135 crore)

F-22 RAPTOR

The F-22 Raptor is a single-seat, twin-engine fifth-generation supermaneuverable fighter aircraft that uses stealth technology. It was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but has additional capabilities that include ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence roles. Lockheed Martin Aeronautics is the prime contractor and is responsible for the majority of the airframe, weapon systems and final assembly of the F-22. Program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provides the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.

The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 during the years prior to formally entering USAF service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite a protracted and costly development period, the United States Air Force considers the F-22 a critical component of US tactical air power, and claims that the aircraft is unmatched by any known or projected fighter,while Lockheed Martin claims that the Raptor's combination of stealth, speed, agility, precision and situational awareness, combined with air-to-air and air-to-ground combat capabilities, makes it the best overall fighter in the world today.Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, former Chief of the Australian Defence Force, said in 2004 that the "F-22 will be the most outstanding fighter plane ever built."

The high cost of the aircraft, a lack of clear air-to-air combat missions because of delays in the Russian and Chinese fifth-generation fighter programs, a US ban on Raptor exports, and the ongoing development of the planned cheaper and more versatile F-35 resulted in calls to end F-22 production.In April 2009 the US Department of Defense proposed to cease placing new orders, subject to Congressional approval, for a final procurement tally of 187 operational aircraft. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 lacked funding for further F-22 production. The final F-22 rolled off the assembly line on 13 December 2011 during a ceremony at Dobbins Air Reserve Base.

As the world's only operational fifth-generation fighter, the F-22 Raptor is, and will remain, unprecedented in its total integration of stealth and advanced avionics

Primary Function: Air dominance, multi-role fighter

Contractor: Lockheed-Martin, Boeing

Power Plant: Two Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 turbofan engines with afterburners and two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzles.

Crew: One

Fuel Capacity: Internal: 18,000 pounds (8,200 kilograms); with 2 external wing fuel tanks: 26,000 pounds (11,900 kilograms)

Speed: Mach 2 class with supercruise capability

Range: More than 1,850 miles ferry range with 2 external wing fuel tanks (1,600 nautical miles)

Ceiling: Above 50,000 feet (15 kilometers)

Armament: One M61A2 20-millimeter cannon with 480 rounds, internal side weapon bays carriage of two AIM-9 infrared (heat seeking) air-to-air missiles and internal main weapon bays carriage of six AIM-120 radar-guided air-to-air missiles (air-to-air loadout) or two 1,000-pound GBU-32 JDAMs and two AIM-120 radar-guided air-to-air missiles (air-to-ground loadout)

Unit Cost: $143 million (about Rs 643 crore)

GLOSTER

George Carter of Gloster had built the first British jet, the F9/40, which first flew on 15. May 1941.

In 1940, the Air Ministry issued an order for a twin-engined jet designed by George Carter. Eight were built under the initial order and the first flight was on 5. March 1943.

Carter had decided that only a twin-engined aircraft could offer sufficient thrust from the comparitively low-powered engines then available.

The engines are installed in the wings because

· the design of armament incorporation is made easier

· it reduces problems with effects of the slipstream on the rear fuselage and tail components.

The Meteor was originally planned to fly with a Welland engine (formerly known as the W2B) built by Rover Motors of Coventry. Delays led to the first flight taking place with a De Havilland Halford H1 engine. This was on 5 march 1943, from Cranwell. These delays led to only 8 prototypes being built, from the 12 originally anticipated.

Of these original eight aircraft, only one survives in the RAF Cosford Museum. This is the first prototype DG202 i.e. the first built, not the first to fly ( DG202 first flew on 24. July 1943 ).

The first production aircraft first flew on 12. January 1944.

F/A-18 Hornet

The combat-proven F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine, multi-mission, tactical aircraft. It converts between air-to-air fighter missions and air-to-ground strike missions while on the same sortie with the flick of a switch. Currently serving the armed services of eight nations, the F/A-18 fulfills the following types of assignment: fighter escort, suppression of enemy air defenses, reconnaissance, forward air control, close air support, and day and night strike missions.

Origins

The U.S. Navy started the Naval Fighter-Attack, Experimental (VFA X) program to procure a multirole aircraft to replace the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, the A-7 Corsair II, and the remaining McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs, and to complement the F-14 Tomcat. Vice Admiral Kent Lee, then head of Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), was the lead advocate for the VFAX against strong opposition from many Navy officers, including Vice Admiral William D. Houser, deputy chief of naval operations for air warfare – the highest ranking naval aviator.

In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14. Grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Force's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, the General Dynamics YF-16 and Northrop YF-17. The Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. In May 1974, the House Armed Services Committee redirected $34 million from the VFAX to a new program, the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF),[5] intended to make maximum use of the technology developed for the LWF program

Aircraft Characteristics

Designed to reduce life-cycle costs, the F/A-18 is available in two models and possesses the following characteristics.

Seating capacity/crew options:

Model F/A-18C: one-seat (pilot-only)

Model F/A-18D: two-seats (one for the pilot and one for the weapons/sensor officer [WSO])

Dimensions: length 56 ft (17.1 m), wing span 40 ft (12.3 m), height 15.3 ft (4.7 m)

Propulsion: two F404-GE-402 engines, each with 18,000 pounds of thrust

Top speed: Mach 1.8

Combat radius: 500+ nm (900+ km)

Armaments

In addition to an M61A1 20-mm gun mounted inside the nose of the craft, the F/A-18 carries up to 13,700 pounds (6,227 kg) of external ordnance and has nine weapon stations as follows:

Two wingtip stations for Sidewinders

Two outboard wing stations for air-to-air or air-to-ground weapons

Two inboard wing stations that can be used for fuel tanks, air-to-air weapons, or air-to-ground weapons

Two nacelle fuselage stations for AMRAAMs, Sparrows, or sensor pods

One centerline station for fuel or for air-to-ground weapons

Systems and Technologies

The F/A-18 utilizes various systems and technologies to minimize the likelihood of detection, escape if detected, and return safely if hit.

Radar: APG-73 with increased speed and memory capacity

Targeting: laser target designator/ranger that is housed in a forward-looking infrared sensor, which enables the craft to deliver precision laser-guided bombs accurately

Worldwide Deployment

The F/A-18 has been deployed by the armed services of the following nations: United States (Navy and Marines), Canada, Australia, Spain, Kuwait, Finland, Switzerland, and Malaysia.

The F/A-18 Hornet is a supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole fighter jet, designed to dogfight and attack ground targets (F/A for Fighter/Attack).

Contractor: Boeing [McDonnell Douglas Aerospace] and Northrop Grumman (Airframe), General Electric (Engines), and Hughes (Radar)

Power Plant: Two F404-GE-402 afterburning engines, each in the 18,000 pound thrust class, which results in a combat thrust-to-weight ratio greater than 1-to-1. Depending on the mission and loading, combat radius is greater than 500 nautical miles

Mission and Capabilities: The F/A-18 Hornet can perform both air-to-air and air-to-ground missions. Cockpit displays and mission avionics are thoroughly integrated to enhance crew situational awareness and mission capability in high threat, adverse weather/night environments. Cockpits are night vision goggle compatible. Multi-sensor Integration and advanced data link capabilities further enhance situational awareness.

Top speed: Mach 1.8

Combat radius: 500+ nm (900+ km)

Armament: F/A-18C/D can carry up to 13,700 pounds of external ordnance. Weapon stations include two wingtip stations for Sidewinders, two outboard wing stations for air-to-air or air-to-ground weapons, two inboard wing stations for fuel tanks, air-to-air, or air-to-ground weapons, two nacelle fuselage stations for AMRAAMs, Sparrows, or sensor pods; and one centreline station for fuel or air-to-ground weapons.

Unit cost: $39.5 million (about Rs 180 crore)

Lockhead

The airplane had its origin in June 1943, when Lockheed was requested to design a fighter around the De Havilland turbojet engine developed in England in response to Germany's twin-engine jet fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 262. The XP-80 was designed and built in the amazing period of only 143 days--37 days less than the original schedule. It was flown for the first time on January 8, 1944, and its performance was considered sensational.

"It was a magnificent demonstration," said Clarence Johnson, Lockheed's chief research engineer. "our plane was a success -- such a complete success that it had overcome the temporary advantage the Germans had gained from years of preliminary development on jet planes."

The Army Air Force planned to build the Shooting Star in large numbers. However, only two of the machines arrived in Italy before the end of the war in Europe, and these were never used in operations. Despite the cessation of hostilities, production was continued on a reduced scale.

Lockheed built 917 F-80A's and B's, one of which was modified for an attempt on the world speed record. on June 19, 1947, this plane set a speed mark of 623.8 miles per hour. Some of these modifications were retained in the F-80C, 798 of which were produced in 1948 and 1949. At the same time, Lockheed designed a two-seat version, the F-94 Starfire. This model was equipped with radar for all-weather operations.

When war started in Korea, F-80's were sent to the battle area to help the South Koreans. On November 10, 1950, Lieutenant Russell Brown, flying a Shooting Star, made history when he destroyed a Russian MiG-15 fighter in the world's first decisive all-jet combat.

Final version of the plane was the T-33 trainer, which remained in continuous production until August 1959. The T-33A was a very hot fighter to handle, compared to slower piston engine aircraft, and an alarming number of airplanes were lost. The solution was a redesigned T-33A two seat trainer. Engineers at Lockheed called their operation the "Skunk Works", named after an imaginary factory in the "Li'l Abner" comic strip

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (Fagot) Turbojet-Powered Fighter

The MiG-15 (codenamed "Fagot" by the United Nations in reference to a "hastily bundled pile of sticks") became the Soviet Union's first true turbojet-powered fighter design of consequence and the first swept-wing aircraft of the Empire. The system went on to see extensive production total sand combat action particularly in the Korean War, proving more than a match for her contemporaries. With World War 2 delaying turbojet design in the Soviet Union, engineers instead looked to captured German scientists and their ground-breaking aircraft designs - along with securing an agreement with Britain to license-produce the Rolls-Royce Nene turbojet engine - and manufactured a fighter that fit the Soviet Empire's need for a powerful, effective and easy-to-produce/maintain jet fighter. By all respects, the aircraft would achieve "classic" status by sheer numbers and a successful track record thanks to its actions in Korea.

Development
As progress on turbojet-powered fighters was being steadily made in the West, the inevitable requirement for a similar Soviet system eventually came down. This new requirement specified an aircraft design capable of 621 miles per hour with a good rate-of-climb, a range of 745 miles and restricted landing and take-off distances. The new design was to take into account ease of production and maintenance to ensure it could stay in the fight as long as necessary without tanking the owners to the bank. Additionally, this aircraft was to be appropriately armed and offer up much internally in the way of its Western counterparts so as not to put the Soviet pilot at a disadvantage when they inevitably should meet one another.

1944 eventually brought about a certain level of respite in Russia's war with Germany. Soviet engineers could now be allocated back to developing an indigenous turbojet design of their own. Delayed by a number of years during the conflict, time to "catch up" to the West and their production turbojets was of the essence - with Germany, Great Britain and the United States all working on their own creations. As such, captured German plans - in particular, Focke-Wulf Ta 183 "Huckebein" fighter (developed by Kurt Tank) and associated German scientific minds were brought to the Soviet Union in an effort to produce an answer. Along with the captured German plans, the Soviets began researching and producing their own versions of two distinct German-made axial-flow turbojet engines - the Junkers Jumo 004 Orkan (becoming the RD-10 in the Soviet inventory) and the BMW 003 Sturm (becoming the RD-20) series. In time, these would power the early straight-wing Yakovlev Yak-15 and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9 jet fighters, serving more as developmental educational efforts than serviceable combat aircraft. Nevertheless, the information garnered from this work no doubt propelled an infant Soviet jet program along.

The definitive point in the program came when Mikoyan, Klimov and Kishkin - under Soviet direction - netted a deal with the English for 25 Nene series I and series II engines and 30 Derwent V engines. It should be noted that this took place before the eventual rise of "hostilities" from the Cold War came about, as superpowers after World War Two were still at a certain level of ease with one another to a certain extent. Regardless, the engines were now in Soviet hands and these systems underwent rigorous testing and study for a time. The engines were shown to be adequate for Soviet needs and license production of both types began. These engines eventually received Soviet-style designations that followed as such: the Derwent became the RD-500 and the Nene I became the RD-45. The Nene II engine used the similar RD-45F designation, with the "F" signifying an improved engine type. The RD-45 series engine (Nene I) eventually won out for the new Mikoyan-Gurevich design and major progress of the eventual MiG-15 was made.

Early runs with the RD-45 series yielded excellent performance results yet the engines proved quite thirsty and sported a short service (reported at some 100 hours of operation). An improved turbojet engine by Klimov emerged in 1949 as the VK-1 and featured a rating of 5,952lbs. This new powerplant (based on the RD-45F - ala Nene II) became the mainstay force in the equally-improved MiG-15bis model series. In essence, the VK-1 were highly-modified Rolls-Royce Nene II engines which were extensively upgraded. It was felt by the Soviets that these engines were re-engineered to such an extent that they were now wholly an indigenous Soviet design. In actuality, these VK-1 turbojets were nothing more than illegally copied and produced powerplants with some Soviet engineering thrown into the mix for good measure.

As engine and structural design progressed, attention was paid to an indigenously designed ejection system - almost a prerequisite design factor considering the speed that these pilots would be bailing out at. The days of safely bailing out via parachute had officially come to an end with the advent of the jet age. Gavriil Kondrashov became the first Soviet airman to successfully eject using this new Soviet-designed system - this feat occurring from a modified Petlyakov Pe 2 and taking place on July 24th, 1947. Though an impressive event in and of itself, the process to which a Soviet airman had to eject required the pilot to forcibly push his own ejection seat pan away from his body to activate his parachute (to which he used as his seat cushion in flight). Hardly a conventional method but suitable nonetheless, this system would still be in use by the time of the Korean War.

The I-310 became the prototype form of the early MiG-15 series, this being an internal design State designation. Interestingly, a two-engine design and even an aircraft sporting variable geometry wings were also taken into account to try and solve various high-speed design issues. A single engine layout with 35-degree swept wings with slight downward anhedral were chosen instead - superficially, the design mimicked much of what would have made the Ta 183 Huckebein a visual success. The single engine was to be fed by a split-forward air intake encompassing most of the nose, though this was ducted around the cockpit and various subsystems present in the internal fuselage. This split design eventually met together aft of the cockpit and before the engine. The nose also held the nose wheel landing gear and weapons bay. New wings were constructed to allow for the use of wing-recessing main landing gears as thin wings were needed to compliment the design - but also landing gears capable of sustaining the weight of the aircraft.

Armament took on a different, yet ingenious sort of approach. Cannons were selected as the primary armament and came in the form of a Nudel'man N-37 37mm cannon and 2 x Nudel'man/Rikhter NR-23 23mm cannons. These were neatly integrated - along with their appropriate ammunition boxes - into an easily accessible weapons tray tucked under the forward fuselage. The 37mm cannon system took up the starboard side of the tray while the two 23mm cannons were fitted in a staggered formation along the port side of the tray.

Prototype S-1, the first prototype in the MiG-15 series, completed her maiden flight successfully on December 30th, 1947. This was followed by prototype S-2 with her 5,004lb Nene II engine, new canopy design and slightly redesigned wings. Additional changes included the addition of an S-13 gun camera, the ASP-1N automatic gun sighting system and underwing "slipper" fuel tanks mounted outboard of the outer wing fences (boundary layer fences on the tops of the wings became a stalwart design element of early Mikoyan-Gurevich jets with the MiG-15 featuring two such protrusions. The MiG-17 followed with three). S-3 appeared in March of 1948 with the most notable difference being hydraulically-powered triangular airbrakes along the rear fuselage sides and increased fuel capacity. The S-3 also saw a flash suppressor fitted over the N-37 cannon, now taking on the new designation N-37D indicating its modified form. First flight of the S-3 was achieved on July 17th, 1948 and became the model sent to trials for State evaluation.

Following successful trial results, the MiG-15 was officially written into Soviet air service on December 23rd, 1948. A short time later, news of the fighter had reached the West with little interest or overall technical knowledge of the aircraft (this was to change with the arrival of the Korean War). NATO designation conventions officially afforded the aircraft the codename of "Falcon". This was subsequently changed to the more identifiable, albeit derogatory codename of "Fagot" to belittle the arrival of this fine Soviet development.

The first production aircraft were simply designated as MiG-15 ("Fagot-A" to NATO and as izdeliye SV internally to Mikoyan-Gurevich) and became operational in 1949 even as testing of the type itself continued. Second production aircraft became the MiG-15bis "Fagot-B". These systems were fitted with the VK-1 turbojet engine of 5,952lbs. The development of this Klimov powerplant effectively allowed for a complete rewrite of the base MiG-15 model. As a result, the MiG-15bis appeared as a highly improved model. The new aircraft was now indeed a power player and would become a stalwart of the Soviet Air Force and associated Bloc nations. Visually, the base MiG-15 and MiG-15bis differed little externally but internally, the MiG-15bis held the edge thanks to the myriad of improvements afforded to the model.

The MiG-15bis Fagot-B branched out into a dedicated fighter-bomber design. This move was necessitated by the sheer fact that the Soviet Air Force had no real fighter-bomber platforms to support ground operations. As such, the MiG-15bis - a dogfighting jet-powered fighter-by-design - was selected for the conversion program. These systems had pylons added underwing - outboard of the main landing gears - for use with drop bombs and rocket pods. Though the project was deemed a success, the MiG-15 was by no means born for the role. The aircraft was limited in the amount of external ordnance it could mount under its wings and the airframe itself was not built for the rigors (and enemy action) of low lever flight - the pilot was offered next to no armor protection at these low altitudes - essentially the basic bulletproof windshield was all he had. Addressing these shortcomings were attempted in a dozen or so developmental MiG-15bis (ISh) models, though these were never to enter production status.

The UTI-MiG-15 (or better known as the MiG-15UTI, NATO codename of "Midget") - a two-seat conversion trainer - was impressively produced in greater numbers than the single-seat tactical fighter version. This model saw tandem seating for an instructor at the rear and a student trainee in the forward cockpit. As expected, the tandem-seat cockpit took up most of the forward fuselage area and featured a single-piece, multi-framed canopy. The rear canopy was of a sliding type (sliding aft for entry) while the forward canopy opened on hinges aligned to the starboard side. As such, entry was exclusively made from the port side. The trainer variant appeared with the internal prototype model designation of I-312 and differed little - in visual appearance and performance - from her single-seat counterpart (apart from the dual cockpit positions that is). MiG-15UTI trainers rolled off the assembly lines by June of 1949. The UTI-MiG-15P became the trainer version of the interceptor model.

The MiG-15bisP (or SP-1) was an experimental interceptor. This model featured a cone fairing over the top portion of the forward intake containing the radar assembly, appearing as a type of visible "nose" almost. Surprisingly, performance of the aircraft was not degraded substantially with this addition but necessitated the relocation of the S-13 gun camera to the right side of the fuselage. Weight was increased with the addition of the cone arrangement and its applicable equipment so the twin 23mm cannons along the port side of the gun tray were removed to compensate, leaving the single 37mm gun mounting in place as the sole armament for the aircraft. A limited production run superseded these development aircraft as converted Fagot-A models. These were followed by a handful of Fagot-B new-build production models.

The MiG-15M became a target drone. These drones were made up of used MiG-15 models that had their ejection seat systems replaced with remote control equipment. Since these were heavily used MiG-15 airframes with plenty of airborne miles to them, there was no love loss in exposing them to gunnery training or other developmental testing.

Like most other early jet-powered fighters, the MiG-15bis was also featured in a "parasite" fighter program. This theoretical combat approach to solving the need for long-range escort fighters for bomber groups featured a bomber "mother ship" with a fighter slung underneath (ala a pilot fish along the underside of a Great White shark). When contact with the enemy was suspected, the fighter could released from the bomber's grip to defend the aircraft from enemy attack. In various ways imaginable, the fighter was then somehow to be retrieved by the mother ship and both systems returned to home base.

In the case of the MiG-15bis trial, the two aircraft (fighter and bomber) would have met in the air after take-off, with the fighter connecting to a drag tow cable released by the bomber. The fighter could then power down the engine and settle in for the flight ahead. At the first sign of the enemy, he would disconnect from the bombers rear, fight as normal and eventually return to the drag cable system to be towed along for the ride once again - the fighter could be made ready to fight multiple times if need be. Yakovlev developed the system which was trialed using a Tupolev Tu-4 bomber. Like most other parasite fighter ideas, this Soviet parasite project went nowhere and was eventually abandoned.

As may be expected, production of the MiG-15, in any form, was not a sole Soviet venture. Czechoslovakia produced the MiG-15 under the S-102 (MiG-15 "Fagot-A" tactical fighters) and S-103 (MiG-15bis "Fagot-B" tactical fighters) designations (see the variants list for a full report). These were fitted with license-production engines under the designation of M-05. Trainers we noted by their "CS" designations as in the CS-102. A fighter-bomber model with six hardpoints was constructed as the MiG-15SB. The six hardpoints (of course leading to an increase in take-off weight) forced the use of rocket-assisted take-offs. A similar MiG-15bis "Fagot-B" fighter-bomber model was also produced, these as MiG-15bisSB's. Reconnaissance models were noted by the use of "R" in their designations as in MiG-15bisR. Similarly, Poland produced the type under the designations of Lim-1 (Fagot-A) and Lim-2 (Fagot-B). Reconnaissance aircraft were noted by the "R" placed in their designation as in Lim-2R. Trainer models (UTI-MiG-15 "Midget") were designated as SBLim-1 and SBLim-2.

China received tremendous assistance in the Cold War in its attempt to field a more modern military. As such, the MiG-15 was initially selected for license-production on Chinese soil. By this time, however, the improved and more modern MiG-17 "Fresco" had already become available (it was actually in development as the MiG-15 was hitting the front lines), to which China selected for inclusion in its new modernizing air force. It should be noted that Chinese airmen had already received a good amount of experience in flying MiG-15's during the Korean War and Chinese factories had garnered experience in repairing the type for some time (repairing over 500 of the aircraft in fact) resulting in airman and mechanics somewhat familiar with the aircraft. These MiG-15's received the Chinese designation of Jain-2 (or J-2). The Midget trainer model appeared in the Chinese inventories as Jianjiao-2 or (JJ-2). These were completed with locally-produced versions of the RD-45F (Nene II) turbojet engines in the form of the Wopen-5 series. China eventually exported MiG-15's to a variety of nations with F-2 being the export designation for the fighter types and FT-2 the export designation for the trainer types. Despite the Chinese exposure to MiG-15's both inside and out, no single-seat versions of the fighter were license-produced on Chinese soil.

At least 3,000 MiG-15 tactical fighter models were produced by the Soviets, along with some 5,000 MiG-15UTI two-seat trainers. Other eventual operators of the aircraft included Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Armenia, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Congo, Cuba, East Germany, Egypt, Finland, Guinea-Bissau, Hungary, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel (captured Egyptian examples), Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Romania, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tanzania, Uganda, North Vietnam and Yemen. The United States still holds its single North Korean example captured during the Korean War.

Operational Service
Despite its first appearance in a Soviet 1948 flyby showing, the West knew little of the MiG-15 by the time of the Korean War. As a result, it proved quite a shock to UN pilots when coming across this swept-wing, agile, cannon-laden aircraft. Along with its military entry, the MiG-15 immediately formed a Soviet air display team as well. Straight out of the gun, the system was noted for its ease of operation, maintenance and repair.

MiG-15's arrived to the Korean Front in quantity in November of 1950. These would be operated in combat by Soviet pilots wearing Chinese uniforms and forming from Chinese air bases (UN targeting was restricted to North Korean territory, hence the aircraft bases in China were off limits to UN bombers). Along with operating in defense of North Korean targets, Soviet officials were also charged with the training of Chinese and North Korean fighter pilots. Despite all this activity, the Soviet Union operated under a guise so as not to involve itself fully in the conflict. Basically Soviet pilots were given the freedom to operate from a line stretching from Wonsan to Pyongyang. Similarly, UN airmen were restricted from crossing the Yalu River - the term "MiG Alley" stemmed from the area encompassing these restrictions. While Soviet MiG-15 pilots could hold their own in a fight, Chinese and North Korean pilots fared poorly without Soviet assistance. This became an issue when Chinese and North Korean pilots flew in areas restricted to Soviet airmen, making them essentially cannon fodder for UN pilots.

The first Western encounter against MiG-15's took place on November 1st, 1950. A flight of North American P-51D Mustangs were attacked by no fewer than six unidentified aircraft, powered by jet propulsion. These were, of course, the new MiG-15 aircraft, appearing from Manchuria, crossing the Yalu and introducing themselves into the Korean War. Though Western reports claim no losses, the Soviets claimed one P-51 in their after action reports.

November 8th brought about the first ever jet-versus-jet action. Six MiG-15's tangled with a flight of Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars. Though results differ depending on the side writing the account, the Western account had an F-80 downing a MiG-15 - Soviet records show no such kill. It is known that five of the six machine guns onboard the F-80 had jammed. This, along with the ability of the MiG-15 to absorb a good amount of punishment from 12.7mm ammunition, leads to some discredit of the Western account. The MiG-15 was seen heading down to the ground in smoke, though it is believed that the aircraft had jettisoned its somewhat full fuel tanks in a dive in an effort to create space against the F-80, eventually heading for home and not engaging the American aircraft. Such competing stories, it seems, are a necessary part of warfare.

The first MiG-15 victory over a Boeing B-29 Superfortress occurred on November 9, 1950. The Superfortress (despite its impressive defensive array of heavy caliber machine guns) proved no match for the cannons of the MiG-15. The large surface areas of the Superfortresses crumpled with ease under the fire of a MiG-15's cannons. Losses were such that all B-29's were eventually forced to suspend daylight raids indefinitely, a large psychological and strategic victory most assuredly won by the presence MiG-15 alone. Other United Nations B-29 combat actions in and around the Yalu River area yielded disastrous results, even when escorted by the various fighter types available. The first confirmed kill of a MiG-15 by a UN fighter pilot in the war came that same day when 18 MiG-15 "Fagot-A" models faced off against 20 US Navy strike aircraft in the form of piston-powered Vought F4U Corsairs and Douglas AD-1 Skyraiders, these joined by jet-powered F9F-2 Panther escort aircraft. At least one MiG-15 was destroyed to the loss of six American aircraft.

Despite some success against the new Soviet fighter, losses for the UN air campaign began to mount with little answer to combat the Red aerial menace. The arrival of the MiG-15bis model only compounded that fact as these were the highly successful MiG-15 in an improved form. MiG-15's were pitted successfully against propeller-driven P-51 Mustangs, AD-1 Skyraiders and F4U Corsairs. Additionally, action against the straight-wing, jet-powered F9F Panthers, F-80 Shooting Stars and F-84 Thunderjets proved equally one-sided. This on top of losses by B-29 formations forced the speedy development of an answer - this eventually coming in the form of the North American F-86 Sabre.

Though an acceptable aircraft in its own right, the North American F-86 Sabres were still outmatched on a number of fronts. The MiG-15 proved to have a better rate-of-climb, higher ceiling limits and a better turning radius than her American adversary. The MiG-15 not only held a performance edge, but the nimble fighters also packed a greater punch with its multi-cannon armament selection as opposed to the six-machine gun armament of the Sabres - a carryover from American World War 2 aircraft design. Despite these advantages, the Sabre proved the more stable gunnery platform, an advantage taken to heart by Sabre pilots and put through its maximum paces.

So desperate were the Americans and the UN to get a full working example of a MiG-15 for evaluation that a reward of $100,000 was put forth to any North Korean pilot willing to defect. In September of 1953 - two months after the end of the war - North Korean Lieutenant Ro Kun Suk answered the call and landed his MiG-15bis in UN-controlled territory at Kimpo Air Base near Seoul. Suk actually did not know of the proposed reward but was given it anyway, leaving the Americans and the United Nations with the ultimate prize. As can be imagined, the captured MiG-15 was put through its paces (Chuck Yeager being one such test pilot along with Tom Collins) and eventually offered up for return to its rightful owner - an offer that was naturally rebuffed, leaving the United States with control of the property. The MiG-15 arrived for display at the United Air Force Museum in Dayton, Ohio where it remains to this day.

The F-86A arrived in Korean and the first duel of the two aircraft types took place on December 17th, 1950. Rightly so, four MiG-15's squared off against four Sabres. Combat took place at about 25,000 feet with the loss of one MiG-15, reportedly taking some 1,500 rounds of .50 caliber ammunition to do so. The kill was credited to Lieutenant Colonel Bruce H. Hinton. On December 21st, MiG-15 pilots returned the favor by destroying three Sabres to two MiG's lost. Western contact reports read differently - that being six MiG's downed to one Sabre lost.

Australia also attempted to tangle with MiG-15's by incorporating British-produced Gloster Meteor F.8 jet-powered aircraft into the mix - these replacing outclassed, prop-driven P-51 Mustangs. Like the American straight-wing early jets, Meteors did not fare well against the Soviet design, relegating them instead to the ground attack role.

The arrival of the F-84E and F-84F models in August of 1951 and March of 1952, respectively, effectively evened the playing field. By this time, whole groups of Soviet pilots were being switched off for replacement by new raw recruits. Likewise, the relatively green Chinese and North Korean pilots proved no match for the World War 2-savvy Sabre pilots. The air war over Korea had officially leaned towards the side of the United Nations and the entire conflict would end up in a draw - in fact, no armistice was ever signed so the war, technically, is still ongoing to this day.

Rafale

'Omni Role' Fighter Aircraft

The Rafale is a fourth-generation 'Omni Role' fighter aircraft, capable of carrying out a wide range of missions. Dassault uses 'Omni Role' as a marketing term to differentiate the aircraft from other 'multi-role' fighters, like the Eurofighter, Joint Strike Fighter and the JAS-39 Gripen.

In the mid 1970s European nations, and in particular the French Air Force and Navy required a new generation of fighters to counter the Soviet threat.
Dispite the collapse of the Soviet Union the French forces still need more advanced fighters to replace there old Mirages. The Rafale is currently being produced for the French Air Force, and the Rafale M for the Navy, which can withstand the rough carrier landings.

The Rafale is produced in three variants - M, B and C; the single-seat M version for the Navy, Rafale B is a two-seat version for the Air Force, and the C variant, a single-seat fighter for the Air Force.
The "Rafale A" technology demonstrator was build in 1984-1985 and performed its first flight on 4 July 1986. It retired in 1994, with prototypes for operational Rafales taking its place in the flight test program.

Production

First flight of a production Rafale, an M variant, was in July 1999, it landed on the new French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
Initial service deliveries of the Rafale M were in December 2001, with the first Aeronavale Rafale M squadron fully operational, on the Charles DeE Gaulle aircraft carrier, in the summer of 2002. As with the EuroFighter, the Rafale is going into service in a phased fashion:

· The first Rafales that were delivered were of the "F1" standard, which includes capabilities for air-to-air combat and have a baseline avionics suite.

· The first few production Rafale M's, which were put into service in a relative hurry, were delivered in a "sub-F1" standard designated "LF1", which featured an older mission computer lacked the built-in cannon. The LF1 machines have since been improved to F1 standard.

· The "F2" standard adda strike capabilities, and the F2 Rafale M's will also be able to carry a buddy tanker pod.

· The definitive "F3" standard, introduced in July 2008, brings the Rafale up to full multirole operational capability, with implementation of all planned modes for the RBE2 radar, adding AASM capability, as well as missions such as nuclear strike, with the ASMP or ASMP-A; antiship attack with the Exocet or ANF; and reconnaissance with the Reco NG pod. The F3 standard also features DVI, the helmet-mounted sight, and support for an improved tanker pack.

The first aircraft ordered, of the F1-standard, are currently in storage, but will be modified to the F3 configuration. They will re-enter service between 2014 and 2017. All early-production aircraft will eventually be brought up to this standard.

An additional 60 Rafale M's were ordered in November 2009, bringing the total number of ordered Rafale's to 180. This order will extend production of the Rafale up to the end of 2019. The French government is still commited to a total order to 286 Rafales (228 B/Cs & 58 Ms), so future orders are to be expected.

F3-04T

The latest standard, F3-04T is expected to be delivered in 2013. It introduces an AESA radar, developed by Thales; the RBE2. It will also be able to carry the laser-guided AASM. Furthermore, it will feature improved front sector optronics and an improved missile approach warning system, the passive DDM-NG build by MBDA.

Engine

The Rafale is powered by two SNECMA M88-2 turbofans which have a dry thrust of 11,000 pounds and 17,000 afterburning each. In order to further reduce fuel consumption and increase the service life of the engine's critical parts (high-pressure core and afterburner), SNECMA has developed a new version of the M88-2, called the M88-2E4. This new version offers improved fuel consumption (2 to 4 % lower than the M88-2E1). As of 2005 all M-88 engines deployed in France comply with this new standard.

Weapons

The Rafale can carry payloads of over 9t on 14 hardpoints for the air force version, and 13 for the naval version. The range of weapons includes: Mica, Magic, Sidewinder, ASRAAM and AMRAAM air-to-air missiles; Apache, AS30L, ALARM, HARM, Maverick and PGM100 air-to-ground missiles; and Exocet / AM39, Penguin 3 and Harpoon anti-ship missiles.

For a strategic mission the Rafale can deliver the MBDA (formerly Aerospatiale) ASMP stand-off nuclear missile. In December 2004, the MBDA Storm Shadow / Scalp EG stand-off cruise missile was qualified on the Rafale.

In September 2005, the first flight of the MBDA Meteor BVRAAM beyond visual range air-to-air missile was conducted on a Rafale fighter. In December 2005, successful flight trials were carried out from the Charles de Gaulle of the range of Rafale's weapon systems – Exocet, Scalp-EG, Mica, ASMP-A (to replace the ASMP) and Meteor missiles.

In April 2007, the Rafale carried out the first firing of the Sagem AASM (armement air-sol modulaire - air-to-groung modular weapon) precision-guided bomb, which has both GPS / inertial guidance and, optionally, imaging infrared terminal guidance. Rafale have been equipped with the AASM from 2008. Rafale can carry six AASM misssiles, with each aiming to hit the target with 10m accuracy.

The Rafale has a twin gun pod and a Nexter (formerly Giat) 30mm DEFA 791B cannon, which can fire 2,500 rounds a minute.

"From 2007, the Rafale will be armed with the Sagem AASM precision-guided bomb."

The Rafale is equipped with laser designation pods for laser guidance of air-to-ground missiles.

Countermeasures

The Rafale's electronic warfare system is the Spectra from Thales. Spectra incorporates solid state transmitter technology, radar warner, DAL laser warning receiver, missile warning, detection systems and jammers.

The Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engined delta-wing agile multi-role 4.5-generation jet fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation

Primary Function: Multi-role fighter / reconnaisance

Crew: Single or twin seater

Powerplant: Two SNECMA M88-3 turbofans each rated at 19,555 lb (86.98 kN) with afterburning

Speed: Maximum level speed 'clean' at 36,090 ft (11000 m) 1,321 mph (1,147 kt / 2125 km/h)

Ceiling: 60,000 ft

Range: 1000 nautical miles

Armament: Cannon: 1 30mm DEFA 554; Mica missile, R 550 Magic 2 missile, BGL 400 (French counterpart to the American Paveway laser guided bombs)

Unit Cost: $82.3 million (about Rs 384 crore)

SAAB JAS-39

The JAS-39 "Gripen" was designed in the mid 1980's to replace the aging Viggen and Drakens fighters and provide the first "fourth-generation" multi-strike fighter to the Swedish Air Force. As with all Swedish fighters, the Gripen is designed to use small low-tech airbases scattered around the countryside and take-off and land in less than 800 meters of unimproved automobile roadways. The resultant fighter uses advanced avionics and the close-coupled canard wing configuration common to the multinational Euro-fighter, French Rafale, and the aborted Israeli Lavi. The Gripen is composed primarily of a carbon-fiber composite construction which makes up 25 percent of the airframe weight. The design is not as stealthy as some other 4^th generation fighters; however, the fighters small size and reduced signature intakes have reduced its overall radar cross section.

The initial flight of the Gripen occurred on December 9, 1989 and proved so successful that the Swedish Air Force ordered 500 aircraft in light of the deteriorating global situation prior to the Global Civil War. One year before the start of the Global Civil War in January of 1992, Eastern Co-Prosperity countries were able to persuade neutral Sweden to buy nearly 200 fighters in exchange for guarantees of territorial security. Nearly 175 Gripens were delivered prior to the start of hostilities at which point deliveries stopped; however, during the war the Gripen showed that the fighter was equal to its contemporary light multi-role fighters such as early model F-16 and F/A-18 fighters.

The Gripen was designed to use a wide variety of weapons from both Western Alliance and Eastern Co-Prosperity arsenals. On single-seat versions of the Gripen, a Mauser BK-27 27mm cannon is mounted in the fuselage underneath the left air intake. The cannon is capable of firing up to 6,500 rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity in excess of 1250 meters per second fed from an internal 120 round storage drum. Up to 7,942 lb (3,600 kg) of external stores can be mounted on two wingtip, two wing, one centerline, and one below the starboard air intake harpoints (total of six). Each hard point can mount short range missiles (such as the AA-8, AA-11, AIM-9, or ASRAAM), a single medium range or long range missile (such as the AA-10, AA-12, AIM-120, or AMRAAM), or up to 500 kg of fuel, equipment or ordinance. The fighter is equipped with the Ericsson SAAB PS-05A multi-role radar in the nose of the Gripen can be operated in either high or medium PRF air-to-air search or a low PRF mode to be used in air-to-ground missions. All modes can be selected through the HOTAS switch.

After the crash of the SDF-1 and subsequent end of the Global Civil War, the formerly neutral Sweden was an early member of the United Earth Government (UEG) and was given access to key advanced technologies from the SDF-1. This allowed SAAB engineers to provide a second generation Gripen with advanced alloys which provide greater protection from enemy weaponry and resulted in new over-technology turbojet design with vastly improved fuel economy and thrust to weight ratios over the older models. The PS-05A radar was replaced with an active, electronically scanned antenna (AESA) which could be mechanically gimbaled. This allows the system to scan ±60 degrees electronically and if needed an additional ±60 degrees mechanically. The newly designed JAS-39 (C,D) models entered into production in 2010 and continued until the end of the First Robotech War in 2011 during which time nearly 325 advanced units were produced.

Nearly the entire Swedish air force was destroyed during the Zentraedi bombardment of the planet and only 137 Gripens survived. The UEG decided to upgraded all the surviving aircraft to the more advanced -C/D and this work was completed in 2015. The Gripen saw little combat use in the interlude between the 1st and the 2nd Robotech Wars and eventually all the UEG Gripens were placed into reserve by 2027. There was some interest at the start of the 2nd Robotech War to upgrade the remaining 75 units which had been placed in mothballs; however, the costs proved too prohibitive and the entire fleet remained in the UEG aircraft bone yard throughout the conflict. There were several reports of Gripens being used by resistance groups during the 3rd Robotech War. Although these reports were never confirmed, the Gripens ability to use small stretches of highway to take-off and land and coupled with the fact that the Gripen uses a conventional power plant would make the fighter desirable to resistance groups.

Origin

Sweden

Type

single-seat all-weather fighter, attack and reconnaissance aircraft

Max Speed

maximum speed supersonic at all altitudes

Max Range

3,250 km / 2,020 miles

Dimensions

span 8.00 m / 26 ft 3 in length 14.10 m / 46 ft 3 in height 4.70 m / 15 ft 5 in

Weight

empty 6,622 kg / 14,600 lb max. take-off 12,473 kg / 27,500 lb

Powerplant

one 8210-kg (18,100-lb) afterburning thrust Volvo Flygmotor RM12 turbofan

Armament

one 27-mm Mauser BK27 cannon; provision for Sky Flash and Sidewinder AAMs, Maverick ASMs, Rb15F anti-ship missiles, bombs, cluster bombs, rocket-launcher pods, reconnaissance pods, drop tanks and ECM pods carried on six external hardpoints

Operators:

Czech Republic, Hungary, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland (Ordered 22 x JAS 39), Thailand

TYPHOOn

The genesis of the RAF Typhoon lay in the early seventies AST.396 requirement for a STOVL light ground attack fighter intended to replace the Jaguar and Harrier. This requirement was abandoned in favour of the AST.403 specification for a multirole fighter with similar capabilities to the emerging US F-16 and F/A-18. The STOVL requirement soon disappeared since neither Germany nor France saw any such need and they were the most likely teaming partners for a project too big for the UK industry to tackle alone. The objective thus became the replacement of the RAF Jaguar and Phantom FGR.2. With Germany seeking a highly agile F/RF-4F/E replacement, and France seeking a Jaguar replacement, AST.414 was created.

The European Combat Aircraft (ECA) study group was formed, and by 1979 a joint BAe-MBB proposal for the European Combat Fighter (ECF) presented. With Dassault joining the BAe-MBB consortium, a twin engine delta canard was agreed as the preferred configuration. By 1981 the ECF collapsed, since the French wanted a fighter small enough to operate from their aircraft carriers.

Concurrently the national manufacturers worked on their own studies, BAe the P.110, MBB the TKF-90 and Dassault the ACX (which became the Rafale).

In April 1982 a new team was formed comprising the former Panavia Tornado players, and the extant design studies were merged into the Agile Combat Aircraft (ACA). To prove the concepts proposed in the ACA, the UK funded the Experimental Aircraft Program (EAP), the other two governments not coming to the party. Supported by UK government funding and industry funds from all three countries, the EAP first flew in August, 1986. The EAP demonstrator flew until 1991, logging 191.3 hours of total flight time.

European air forces continued to show interest in the idea of a common European design, and in late 1983 a common European requirement for the Future European Fighter Aircraft (FEFA soon changed to EFA) was defined with the UK, France, Germany, Italy and Spain participating. The EFA was to be a highly agile twin engine, single seat fighter with STOL capabilities. Its role was to be BVR counter air combat, short range air superiority over the battlefield, while a respectable strike capability would be provided.

The influences of the period were quite evident. The Soviets were fielding the Su-27S and MiG-29, during what was to be their final surge in the Cold War arms race. Europe's BVR air defences and air superiority hinged on the availability of USAF F-15As based in Germany and Holland, while most European air forces flew the agile but day-VFR F-16A. Germany and Britain flew tired F-4s of various vintages, and France the Mirage F.1 and 2000. The FEFA reflected these pressures, and was clearly intended to provide a smaller and cheaper European BVR capable substitute for the then expensive F-15, in numbers competitive with the F-16, with enough multirole capability to support the dedicated strike assets in any NATO vs Warpac contingency.

It was a European solution to a European scenario. The nearest comparison to the teen series would be an F/A-18 class multirole fighter with the BVR capabilities and agility of an F-15. The USAF replaced their Phantoms with the longer ranging, agile BVR F-15, whereas the USN replaced theirs with smaller and lighter F/A-18, compromising top end BVR performance in favour of numbers and strike capability. The RAF and Luftwaffe, the leaders in the EFA, rolled the equivalent of the USAF and USN Phantom replacements into a single F/A-18 sized airframe.

The question an Australian observer might ask is why not buy a mix of F-15s and F/A-18s off-the-shelf? This would have been unthinkable to the Europeans since they would lose the design expertise and manufacturing base the Eurofighter promised, as well as the massive investment by then sunk into the program, the production base built up for the Panavia Tornado, and concede the future fighter market to the US.

By 1984 the extant divisions between the French and the remaining players surfaced again, over carrier compatibility. The French wanted a 19,000 lb aircraft (between the F-16 and F/A-18) and the British a 24,255 lb aircraft (F/A-18 class empty weight). A compromise 21,000 lb weight was agreed upon. The French also sought design leadership, 50% of total workshare, control of the umbrella company and exports. A schism arose between the French and the other players and the EFA collapsed.

August 1985 saw the UK, Germany and Italy decide to resurrect the program and Spain and France were invited to join. Spain did, France went solo with the Rafale. By June 1986 the Eurofighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH company was formed, and in September 1986, Eurojet Turbo GmbH was formed to design and build the engine. The ECR-90 radar was awarded to GEC Ferranti in the UK.

The RAF EFA requirement was SRA.414, which sought a lightweight twin turbofan BVR and close combat fighter, with a secondary strike capability. The RAF sought 250 aircraft, the Luftwaffe 250, Italy 165 and Spain 100.

The EFA was in trouble again by 1992, under threat from the “peace dividend” expectations of European parliaments. Germany threatened to pull out altogether, after initially chopping numbers to 140, while Italy and Spain reduced the size of their planned buys. After much political bickering, the programme survived with revised build numbers, but serious delays were incurred.

Reports suggest that the F-22 was proposed to the UK, a historical fact which would explain the peculiar fixation on comparing the EFA to the F-22 in much of the marketing literature. The comparison is curious in the sense that the EFA is conceptually an evolution in the teen series fighter paradigm, whereas the F-22 combines sustained supercruising engines and Very Low Observables (stealth), thus representing a completely new paradigm.

The first prototype Eurofighter 2000 DA.1 flew from the DASA Manching facility in March 1994.

The Eurofighter Typhoon - A Technical Summary

The Typhoon employs a combined delta canard configuration with a wing area similar to the F-15, and similar internal fuel capacity, yet the aircraft has an empty weight of around 24,250 lb, much like a late model F/A-18C. The excellent empty weight of the Typhoon in relation to the wing size is as much a result of the compact configuration, as it is of the generous use of carbon fibre composites in the fuselage and wing of the aircraft. Titanium canards and outer control surfaces, and Aluminium Lithium alloy leading edges were employed to minimise weight yet achieve high structural strength.

The combined delta canard configuration and 538 ft2 wing size confer very low wing loading on 50% internal fuel, and are optimised for transonic manoeuvre and supersonic dash performance. The combination of sweep angle and unstable aft CoG is clearly intended for minimising supersonic drag, and is comparable to a classical supersonic interceptor like the Mirage series, but is more modest than the “supercruiser” 72° swept inboard wing section of the F-16XL/E.

The Typhoon is unlikely to match the supersonic high G envelope of F-16XL/E due to a lower wing sweep angle, but will have a useful advantage over most teen/teenski series types optimised for transonic turning. In transonic manoeuvre, the automatic full span leading edge slats are used to adjust the wing camber and therefore reduce the lift induced drag at high G characteristic of classical deltas in this regime. Fuselage vortex generators on either side of the cockpit are employed to promote vortex formation at high AoA and low speeds, and thus increase lift.

The paired inlet is optimised for high AoA performance, using forebody flow to promote air ingestion, as well as a boundary layer splitter above the inlet. The combination of vortex lift and inlet geometry used by the Typhoon exploits the same ideas used in the F-16A/C/XL/E.

The loosely coupled canard is intended to provide high control authority at high angles of attack, by placing the surfaces ahead of the main vortices, but also to provide lower trim drag in supersonic flight.

In comparing the Typhoon to established fighters, the aerodynamic design exploits basic ideas used in F-16 family, but combines them with a strongly swept delta and canard configuration to extend the supersonic envelope, although not as aggressively as GD did with the 660 ft2 cranked arrow F-16XL/E wing. The simpler wing design in the Typhoon in turn required canards to achieve the desired supersonic drag and manoeuvre envelope.

From the perspective of airframe optimisations, the Typhoon is without doubt optimised for its two primary design objectives, which are supersonic BVR interception and close in combat at transonic speeds, with no obvious concessions made to the secondary objective of strike. The low wing loading will confer excellent climb performance for the installed thrust, and the the delta configuration lower supersonic drag, in comparison with the F/A-18. The low wing loading is not optimal for low level strike profiles, but the gust sensitivity will be alleviated by the large sweep angle and the use of artificial stability and canards. The airframe is rated to +9/-3G at an undisclosed combat weight, pylon G ratings have also not been disclosed.

The aircraft is powered by a pair of Eurojet EJ200 afterburning turbofans, rated at 13,500 lbf dry and 20,000 lbf reheated at sea level, which is comparable to growth variants of the F/A-18's GE F404. The 0.4:1 bypass ratio is characteristic of modern fighter engines, and is optimised for transonic performance rather than cruise burn. Eurofighter claim the engine has a supercruise capability, although the duration of possible supercruise has not been disclosed. As the engine is technologically of the same generation as evolved teen series engines, expectations that it can deliver the kind of supercruise performance provided by uniquely designed supercruising powerplants like the US F119 and F120 are difficult to accept.

In an OCA/DCA combat configuration, clean, at 50% internal fuel (~6,500 lb), the Typhoon delivers a nominal sea level dry thrust/weight ratio of 0.82:1 and reheated thrust/weight ratio of 1.22:1 with a wing loading of 60.8 lb/ft2. Both are in the class of the F-15A/C, F-16A/C, MiG-29 and Su-27SK.

The aircraft uses a quadruply redundant digital flight control system intended to provide carefree handling, the latter an advancement over the teen series, and in many respects a necessity given the inherently pitch unstable aerodynamic configuration.

An experienced F/A-18 pilot who flew the Typhoon simulator commented to the author that the aircraft's manoeuvre/handling performance did not appear to be a dramatic improvement over the F/A-18, and rudder authority at high AoA did not match the F/A-18. It is however possible that further refinement of the flight control software could have yielded handling improvements since the mid nineties.

The overall impression resulting from a review of the aircraft's basic configuration, propulsion and fuel package is of a fighter with F-15 class transonic and supersonic agility at optimal weight, instantaneous manoeuvre performance slightly exceeding the teen series, all packaged into an F/A-18 sized airframe with installed thrust comparable to late build F/A-18 models. This reflects very closely the initial EFA design objectives.

The Typhoon's avionic package is built essentially upon the technology base used in the teen series fighters, but employs a higher level of integration against established in service teen series types.

The centrepiece of the avionic package is the X-band (I/J-band) ECR-90 pulse-Doppler multimode radar, similar in concept to the US Raytheon APG-63/65/70 series and derived from the Blue Vixen (Harrier FRS.2). Eurofighter are claiming twice the output power of the F/A-18's APG-65/73 series (typical power output for this class is 10 kW peak), and twice the detection range of the F-16's APG-68. However, in the absence of published data on the ECR-90's mechanically steered planar array aperture size, and peak power ratings, it is impossible to robustly verify these assertions. The radar is frequently credited with a detection range advantage over the F-15's APG-63/70 series, a necessity for the intended use of ramjet BVR missiles with an 80 NMI class A-pole range.

In terms of modes the ECR-90 incorporates the typical package we are familiar with in the teen series, or equivalents. Eurofighter emphasise the rapid slew rate of the planar array.

At this time an active phased array, the AMSAR, is in development as an upgrade to the ECR-90 and the Rafale's RBE2 passive phased array. The AMSAR/ECR-90 is technologically in the same category as the APG-68 ABR (F-16C/B.60) and APG-73 RUG III. It is expected to be available by around 2005, and would provide like the ABR and RUG III improved BVR performance, much lower sidelobes, interleaved search and engagement modes and the potential for interleaved terrain following and ground attack modes. AMSAR offers the potential for LPI operation, but would require further design optimisations and a fundamental redesign of many portions of the ECR-90 back end.

The ECR-90 is supplemented by two passive sensors. The Pilkington Optronics PIRATE mid-wave IRS&T/FLIR can be used for detection, identification and terrain avoidance, with eight discrete operating modes. It is tightly integrated with the radar's functions and either can be slaved to the other. In the absence of aperture and detector size data it is impossible to estimate the effective range under clear sky conditions.

An ESM is integrated into the Defensive Aids SubSystem (DASS), and could be employed as a passive targeting tool in engagements, in addition to its basic function as a sensitive long range RWR. The antenna packages are in the wingtip pods.

The DASS package is comprehensive, incorporating the ESM/RWR, a MAWS, a forward sector Laser Warning Receiver (RAF), expendables, DECM and an optical fibre towed decoy. This is a competitive package by any measure, against its US contemporaries.

The core avionic architecture is based upon the federated model, using multiple Mil-Std-1553B busses, making it comparable technologically to late build teen series systems. Eurofighter claim the use of sensor fusion techniques in the system software, to combine the data produced by the radar, IRS&T and ESM to provide a very high confidence of early BVR target identification and engagement. Given the significantly lower available computing power in the Typhoon, against the F-22A's Cray class CIPs, assertions that this capability is competitive against the sensor fusion software in the F-22A are somewhat peculiar, given that real time sensor fusion is a computationally intensive task.

Eurofighter take much pride in the aircraft's cockpit, which incorporates a holographic HUD, 3 colour MFDs, HOTAS controls, and pilot voice input for selecting system modes. Marconi are developing a HMD, which is intended to provide the pilot with visor projected binocular NVG imagery, FLIR/IRS&T imagery and symbology. On the available data the cockpit is state of the art, and clearly very competitive against teen series equivalents.

Primary navigation reference is provided by a Litton LN-93EF RLG INS, supplemented by GPS and TACAN. A GPWS (ground prox warning) and Microwave Landing System (MLS) are incorporated, the former to aid in low level operations. The aircraft carries secure VHF and UHF comm, an IFF interrogator and a MIDS/JTIS terminal.

For BVR combat the Typhoon's primary weapon will be the Matra-BAe Meteor FMRAAM, a ramjet powered AAM with a radar seeker evolved from the Matra-BAe MICA. The proposal to use the extended range AMRAAM derived ERAAM, or an ramjet AMRAAM derivative, was rejected in favour of a wholly European AAM. The interim BVR weapon will be the US AIM-120B AMRAAM. Most sources credit the FMRAAM with 80 NMI engagement range against a closing target, about 20% better than the ERAAM. The FMRAAM is to outrange the Russian Vympel R-77M ramjet Adder derivative. Four BVR AAMs will be carried in wing root semi-conformal wells.

For close-in combat the RAF Typhoon will be armed with the AIM-132 ASRAAM, soon to be deployed on the RAAF's F/A-18A+ fleet. Non-RAF Typhoons will carry a single Mauser 27 mm cannon, the MoD having decided to delete the gun from RAF aircraft. Weapon interfaces are compatible with standard Sidewinder and AMRAAM interfaces, it is likely the FMRAAM will use the AMRAAM interface.

For strike operations, a range of weapons may be carried. The primary RAF standoff weapon will be the Matra-BAe Storm Shadow cruise missile, derived from the French Apache, the Luftwaffe is likely to stay with the Tornado's KEPD-350. Variants of the Paveway laser guided bomb may be carried, with a TIALD FLIR/laser pod occupying one forward AAM well. For close-in tank busting, the millimetric wave Brimstone (AGM-114F Hellfire derivative) will be used. We can expect to see the Matra-BAe ALARM used for SEAD by the RAF, the AGM-88 HARM by the Luftwaffe. Mil-Std-1760 interfaces are provided as with current build teen series fighters to facilitate the integration of new weapons.

A wide range of options exist for external fuel carriage. For supersonic OCA/DCA combat, around 4,500 lb can be carried in upper wing root Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFT) and around 1,800 lb each in a pair of drop tanks. For subsonic strike sorties, 1,500 L or 2,000 L drop tanks may be carried in addition to CFTs.

Eurofighter marketing literature makes much mileage out of a claimed “stealth” capability, acquired by the use of S-bend inlet tunnels and selective application of radar absorbent materials. The design spec is claimed to have included bounds on RCS performance.

The assertion that the aircraft has a “stealth” capability is curious by any measure, since there is no evidence of planform alignment, panel edge alignment, blending or faceting, all established techniques used and proven on US types such as the F-117A, B-2A, YF-23A, F-22A and the JSF prototypes. Indeed the external carriage of stores alone would make the Typhoon's radar signature at least 10-100 times greater than the golfball to insect sized RCS we are accustomed to with US types. Unless the Europeans have invented new laws of radar scattering, the aircraft is at best a conventional fighter with reduced forward sector RCS, comparable to evolved F/A-18, F-16 variants, the Rafale or the B-1B.

The benefits of such limited RCS reduction are marginal, since the detection range curve is fairly steep in this region and modest increases in opposing radar performance can largely offset any gains in such RCS reduction. While every dBSM down is useful, beyond 0.3 of a square metre the payoff is questionable with external stores being carried. Moreover, unless an LPI radar is carried, the emissions of the radar will betray the fighter to an opponent from well outside radar range.

Published detection range performance for the NIIP N-011M and Phazotron Zhuk-Ph (Su-30MK upgrades) and Agat 9B-1103M/9B-1348E R-77/R-77M seekers would suggest that a Typhoon loaded with external stores could be successfully engaged within the 50-65 NMI envelope. The Meteor ramjet AAM is therefore vital to the Typhoon, since the AMRAAM cannot fully exploit the range advantage of the BVR weapon system.

The Eurofighter is the product of a consortium of British Aerospace, Deutsche Aerospace (Germany), Alenia (Italy), and CASA (Spain), with the United Kingdom and Germany providing technological leadership

Function: Multi-role fighter

Crew: 1

Engines: 2 Eurojet EJ200 afterburning turbofans, 60 kN dry, 93 kN with afterburner

Maximum speed: Mach 2.0+ (2390 km/h at high altitude)

Supercruise speed: Mach 1.3+ at altitude with typical air-to-air armament

Service ceiling: 18,290 m (60,000 ft)

Range: 1390 km

Armament: The Eurofighter carries NATO's best weapons. It has a high load Capacity with flexible missile configurations. It has thirteen carriage points, three of which are capable of holding external fuel tanks. The maximum fuel or weapons payload is 6,500 kg (14,330 lb.).

A mixture of at least 10 ASRAAMs (advanced short range air-to-air missiles) and AMRAAM (advanced medium range air-to-air missiles) can be carried with four of the AMRAAMs housed in low drag, low observability fuselage stations. A wide variety of air-to-surface weapons can be carried on seven stations, including avionics stores such as laser designators.

SR-Blackbird

Built over thirty years ago, the SR-71 Blackbird remains today the highest flying, fastest plane in the world. When fuel is low the plane can reach altitudes of over 90,000 feet. This is considered to be the extreme edges of Space. (Commercial airliners cruise at altitudes around 30,000 feet). Originally, the Blackbird was built to be equipped with weapons but was converted into a reconnaissance plane when it was realized that the plane flew faster than a rifle bullet. In simple terms, it would have shot itself down. The Blackbird is powered by two Pratt & Whitney jet engines with 34,000 pounds of thrust each, roughly the power of 55 locomotives. It is capable of speeds greater than Mach 3+. Flew from Los Angeles to Washington D.C in 1 hour, 13 minutes. Can fly over the state of Utah in approximately 4 minutes. From San Francisco to Los Angeles takes 8 « minutes.

The premier reconnaissance plane, the SR-71 can photograph a license plate from 80,000 feet. The SR-71 actually flew over Russian airspace photographing sensitive sites at the height of the cold war.

Boeing’s Sixth-Gen Fighter

Here’s a little update on this fighter design we showed you yesterday. It is indeed Boeing’s concept for a sixth-gen “air dominance” fighter for the U.S. Navy and Air Force, Daryl Davis, chief of Boeing’s Phantom Works division told me today. The plane, which is still just a concept, would have long-ranger range and fly at “higher mach numbers” (faster) than jets like the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter and be able to supercruise, according to Davis.

Boeing is funding its own research into sixh-gen fighter concepts since neither the Air Force or Navy is moving to kick off a new fighter program in the near future, said Davis. Pumping it’s own cash into advanced fighter R&D means that Boeing will have existing tech ready for a new airplane design when “the balloon goes up,” added Davis.

This is going to be pretty important in the years to come since, as Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Norton Schwartz told reporters today that the Air Force is going to focus even more on buying proven, existing technologies that meet the service’s actual combat requirements not its “wants.”

Meanwhile, the Phantom Ray UAV is Going Into Storage:

Speaking of new planes built with existing technology, Davis also revealed that Boeing’s stealthy-looking Phantom Ray drone will be placed in storage now that it’s successfully completed its test flights. The company is going to keep the bird in flyable condition with the hopes of dusting it off to contribute to the optionally-manned portion of the Air Force’s long range bomber project — a program Schwartz today said is in development and that the air service will fight to protect it from cancellation during

Jet generation

2012-01-15T16:18:00.000-08:00

First generation subsonic jet fighters (1940s -1950s)

The first generation of jet fighters comprises the initial, subsonic jet fighter designs introduced late in World War II and in the early post-war period. They differed little from their piston-engined counterparts in appearance, and many employed unswept wings. Guns remained the principal armament. The impetus for the development of turbojet-powered aircraft was to obtain a decisive advantage in maximum speed. Top speeds for fighters rose steadily throughout World War II as more powerful piston engines were developed, and had begun approaching the transonic flight regime where the efficiency of piston-driven propellers drops off considerably.

Second generation jet fighters 1950s- 1960s)

The development of second-generation fighters was shaped by technological breakthroughs, lessons learned from the aerial battles of the Korean War, and a focus on conducting operations in a nuclear warfare environment. Technological advances in aerodynamics, propulsion and aerospace building materials permitted designers to experiment with aeronautical innovations, such as swept wings, delta wings, and area-ruled fuselages. Widespread use of afterburning turbojet engines made these the first production aircraft to break the sound barrier, and the ability to sustain supersonic speeds in level flight became a common capability amongst fighters of this generation.

Third-generation jet fighters ( 1960s -1970s)

The third generation witnessed continued maturation of second-generation innovations, but it is most marked by renewed emphases on maneuverability and traditional ground-attack capabilities. Over the course of the 1960s, increasing combat experience with guided missiles demonstrated that combat would devolve into close-in dogfights. Analog avionics began to be introduced, replacing older "steam-gauge" cockpit instrumentation. Enhancements to improve the aerodynamic performance of third-generation fighters included flight control surfaces such as canards, powered slats, and blown flaps. A number of technologies would be tried for Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing, but thrust vectoring would be successful on the Harrier jump jet. .

Fourth generation jet fighters ( 1970 -1990s)

Fourth-generation fighters continued the trend towards multirole configurations, and were equipped with increasingly sophisticated avionics and weapon systems. Fighter designs were significantly influenced by the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory developed by Colonel John Boyd and mathematician Thomas Christie, based upon Boyd's combat experience in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor during the 1960s. E-M theory emphasized the value of aircraft specific energy maintenance as an advantage in fighter combat. Boyd perceived maneuverability as the primary means of getting "inside" an adversary's decision-making cycle, a process Boyd called the "OODA loop" (for "Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action"). This approach emphasized aircraft designs that were capable of performing "fast transients" – quick changes in speed, altitude, and direction – as opposed to relying chiefly on high speed alone.

5th generation jet fighters (1990s to the present)

The end of the Cold War in 1991 led many governments to significantly decrease military spending as a "peace dividend". Air force inventories were cut, and research and development programs intended to produce what was then anticipated to be "fifth-generation" fighters took serious hits; many programs were canceled during the first half of the 1990s, and those which survived were "stretched out". While the practice of slowing the pace of development reduces annual investment expenses, it comes at the penalty of increased overall program and unit costs over the long-term. In this instance, however, it also permitted designers to make use of the tremendous achievements being made in the fields of computers, avionics and other flight electronics, which had become possible largely due to the advances made in microchip and semiconductor technologies in the 1980s and 1990s. This opportunity enabled designers to develop fourth-generation designs – or redesigns – with significantly enhanced capabilities. These improved designs have become known as "Generation 4.5" fighters, recognizing their intermediate nature between the 4th and 5th generations, and their contribution in furthering development of individual fifth-generation technologies.

Sixth generation jet fighters

A sixth generation jet fighter is a conceptual airplane expected to enter service in the United States Air Force and United States Navy in 2025–30 timeframe. With the Chinese Chengdu J-20 and the Russian-Indian Sukhoi PAK FA under development, the need for of a sixth generation fighter may be urgent for the US military. The USAF seeks new fighter for the 2030–50 period named the "Next Generation Tactical Aircraft"/"Next Gen TACAIR" The US Navy looks to replace its F/A-18E/F Super Hornets beginning in 2025 with the Next Generation Air Dominance air superiority fighter.

China's sixth-generation fighter aircraft design based on nuclear propulsion Design Notes:

Aerodynamic layout: The nose starts from the edge of a large increase lift, duck wings can be rotated 360 °. Inlet rectangular design, the fuselage back into the air. The main wing for the diamond-shaped, adjustable flaps and edges of the former, ① leading edge sweep angle of 40 ~ 50 °. Twin-tail camber is about 25 °.
Propulsion: there are two programs.
Program 1: a conventional propulsion, using thrust-weight ratio of 12 to 15 between the turbofan engines, no afterburner: we can use Mach 1.5 ~ 1.8 supercruise; with afterburner: the maximum can reach Mach 2.4.
Program 2: using nuclear propulsion, using the nuclear heating-fuel rocket engines to accelerate the use of nuclear reactors, heat working fluid, jet speed can reach 5 to 10 km/second or so; or use of nuclear rocket engines, from nuclear power industry after the electric field to accelerate ions quality..

Airborne Weapons: a main-deck fuselage belly and two vice-cabins. Shells buried in the main cabin 4 ~ 6 in the long-range air to air missiles, and its maximum striking distance of 200 ~ 400KM. Vice shells buried in the cabin two off-axis angle is ± 90 ° infrared imaging focal plane short-range combat missiles. Can be mounted satellite/TV/IR/laser-guided and anti-radiation weapons and open space.
Airborne equipment: the source fitted with multi-function phased-array radar and helmet sight, a rear mounted tail radar, with all the attacks, over the shoulder launch capabilities. Equipped with radar/UV/IR warning system, installation of a belly may be 360 ° rotating laser cannons, the tail with an active-defense network systems. With the formation of combat capability, and a strong command of active / passive electronic interference.
Range: If the use of the program one: a maximum range of 4000 ~ 5000KM, combat radius of 1500 ~ 2000KM, with aerial refueling capability. If the use of the program two: enabling ultra-long-range flight operations, a maximum range of 12000 ~ 15000KM, combat radius of 5000 ~ 6000KM, without aerial refueling.
Aircraft, the basic geometric dimensions and weight:
Length 15m Wingspan 10m High 3.5m Empty weight is about 13000 ~ 15000Kg Maximum Takeoff Weight Program 1: 30000 ~ 35000Kg Program 2: 22000 ~ 27000Kg (less nuclear fuel can be loaded fuel 7000Kg) Ceiling of about 18000m.

Jet Engines

2012-01-08T09:29:00.000-08:00

Jet engines are mainly:

Turbojet Engine

The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple. Air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its original pressure in compressor. Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise the temperature of the fluid mixture to about 1,100°F to 1,300° F. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine, which drives the compressor. If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high-velocity stream of gas which produces a thrust. Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a second combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40 percent in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage at high speeds once the plane is in the air. The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push hard against the front of the engine. The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it. The gases flow through the turbine and make it spin. These gases bounce back and shoot our of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward.

Turboprop Engine

A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propellor. The turbine at the back is turned by the hot gases, and this turns a shaft that drives the propellor. Some small airliners and transport aircraft are powered by turboprops. Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run the turbine, which then creates power to drive the compressor. Compared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has better propulsion efficiency at flight speeds below about 500 miles per hour. Modern turboprop engines are equipped with propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger number of blades for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds. To accommodate the higher flight speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped with swept-back leading edges at the blade tips. Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans. Hungarian, Gyorgy Jendrassik who worked for the Ganz wagon works in Budapest designed the very first working turboprop engine in 1938. Called the Cs-1, Jendrassik's engine was first tested in August of 1940; the Cs-1 was abandoned in 1941 without going into production due to the War. Max Mueller designed the first turboprop engine that went into production in 1942.

Turbofan engine

A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air flows around the outside of the engine, making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds. Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans. In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. In a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming air goes into the combustion chamber. The remainder passes through a fan, or low-pressure compressor, and is ejected directly as a "cold" jet or mixed with the gas-generator exhaust to produce a "hot" jet. The objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel consumption. It achieves this by increasing the total air-mass flow and reducing the velocity within the same total energy supply.

Turboshaft Engine

This is another form of gas-turbine engine that operates much like a turboprop system. It does not drive a propellor. Instead, it provides power for a helicopter rotor. The turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator. This permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even when the speed of the generator is varied to modulate the amount of power produced.

Ramjet Engine

The most simple jet engine has no moving parts. The speed of the jet "rams" or forces air into the engine. It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating machinery has been omitted. Its application is restricted by the fact that its compression ratio depends wholly on forward speed. The ramjet develops no static thrust and very little thrust in general below the speed of sound. As a consequence, a ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted takeoff, such as another aircraft. It has been used primarily in guided-missile systems. Space vehicles use this type of jet.

Jet History

2012-01-07T17:20:00.000-08:00

History of jets
A number of jet power plants were suggested from the first instances of powered flight. René Lorin, Morize, Harris proposed systems for creating a jet efflux. In 1910 Henri Coandă filed a patent on a jet propulsion system which used piston-engine exhaust gases to add heat to an otherwise pure air stream compressed by rotating fan blades in a duct.
The "turbojet", was invented in the 1940s, independently by Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain. The first turbojet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 prototype of the German Air Force, the Luftwaffe, on August 27, 1939.
The first flight of a jet engined aircraft to come to popular attention was the Italian Caproni Campini N.1 motorjet prototype that flew on August 27, 1940. It was the first jet aircraft recognised by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (. Campini had proposed the motorjet in 1932.
The British experimental Gloster E.28/39 first took to the air on May 15, 1941, powered by Sir Frank Whittle's turbojet. After the United States was shown the British work, it produced the Bell XP-59A with a version of the Whittle engine built by General Electric, which flew on October 1, 1942.
The first operational jet fighter was the Messerschmitt Me 262, made by Germany during late World War II. It was the fastest conventional aircraft of World War II – although the rocket-powered Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet was faster. It had first flown in 1941 but mass production started in 1944 with the first squadrons operational that year, too late for a decisive effect on the outcome of the war. About the same time, mid 1944, the United Kingdom's Gloster Meteor was being committed to defence of the UK against the V1 flying bomb – itself a jet-powered aircraft – and then ground-attack operations over Europe in the last months of the war. In 1944 Germany introduced into service the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance and bomber, though chiefly used in the former role. USSR tested its own Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1 in 1942, but the project was scrapped by Joseph Stalin in 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy also developed jet aircraft in 1945, including the Nakajima J9Y Kikka, a crude copy of the Me 262. By the end of 1945, the US had introduced their next jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star into service and the UK its second fighter design, the de Havilland Vampire
The US introduced the North American B-45 Tornado, their first jet bomber, into service in 1948. Although capable of carrying nuclear weapons it was used for reconnaissance over Korea.
On November 8, 1950, during the Korean War, United States Air Force Lt. Russell J. Brown, flying in an F-80, intercepted two North Korean MiG-15s near the Yalu River and shot them down in the first jet-to-jet dogfight in history.
The UK put the English Electric Canberra into service in 1951 as a light bomber. It was designed to fly higher and faster than any interceptor.
BOAC operated the first commercial jet service, from London to Johannesburg, in 1952 with the de Havilland Comet jetliner. The Comet was initially ahead of rivals, but a series of crashes gave time for the Boeing 707 to enter service in 1958 and dominate the market for civilian airliners.
Turbofan aircraft began entering service in the 1950s and 1960s, and this is the most common type of jet in use today.
The Tu-144 supersonic transport was the fastest commercial jet plane at Mach 2.35 (1,555 mph, 2,503 km/h). It went into service in 1975, but soon stopped flying. The Mach 2 Concorde aircraft entered service in 1976 and flew for 27 years.
The fastest military jet plane was the SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3.35 (2,275 mph, 3,661 km/hr)

Heinkel He 178

gloster

Caproni campini n.l motorjet

V1-Flying-Bomb

f80

boeing

b-45 toranado

Arado Ar-234

SR-71 Blackbird

mig15

Tu-144

"K computer" Takes First Place in World

2011-07-19T06:26:00.000-07:00

The K computer, named after the Japanese word "kei" , which stands for 10quadrillion , is a supercomputer being produced by Fujitsu at the RIKEN Advanced institute for computational science campus in kobe,japan.
On 20 June 2011, the top500 Project Committee announced that K topped the LINPACK benchmark with the performance of 8.162 petaflops.What's that mean? It means it can process 8 quadrillion calculations per second. Maybe that number will be more impressive to you in numeric form: 8,000,000,000,000,000 calculations per second.
The system is still under construction and will enter service in November 2012 with 864 cabinets. It currently uses 68,544 2.0GHz 8-core SPARC64 VIIIfx processor packed in 672 cabinets, for a total of 548,352 cores, manufactured by Fujitsu with 45nm CMOS process technology. Each cabinet contains 96 compute nodes in addition to 6 IO nodes. Each compute node contains a single processor and 16 GB of memory. Its water cooling system minimizes failure rate and power use.
The K uses a special six-dimensional torus network interconnect called Tofu, and a Tofu-optimized massage passing interface based on the open-source Open MPI library.Users can create application programs adapted to either a one-, two-, or three-dimensional torus network
The system adopts a two-level local/global file system with parallel/distributed functions, and provides users with an automatic staging function for moving files between global and local file systems. Fujitsu developed an optimized parallel file system based on Lustre called Fujitsu Exabyte File System, scalable to several hundred petabytes
The K also reports the highest total power consumption of 9.89 MW, while the average power consumption of a TOP 10 system is 4.3 MW. Its power usage is roughly that of 10,000 houses and its annual running costs are US$10 million.
When configuration of the K computer is complete in 2012, it is designed to achieve LINPACK performance of 10 petaflops. It will be widely used in a variety of computational science fields where it is expected to contribute to the generation of world-class research results. The K computer is a wholly made-in-Japan supercomputer, from the research and development of the processors, to system design and manufacturing. Use of the K computer is expected to have a groundbreaking impact in fields ranging from global climate research, meteorology, disaster prevention, and medicine, thereby contributing to the creation of a prosperous and secure society. RIKEN and Fujitsu will continue to work tirelessly toward completing the system's deployment in 2012.

HEART TO HEART

2010-09-18T08:49:00.001-07:00

MY WINGS OF DREAMS

2010-09-17T08:22:00.000-07:00

Through the magic gates from this land of tears
I shall fly away on my wings of dreams
I can see a smile of conformity
Staying at the gates to eternity
Through the magic gates from this land of tears
I shall fly away on my wings of dreams

To dimension lost into world's nowhere
To be king of the castles in the air
I can see a smile of conformity
Staying at the gates to eternity
Through the magic gates from this land of tears
I shall fly away on my wings of dreams

...on my wings of dreams!
I'm on my wings of dreams!

For midnight I wait to fuse with the universe
Changing my fate I leave godforsaken earth
Filled with remains of creatures could only crawl
Away from dark plains
Even fly is eternal fall

....on my wings of dreams!
I'm on my wings of dreams!
...castles in the air!
Lyrics: On my Wings of Dreams, Knell