Soundings in Narragansett Bay's Naval History

Beneath the Waves: Thomas Eadie and the Tragedy of S-4

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Fri, 07 Feb 2025 17:24:00 +0000

Blueprint of USS S-4

On the afternoon of Saturday, December 18, 1927, off the coast of Provincetown, Massachusetts, U.S. Coast Guard Cutter USCGC Paulding (CG 17) was on routine patrol. With the passing of the 18^th Amendment in 1919, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, transportation and consumption of alcohol, Paulding’s crew was tasked with intercepting and searching private ships off the coast of New England. Commanded by Lieutenant Commander John S. Baylis, the destroyer was on the lookout for approximately three hundred vessels in the area suspected of smuggling illicit alcohol or ‘rum running’ as it was known at the time. Paulding was built as a destroyer for the Navy, but it was redesignated as a cutter after being transferred to the Coast Guard.

USCGC Paulding (CGC 17)

Unbeknownst to Baylis and his crew, a U.S. Navy S-class submarine was conducting diving tests off Cape Cod and was submerged directly in the path of Paulding. USS S-4 had aboard thirty-nine sailors and a single civilian observer. A lack of formal communication procedures between the Navy and the Coast Guard at this time contributed to the catastrophe. Baylis was not aware that he was on a direct course to collide with a Navy S-class submarine.

S-4 was not visible to those aboard Paulding until it was seventy-five yards off its port bow, initially mistaking its periscope as a fisherman marker. The submarine was stationary due to a suspected engine malfunction. Miscommunication and the poor visibility prevented Paulding’s crew from avoiding a collision with the S-class submarine. At 3:50 PM, the cutter rammed the starboard side of S-4 immediately sinking the submarine. Time was of the essence as S-4 possessed oxygen tanks meant to last forty hours. The Navy then dispatched USS Lark which was spearheading salvage operations.

USS S-4 in the Boston Naval Shipyard

Lark located the sunken submarine at approximately one hundred feet. Chief Gunner's Mate Thomas Eadie dove into the rough and freezing waters to further investigate the wreckage. No stranger to diving operations of this scale, Eadie had been awarded the Navy Cross in 1925, for his involvement in the rescue and salvage of three men aboard USS S-51 off the coast of Block Island. Eadie circled the wreckage tapping on the exterior of the vessel with a hammer to indicate to any survivors that help had arrived. It was not until he had probed the exterior of the bow that he heard a response. Those trapped within S-4 responded with six slow taps suggesting that there remained six survivors trapped within the torpedo room.

A naval diver preparing to salvage S-51 in 1925

Eadie and the survivors communicated utilizing morse code in order to gain a better understanding of the survivors’ situation. By the time Eadie surfaced, USS Falcon had arrived with hopes of establishing an airline to pump much needed oxygen into the vessel. Fellow diver Fred G. Michels was tasked with returning to the wreckage to connect the airline. Arriving at the site, Michels’ life-tether and hose had entangled itself in the wreck. Michels was pinned down against the top of the sunken submarine and required assistance to free himself from the wreckage.

Against protocol, Eadie volunteered to recover Michels without utilizing the decompression chambers aboard Falcon. For nearly two hours, Michels was trapped one hundred feet down until Eadie managed to reach him. With hacksaw in hand, for forty-five minutes Eadie cut away at the metal of S-4 to free Michels who was beginning to lose consciousness. In his attempt to free his fellow diver, Eadie’s suit had been ripped and begun to take on water. Fortunately, his helmet was designed so that it was sealed off from the rest of his diving gear, yet he was no longer insulated from the thirty-four-degree water. Both Michels and Eadie were successfully brought aboard Falcon.

Another attempt was made by diver William J. Carr who was able to attach the airline to the sunken submarine. However, the rough waters had made it ineffective, and all attempts made to rescue the six men trapped in the torpedo room were unsuccessful. S-4 had become a coffin for the thirty-nine sailors and single civilian observer aboard. This tragic incident forced both the Navy and Coast Guard to improve channels of communication regarding maritime operations and update aids to navigation in an effort to prevent another tragedy of this scale from ever occurring.

Eadie receiving the Congressional Medal of Honor from President Calvin Coolidge

All three divers: Eadie, Michels and Carr, were awarded the Navy Cross for their daring effort to save those trapped in the torpedo room. As a result of his heroism and unwavering courage to risk his own life in saving Michels, Eadie in February 1928 was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor presented to him by President Calvin Coolidge. One month later, S-4 was raised and tugged to Boston Naval Shipyard, where it would later be repurposed to train future navy salvage divers. In 1929, Eadie published a memoir named I Like Diving: A Professional’s Story retelling his experiences as a deep-sea naval diver and salvaging both USS S-51 in 1925 and USS S-4.

By Brayden Schuster

7 February, 2025

Sources:

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104344964/BA45F16359D54B46PQ/10?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104704948/BA45F16359D54B46PQ/9?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/103967076/BA45F16359D54B46PQ/8?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104001714/BA45F16359D54B46PQ/6?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/114071936/BA45F16359D54B46PQ/16?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Newspapers

https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2021/april/anatomy-tragedy-sinking-uss-s-4

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104662632/EDD7ED17F8514D3EPQ/1?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104679156/BD80E7AD61814EF5PQ/1?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.navsource.org/archives/08/pdf/0829290.pdf

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104683576/B1E1D603E6ED4646PQ/3?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/104656157/B1E1D603E6ED4646PQ/2?accountid=28707&sourcetype=Historical%20Newspapers

https://archive.org/details/ilikedivingprofe00eadi/page/190/mode/2up

USS Constellation, sloop-of-war

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Tue, 26 Apr 2022 20:19:00 +0000

USS Constellation, photo credit: Naval History and Heritage Command
click image to enlarge

I have been volunteering as a docent at the Naval War College Museum for over 10 years. It provides an opportunity to give back, add value and help navy personnel, families, friends and the public understand the importance of the sea in our history and our future. Later in this post I'll tell you a little more about my background and how it intersects with my efforts at the museum and the topic of this article, the Constellation.

Constellation is a sloop-of-war, the last sail-only warship designed and built by the United States Navy. She was built at the Gosport Shipyard between 1853 and 1854 and was named for the earlier frigate of the same name that had been broken up in 1853. For more on the history of all 5 U.S. Navy ships that have received the name Constellation, check out our other blog post titled FIVE SHIPS, ONE NAME http://navalwarcollegemuseum.blogspot.com/2022/02/five-ships-one-name.html

In 1767 a merchant and ship owner established the Gosport Shipyard on the Elizabeth River under the British flag. The business developed and prospered as both a naval and merchant shipyard. In 1775, when the American Revolution began, the owner chose to remain loyal to the British and fled the area. His properties were confiscated by the Colony of Virginia. While being operated by Virginia, the shipyard was burned by the British in 1779.

This former colonial shipyard became the Navy's center in the Hampton Roads area where the largest naval base in the world has been developed. The Norfolk Naval Shipyard is the US Navy's oldest and predates the United States Navy Department. It was renamed "Norfolk" in 1862 after the largest city in the area.

Rhode Island was the first colony to formally propose a Continental Navy. On August 26, 1775, the State Assembly passed a resolution wherein the delegates to Congress were to produce legislation that provided for a fleet of fighting ships sufficient to protect the colonies. Rhode Island passed this resolution because its merchants' widespread shipping activities were being severely harassed by British frigates.

With the Naval Act of 1794 the United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy. These ships, built during the early years of the United States Navy, were a fleet powerful enough to engage any frigate or smaller sized ship in the French or British navies, yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line. These frigates were Constellation, Constitution, Chesapeake, President, United States, and Congress.

There have been four ships built so far in the US Navy with this name: 38 gun frigate (1797), sloop-of-
war (1854) the last sail only warship, a Battlecruiser CC 2 (1922) that was never finished, and CV 64 (1960), an aircraft carrier with the A6 and related aircraft aboard.

This is a close-up view of the nose section of an A-6 Intruder of Attack Squadron (VA) 165 on the flight deck of the aircraft carrier Constellation (CVA 64) in 1974.
Photo credit: Naval History and Heritage Command
click image to enlarge

I highlight the CV 64 because it had the A6 aircraft aboard. As an engineer out of college, I was recruited by Grumman Aircraft and Engineering Company. Trained in electronics, the company assigned me to a group implementing Ground Support Equipment (GSE) for a number of its programs. At the time Grumman was an airframe manufacturer with contracts for carrier-based navy aircraft and NASA spacecraft. The GSE effort was to keep the on-board electronic systems functional and within specifications. This included maintenance platforms located at land bases, on aircraft carriers, and in mobile trailers. I worked on the A6 program, and this Constellation (CV 64) was one of the implementation platforms. Today, Grumman is part of the Northrup Grumman organization.

I had another experience with a different kind of constellation on a NASA program. In the 1960/70s my task on the first telescopes beyond our earth's atmosphere was included in a program named Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO). After checking the Observatory sitting on top of a rocket at Cape Canaveral, I was sent to the NASA control center at Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Here my task after launch was to monitor data from onboard cameras to verify the pattern of stars shown on paper star charts, including constellations, as a check on field of view and orientation. The view was amazing! We have a lot to learn! The program was followed by Hubble and James Webb Space Telescopes each of which expand our knowledge of the constellations beyond.

Both Hubble (top) and Webb (bottom) are reflecting telescopes. Light from distant objects enters the telescope, reflecting off of the large primary mirror sending it to the smaller secondary mirror. The secondary mirror reflects that light back through a hole in the primary mirror where it comes to a focus and enters each of the telescope's many instruments located behind the primary mirror. Telescope diagrams are not to scale relative to one and another.
Caption and image credit: NASA-GSFC, STScI

The fifth ship named Constellation is currently scheduled to be delivered in 2026 and is expected to achieve operational capability by 2030. The US Navy intends to acquire a number of Constellation-class frigates which will have the capability to carry out multiple missions, including anti-air warfare, anti-submarine warfare, anti-surface warfare, and electronic warfare. They will be able to operate independently or as part of a strike group and are designed to perform operations in littoral and blue water environments.

Think of this as a return to the future. From Frigate to Frigate, however, 1797 is not 2026 and technology has come a long way. Today, if you are in the Baltimore, Maryland area, check out the historic ship, the sloop-of-war Constellation in the harbor, where she has been preserved as a museum.

https://historicships.org/explore/uss-constellation

By Steve Koenig

Docent, Naval War College Museum

The Mediterranean Squadron, USS Constellation Protecting American Interests Abroad

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Thu, 31 Mar 2022 19:38:00 +0000

After being commissioned on July 28th, 1855, Constellation immediately departed from Norfolk, Virginia for international waters. The ship would be under the command of Captain Charles H. Bell. Bell was born in New York in 1798. He served in the War of 1812, as well as the Second Barbary War, prior to his time at the command of Constellation. With Bell leading the way, the sloop of war began its first duty, a three-year cruise protecting American civilians in the Mediterranean Sea.

USS Constellation. Photo credit: Naval History and Heritage Command, NH 55363

click image to enlarge

While Constellation was cruising the Mediterranean in 1854, a revolution broke out in Spain. That year there had been tension in the nation, in part due to a famine that wreaked havoc on the general population. The Spanish Prime Minister, Baldomero Espartero fell to his opposition which ultimately led to a regime change, and a new Prime Minister, Leopoldo O'Donnell. O'Donnell, the 1st Duke of Tetuan formulated a conservative ministry and then created the Union Liberal Party, which allowed Isabella II to appoint him as the forty-fourth Prime Minister of Spain. While the political atmosphere in Spain continued to settle, in July of 1856 Constellation was dispatched to protect American lives and property from danger. In order to fulfill its orders, Constellation docked in the coastal Mediterranean city of Malaga, Spain.

Leopoldo O'Donnell
click image to enlarge

Also in the year 1856, Constellation was sailing through the Sea of Marmara. The sea is an inland body of water that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea, and also separates Turkey's Asian and European territories. While Constellation was cruising, the crew noticed another ship in distress and went to the rescue. This led to the sloop receiving an official appreciation message from the Austrian Emperor.

1786 map of The Sea of Marmara or Propontis with the Straits of Constantinople and of Gallipoli click image to enlarge

Two years later on April 17th, 1858, Constellation was detached from the Mediterranean Squadron. Later that year she would patrol Cuban waters in order to protect American commercial ships against unlawful searches. After a brief Cuban cruise, Constellation returned to the navy yard in New York City on June 5th, 1858, later to be decommissioned in Boston, MA on August 13th.

Five Ships, One Name

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Fri, 11 Feb 2022 15:59:00 +0000

Throughout United States naval history, it's common for ships to carry the same name as those who came before them. Yet few come with the controversy and excitement of the USS Constellation and the ships that bear its name. The first of five, the frigate Constellation, was designed by naval constructors Joshua Humphreys and Josiah Fox. After the creation of its design, it was built between the years 1796 and 1797. The frigate had an exceptional career since its launch in Baltimore. Highlights of her tour included participation in the first and second Barbary Wars, the blockade of Tripoli, the War of 1812, and numerous diplomatic missions around the globe including areas of the Mediterranean, India, and Peru. In 1853, the United States Navy realized the poor condition of the frigate and chose to fully dismantle the ship and create a brand-new vessel. It was decided that the frigate would be scrapped in order to create a new Constellation, the second ship of its name, a sloop of war.


Frigate USS Constellation chasing the French ship L'Insurgente on 9 February 1799 click image to enlarge

In late May of 1853, the sloop was undergoing the design process by John Lenthall while workers started searching for oak timber. As late June approached, the timber for the keel was carefully laid out, using three pieces of the original frigate for the new ship. As September arrived, the Commandant of the Gosport Navy Yard wrote to the Secretary of the Navy to ask for authorization to auction off the leftover timber of the original frigate.

On August 26th, 1854 at precisely 11:45 AM, the new sloop of war Constellation was launched. It would be the last warship designed and built by the Navy that was powered strictly by sails. It was officially commissioned on July 28th, 1855, and as we will later learn, it had a story every bit as interesting as the frigate before it. During the sloop's tenure, it served as part of the Mediterranean Squadron. It patrolled the coast of Africa in order to monitor and block the African slave trade, served as a training ship in Newport, RI, transported exhibits for the World's Fair in Paris, and carried food to Ireland during the famine in 1880.

USS Constellation, sloop of war
click image to enlarge

The third Constellation (CC-2) was the second-in-line of the Lexington-class battlecruisers. It was laid down in Newport News, Virginia on August 18th, 1920. Before the ship was completed, it was canceled in August of 1923 as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty, the aim of which was to prevent an arms race post-WWI by limiting naval construction. The Constellation shell was then sold in November of 1923 for scrap for $10,666.66.

Possible picture of the USS Constellation (CC-2) in Newport News, Virginia
click image to enlarge

The USS Constellation (CV-64) followed the Constellation (CC-2). Its keel was laid in September of 1957 at the New York Naval Shipyard in Brooklyn, NY. During the construction, there was a massive fire that took the lives of 50 workers, created damages of $75 million, and forced a delay of seven months. The finished Constellation was nicknamed "Connie" by its crew and was commissioned on October 27th, 1961 when it started conducting air operations in the Virginia Capes. In the summer of 1962, "Connie" began her journey in the Pacific Fleet, making the trip around Cape Horn to its new base in San Diego. Later, she would play a significant role in the Vietnam War, relieving the USS Kitty Hawk in the Gulf of Tonkin. Overall this Constellation had a total of five combat deployments during the Vietnam War. The ship also served in the Korean peninsula during the late 1990s in response to the tension between North and South Korea. The Constellation served for forty-two years and was decommissioned on August 7th, 2003.

USS Constellation (CV-64)
click image to enlarge

The newest Constellation, the FFG-62 is currently in the process of planning and construction. It will be built by Marinette Marine in Marinette, Wisconsin. It is expected to enter service in 2026. The ship will be sponsored by Melissa Braithwaite, the wife of Secretary of the Navy Kenneth Braithwaite.

Computer rendering of F/MM design Constellation (FFG-62) Class Frigate
Source: Fincantieri/Marinette Marine, screen capture from video entitled "Constellation Class Frigate 360 View," posted at https://futurefrigate.com/, accessed February 9th, 2022

This blog post kicks off a series of articles on the USS Constellation, in particular the unique and important history of the sloop of war vessel. In Spring 2022, the Naval War College Museum will open an exhibition on the sloop of war Constellation timed to coincide with the culmination of a restoration project on an original anchor of the sloop of war Constellation on display outside the museum.

by Alex Kenney, Intern from Salve Regina University

A Day in the Life: Director of Education and Public Outreach

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Sun, 23 Jan 2022 12:00:00 +0000

Continuing our series looking at a day in life of staff members at the Naval War College Museum, this week we learn about the role of the Director of Education and Public Outreach.

At the Naval War College Museum, the Director of Education and Public Outreach gets to interact with a lot of different organizations and individuals. Online content, group programming, games, and more all flow together under the responsibilities of the museum's current Director of Education and Public Outreach, Blake Ruehrwein.

Blake Ruehrwein, Director of Education and Public Outreach
click image to enlarge

As is true for all departments at the Naval War College Museum, the Education department is a department of one staff member. That means Blake's work covers a lot of diverse projects, which also means he gets to employ a lot of creativity in his work too. The Director of Education designs museum programming, which can be targeted toward the general public or specific institutions or demographics. As manager of the tour program at the Naval War College Museum, Blake oversees an exciting variety of ways tours can be offered. Group tours offer a guided experience of the museum in the hands of one of our amazing docents. The docents are the go-to ambassadors for the museum when VIPs stop by or high-profile events are underway. If a more self-paced adventure appeals to you, the Director of Education also manages and updates an audio tour using your own cell phone as you walk through the museum.

Docent giving a guided tour
click image to enlarge

Keeping pace with the latest technologies, the museum, via the Director of Education, is in the process of creating a virtual 3D tour using the type of 3D camera more commonly associated with virtual real estate tours. The virtual museum tour provides the highest quality access to exhibitions and content to anyone around the world with an internet connection who may not be able to make it to the museum in person. Anticipate this feature becoming available to the public later this year!

The Director of Education is also the liaison between the museum, the public, and partner institutions. Community partners have regularly hosted a series of lectures that are open to the public. The navy base's annual Salute to Summer party invites the community to enjoy music, food, and other activities on base in collaboration with the museum and navy organizations. Commands on Naval Station Newport take advantage of these museum partnerships too. Last year, the Curator, Museum Director, and Director of Education worked together to establish a wargaming program for junior officers at the Officer Candidate School.

A natural partnership is the joint activities of the Director of Education with the faculty at the Naval War College. Faculty might ask for historical content as teaching aides in the classroom, or many opt to hold class in the museum surrounded by a wealth of artifacts and exhibitions. Many groups on base and off base are excited to have their professional and social events in the museum. The Director of Education organizes retirement, promotion, graduation, and reunion ceremonies, as well as networking, socials, and other fun times!

Naval War College professors enjoy holding class in the museum
click image to enlarge

A visit to the museum could provide family programming like our exhibition-based scavenger hunts, while those with an interest in technical work can catch one of our conservators cleaning and repairing ship models in the galleries. In addition to our tour guides, these conservators are often a part of the volunteer program, which is managed by the Director of Education. Under this scope, Blake schedules tour guides, develops internships, and designs volunteer appreciation initiatives.

One major way the Director of Education engages the public is through social media. Whether it's a trivia question on Facebook, announcement of a new exhibition on Twitter, or recordings of presentations on YouTube, the Naval War College Museum is constantly curating and creating content for online audiences.

A sneak peak of the museum's upcoming virtual tour
click image to enlarge

Education has been a critical component of museum mission statements for a long time. Through in-person or online programming, tours, or events, you can count on the Education department at the Naval War College Museum continuing to serve both the military community and the public.

Celebrating in Time of War

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Mon, 20 Dec 2021 20:15:00 +0000

Before World War II, the United States military tried its best to make the holiday season a festive time for the uniformed services. Special dinners, concerts, competitions, and religious services all featured in the December activities advertised in base newspapers throughout the 1920s and 30s. At Naval Training Station Newport, service personnel were granted leave to travel home if they lived in the area, a privilege made possible by the relaxed training schedule of a nation at peace. Those who had to remain on base would often write letters or postcards to let their families know they were thinking of them.

U.S. Naval War College Christmas postcard, 1929
click image to enlarge

All of that changed after the attack on Pearl Harbor. For some, the holiday season that followed just weeks later was a grim one indeed. One can imagine how difficult it must have been to rouse the usual holiday cheer in the wake of a national tragedy, and with so many Americans facing the prospect of overseas deployment and combat. Indeed, no holiday season was ever really normal during the war. With millions of people away from home and even more hard at work on the home front supporting the war effort, it must have been difficult to feel happy or hopeful about the future. The anniversary of Pearl Harbor occurred each year at the start of the holidays, and the memory of those attacks surely must have inspired fresh feelings of anger and sadness. Outrage over the way the war started never completely faded away, though in following years public sentiment grew to encompass a steady resolve and determination to see things through to the end.

Newport Recruit and Service Schools Log, December 18, 1943

click image to enlarge

Naval Training Station Newport resumed publishing the base newspaper called Newport Recruit and Service Schools Log in January 1943. It was normally printed every Saturday, but since Christmas fell on a Saturday in 1943, that week's issue came out on Christmas Eve instead. The paper contained a full listing of special events for that week to include Christmas caroling, variety shows, and multiple viewings of A Christmas Carol in the drill hall. Religious programs included special services on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day for Catholics and Protestants. The base also hosted normally scheduled services for Jewish, Greek Orthodox and Christian Science personnel.

Newport Recruit and Service Schools Log, December 18, 1943
click image to enlarge

Chaplain Sidney C. Swann wrote a front-page article for the Christmas Eve issue entitled "Joy to the World." Faced with the task of providing a hopeful message while also acknowledging the darkness brought about by war, he produced a column that captures the spirit of those difficult holiday celebrations from 1941 to 1945.

It seems that we are engulfed in a darkness too thick for the light of the Christmas message to penetrate. And yet, if by means of a magic carpet we could be many places at once, we would find the light shining on this Christmas Day as it has for almost twenty centuries.

After noting the contradiction between the peaceful message of Christmas and the reality of a world consumed by war, Chaplain Swann called special attention to the service members deployed around the globe who would be spending another holiday season away from home. Recognizing that many would be homesick and disheartened, he expressed sympathy for those on the front lines and acknowledged that some may not even be aware when it was Christmas Day.

Newport Recruit and Service Schools Log, December 18, 1943
click image to enlarge

Surprisingly, Chaplain Swann also used part of his column to reach across enemy lines. Having lifted up the men and women of the U.S. military, he next asked his readers to consider the countries they were fighting and the ordinary people who lived in those places.

In Germany we might expect no indication that Christmas has come. There will likely be strict orders stating that no public or private observance will be tolerated. The all-too-efficient Gestapo will be on the alert for any sign of disobedience on the part of the people. A closer look though, and what do you see? Behind drawn blinds, in secret meeting places, and, more important, in the hearts of many of the German people, there is the spirit of this sacred day. Yes, Christmas will come to Germany, and to Japan, and to all the nations of the world. Enemy dictators have no power to shut out the spirit that was born in a lowly manger.

By drawing a distinction between the heads of state who started the war and the civilians they ruled, Chaplain Swann invited his audience to sympathize with people who were caught up in world events just like everyone else. It would be fascinating to know how well this message was received. Newport Recruit and Service Schools Log did not include a section for letters to the editor, so we are left to guess what sort of comments Chaplain Swann received, if any, about his Christmas message. Were his readers inspired to extend feelings of solidarity with Christians all over the world as he hoped they would? Did they balk at the idea of sympathizing with German civilians, who Christian though they may be, were also working in factories to produce armaments for use against U.S. soldiers, sailors, and airmen? What about the idea of Christmas coming to Japan, a largely non-Christian nation that was responsible for the attack on Pearl Harbor?

However one feels about his holiday greeting, one must acknowledge that it took courage to publish an article expressing support for enemy civilians in a U.S. military newspaper. By December 1943, the United States had been at war for two years. While Allied forces were making progress in Europe and the Pacific, victory was not on the near-term horizon. The realization that the war was not going to end any time soon must have been profoundly discouraging for those who found themselves separated from loved ones during another holiday season. Asking them to think kindly about their German and Japanese counterparts surely tested the idea of a shared humanity. Indeed, many were probably more focused on the year to come and preparing for the difficulties that lay ahead. For them, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox's special message that appeared in this issue must have captured the somber mood of another wartime holiday season.

The coming year is crucial. The battle of 1944 will help decide how long we must struggle before there is once again peace on earth. The best holiday wish for you and your families in the hope that Christmas day of 1943 will be the last you spend far from family and friends. May the New Year lead us to victory.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

A Day in the Life: Curator

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Mon, 29 Nov 2021 19:34:00 +0000

What does a museum curator actually do all day? This post kicks off our series called A Day in the Life, revealing the ins-and-outs of various positions and duties at the Naval War College Museum. If you're curious about this industry, how shared history and material culture is cared for, or just what goes on over here, read on and enjoy all the posts in this series.

The work of a curator varies tremendously from museum to museum. Large museums will often employ many curators and assistants, and each one might specialize in a different era or culture or media. Smaller museums, like the Naval War College Museum, might have a single curator, which we do. Ours is named Rob Doane!

Robert Doane, Curator, Naval War College Museum.

The nature of working at a small museum means Rob's work can be very different from day to day. Our curator is responsible for all aspects of exhibitions, from conception, to design, and execution. This scope of duties can mean in one day the curator is planning content for an exhibition slotted to open two years in the future, making object labels for an offsite exhibit opening in a few weeks, developing a presentation for a conference, or running the Collections Committee that responds to individuals or institutions offering to donate items to the museum. As our subject matter expert on naval history, Rob also answers all the research inquiries that come to us from the public, media, or other organizations. One recent program developed by Rob is a series of wargames, played against other museums streaming live online as they replay historic battles!

Online Wargames via Facebook Live, June 2021.

The Naval War College Museum is a military history museum, and simultaneously an academic museum. That means our museum works closely with faculty and staff in all departments at the Naval War College. Whether its professors holding their classes in the museum, or the museum providing content and exhibitions throughout the campus, there is a steady stream of collaboration and the curator often has a hand in it.

Naval Station Newport is often called the Campus of the Navy, because we have over 50 different commands on base, many of which are a school, academy, or provide some kind of certification or training. Working with these schoolhouses is one way the Naval War College Museum serves the fleet from many different angles. Earlier this year, Rob worked with the Naval Justice School to create a timeline of the school's history with historic photos and important milestones that traced the arc of their development to the present day.

Graphic timeline for the Naval Justice School, July 2021.

Another feature of a small museum is that the work of each staff member intersects with all the others. If the Collections Committee decides to accept a donation, the curator works with the Collections Manager to facilitate required paperwork. When planning a new exhibit, Rob works with the Exhibit Specialist to design the physical and digital style, and the Administrative Officer to order the right supplies. When the Director of Education and Public Outreach plans group programming, the curator often contributes content. And as a senior position on staff, the curator works closely with the Museum Director on planning and policy. Look for posts about each of these museum roles in the near future!

The curator's work can provide new ways of understanding and using history. The ideas he or she shares can shape the way people think, and live in perpetuity via print, online, or in the minds of everyone who gets a chance to visit the Naval War College Museum.

Thanks Rob!

by Blake Ruehrwein

The Hunted becomes the Hunter: Sloop Providence and the Revolutionary War

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Thu, 30 Sep 2021 19:29:00 +0000

Sloop Providence, John Paul Jones, pursued by HM Frigate Solebay and Firing a Swivel Cannon
oil on canvas, by William Gilkerson, 1984

On the first of September, 1776, the Continental Navy sloop Providence successfully evaded the Royal Navy frigates Solebay and Milford. Her now legendary Captain, John Paul Jones, utilized the speed and skilled crew of the 12 gun sloop to accomplish this feat. Jones, who would go on to captain such famous ships as Ranger and Bonhomme Richard, would later say that Providence and her crew were his favorite command. Following her daring escape, Providence captured 16 vessels in the month of September alone.

Bust of John Paul Jones, 1st Floor, Naval War College Museum

Originally named Katy, what would become one of the most successful ships of the Revolutionary War was utilized as a merchant vessel, privateer, and whaler before she became the flagship of the Rhode Island Navy in 1775. Realizing that a state navy was not enough to protect Rhode Island's merchant shipping, Rhode Island's August General Assembly urged its representatives in the Continental Congress (who all happened to be from Providence) to call for the formation of a Continental Navy. This proposal was heard on October 3rd, 1775; and on October 13th, what is now called the birthday of the United States Navy, Congress authorized the fitting out of two vessels for service in a Continental Navy. One of these vessels was Katy.

Detail: Sailor fires a swivel gun from stern of Sloop Providence

Katy, now renamed Providence, began her service as part of Commodore Esek Hopkins' fleet, and landed sailors and Marines in the first amphibious assault in American military history at New Providence in the Bahamas in January of 1776. In May of that year, John Paul Jones took command of Providence. During his time as her commanding officer from May to November 1776, Jones captured the brig Britannia in August and the 16 ships in the aforementioned September cruise from Delaware Bay to Bermuda. Following her time under Jones' command, Providence captured the transport Mellish in mid-November 1776 while sailing with Alfred. Onboard Mellish were supplies and 10,000 winter uniforms for General Burgoyne's British Army in Quebec. She raided the fort at New Providence in the Bahamas again in 1778, captured six vessels, freeing 20 American prisoners in the process, and engaged the sloop of war Grayton.

Detail: HMS Solebay pursues Sloop Providence

In August 1779, the sloop's luck ran out. After supporting American troops in the failed Penobscot Expedition, Providence attempted to evade British reinforcements by sailing upriver, but was ultimately burned to prevent capture. In her four years of service in the fledgling Continental Navy from 1775 to 1779, Providence captured 40 vessels, a record unparalleled in the conflict. She was the first vessel to escape the British Blockade of Newport during the winter of 1776-1777. It was Providence's Marines that raised the American flag on foreign soil for the first time in history during her 1778 expedition to the Bahamas. Today, a replica of the vessel, the Tall Ship Providence, operates out of Alexandria, Virginia.

The famous sloop was the first of five vessels named for the city of Providence, Rhode Island, which was named, "in thanksgiving for God's guidance and care." Two of these vessels served in the Revolutionary War as well. The second Providence, a frigate, ran the British blockade of the Providence River in 1778, sailed to France for supplies for the Continental Navy, and later attacked a British fleet sailing from Jamaica with Ranger and Queen of France, capturing $1,000,000 worth of cargo. She was captured in 1780 by the British and put into service as HMS Providence. The third Providence was a Gundalow built in 1776 on Lake Champlain. She served under General Benedict Arnold in the battle of Valcour Island in October 1776. At the end of the battle, Providence was burned to prevent capture. While a tactical defeat for the Colonists, the Battle of Valcour Island bought the Colonies precious time that ultimately led to an American victory at Saratoga in 1777. The British commander who surrendered at Saratoga was General Burgoyne, whose shipment of supplies and winter uniforms onboard Mellish were captured by the first Providence the previous year. The fourth Providence, CL-82, a light cruiser commissioned in May 1945, served in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. She was decommissioned in 1949, but was reclassified as a guided missile cruiser, CLG-6, and recommissioned in 1957. Providence served during the Vietnam war, providing fire support in several engagements, notably during the Tet offensive of 1968. The fifth Providence, SSN-719, is a Los Angeles Class Attack Submarine commissioned in 1985.

Painting of Providence and Solebay accompanied by a wood model of Sloop Providence
1st Floor, Naval War College Museum

The painting displayed at the Naval War College Museum, "Sloop Providence, John Paul Jones, pursued by HM Frigate Solebay and Firing a Swivel Cannon," is a 1984 oil on canvas painting by William Gilkerson. It was a gift from Mr. Richard Arthur, the Chairman of the Board of Sippican Company Inc., to the Naval War College Foundation. The painting was part of a lot of items donated for use in the McCarty Little Building, but Mr. Arthur expressed his desire for this painting to be seen by the public as much as possible. Displayed near the entrance to the Museum on the first deck, the painting is one of the first objects that visitors see. The painting of Providence's daring escape, placed next to a bust of John Paul Jones and artifacts from the Revolutionary War era, paint a vivid picture of the early days of our Navy in Narragansett Bay and New England. William Gilkerson was an author of 14 books, a historian, and a marine artist with paintings displayed in many notable locations both in the United States and abroad. His works can be seen in the Library of Congress, Naval Academy Museum, and the National Library of Scotland, just to name a few. Gilkerson passed away in 2015.

by Alex Kania, Naval War College Museum volunteer

Sources

A Chronology of the US Navy 1775-1965 by David Cooney

https://www.awiatsea.com/incidents/1776-11-12-Capture%20of%20the%20Mellish.pdf

https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/art/surrender-general-burgoyne

https://www.gilkersonart.com/about-william-gilkerson/

https://tallshipprovidence.org/learn/the-original-providence/

https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/providence-i.html

https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/providence-ii.html

https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/providence-iii.html

https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/providence-iv.html

https://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_719.HTML

Planning on the Fly: The Spanish-American War

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Tue, 17 Aug 2021 12:59:00 +0000

Though the Spanish-American War was brief, lasting just over three and a half months, it was preceded by years of rising tension between the United States and Spain. The latter’s presence in the Caribbean made her a natural rival as the U.S. expanded its overseas reach and built a new navy to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. By the late nineteenth century, Cuba and Puerto Rico were the last remaining Caribbean colonies of the once-formidable Spanish empire. Beginning in the 1860s, armed revolutionary groups in Cuba fought with the colonial government as a response to widespread poverty and harsh Spanish rule. The threat of American intervention in the conflict became a continuing source of friction between the two countries. When the battleship Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, an outraged American government demanded action. Though the cause of the explosion was unclear, Congressional leaders blamed Spain and declared war on April 25.

Planning for the war preceded the outbreak of hostilities by at least four years. In that era, no centralized body existed to design and direct naval operations, so planning was done on an ad hoc basis. Though the Navy made the most of the tools available to it, the war demonstrated the need for a permanent organization devoted to war planning.

The Naval War College first tackled the subject in 1894. Only a decade old and still fighting to gain acceptance within top leadership circles, the college’s mission was still being debated in this early period. Captain Henry C. Taylor, the President of the Naval War College, felt strongly that the school should help craft war plans and ensured that the curriculum supported this activity. He assigned three students to write a paper on “Strategy in the Event of War with Spain.” One of them, LCDR Charles J. Train, wrote that the destruction of the Spanish fleet should be the top priority. He advocated for seizing a base on Cuba’s northeast coast to support the imposition of a blockade and to allow the U.S. fleet to concentrate for the anticipated showdown with the Spanish Navy.

Members of the Naval War College Class of 1895 participating in a war game

The start of the Cuban Insurrection the following year led the Naval War College to undertake a more thorough examination of war plans. The Class of 1895 was directed to study a potential war against Spain with Cuban independence as the main objective. Students again devised a plan that featured an amphibious landing near Havana preceding the main encounter between the two battle fleets. The Navy’s job was to escort the troop ships to Cuba and intercept any Spanish relief expedition that attempted to reinforce the defenders.

Lieutenant William Kimball of the Office of Naval Intelligence joined the discussion in 1896. His plan also called for a blockade of Cuba while adding more aggressive action against Spain. Kimball proposed sending the Asiatic Fleet to blockade the Philippines while the European Squadron attacked the Spanish coast. The staff of the Naval War College disliked this plan, feeling that it dispersed American naval power while also inviting harsh responses from other European naval powers. Still, Captain Taylor liked the idea of putting pressure on Spain’s colonial holdings and endorsed the proposed expedition to the Pacific.

Not content with any of these plans, Secretary of the Navy Hilary Herbert convened his own board for the purposes of drafting a strategy to use against Spain. Named for its chairman, Admiral Francis M. Ramsay, this board advocated for a blockade of Cuba and Puerto Rico while sending the European Squadron to capture a base in the Canary Islands prior to staging attacks against the Spanish coast.

Yet a fifth plan emerged the following year when a new Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, took over in 1897 and formed another board to study the issue. Led by Rear Admiral Montgomery Sicard, this board called for an early seizure of a base in Cuba to support operations against Havana and to arm rebels on the island. The blockade would be carried out by armed merchant steamers, freeing up the Navy’s warships to intercept the expected relief expedition from Spain. Key to this plan was the presence of colliers to refuel the blockading fleet so they would not have to leave their stations to take on coal. The board’s members agreed with past recommendations to blockade Puerto Rico and attack Spanish forces in the Philippines. They did not endorse the idea of an attack on the Canary Islands, but instead called for the formation of a “flying squadron” consisting of two armored cruisers and two destroyers that would prey on shipping off the coast of Spain.

The Naval War Board (Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan seated at far left)

Despite four years of discussions, none of these plans were implemented in their entirety during the actual war, though the Sicard board did see many of its ideas adopted by the Navy. The Naval War College, contributed much to these discussions and generated some of the ideas that were later endorsed by Sicard board. Having published his landmark study on naval history in 1890, The Influence of Seapower upon History, Alfred Thayer Mahan carried the torch for the college as its leading strategic thinker. Though he had retired in 1896, Mahan was called back to active duty during the war to serve on the Naval War Board, an advisory body for the Secretary of the Navy. Mahan’s ideas on naval warfare are often reduced to a single guiding principle: that the destruction of the enemy fleet must be the primary objective in any war. As the most influential member of the Naval War Board, one might assume that Mahan wanted a climactic battle with the Spanish fleet and that the board fell in line with his way of thinking. This was not the case. Though he recognized that the destruction of the Spanish fleet would free the U.S. Navy to conduct other operations in support of the ground campaign on Cuba, Mahan also understood that these secondary operations may in fact have to precede the main battle. Something was needed to entice the Spanish to sail across the Atlantic, and the blockade served that purpose well.

One aspect of U.S. naval operations that Mahan disliked was the establishment of the Flying Squadron. It did not adopt an offensive role as envisioned by the Sicard board, but rather remained on the east coast in case the Spanish attempted to attack the U.S. mainland. This was partly a concession to panicked business owners and local politicians who demanded action to protect their cities. The squadron remained at Hampton Roads until Spain’s battle fleet was located near Martinique, at which time it shifted operations south to participate in the Cuban blockade. Mahan did not like the idea of dividing the fleet and was disappointed that the Navy’s leadership bowed to public pressure rather than following what he believed was sound naval strategy.

The collier USS Merrimac preparing to sail from Portsmouth VA on April 23, 1898

The U.S. Navy struggled during the first weeks of the war to assemble the logistical apparatus necessary for a blockade. In its haste to begin operations, the Navy sent ships south to Cuba without colliers. The need to keep up steam in order to pursue unknown ships meant that the blockaders burned through coal at a high rate and had to make frequent trips to Key West, Florida to take on more coal. Only after colliers began arriving off Cuban waters was the Navy able to institute a tight blockade. The Sicard board’s recommendation to provide refueling ships for the fleet was prescient.

The overall success of U.S. naval operations during the Spanish-American War demonstrated the value of pre-war planning. In the absence of a central planning body, the Naval War College partially filled this role by studying a potential conflict with Spain and identifying objectives to be pursued. The planning process, as haphazard as it was and resulting in five different plans, nevertheless produced a rough blueprint for victory whose main ideas were adopted by the Navy once fighting began.

Despite the relatively easy victory over the resource-starved Spanish Navy, the Navy’s top leadership privately admitted that its informal planning process would likely have failed against a more capable opponent. The use of ad-hoc planning boards brought together on short notice simply would not do in an era when technological advancements gave potential adversaries the ability to build warships with higher speeds, greater cruising ranges, and more powerful weaponry. The Navy’s experience in the Spanish-American War showed the need for a permanent planning body, one that finally materialized with the creation of the General Board in 1900.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

The Short, Tragic Life of ABDACOM

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Thu, 15 Jul 2021 13:00:00 +0000

When top American and British military leaders met in Washington for the ARCADIA conference in December 1941, one of their immediate tasks was to organize the remaining American, British, Dutch, and Australian military forces in the Pacific for a defense of the resource-rich Dutch East Indies. This new command was organized on the fly, with the Dutch and Australians not even present to take part in the discussions that led to the creation of ABDACOM. With the British in overall command under Sir Archibald Wavell, the naval chief was American, the air chief was British, and the Dutch commanded the ground force as well as the combined naval striking force. Each nation represented in ABDACOM held different ideas about which islands were most important to defend. These disagreements, combined with the split command structure, ensured that ABDACOM would never succeed in mounting a coordinated defense of the area assigned to it.

ABDACOM’s modest fighting power was concentrated in the Combined Striking Force (CSF) consisting of two Dutch cruisers, two American cruisers, and four destroyers from each navy. This small surface fleet was hopelessly outnumbered by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Since the U.S. had lost two-thirds of its front-line aircraft in the opening hours of the war, the ships of ABDACOM were forced to operate against an enemy that enjoyed air supremacy over the entire theater of operations. The appearance of the Zero fighter came as a surprise to the Allies since the Japanese had been careful to keeping their new military equipment out of public view. The Zero’s incredible range allowed Japanese pilots to launch surprise raids that destroyed Allied aircraft on the ground, all while operating at a safe distance from enemy bases.

HNMLS De Ruyter, one of two Dutch light cruisers assigned to ABDACOM

When the old U.S. Asiatic Fleet was subsumed into ABDACOM, it contributed its twenty-nine submarines to the new command’s striking power. Many were of the most recent designs and could have posed a threat to both Japanese naval power and merchant shipping. Their lethality was severely compromised by the well-known problems experienced with the Mark 14 torpedo. In addition, the crews had received little training in long-range patrolling and were simply not ready to conduct a sustained campaign against enemy shipping.

Fighting without radar or search planes, the CSF was effectively a First World War fleet trying to stop a Second World War enemy. It first saw action attacking an invasion convoy off Balikpapan. Conditions were perfect for the attackers with the Japanese caught unloading and without escort. However, the ABDA ships launched their torpedoes too far out and suffered a high dud rate. Their efforts held up Japanese progress by only one day.

When the CSF tried to disrupt operations in the Makassar Strait, three of its cruisers suffered severe damage from air attacks and inflicted no damage. On February 15th, the same day that Singapore fell, Admiral Karel Doorman tried to launch an attack against Japanese landings at Palembang. Carrier aircraft arrived to disperse the CSF, and he was forced to call off the operation.

USS Pope (DD-225) under attack at the Battle of the Java Sea

For the final assault on Java, the IJN had one light and four fleet carriers, four battleships, and eight cruisers supported by numerous light cruisers and destroyers. After sinking the old American carrier Langley that was trying to bring much-needed aircraft to the defenders at Surabaya, the Japanese destroyed almost half of the CSF with minimal loss. Their superiority in torpedo attacks and night fighting helped carry the day. Wavell had already closed his headquarters and flown to Ceylon two days before the Battle of the Java Sea. At that point, ABDACOM formally ceased to exist.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

"You Sank My Aircraft Carrier!" Did a Japanese War Game Predict Defeat at the Battle of Midway?

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Wed, 02 Jun 2021 16:00:00 +0000

As we prepare to take on the National Naval Aviation Museum in our Battle of Midway war game challenge, it is worthwhile to review the historical events that preceded Midway and examine the role played by war gaming. Japanese planning for Operation MI, the codename for the Midway campaign, began in February 1942. Historians including Craig Symonds, Jonathan Parshall, and Anthony Tully have noted that by the spring of 1942, the Imperial General Staff had become overconfident in the abilities of the Japanese military. Continued success over the first months of the war had expanded Japan's defensive perimeter to encompass the Marshall and Gilbert Island groups as well as a portion of the Solomons. Even when battles were inconclusive, such as the recent engagement in the Coral Sea, the damage inflicted upon U.S. naval forces was significant. Many of Japan's senior commanders believed that Americans simply lacked fighting spirit and could not match the tenacity of Japanese sailors and airmen.

One of the events historians have pointed to as evidence of the Imperial General Staff's superiority complex is the war game held aboard the battleship Yamato from May 1-4. Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku hosted this tabletop exercise and invited all of the senior commanders involved in Operation MI to participate. His chief of staff, Rear Admiral Ugaki Matome, ran the game and served as the chief umpire. In theory, the purpose of the exercise was to fight out the battle on paper first and expose any flaws in the Japanese plan so they could be corrected before launching the actual operation. This game, however, seems to have been treated as a formality rather than a serious tool for improving operational plans. In their book Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway, authors Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully described the game as "four days of scripted silliness" and "a mockery of professional staff work."

Rear Admiral Ugaki Matome, 1945
Click image to enlarge.

One incident during the game that proved especially notorious occurred soon after the Japanese carrier force, known as the Kido Butai, was spotted. The player controlling the U.S. forces (whose name is lost to history) sent a flight of land-based bombers from Midway to attack the carriers. The game umpire rolled a pair of dice to determine how many hits were scored. The result of nine was enough to sink two carriers, Akagi and Kaga. To Admiral Ugaki's mind, however, that was ludicrous. He did not believe the Americans would be so aggressive. Even if they were, he was confident the Japanese carriers would be up to the task of defending themselves. He overruled the umpire and reduced the result to just three hits, meaning that Akagi was still afloat. The destruction of Kaga stood for now, but even it reappeared in a later game covering the subsequent operation planned for New Caledonia and the Fiji Islands.

At first glance, Ugaki's decision appears to be a perfect example of a senior officer insisting that a plan will work while ignoring all evidence to the contrary. After all, American aircraft did indeed catch the Kido Butai by surprise and destroyed Kaga, Akagi, and Soryu on the first day of the battle. Had Ugaki accepted the game results and taken its lessons to heart, he might have taken the American air threat more seriously and acted accordingly.

In Ugaki's defense, there was at least one good reason for him to overrule the umpire. The attack in the game was carried out by land-based bombers flying from Midway. In the real battle, B-17s based at Midway found the Kido Butai and dropped dozens of 600-pound bombs on the carriers, almost exactly as the game predicted they would. But contrary to what occurred in the artificial game environment, their results were abysmal. Not a single Japanese ship was hit. Much to the chagrin of the Army's airpower advocates, high altitude bombers simply lacked the technology to hit a warship maneuvering at high speed. Dive bombing and torpedo attacks proved to be the only effective means of sinking a capital ship in the age of unguided munitions. Considering their poor performance, it does not seem unreasonable for Ugaki to have concluded that the bombers in the game had achieved a highly unlikely result that was best overturned.

Click image to enlarge.

When considering historical anecdotes like this one, it is always necessary to consider the source. How do we know what transpired in the game? If any records were kept, they did not survive the war. We have no photos of the game being played, and it is almost certain that none were taken. Our understanding of this event is informed by just one eyewitness who took part in the game and lived to write about it many years later. Fuchida Mitsuo is best known as the pilot who led the attack on Pearl Harbor. In May 1942, he was serving as the commander of Akagi's air group and attended all four days of the game as it unfolded on Yamato. He recalled that few of the participants had had any time to review the plan they were now being asked to rehearse. He also felt that Ugaki's main concern was to ensure that the game results validated the plan.

Except for the staff of the Combined Fleet Headquarters, all those taking part in the war

games were amazed at this formidable program, which seemed to have been dreamed up

with a great deal more imagination than regard for reality. Still more amazing, however,

was the manner in which every operation from the invasion of Midway and the Aleutians

down to the assault on Johnston and Hawaii was carried out in the games without the

slightest difficulty. This was due in no small measure to the highhanded conduct of Rear

Admiral Ugaki, the presiding officer, who frequently intervened to set aside rulings made

by the umpires.

Fuchida escaped several brushes with death and survived the war. After converting to Christianity, he founded the Captain Fuchida Evangelical Association in 1950 and became a Lutheran pastor who traveled across the U.S. talking to audiences about his experiences during the war. He put some of his stories to paper in 1951 when he co-authored a book about the Japanese experience in the Battle of Midway. Written for a Japanese audience disillusioned by war and critical of its wartime leaders, Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan gives great credit to the U.S. Navy while pointing out the shortcomings of the Japanese high command, including Ugaki.

c.1944
Click image to enlarge.

Since its release, scholars have uncovered several inaccuracies in his version of events. For example, he claimed that once Nagumo became aware of the presence of American carriers at Midway, he ordered his aircraft to be rearmed and prepared to strike. These aircraft were brought up to the flight decks and were just minutes away from launching when the dive bombers from Enterprise and Yorktown[?] appeared overhead to ruin the Kido Butai, according to Fuchida. Subsequent analysis of official records showed that the Japanese aircraft were still in their hangars and were not anywhere near being ready to launch. Fuchida also misrepresented his actions at Pearl Harbor and claimed to be present at the surrender on USS Missouri which was later proven to be false.

Given the known errors he introduced into the historiography of World War II, we should at least pause when considering whether to accept his version of events at face value. No other accounts of this game exist that can corroborate Fuchida's story about Ugaki overruling the results of the bomber attack. Should we consider it as evidence of Japanese overconfidence? There were certainly instances in early 1942 when Japanese planners succumbed to "victory disease," but the Midway wargame did not necessarily reflect that mentality. Even if Ugaki did refuse to accept the outcome that foretold of Japanese disaster as Fuchida claimed he did, his decision was sound given the limits of level bombing at that time.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

Rose Island Lighthouse

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Tue, 18 May 2021 20:32:00 +0000

Rose Island is an 18.5-acre sentry in Narragansett Bay just south of the Newport Pell Bridge. It has had numerous lives and is currently a popular tourist venue. There are two National Register properties on the island: the lighthouse and the remains of Fort Hamilton. This article is about the lighthouse.

The lighthouse was built for $7,500 in 1870 based on a design by Vermont architect Albert Dow who was also responsible for two others in Rhode Island: Sabin Point and Pomham Rocks farther up Narragansett Bay. The structure sits atop Fort Hamilton's south battery at the southwestern point of the island, replacing a privately-operated beacon installed by the Merchants Steamship Company.

The island lies in a strategic location guarding the east passage into Narragansett Bay, one of the finest protected bodies of water on the Atlantic coast. The presence of Fort Hamilton attests to the advantageous position the island enjoys, with deep water between it and Jamestown Island to the west. In the mid-19th century, this waterway was teeming with hundreds of vessels passing by the island on their way to the ocean and northward to the cities of Providence and Fall River, as well as smaller towns such as Bristol. To the east of Rose Island are numerous shoals and reefs, which still occasionally claim pleasure boaters.

Reproduction Fresnel lens, looking towards Newport, Photo Credit Brian Tefft
Click image to enlarge.

The light was first officially placed in operation on January 20, 1870, its fixed sixth order Fresnel lens displaying a red light, warning mariners to steer clear. The lens is the smallest one produced by Fresnel and was used primarily in harbors, bays, and rivers. In 1885, an A-frame tower was erected on the island to house a bell and automatic striking mechanism which rang out every 15 seconds in fog, a frequent visitor to the area. The lighthouse keepers were employed by the U.S. Lighthouse Service, a federal agency. Initially the service used wounded Union veterans who lived on the island with their families. In 1939 the lighthouse service was abolished, and its duties were taken over by the U.S. Coast Guard.

Plymouth aground on Rose Island with salvage crew at work,
Photo Credit: Merrit-Chapman and Scott
Click image to enlarge.

Although not situated on the open ocean, Rose Island has seen its fair share of storms and hurricanes, and perhaps the most dangerous: fog. In 1894 the Fall River Line steamer Plymouth ran aground on the south shore despite the efforts of Captain Elijah Davis, ironically nicknamed the Fog Eater. Fortunately, all 700 passengers were able to reach the island safely, Plymouth remained grounded for quite some time though.

US Navy and Coast Guard vessels fighting fires engulfing S.E. Graham on August 7, 1958,
note proximity to Rose Island Lighthouse, Photo Credit: R. Holmes
Click image to enlarge.

The lighthouse is designed to prevent maritime disasters, but on August 7, 1958 it was almost destroyed by just such an event. That morning two tankers, S.E. Graham and Gulfoil collided near Fort Adams and were soon engulfed in flames from the gasoline cargo on Graham. The fire and collision rendered both vessels dead in the water and they drifted on the incoming tide directly toward Rose Island. Quick action by Coast Guard and US Navy fireboats from Newport managed to prevent fire from spreading to the lighthouse, but the heat was so intense from 200 feet away that the keepers, Theodore Bank and Robert Flynn had to move out of harm's way.

Newport Bridge under construction c. 1967, Photo Credit: US Coast Guard
Click image to enlarge.

In 1970 the Newport Bridge was completed, effectively making the lighthouse obsolete from a navigation standpoint. The bridge was equipped with all the latest lights and at the great height of her towers, the Rose Island light was dwarfed, sounding the death knell for her as the sole guiding beacon for many miles around. She was deactivated in 1971. The buildings and light were essentially abandoned shortly thereafter and suffered from neglect and vandalism. In 1984 the property was declared surplus by the federal government and the City of Newport took over ownership. In July of that year the Rose Island Lighthouse Foundation was formed, and with both public and private funding began restoring the lighthouse. By 1992 it was able to open to the public.

The following year the light came back to life shining bright, starting on August 7 with a white light flashing every six seconds. On that day Christopher Owens, a previous caretaker watched the relighting: "Flipping the switch and watching that beacon light for the first time in 20 years was special, yet for me the magic moment followed seconds later. All was quiet for a moment, then I heard one small horn and another and yet another until we were surrounded by sounding horns from all around the bay. Boats, cars...horns of every sort sounded."

In 1999 the Foundation was able to acquire the rest of the island and today it is a popular destination despite the need to access it by boat. On August 12, 2013 a reproduction Fresnel lens was installed, giving visitors a chance to get up close and personal whilst taking in one of the best views in New England from the top of the light tower.

Today the Foundation has an active education program which affords visitors the opportunity to experience what life was like for the island's keepers and their families. For the more adventurous, overnight stays are available in several rooms in the main building and in the Fort Hamilton barracks. An upstairs apartment is reserved for those willing to act as a keeper for a week, with daily duties such as weather recording and flag raising and monitoring electric and water usage.

View looking north towards Rose Island 2018, Photo Credit: Brian Tefft
Click image to enlarge.

Rose Island is truly a gem in a very crowded array of Newport historical sites given its location and 360-degree views. Surrounded by water on all sides and constantly buffeted by all types of weather, it is not the oldest lighthouse in the state -- that honor falls to Beavertail, built in 1749. Yet combined with her military remains, she is a microcosm of local history, weaving together all the elements that make Newport and indeed Rhode Island such a unique place. She is one of the first sights visitors glimpse as they drive over the Newport Pell Bridge, the very bridge which temporarily blacked out her light. Thanks to an active group of volunteers and the Foundation, the Rose Island Lighthouse once again welcomes mariners and landlubbers alike.

Bob Cembrola
Exhibits Manager
Naval War College Museum

Lovell General Hospital

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Thu, 22 Apr 2021 15:26:00 +0000

Although no Civil War battles took place in Rhode Island, a hospital in Portsmouth, Rhode Island played a large role in caring for wounded on both sides of the conflict. In an area now known as the Melville Marina District, this hospital sat on ground that has seen numerous significant events in the last three centuries.

During the Revolutionary War, the British scuttled numerous vessels in Rhode Island waters on 7 August 1778, and one of them, the HMS Orpheus ended up in this history rich neighborhood. No one could have imagined that less than 100 years after that war the United States would be torn apart and almost destroyed as a nation. The estimate of deaths for combatants ranges up to 620,000 for both sides and up to 50,000 for civilians.

Early in the war there were only about 150 hospitals in the country and no formal nursing education. Once the battlefield carnage began, civilians and their organizations fortunately responded quickly and effectively, saving countless lives on both sides. Although the first field hospitals were in the Washington, D.C. area, the number of wounded made the need for more such facilities obvious. In May 1862, the surgeon general of the U.S. Army, William A. Hammond, authorized R.I. governor William Sprague to accommodate wounded and ill soldiers.

Portsmouth Grove, Photo Credit: the Library of Congress
Click image to enlarge.

Sprague and Hammond agreed on a site in Portsmouth as a good spot for a hospital in an area called Portsmouth Grove. Prior to the Civil War, it served as an amusement park and general place of entertainment such as clambakes and the hotel Portsmouth Grove House. Guests could arrive by steamship or railroad or by horse drawn carriage. The Grove House became the administration building for the Lovell General Hospital named after the U.S. Army surgeon general from 1818-1836, Joseph Lovell.

This hospital received its first influx of patients on July 6, 1862, mostly from the Battle of Mechanicsville in Virginia, which ended on June 27. These ill and wounded, both Union and Confederate, numbered 1,724 and were joined by nine surgeons and 108 male nurses. All were transported to Portsmouth on the steamers Atlantic and America while the hospital was still under construction. Prior to late summer of 1862 most patients were housed in tents, only possible in summer and fall in Rhode Island.

By the end of the Civil War, this hospital treated 10,593 patients with jut 308 dying on site. They were buried in a cemetery nearby but starting in May 1868 their remains were disinterred then reburied at Cypress Hill National Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. Most patients were treated for typhoid fever and gunshot wounds, with most amputations being done closer to the battlefield.

This hospital was a microcosm of medical care common during this period and despite the archaic methods employed by today's standards, many important advances took place. These included: use of quinine to prevent malaria; use of quarantine which nearly eliminated yellow fever, treatment of gangrene with bromine and isolation; development of an ambulance system to evacuate wounded; use of boats and trains to move patients and the creation of large and specialty hospitals. On the surgical end of the equation: performance of the first plastic surgery; development of arterial ligation; rudimentary neurosurgery and safe use of anesthetics.

These advancements were accompanied by a dramatic increase in the number of doctors: at the start of the war there were 113 in the entire Army, 23 joined the confederate side and 3 were dismissed for disloyalty. By the end of the war in 1865, the Union Army had over 12,000 doctors and the Confederate Army had 3,000.

Katherine Wormeley, Photo Credit: the Library of Congress
Click image to enlarge.

Despite the rapid increase in the number of doctors, the women nurses also made a huge contribution to patient care on both sides of the conflict. In Rhode Island, the torch was carried by Katherine Prescott Wormeley, born in England in 1830 to a Royal Navy officer and her mother was from Boston. When her father passed away, Katherine and her mother moved to Newport, R.I.

Despite her frail health, she threw herself into the Union cause in 1861. She joined the Newport Ladies Aid Society and secured a contract to sew shirts for Union soldiers. She then hired local women to assist with this important task and produced close to 50,000 shirts early in the war. The quality of this work was lauded by the Army, but she wanted to do more so she volunteered at the front in Virginia and later aboard a hospital ship bringing wounded north for better care than possible at tent facilities.

Katherine and many other women joined the U.S. Sanitary Commission, a private relief agency created by federal legislation on June 18, 1861. It raised millions of dollars throughout the war from fund raisers and donations, money which went to support hospitals and rest houses for traveling and disabled Union soldiers.

The U.S. Surgeon General William Hammond took notice of Katherine's efforts and offered her the position of Lady Director of the Portsmouth Grove facility in August of 1862, in essence becoming the superintendent. She took to the challenge with her typical zeal and immediately recruited some of her friends for assistance as the hospital itself was rapidly expanding.

Her first accomplishment was developing a ward-based system staffed by dozens of nurses as well as a residence building for those nurses. She even managed to institute a system of meals based on each patient's particular requirements and records for each one of them, noting their medications and details of the care received.

Her involvement with the Sanitary Commission gave Katherine a large organization to draw funding and standards from. This relationship enabled the hospital to achieve relatively high standards of cleanliness compared to field hospitals. Despite this, medical supplies remained scarce and nurses there were known to tear their petticoats and use the scraps as bandages. Local towns made donations of clothing and food, yet the washing and reuse of bandages contributed to infections although monetary donations greatly helped keep the hospital active and improving throughout the war.

Hand drawn site map for Lovell Hospital, Photo credit: the Portsmouth Historical Society
Click image to enlarge.

By war's end, Lovell Hospital occupied a 12-acre site with 28,260 foot by 25-foot buildings, each with separate wards for 59 patients, all staffed by nurses and aides. In addition, there was a mess hall and a barracks for Union soldiers who served as hospital guards, a necessity considering that there were Confederate soldiers treated there also. The complex also included a chapel, bakery, and industrial scale laundry, blacksmith, and carpenter shops, stables, and even a hospital PX.

Katherine's health deteriorated to the point where she was forced to resign her position in September of 1863, but she continued to provide guidance for the hospital via her association with the Sanitary Commission. She also served as associate manager of the New England Women's Auxiliary Commission and was responsible for assisting the returning Rhode Island veterans.

After the war ended, she lived in Newport for a while before moving to Jackson, New Hampshire where she passed away at the age of 78. Her legacy of professionalism in the nursing field along with many other similarly motivated women on both sides of the conflict planted the seed for that discipline as we know it today.

Flyer for auction shortly after closing of hospital, Photo credit: the R.I. State Archives
Click image to enlarge.

After the Civil War ended, the hospital and its assets were auctioned off in September of 1865. In its final configuration it had 1,464 beds, giving it the distinction of being one of the largest hospitals in the country at that time.

Melville Marina today, Photo credit: New England Boatworks
Click image to enlarge.

Today all traces of it are gone and a large marina now serves pleasure boaters where steamers once discharged the wounded and sick. In 1901 the Bradford coaling station was established in the vicinity to serve the many Navy vessels plying Narragansett Bay, it later served up oil as the transition away from coal took hold.

During WWII, the marina area served as the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training Center (MTBSTC) where almost 14,000 P.T. boat crew members were trained including John F. Kennedy.

by Bob Cembrola, Exhibits Manager, Naval War College Museum

Operation Ke: War Gaming the Japanese Withdrawal from Guadalcanal

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Wed, 17 Feb 2021 15:09:00 +0000

Following American success at Midway, the Joint Chiefs of Staff targeted Rabaul as the first objective in the Allied drive across the southwest Pacific. In order to reach it, a number of outlying Japanese bases needed to be taken first in order to support a major offensive through the Solomon Islands. Initial landings took place on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in August 1942. Tulagi fell after an intense two-day battle, but securing Guadalcanal took seven months even though initial resistance was slight. By December, months of heavy fighting in the jungle and at sea had finally worn down Japan’s ability to contest the island. Japanese soldiers were succumbing to malnutrition and disease at a rate that could not be sustained by the navy’s “Tokyo Express” resupply efforts. The Chiefs of Staff of the Japanese army and navy evaluated the situation and reluctantly concluded they could not hold the island. On the last day of the year, they obtained approval from the emperor to begin evacuating what was left of their ground forces.

Operation Ke was scheduled to begin in late January 1943 using Japanese destroyers as the evacuation force. Allied reconnaissance and radio traffic intercepts revealed that preparations for an operation were underway, but intelligence officials believed the signals pointed to an offensive aimed at retaking Guadalcanal. Believing that the Japanese were mounting a major attack, Admiral Halsey kept his forces at a safe distance to prepare for the coming battle.

On February 1st, 4th, and 7th, the Japanese navy successfully evacuated 10,652 men from the island. Two days later, Major General Alexander Patch of the U.S. Army declared the island free of Japanese forces. The Japanese lost 20,000 soldiers in the Solomons and would remain on the defensive for the rest of the war. By the end of 1943, the Allied advance reached Bougainville, bringing Rabaul under sustained air attack and rendering it useless as a major Japanese base.

Operation Ke could be judged a minor success for the Japanese since they succeeded in saving a division-sized element to fight another day. Halsey held most of his available naval power south of Guadalcanal to shield troop transports from possible enemy offensive operations. Likewise, senior Japanese naval commanders kept their heavier units at a safe distance, committing only destroyers to the evacuation runs.

But what if both sides had been more aggressive? Such a hypothetical scenario will form the basis for our live, online war game scheduled for Thursday, February 18, at 8:00PM EST. Fans of the Army-Navy rivalry will be happy to know that we are challenging the National Museum of the U.S. Army to play for bragging rights! In this game, the U.S. player will be tasked with preventing the Japanese from withdrawing their ground forces from Guadalcanal. At his disposal will be elements of Task Force 11 and Task Force 16, two commands that were in the theater and could have been committed to the battle if events had unfolded differently. Likewise, the Japanese player has a reserve force of carriers and cruisers that begin off map and can arrive on any turn to intervene if the Americans take the offensive. The U.S. player must balance aggressive action with precaution in order not to lose one of his scarce flat tops. Along the way, we’ll discuss the effects of interservice rivalry on decision making during the actual campaign, the role of war gaming in preparing U.S. naval officers for the war in the Pacific, and other fascinating historical topics. Please join us tomorrow!

Rob Doane

Curator, Naval War College Museum

Newport and Navy Diving

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Fri, 12 Feb 2021 20:26:00 +0000

Mention Newport to most people and their first thoughts will be of mansions, yachting and colonial homes. Others will recall their time served at the Naval War College or at one of the many schools at Naval Station Newport, earning it the title of “Campus of the Navy.” Many others will fondly recall being stationed with the countless destroyer squadrons that made Newport their homeport.

Few if any, however, would be familiar with Newport and the birth of US Navy diving, a proud tradition which continues today. This story begins shortly after the Civil War, a conflict which showed the potential of torpedoes in naval combat. Even though the spar torpedoes used in that conflict required getting up close and personal with the enemy, in England Robert Whitehead during the same period was beginning to experiment with a weapon which would revolutionize naval warfare. He made the leap from designing ship power plants to torpedoes and his success helped spur the US Navy to open the Naval Torpedo Station on Goat Island on July 29, 1869.

Whitehead’s torpedo gained great fame around the world in the 1860’s and not surprisingly the US Navy took notice. In 1869 William Radford, in command of U.S.S. Franklin during a port visit to Trieste, Italy, took a side trip to nearby Fiume, home of the Whitehead factory. This gave Radford the chance to see and closely examine the famous automobile torpedo, but the American contingent felt the $20,000 British pound cost was exorbitant. Despite this, Radford was duly impressed with the innovative technology and sent a report extoling its virtues to Admiral David Porter at Navy headquarters in Washington. Porter was sold on the weapon as well and forwarded the report to the brand-new torpedo station in Newport and requested that they: “examine carefully into this subject and ascertain if torpedoes of this plan cannot be gotten us.”

Just two years later in 1871, Lieutenant Commander Matthews, commanding officer of the station, began developing the fish torpedo. This weapon, although discontinued in 1874 with the departure of Matthews, inspired Lieutenant John Howell, USN to design a flywheel powered version. Howell was awarded a patent in 1871 for this propulsion system and in 1884 the Howell was the first automobile torpedo adopted by the US Navy. He was a junior officer at the battle of Mobile Bay where Admiral Farragut uttered his famous command “Damn the torpedoes! Four Bells! Captain Dayton go ahead! Jouett full speed!” The Union monitor Tecumseh had just been sunk by a mine which caused hesitation among the other Union vessels leading Farragut to shout out the order. Although not a torpedo as we know them, the fact that a submerged weapon could sink a ship added fuel to the fire of naval warfare development which continues today. The other demonstration of underwater combat that set the stage for the immediate post-Civil War years was the sinking of USS Housatonic by a spar torpedo deployed by the CSS Hunley on February 17, 1864. This incident had an enormous impact on both torpedo and submarine development as well as navy diving. All three technologies came to rely on divers to perform numerous tasks which previous generations of undersea explorers never envisioned.

Fish and Howell torpedoes on exhibit at NWC Museum

The wakeless run of the Howell in combat was advantageous but when they began sinking during test runs the lack of any surface clues to location quickly became a problem. The solution, of course, was to send a diver to locate the weapon, a task beyond the Gunners Mates who were often assigned as ship’s divers to handle more mundane duties. NTS initially hired local commercial divers but as the pace of production and testing quickly accelerated the cost became prohibitive.

The Navy decided to train their own divers for recovery operations and in 1882 the first USN dive school was opened on Goat Island. The first instructor was Chief Gunners Mate Jacob Anderson, a well-liked teacher whose legacy is carried on with the affectionate name “Jake” still used for a complete hard hat dive outfit. His first courses were only 2 weeks in length and trained Gunners' Mates to dive just to sixty feet to recover exercise torpedoes, more than enough depth for the shallow waters near Goat Island.

Young officers learning to dive at the Torpedo Station, Newport, R.I., summer of 1900, under the instruction of Caleb West, Master Diver.

Courtesy of Naval Historical Collection

Just as torpedoes were becoming more sophisticated and deadly, so was their principal delivery vehicle, the submarine. As these new vessels evolved, they ventured farther and deeper, pushing the envelope of existing technology. Not surprisingly, this resulted in the loss of several of them with catastrophic results and multiple fatalities. Divers trained in Newport figured prominently in the rescue attempts of these vessels and sadly in the recovery of their crews. As the pace of dive instruction picked up, it was deemed necessary in 1915 to build a tank to allow year-round training even when Newport harbor was covered in ice. On May 8, 1917 Frederick E. Reif, plumber and pipefitter, drowned in the tank while receiving dive training, the cause was believed to be a problem with his Mk. 5 dive helmet.By 1905 it was time for written instructions and the NTS published: “Manual for divers-Handbook for Seaman gunners”. At 44 pages this publication covered the basics of a nascent but rapidly evolving science. It spelled out “requirements for divers” and it listed conditions which disqualified candidates: palpitations of the heart and fainting spells and those affected with cough, asthma, or sinus problems. The manual also suggests that men who have long trunks with well-developed chests and loins generally make good divers, and recommends they not “be hard drinkers, nor have suffered frequently from venereal disease. Personality should be “cool-headed, calm and of a phlegmatic temperament. As a diver myself it is amazing that these traits were recognized so early on as being desirable.

The shallow waters surrounding Goat Island did not allow divers to experience the depths they would soon be expected to perform in. To remedy this an experimental diving station was established at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in 1912 where the next generation of Navy divers learned to make the quantum leap from 60-foot dives to 300 feet. In 1914 Gunner George D. Stillson and Navy surgeon George R.W. French teamed up to conduct some of the first dives made into the open ocean in depths far more than previously had been done. These dives were made from the USS Walke DD-34, a Paulding class destroyer specially outfitted for the task and at A. Schrader’s Sons Inc. in Brooklyn, one of the leading dive equipment manufacturers of the time. Schrader’s facility included a “high-pressure diving tank” in the words of Stillson which allowed divers to experience several atmospheres of pressure in the safety of a controlled environment.

Of course, a tank cannot duplicate the real world of open water with currents and poor visibility that often plagues divers. That was solved beginning on October 22, 1914 with Stillson, French and four other divers propelled Navy diving into a realm where virtually no person had ever gone.

These dives were in stages for over two weeks starting at 84 feet, then to 90 on to 137 followed by 171. This experimentation was as much about testing the divers as it was the equipment, both passed with flying colors. The 171-foot dive was not enough for Stillson and his crew so the Walke searched for a deeper spot and found one at the eastern end of Long Island known as the Race for how water races in and out of the Sound.

It was here on November 3, 1914 that Chief Gunners Mate S.J, Drellishak made it to the bottom in a 7-minute descent, 5-minute bottom time and a 1 hour 20-minute ascent. Even at this early date decompression sickness or the bends was well known, having first been seen on a large scale while building the Brooklyn Bridge in 1873. The slow ascent allows nitrogen bubbles to escape safely from the diver’s bloodstream, helping to prevent this sometimes-fatal affliction. In less than a year this experimental dive would be replaced with an all too real mission which tested the mettle of many newly minted navy divers.

On March 25, 1915, the US submarine F-4 (SS-23) left Honolulu on a training mission and was lost at sea shortly afterwards just 1.5 miles from the harbor. The next day an oil slick and air bubbles showed her location and some of the same record setting divers were quickly dispatched to Hawaii. She was located at a depth of 305 feet and was the first commissioned US submarine to be lost at sea, all 21 of her crew perished. As with the depth setting dives just a few months prior off Long Island, the recovery of F-4 was a groundbreaking effort that required a series of dives to lift her off the bottom and move her in stages to shallow water. This dangerous and time-consuming project saw the F-4 recovered and then buried in a trench in Pearl Harbor where she remains to this day.

In the 1920’s our submarine force continued to grow, unfortunately this growth was accompanied by more disasters. Two Newport trained divers figured prominently in their recovery efforts and one of them saved the life of the other. These divers, now legends in the annals of Navy diving were Tom Eadie class of 1909 and Fred Michels class of 1917, it is probable that Eadie was the instructor who taught Michels. These two, along with others, were thrown into the dangerous world of submarine recovery on two separate tragedies, both in New England waters.

Eadie, Carr and Michels on USS Falcon

The first occurred on September 25, 1925 when S-51 was making her way on the surface about 14 miles east of Block Island when she was struck by the steamship City of Rome about 10:24 p.m. She flooded quickly and sank in 132 feet of water with only 3 of her crew surviving, managing to escape through the conning tower hatch. Divers were dispatched from the torpedo station in Newport and reached the wreck the next day, Eadie and Michels were soon to get their trial by fire just a few miles from their Newport home and base. The first diver to reach the sub hammered along the hull but got no response, concluding correctly that all those inside were dead. Initially a private salvage firm with derricks and divers attempted to raise the sub but was unsuccessful and the Navy took over the recovery operation.

Talking by telephone with the divers at work on the S-51

The torch was then passed to the commander of the submarine base in New London CT. Captain Earnest J. King, he would later become CNO during WW II. King was tasked with the difficult job of raising the S-51, the rescue mission became a recovery. Using tools and techniques perfected on the F-4 salvage, the large crew of divers managed to raise her damaged hull using large pontoons, a technique employed on many subsequent projects. She finally broke the surface on June 5, 1926, she was sold to the Borough Metal Company of Brooklyn for $3,320. The use of a telephone link to the diver’s helmet and a decompression chamber doubtless saved lives and became standard practice throughout the US Navy. Eadie and Michels were both awarded the Navy Cross for this dangerous operation and would be reunited on another submarine rescue turned recovery just over two years later.

This next operation is a sad tale worthy of a Hollywood movie and caught the world’s attention. On December 17, 1927 USS S-4, an eight-year-old S-class sub was engaged in speed and handling tests near Provincetown, Mass at the tip of Cape Cod. At the same time, the Coast Guard destroyer Paulding, DD 22 (CG-17) was on patrol in the same area making way at about 18 knots searching for rumrunners. At 15:37, S-4 began to surface, the officer on deck aboard Paulding spotted the wake of her periscope on her bow. He immediately ordered: “Hard astern and Full right rudder” but it was too late, Paulding rammed into S-4 punching two holes in her, one in a ballast tank and another in her pressure hull. As freezing water rushed into S-4, she began to sink, and Paulding’s crew noted their position and deployed one of her lifeboats which only spotted an oil slick which they promptly marked with a buoy.

S-4 settled on the bottom 110 feet down, her crew tried to stuff clothing into the 2-foot-long battery compartment gash to no avail. The crew members there evacuated that space and joined the others in the control room. Eventually chlorine gas formed from seawater mixing with the acid in the main batteries and forced crew members into the aft engine and motor rooms saving them for a while. But abandoning the control room meant they could not blow air into their ballast tanks, leaving them dependent on help from above.

By 0800 the next day, the USS Falcon arrived in Provincetown to meet ten Navy divers who were rushed there by motor vehicle from Newport. The first dive was made by Eadie who located the sub within 5 minutes and began tapping on the hull, he received 6 tapped replies from the torpedo loading hatch area indicating the number of those alive in that space. He continued tapping aft and was met with silence from the engine and motor rooms, the 34 crew members there perished overnight.

The six survivors became the focus of a desperate rescue effort which almost cost the life of diver Fred Michels who became entangled in the mangled sub when he brought a hose down in an attempt to pump fresh air into her. Despite his total exhaustion from his first dive, Tom Eadie was sent down to free his Newport dive friend and in a heroic effort managed to get his air hose untangled and both barely made it back to the surface.

With the weather rapidly worsening the Falcon had to depart for Boston but the submarine S-8 arrived on the scene and began to send morse code to S-4 using her oscillator. S-4 survivors reported that the air was very bad inside and asked how long will you be? Lt. Fitch was relayed a message via the Navy Department: “Lieutenant Fitch: your wife and mother constantly praying for you”. Over 63 hours (about 2 and a half days) after her sinking his response was: three short taps meaning “I understand” It was the last communication received from her.

When the weather finally permitted, a diver managed to attach an air hose to the sub but his tapping was met with silence. On the surface the compressor was reversed, and an air sample was drawn from inside the sub, it showed a 7% carbon dioxide level, too high for long term exposure. On December 23, the Navy reported that all those aboard S-4 were presumed dead.

On March 17, 1928 the S-4 was raised by divers using pontoons in an operation similar to the S-51 recovery. The scene inside the sub revealed the last desperate days and hours of her crew with the aft spaces nearly dry, it was the air not seawater which killed them. One of the enlisted men, George Pelmar left a note on cardboard with a crayon with the address in Omaha where he wanted his body delivered for burial. Personal effects of all 40 officers and crew were placed on tables at the Boston Navy Yard including the ceremonial swords of her officers.

Divers who worked on S-4

For his heroic efforts on S-4, Eadie was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Calvin Coolidge and Fred Michels was awarded his second Navy Cross. These two are perhaps the most famous of the Newport dive school graduates, their names are synonymous with the cool headed and calm demeanor mentioned in the 1905 Divers Manual. Both all-star divers are buried in Newport and some of their offspring followed the path to the underwater world.Despite this tragic end, the loss of S-4 was not totally in vain, she was repaired, recommissioned, and used to conduct tests for submarine rescue. These included the McCann rescue chamber and the emergency breathing device the Momsen lung. These two devices were tested in the Florida Keys at a depth of 300 feet and divers were able to safely escape from the S-4, unfortunately too late for her original crew. The rescue chamber was used in 1939 on the USS Squalus, sunk in 243 feet of water off New Hampshire, 33 managed to escape proving the value of the invention.

Although the dive school left Newport in 1927 for Washington, D.C., diving continues in Newport today at the Naval Underwater Warfare Center, the Navy’s premier center for undersea technology. Fred Michel’s grandson, Mike Peirson became a US Navy diver himself and now works for the Engineering and Diving Support Unit there as a civilian diver.

Tom Eadie’s nephew, Stewart Robinson, became a commercial diver and was part of the crew that built the Newport Bridge, in the shadow of Goat Island where his uncle taught diving from 1913 to 1920.

Today’s divers be they military, commercial, or recreational stand on the shoulders of giants such as Eadie and Michels who dared the deep, paving the way for future generations of underwater explorers and warriors.

Bob Cembrola

Exhibits Manager

Naval War College Museum

Matthew Calbraith and Oliver Hazard Perry

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Fri, 16 Oct 2020 16:23:00 +0000

Matthew Calbraith Perry

If the Perry’s of Newport had been professional wrestlers, they would have been the tag team champs of the 19th century. It is difficult to imagine a more impactful brother act than Oliver Hazard and his younger brother Matthew Calbraith. Both achieved great fame in their lifetimes, but Mathew got to enjoy quite a bit of it, more so than his older brother Oliver Hazard.

Matthew was born in Newport, R.I. on 10 April 1794 and given his naval oriented father and brother he also chose to join them as a naval officer. He was appointed a Midshipman in 1809 and started his career on the USS Revenge under the command of his older brother Oliver Hazard. This vessel sank in R.I. waters in 1811 but all hands survived, this near tragedy did not seem to affect Matthew in his naval career at all.

During the War of 1812 he was promoted to Lieutenant on July 24, 1813 while serving on USS President. Her commanding officer was Commodore John Rogers whose strict discipline apparently impressed Perry and was evident later in Perry’s career.

He served on thirteen naval ships in his career and was commanding officer of four of them: Fulton, North Carolina, Macedonian and Mississippi as well as East India, African and Mediterranean squadrons.

His command of the steam frigate Fulton got him interested in that form of propulsion and he became known as Father of the steam Navy”. In 1838 he proclaimed: “the destinies of Nations are henceforth to be in a great measure controlled by a power of which steam will be the great governing element”.

In 1853 his prediction was powerfully and fatefully displayed to the Japanese, an event which when viewed in retrospect literally changed history and the world order. Perry achieved his great fame via diplomacy and ironically his brother Oliver Hazard lost his life due to the same pursuit in Venezuela to a tropical disease contracted there.

In the 1830’s and 40’s Matthew became one of the earliest proponents of naval engineering and education. In 1834 he drew plans for the naval apprentice system which he promoted until it was approved by Congress in 1837.

He also helped organize the U.S. Naval Lyceum at the New York Navy Yard where he was second in command from 1833 until 1837. Its purpose was to educate naval officers: “elevate and adorn the character of our Navy, by placing within the grasp of its officers the means of acquiring professional and general information to stimulate methods of the profession, by creating a common interest in the result, to new energy in the steady and zealous pursuit of knowledge, as the grand source of mortal power , and to bind yet more closely the ties which unite them, by erecting a National Society.”

US Naval Lyceum

In its first year, 1834, the Lyceum held meetings in Perry’s office every Monday at noon. Famous members included James Fenimore Cooper, Stephen B. Luce and in 1880 Alfred Thayer Mahan. It was disbanded in 1889 and its library and 254 specimens were transferred to the Naval Academy.

In August of 1837 Perry got command of the first steam powered US Navy vessel: USS Fulton and shortly thereafter he organized the first Naval Engineer Corps and between 1839-40 the first American school of gunnery. He also established an experimental battery for testing guns at Sandy Hook, New Jersey and advocated using steamships as rams.

In 1841 he became commandant of the Navy Yard in New York and was recognized as an expert on steam propulsion and naval technology. He was placed in command of USS Mississippi in 1846 and was credited with the capture of Frontera, Tabasco and Laguna in the Mexican War, sharing credit with General Winfield Scott in that endeavor.

After a stint as General Superintendent of Ocean Mail Steamers from 1848 to 1852, he was again given command of USS Mississippi and in January of 1852 he was selected by President Fillmore to attempt a mission which would change the world: open trading relations with Japan.

US Japan Fleet Com. Perry, carrying the "Gospel of God" to the Heathen 1853.

The first step took place on 24 November of 1852 when he left Norfolk on Mississippi heading to China, arriving there in May 0f 1853. Perry was less than optimistic about his chances of success knowing that a previous attempt by Americans to return shipwrecked Japanese sailors rescued on the coast of Washington were rebuffed in 1837 and in 1846 Commander James Biddle was also turned away.

Between 1790 and 1853 27 U.S. ships including naval vessels visited Japan and all were rebuffed in their efforts to establish a friendly relationship with the Japanese. Before Perry left America for Japan, he read all that he could about the country and consulted with Philipp Franz von Siebold, one of the foremost Japan experts of his day. Siebold had spent eight years teaching and studying at the Dutch trading post of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor, where incredible destruction would be seen in 1945.

Perry, no slouch when it came to research and preparation felt that ceremonial events, lively entertainment, wine and spirits and good food played a part in naval diplomacy and prepared by bringing with him an Italian bandmaster, a French chef and large amounts of food and alcohol. Being the science minded officer that he was he also was joined by botanist Dr. James Morrow and artists Wilhelm Heine and Eliphalet Brown to document this momentous undertaking.

This brings us to the motivation for such a complicated and risky venture, but America was not the first western nation to attempt such a diplomatic mission. Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch merchants had all limited success with opening friendly relations, but Catholic proselytizing and unfair trading practices led the Japanese to limit foreign trading to the Dutch and Chinese after 1639.

But why was America so interested in Japan in the middle of the 19th century? A combination of factors was at play that motivated our nation to reach out with a gentle but firm and determined hand. In 1844 the US and China signed the treaty of Wanghia which among other things opened five trading ports to American vessels, initially pursued under pressure from our merchants who felt threatened by English dominance there. With American vessels trading in China the Japanese mainland loomed large with commercial and military potential.

Another major factor was the annexation of California after the treaty of Hidalgo in 1848 whereby Mexico ceded the then largely undeveloped territory to the US. With the discovery of gold just nine days before the treaty was signed, the Mexicans were convinced that the approximately 7,300 residents of the territory would pose no real threat to them. Ironically Perry’s career was given a boost with his victory in the war that led to the Hidalgo Treaty. With the discovery of gold thousands of people flooded into California propelling it to statehood in 1850 with the required sixty thousand residents lured by the promise of quick riches.

With California as a launch pad for Pacific exploration and trade, a steady stream of maritime traffic looked to the far East for numerous reasons including trade, whaling and with the rapid development of steam power, the quest for reliable supplies of coal which Japan was rumored to have in abundance. In a strange twist of fate, Japan would attempt to justify its aggressive land grabbing conquests in the 1930’s by claiming the need for such raw materials.

Armed with letters from President Fillmore, Perry arrived in Tokyo Bay on July 8, 1853 with four ships: two steam frigates and two sloops of war. He approached his mission with a mixture of diplomatic finesse backed up by the knowledge that his firepower was far beyond what the Japanese had ever seen. This knowledge is best reflected in his letter of July 14, 1853:

“For years now several countries have applied for trade, but you have opposed them on account of a national law. You have thus acted against divine principles and your sin cannot be greater than it is. What we say thus does not necessarily mean, as has already been communicated by the Dutch boat, that we expect mutual trade by all means. If you are still to disagree, we would then take up arms and inquire into the sin against the divine principles, and you would also make sure of your law and fight in defence. When one considers such an occasion, however, one will realize the victory will naturally be ours and you shall by no means overcome us. If in such a situation you seek for reconciliation, you should put up the white flag that we have recently presented to you, and we would accordingly stop firing and conclude peace with you, turning our battleships aside. “

Perry and some of his barbarians as depicted by a Japanese artist.

Commodore Perry

This reveals the great confidence and determination with which Perry pursued his mission and which was necessary for the defeat of the Japanese in WWII. On arrival he was swarmed by small vessels which he dispersed with the threat of force and refused to proceed to Nagasaki as directed and continued to take soundings against Japanese wishes. That same day, 14 July, Perry moved the steam frigates Susquehanna and Mississippi closer to shore and landed four hundred sailors and marines.

He presented a letter from President Millard Fillmore; the following excerpts encapsulate the objectives and principles which guided Fillmore and Perry:

“I have directed Commodore Perry to mention another thing to your imperial majesty. Many of our ships pass every year from California to China; and great numbers of our people pursue the whale fishery near the shores of Japan. It sometimes happens, in stormy weather, that one of our ships is wrecked on your imperial majesty’s shore. In all such cases we ask, and expect, that our unfortunate people should be treated with kindness, and that their property should be protected, till we can send a vessel and bring them away. We are very much in earnest in this.

Commodore Perry is also directed by me to represent to your imperial majesty that we understand there is a great abundance of coal and provisions in the Empire of Japan. Our steamships, in crossing the great ocean, burn a great deal of coal, and it is not convenient to bring it all the way from America. We wish that our steamships and other vessels should be allowed to stop in Japan and supply themselves with coal, provisions and water. They will pay for them in money, or anything else your imperial majesty’s subjects may prefer; and we request your imperial majesty to appoint a convenient port, in the southern part of the empire, where our vessels may stop for this purpose. We are very desirous of this. These are the only objects for which I have sent Commodore Perry, with a powerful squadron, to pay a visit to your imperial majesty’s renowned city of Edo: friendship, commerce, a supply of coal and provisions, and protection for our shipwrecked people.”

Three days later Perry sailed out of Edo, later renamed Tokyo in 1868 with the Meiji restoration which saw the emperor move there from the ancient capital of Kyoto. Perry told the Japanese he would return the next year for an answer and he did so but sooner than they expected.

One of Perry's barbaric black ships.

February 13, 1854 Perry sailed back into Edo harbor with a fleet of ten vessels and 1600 men. He was hastened back by the knowledge that Russian Vice Admiral Putyatin had spent a month in Nagasaki successfully attempting to reach a similar deal as Perry, the result was the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855, opening three ports to Russia.

Perry received a much friendlier reception this time although the Japanese initially balked at negotiating on Edo and eventually settled on Yokohama where a custom-built hall was constructed. On March 8, Perry landed there with five hundred sailors and Marines with three bands playing the Star-Spangled Banner. After many dinners and receptions Perry’s efforts at diplomacy resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa which gave American vessels access to the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate; guaranteed protection for shipwrecked sailors and allowed for an American consulate in Shimoda.

Perry’s description of his official visitors to his flagship USS Powhatan while at anchor in Edo bay are fascinating for their cultural generalizations:

“I was convinced that if I receded in the least from the position first assumed by me, it would be considered by the Japanese an advantage gained. Finding that I could be induced to change a predetermined intention in one instance, they might rely on prevailing on me by dint of perseverance to waver in most other cases pending the negotiations. Therefore, it seemed to be the true policy to hold out at all hazards, and rather to establish for myself a character of unreasonable obstinacy than that of a yielding disposition. I knew that upon the impression thus formed by them would in a measure hinge the tenor of our future negotiations, and the sequel will show that I was right in my conclusions. Indeed, in conducting all my business with these very sagacious and deceitful people, I have found it profitable to bring to my aid the experience gained in former and by no means limited intercourse with the inhabitants of strange lands-civilized and barbarian-and this experience has admonished me that with people of forms it is necessary to either set all ceremony aside, or out-Herod Herod in assumed personal consequence and ostentation.”

Although this attitude would hardly be acceptable today, the Japanese would also fail miserably in that regard. In the 1825 work Shinron by leading Confucian scholar Aizawa Seishisai, the common sentiment about Westerners is laid out: “The barbarians coming to spy on our Middle Kingdom during the past three hundred years arrived one after another from various nations. Though their homelands differ, they all revere the same god. This means that Christianity has had designs on our Middle Kingdom for the past three hundred years. In dealing with this sustained threat, our Middle Kingdom has on each occasion adopted a different policy based on the then-prevalent opinion. The predators have a firm, fixed objective and steadfastly try to achieve it; the prey intermittently changes its defense posture, at times assuming the hardline, at times, the soft line, always vacillating between the two. Who can guarantee that the predators will forever meet frustration trying to discover our weaknesses? To turn our vacillation into constancy of purpose and eliminate the weaknesses we possess, we must first fully understand the barbarians’ nature.”


Lt. John Bremyer with Perry's flag. On September 2, 1945 it was the barbarians standing in triumph on the deck of USS Missouri in virtually the same position as where Perry penned these words on his flagship USS Powhatan. This day saw the formal surrender of Japan at the end of WWII and General Macarthur had asked Admiral Nimitz to deliver Perry’s flag which had been on the Powhatan and thus carried substantial symbolic weight. Perry’s flag was carried all the way to USS Missouri from the Naval Academy museum in Annapolis just for this ceremony by Lt. John Bremyer, USN and hung in a position overlooking the tables where the surrender was signed. General MacArthur honored Perry with these words: “We stand in Tokyo today, reminiscent of our countryman Commodore Perry, 92 years ago. His purpose was to bring Japan an era of enlightenment and progress by lifting the veil of isolation to friendship, trade and commerce of the world. But alas the knowledge thereby gained of Western science was forged into an instrument of oppression and human enslavement."

General Macarthur on the deck of USS Missouri with the Perry flag in full view.

Today Japan is one of our staunchest allies and Perry’s hometown of Newport honors his legacy with monuments and the annual Black Ships festival demonstrating Japanese music and martial arts and calls Shimoda a sister city. Japan also honors Perry with numerous monuments and sends naval officers to study at the Naval War College every year. Matthew Perry must surely be pleased with the fruits of his determined diplomacy; the world is a far better place thanks to him and his intrepid crew.

Perry monument in Shimoda Japan,

Perry monument in Shimoda Japan, Perry monument in Newport, R.I.

Bob Cembrola

Exhibitions Manager

Naval War College Museum

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #Newport #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

United States Naval Academy and the U.S. Naval War College

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Sat, 10 Oct 2020 23:04:00 +0000

On this day in 1845, the U.S. Naval Academy opened its doors to the first class of midshipmen in Annapolis, Maryland. The Naval Academy and the Naval War College are two important components in the Navy’s system of professional military education. Today we wish our sister school in Annapolis a happy 175th birthday and take time to explore the connection between our institutions.

Following sixteen years of growth and experimentation with its training program, the Naval Academy suddenly found itself facing a crisis in 1861. More than 100 midshipmen from southern states resigned to fight for the Confederacy at the start of the Civil War. Even worse, the Academy itself was in danger of being trapped in hostile territory if Maryland’s state government voted to secede. The Superintendent, Captain George S. Blake, wrote an urgent letter to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles in April asking for instructions in case of an attack on the Academy. Welles authorized Blake to relocate the school to a northern port far away from danger. Blake chose Newport, Rhode Island for the Academy’s new home, though local leaders in Perth Amboy, New Jersey also made a pitch for their town.

USS Constitution off Fort Adams in Newport, 1861

April 21, 156 midshipmen crowded on to the old frigate Constitution which served as the Academy’s training ship for the trip up the east coast. Constitution arrived in Newport on May 9, 1861, followed closely by the steamer Baltic which transported the school’s faculty and equipment. The initial plan was to set up at Fort Adams using the casemates as living quarters and classrooms. Upon arrival, Blake and his staff found these spaces to be so dark and dank that they were forced to come up with a new plan. Looking around the city proper, they negotiated to lease a hotel on Bellevue Avenue called the Atlantic House for the duration of the war. The hotel provided comfortable accommodations and was located next to Touro Park where midshipmen could march and drill. The mess hall and administrative offices were located on the first floor, classrooms were on the second floor, and living quarters took up the top two floors. Unfortunately for the plebes (freshmen), this arrangement did not leave enough room for all midshipmen to stay at the Atlantic House. Then as now, rank had its privileges. The fourth classmen were forced to live on the berth deck of Constitution where foul odors and lack of sunlight quickly squashed any sentimental feelings they may have had for the historic warship. If there was a silver lining, it was that their separation from the upperclassmen saved them from the pranks and rough treatment known as “deviling” that was common practice in that era.

Meal time on board Constitution, 1862

Having moved their school nearly 400 miles to an unfamiliar setting, staff and faculty worked hard to resume the business of training new naval officers. The backdrop of the Civil War added urgency to their mission as midshipmen prepared for assignments that would likely take them into combat. The Naval Academy curriculum in the mid-nineteenth century included instruction in seamanship, navigation, astronomy, math, steam engineering, physics, chemistry, English, geography, history, French, Spanish, and drawing. While the academics looked daunting on paper, classroom instruction was constantly interrupted by the needs of a country at war. Instructors were frequently pulled away to serve with the Navy’s squadrons performing blockade duty along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. At the start of the war, the three upper classes had been ordered into active service which left a gaping hole in the midshipmen’s ranks. Secretary of the Navy Welles acted quickly to make new appointments. In its haste to replenish the training pipeline, the Navy let its standards for admission slip. Dropout rates increased as students with poor preparation arrived in Newport and proved unable or unwilling to fulfill the responsibilities of an officer in training. As high turnover among the staff kept the internal organization of the Academy in constant disarray, oversight of the midshipmen training regimen became more and more lax. The lure of entertainments in downtown Newport combined with loose supervision resulted in higher numbers of disciplinary problems. Incidents between midshipmen and Newport citizens became so frequent that local families refused to allow their daughters to attend dances at the Academy as had been the custom in Annapolis. With poor behavior came decreased attention given to academics. Charles Sigsbee arrived as a newly appointed midshipmen in 1862 and graduated one year later after he and his classmates were rushed through what was normally a four-year program. Sigsbee eventually became a rear admiral and is most well-known for serving as the captain of USS Maine which exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898, an incident that touched off the Spanish-American War. Thinking back to his days in Newport, Sigsbee recalled that the Academy struggled to maintain its standards. “I don’t think I averaged three quarters of an hour of study per day...the Academy was, in those days, very slipshod.”

Midshipmen in front of Atlantic House, c.1862, Members of the Class of 1862 stand in front of Newport Tower in Touro Park, 1861

Though classroom instruction suffered, the Academy’s leaders did their best to give the midshipmen practical experience that would prepare them for war. The upperclassmen drilled in artillery and infantry tactics on a field near Ochre Point, future site of the Vanderbilt family mansion The Breakers.

The plebes must have relished the days they were allowed to leave Constitution and train with 32-pounder guns on a sandy stretch of beach at Brenton’s Cove. After a one-year hiatus, practice cruises resumed in 1862. That year the midshipmen sailed in the safe waters of Long Island Sound, but the following summer they boarded three ships – Marion, Macedonian, and America – and crossed the Atlantic to visit ports in England, France, and the Azores. Fortunately, they did not encounter any Confederate raiders at sea.

One faculty member who worked diligently to educate midshipmen despite the challenging conditions in Newport was Lieutenant Stephen B. Luce. As head of the Department of Seamanship, Luce compiled the first textbook used at the Academy to teach that subject. Though Newport had its drawbacks, Luce believed that it was actually a better location for the Academy than Annapolis. Featuring a large, protected harbor with easy access to the ocean, Newport also provided midshipmen with opportunities to meet and learn from transatlantic sailors who stopped there much more frequently than Annapolis.

Lieutenant Commander Stephen B. Luce, 1865

Blake and Luce both hoped that the Navy would keep the Academy in Newport once the war was over. One day while scouting locations around town for future expansion, the two men visited Coasters Harbor Island to determine if the old poor house situated there had any potential as a property for the Academy. Luce liked what he saw. Though he was disappointed when Congress directed the Navy to return the Academy to Maryland in 1865, he never forgot his favorable impression of the island.

Luce was reassigned to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in 1863 and commanded several warships during the last two years of the war. One of the formative experiences that shaped his thinking about navies and officer education occurred in January 1865 during the siege of Charleston. Luce met with General William Tecumseh Sherman and expressed his frustration with the Navy’s repeated failures to capture the city through a direct assault on the entrance to Charleston Harbor. Sherman replied that the Army would cut off the city from land and force it to surrender without a battle. His way of viewing the problem and identifying a solution impressed Luce who later described this moment as a personal revelation: “It dawned upon me that there were certain fundamental principles underlying military operations which it were well to look into; principles of general application whether the operations were conducted on land or at sea.”

Luce understood that the Navy needed a school to teach strategic thinking. The Naval Academy played an important role in supplying the fleet with junior officers, but it could not teach its graduates everything they needed to know about naval operations. The demands of an undergraduate curriculum combined with a rigorous seamanship training program left little time to delve into strategy, theory, and

the art of high command. For those who served long careers in the Navy and rose to the highest ranks, further training was necessary.

Luce wanted to create a school where naval warfare was treated as an academic discipline. He believed that by studying naval and military history, students could discover certain scientific principles that governed war. He got his wish in 1884 when Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler signed General Order 325 establishing the Naval War College on the site Luce recommended, Coasters Harbor Island in Newport. As he explained to his colleagues, the Naval War College was designed to take Naval Academy graduates in the middle of their careers and bring them back to school where they would have time to study war in a quiet, reflective setting. Luce’s vision was to create “a place of original research on all questions relating to war and to statesmanship connected with war, or the prevention of war.”

The principles of war that Luce wanted to teach were not well understood by the United States military in the late eighteenth century. Unlike the Naval Academy, Luce recognized that students and faculty at the Naval War College would be more on an equal footing where they would have to work with each other to develop a new body of professional knowledge for the Navy. From his experiences teaching at the Naval Academy and observing the strengths and weaknesses of officer education, Luce established a new school that worked hand-in-hand with the Academy to develop naval officers throughout their careers.

Rob Doane
Curator

Naval War College Museum

Inchon Artifact Spotlight: Tokarev TT Pistol

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Tue, 15 Sep 2020 17:50:00 +0000

Seventy years ago today, Marines from the 1^st Marine Division conducted an amphibious assault on the port of Inchon during the Korean War. The landings, nicknamed Operation CHROMITE, were designed to cut off elements of North Korea’s army that were fighting south of Seoul. After launching the invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950, North Korean troops advanced steadily against the combined forces of the Republic of Korea (ROK) Army and United Nations Command (UNC). By August, they had pushed the ROK and UN troops into a small perimeter in the southeastern corner of the Korean peninsula centered on Pusan.

General Douglas MacArthur, commander of UNC, had witnessed many successful amphibious landings in the Pacific during World War II. He believed that maritime power could be decisive if applied at the proper time and place. Once the perimeter around Pusan had stabilized, MacArthur began formulating an operation that, if successful, would reverse the course of the war and allow UNC to take the offensive. He and his staff identified Inchon as a prime location to land ground forces. The second largest port in South Korea, Inchon lay just fifteen miles from Seoul and sat astride one of the principal road and rail networks leading south from the capital.

Planning and executing such an invasion required MacArthur’s staff to solve enormous problems. The constraints of weather and tides, combined with pressure from above to act quickly, forced planners to work on a tight timeline. They would have to assemble forces from halfway around the world and throw them into battle with minimal preparation. To accomplish his goal, MacArthur created X Corps, a joint Army-Marine Corps command placed under the leadership of Major General Edward M. Almond. Activated just twenty days before the operation was to begin, X Corps and its staff officers had to proceed quickly with planning.

Other than its advantageous location, Inchon had little to recommend it as an invasion site. The approach route from the Yellow Sea was lined with reefs and shoals, and a swift current made navigation difficult. To further complicate matters, the Navy’s LSTs (Landing Ship, Tank) risked running aground at low tide, meaning that the operation could only proceed early in the morning or late in the evening when the tide was in. If they made it to the landing sites, the ground forces they carried would have to disembark not on a beach, but at the foot of a 12-foot-high sea wall that would require scaling ladders to cross.

General Douglas MacArthur and members of his staff view pre-landing bombardment and air strikes from the flag bridge of USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) in Korean waters off Inchon. Left to right: Brigadier General Courtney Whitney, Chief, Government Section GHQ Scap; Brigadier General E. K. Wright, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3 Section, GHQ FEC; General MacArthur; and Major General Edward M. Almond, CG X Corps.

MacArthur’s subordinates were not enthusiastic about attempting such a risky operation. The officer in charge of the naval component of the landing, Admiral James H. Doyle, briefed MacArthur for ninety minutes on all the problems the invasion might face. General Almond called Inchon “the worst possible place where we could bring in an amphibious assault.” Even the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Forrest Sherman, tried to talk MacArthur out of proceeding with the operation. He would not be swayed. MacArthur countered that the difficulties involved would work to their advantage, as the enemy would never expect them to land at such an inhospitable location.

A Vought F4U-4B Corsair of fighter squadron VF-113 flies over U.S. Navy ships at Inchon, Korea, on September 15, 1950. USS Missouri (BB-63) is visible below the Corsair.

On September 13, 1950, the naval component of the invasion, Joint Task Force 7, began the assault from the sea. Under the command of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble, a bombardment group of cruisers, destroyers, and carrier-based aircraft spent two days hitting North Korean fortifications and coastal artillery batteries. Then, early on the morning of September 15, landing ships and transports began disembarking elements of the 1st Marine Division. One team came ashore at Wolmi-do, a fortified island in the middle of the harbor that controlled the approaches to the main landing sites. The Marines took control of the island after a brief firefight. The second part of the invasion had to wait until that evening when tides once again allowed transport craft to reach the shore. Troops landed at two areas, one to the northwest of Inchon and the other to the southeast. Despite coming under fire from North Korean mortar and machine gun positions, the Marines made it over the seawall and secured most of Inchon by midnight.

Landing craft at seawall during the invasion of Inchon

This Tokarev TT pistol was found near one of the landing sites by the South Korean Director of Naval Intelligence, Hahm Myong-soo, who led a covert intelligence-gathering mission in the area before the invasion. It is typical of the older pistols that the Soviet Union supplied to its foreign allies. Developed in the late 1920s and based heavily on the U.S Colt M1911, the Tokarev TT is a short recoil operated, locked breech pistol. Weighing in at two pounds, it carries eight 7.62mm rounds in its magazine and fires single action. It was reliable and easy to maintain, though the lack of a safety meant increased danger to the solider who carried it. North Korea eventually produced its own version of the Tokarev TT called the Type 68 which was a shorter and bulkier version of the original.

Disassembled Tokarev TT pistol

Operation CHROMITE was a massive undertaking requiring support from an international coalition. 70,000 men participated in the invasion, backed up by 230 ships from seven navies as well as aircraft from the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and the British Royal Navy. By September 19, the Marines secured nearby Kimpo Airfield which allowed friendly land-based aircraft to use it in support of further ground operations. U.S. Army troops from the Seventh Infantry Division advanced from the beachhead and linked up with UN forces advancing north from Pusan. U.S. Marine, Army, and South Korean troops captured Seoul on September 28.

The invasion itself was a triumph of planning and logistics, made possible by the ability to quickly assemble an invasion force and project power inward from the sea. Did Operation CHROMITE achieve all the goals established by General MacArthur? That question is still debated by military historians. Despite its proximity to the landing sites, Seoul did not fall until thirteen days after D-Day. The slow advance by UN forces allowed more North Korean soldiers to escape across the Han River and regroup in friendly territory. The leading American historian of the war, Allan R. Millet, has written that the success of the landings encouraged overly optimistic thinking by the UN high command that prevented them from anticipating later setbacks, particularly Chinese intervention. Still, the invasion itself was a remarkable achievement. The presence of the Tokarev TT pistol in the Naval War College Museum collection is a testament to the careful preparation that ensured the success of Operation CHROMITE.

Rob Doane
Curator
Naval War College Museum

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #KoreanWar #Inchon #Artifact #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

Five Stars: Chester William Nimitz and William Frederick Halsey

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Wed, 02 Sep 2020 16:04:00 +0000

Admiral Chester William Nimitz

Chester William Nimitz was born on February 24, 1885, in Fredericksburg, Texas. After graduating seventh in his class from the Naval Academy, Ensign Nimitz received his first command early in his career when he became commanding officer of the gunboat USS Panay in 1907. Graduating to destroyers, Nimitz next took over USS Decatur (DD-5) and suffered an early setback when he was court-martialed for running the ship aground. Nimitz received a letter of reprimand but was allowed to continue his career.

Midshipman Chester W. Nimitz, 1905

Nimitz’s early years in the Navy were highlighted by submarine duty. Beginning in 1910, he successively commanded USS Snapper, USS Narwhal, and USS Skipjack. On March 20, 1912, Lieutenant Nimitz dove in to the water to rescue a sailor who had fallen overboard from USS Tonopah (BM-8). Nimitz kept the man afloat until help arrived and received the Silver Lifesaving Medal for his actions.

USS C-5 (previously USS Snapper), 1912

Though still a junior officer, the Naval War College recognized Nimitz’s expertise in submarine operations and invited him to deliver a lecture on tactics that June. After a year in command of the Atlantic Submarine Flotilla, Nimitz was sent to Germany and Belgium to study diesel engine manufacturing. With that experience, he subsequently served as Executive Officer and Engineering Officer of USS Maumee (AO-2) until 1917. That August, Nimitz became Aide and Chief of Staff to Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. He served in that billet during World War I.

In 1922, Nimitz entered the Naval War College as a member of the senior course. He and his classmates spent a year studying tactics, strategy, and logistics while practicing what they learned on the war gaming floor in Luce Hall. Here Nimitz learned that commanders must strive to remain on the offensive while taking the war to the enemy. “While the carefully planned defense may save our fleet in future crises,” he wrote in his thesis, “such tactics can never bring us the victories essential to the maintenance of our high position in world affairs.” Nimitz later credited the war games he played in Newport with helping the Navy to anticipate almost every major development of the war with Japan.

Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, ca. 1945

Nimitz received his promotion to rear admiral in June 1938, and commanded cruisers and battleships for the following year. On December 17, 1941, President Roosevelt chose Nimitz to become the new Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas, after Admiral Husband E. Kimmel was relieved of that duty following the attack on Pearl Harbor. He would serve in this post for the remainder of the war where he directed the Navy’s advance across the Central Pacific Ocean. On December 19, 1944, he was advanced to the rank of fleet admiral. Nimitz represented the United States at the formal surrender ceremony on board USS Missouri (BB-63) where he signed the official document ending the war.

Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz signs the Instrument of Surrender for the

United States on board USS Missouri (BB-63), September 2, 1945

Nimitz’s post-war career included a two-year term as the Chief of Naval Operations from 1945 to 1947. He also served for eight years as a regent of the University of California and did much to restore goodwill with Japan by raising funds to restore the battleship Mikasa, Admiral Togo’s flagship at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. The Chester W. Nimitz Chair of National Security and Foreign Affairs at the Naval War College is named in his honor.

Admiral William Frederick Halsey, Jr

William Frederick Halsey, Jr., was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on October 30, 1882, the son of the late Captain William F. Halsey, USN. William Jr. played football at the Naval Academy and graduated with the Class of 1904.

Midshipman William F. Halsey, Jr. as pictured in the 1904 edition of the Naval Academy “Lucky Bag” yearbook

After completing the required two years of sea duty, Halsey received his commission as an ensign and joined USS Kansas (BB-21) for its cruise around the world with the Great White Fleet. Upon his return, Halsey switched over to destroyer duty which would define his career for much of the next twenty-five years. Between 1909-1915, he commanded USS DuPont (TB-7), USS Lamson (DD-18), USS Flusser (DD-20), and USS Jarvis (DD-38).

Ensign Halsey sailed around the world on USS Kansas (BB-12) during the cruise of the Great White Fleet from 1907-1909

During World War I, Halsey served with the U.S. destroyer force at Queenstown, Ireland where his ships hunted German U-boats and protected American convoys. He earned a Navy Cross for his wartime service. Returning home, he continued in small ship duty and held several destroyer division commands. After a brief interlude for service in Washington, Halsey returned to Europe for assignments at various American embassies where he reported on Germany’s naval construction program. Upon completing these duties, he spent the better part of a decade commanding ships at sea.

Halsey arrived in Newport in 1932 as a student at the Naval War College. At the end of the year-long program, he wrote his thesis on the relationship between naval strategy, tactics, and command. Though he did not distinguish himself academically, he made an important connection with one of his classmates, Captain Ernest J. King. Halsey then went on to complete another year of study at the Army War College where he helped to ensure that the Army’s war games were grounded in realistic assumptions about the Navy’s capabilities.

Halsey’s career took a new direction following graduation when he reported to Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training. He was designated a naval aviator on May 15, 1935 and took command of USS Saratoga (CV-3) from 1935 to 1937. In 1938, Halsey received his promotion to rear admiral and held successive commands of Carrier Division Two on USS Yorktown (CV-5) and Carrier Division One on Saratoga. In 1940, he became Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force with the rank of vice admiral. On December 7, 1941, Halsey’s ship USS Enterprise (CV-6) was returning from delivering aircraft to Wake Island when he learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Six months later, under his command, Task Force Sixteen launched an attack on Tokyo using Army bombers flown from the deck of USS Hornet (CV-8).

Vice Admiral Halsey with his Aircraft, Battle Force staff in late 1941 or with Task Force 16 staff on USS Enterprise (CV-6) in early 1942

In October 1942, Halsey was named Commander, South Pacific Forces and South Pacific Area. From this position, he directed offensive operations against the Japanese for the next eighteen months. He assumed command of Third Fleet in June 1944 and was also designated Commander, Western Pacific Task Forces. As such, he operated successfully against the Japanese in the Palaies, Philippines, Formosa, Okinawa and South China Sea. Though criticized for his decisions at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Halsey’s forces continued to strike at Tokyo and the Japanese mainland. His flag was flying on USS Missouri (BB-63) when the Japanese formally surrendered on September 2, 1945. In November, he was assigned special duty in the office of the Secretary of the Navy. On December 11, 1945, Halsey took his oath as fleet admiral, becoming the fourth and last officer to hold that rank. Today, the Naval War College hosts two Advanced Research Programs for its students named in Halsey’s honor.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #FiveStarAdmirals #WilliamDanielLeahy #ErnestJosephKing #ChesterWilliamNimitz #WilliamFrederickHalsey #WWII #WorldWarII #VictoryinthePacific #Newport #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

Five Stars: William Daniel Leahy and Ernest Joseph King

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Tue, 01 Sep 2020 13:24:00 +0000

Admiral William Daniel Leahy

William Daniel Leahy was born in Hampton, Iowa, on May 6, 1875. Upon completing high school in Ashland, Wisconsin, he won an appointment to the Naval Academy. He graduated in 1897, 35th in a class of 47.

Naval Cadet William D. Leahy, U.S. Naval Academy

Midshipman Leahy saw action right away with his assignment to the battleship USS Oregon (BB-3). He was with Oregon when it made its famous dash around Cape Horn in the spring of 1898 to participate in the battle of Santiago on July 3.

Leahy’s first assignment after graduating from the Naval Academy was USS Oregon (BB-3)

Following commissioning as an ensign on July 1, 1899, he was sent to the Asiatic Station, where, during the Philippine Insurrection and the Boxer uprising in China, he served on USS Castine (PG-6), USS Glacier (AF-4) and commanded the gunboat USS Mariveles.

Beginning in 1907, Leahy took a number of shore assignments. He served as an instructor at the Naval Academy in the Department of Physics and Chemistry from 1907 to 1909. Late in 1912, he was appointed Assistant Director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Competitions. In 1913, he transferred to the Bureau of Navigation as a detail officer where he served until 1915.

Heading back out to sea, Leahy next took command of the dispatch gunboat USS Dolphin (PG-24) and established a very close friendship with then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt who cruised with him on the ship. He served for almost a year as the executive officer of USS Nevada (BB-36) before taking command of USS Princess Matotika (ID-2290) in April 1918 to transport troops to France.

Leahy next came ashore and served for three years as Director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Competition in the Navy Department, and as senior member of the Fire Control Board. From 1923 to 1926, he served as Director of Officer Personnel in the Bureau of Navigation, and then had one year in command of the battleship USS New Mexico (BB-40).

Rear Admiral William D. Leahy, 1929

On October 14, 1927, Leahy received a promotion to rear admiral. His career alternated between shore and sea assignments for more than a decade, beginning with a tour as Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He went to sea in 1931 as Commander Destroyers Scouting Force, then returned to Washington as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation for two years. In 1936, he hoisted his four-star flag on USS California (BB-44) as Commander-in-Chief, Battle Force. Though Leahy never attended the Naval War College, he delivered the graduation address in 1934, 1935, and 1937.

Leahy was named the seventh Chief of Naval Operations on January 2, 1937, and served in that capacity until he retired in August 1939. On that occasion, President Franklin D. Roosevelt told him, “Bill, if we have a war, you’re going to be right back here helping me run it.”

Saluting on the reviewing stand during the Navy Day parade in Washington, D.C., October 27, 1944

True to his word, Roosevelt recalled Leahy to active duty in May 1942 to serve as the president’s chief of staff. On December 15, 1944, he became the first U.S. naval officer to be promoted to the newly-created rank of fleet admiral.

Admiral Ernest Joseph King

Ernest Joseph King was born in Lorain, Ohio, on November 23,1878. As a young boy, he read an article in Youth’s Companion about the Naval Academy which spurred his interest in a naval career. He graduated from the Academy fourth in his class in 1901.

Naval Cadet Ernest J. King, ca. 1901

His first few assignments included surveying work in Cuba, a cruise with the Asiatic Fleet, and duty on battleships with the European Squadron and Atlantic Fleet. In 1906, King returned to the Naval Academy to become an instructor in Ordnance and Gunnery. After two years of teaching, he served an additional year on the Executive Staff. King took command of USS Cassin (DD-43) in 1914. In 1916, he joined the staff of Admiral Henry T. Mayo who served as Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet during World War I.

Admiral Henry T. Mayo and staff (Captain Ernest J. King is front row on left), ca. 1916

Following the end of the war, Captain King became head of the Postgraduate School at the Naval Academy. In July 1922, he was introduced to submarine operations when he was assigned to the staff of Commander, Submarine Flotillas, Atlantic Fleet. Later that year he assumed command of Submarine Division Eleven. In 1923, he took command of the submarine base at New London and oversaw the salvage of USS S-51 which sank off Block Island.

Having performed duty in destroyers, submarines and battleships, King next turned to naval aviation. In 1926, he took command of the aircraft tender USS Wright (AV-1) with additional duties as senior aide on the staff of Commander, Air Squadrons, Atlantic Fleet. In January 1927, he reported to Pensacola for flight training and was designated naval aviator 3368. He rejoined Wright on completion of this training.

Following a short cruise as Commander, Aircraft Squadrons, Scouting Fleet, King went ashore in 1928 as Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. In 1929, he assumed command of Naval Air Station Norfolk in Virginia. The following year he returned to sea for two years as the commanding officer of USS Lexington (CV-2).

Captain Ernest J. King (center) reviewing U.S. Marine Corps honor guard with Secretary of the Navy Curtis

Wilbur at the submarine base in New London, Connecticut,1928

King was now an accomplished officer with experience in the surface, subsurface, and aviation communities of the Navy. He reported to Newport in 1932 as a student in the senior officer’s course at the Naval War College. While participating in war games that formed part of the official curriculum, King learned to appreciate the value of Wake and Midway Islands as aircraft bases in the Pacific. He also correctly foresaw the value of a thrust through the central Pacific in the event of war with Japan.

Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King, 1945

King received his promotion to rear admiral in 1933 and became Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. He served almost exclusively in aviation-related assignments for the next seven years. In February 1941, he was promoted to admiral as Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet. By the end of the year, he was named Commander-in-Chief, U. S. Fleet. In March 1942, President Roosevelt combined that office with the Chief of Naval Operations, and Admiral King assumed both duties when he relieved Admiral Harold R. Stark as Chief of Naval Operations. King was the first and only officer to hold such an assignment. On December 17, 1944, he received his promotion to the rank of fleet admiral. The Naval War College recognized his accomplishments in 1953 when it named its chair of maritime history in his honor.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #FiveStarAdmirals #WilliamDanielLeahy #ErnestJosephKing #WWII #WorldWarII #VictoryinthePacific #Newport #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

Artifact Spotlight: World War II, Japanese Surrender Leaflet

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Fri, 14 Aug 2020 15:11:00 +0000

Approximately 70 million soldiers mobilized to fight for the Axis and Allied powers during World War II. As we approach the 75th anniversary of the end of the war, it is worthwhile to pause and think about the massive logistical effort required to train, equip, feed, clothe, and transport so many people. When the Japanese foreign affairs minister signed the instrument of surrender on September 2, 1945, thousands of Japanese soldiers remained on duty in scattered garrisons across the Pacific Ocean. Even for the victorious Allies, it took more than a year to demobilize and send the troops home, not counting those who remained overseas for occupation duty. For Japan, getting soldiers home was even harder due to the destruction of available transports and the collapse of administrative control brought about by the fall of the Japanese government. The island-hopping strategy executed by the Allies called for only the most important Japanese-held islands to be targeted for invasion. American and British forces bypassed smaller concentrations of enemy soldiers leaving them cut off from communication with the home islands. Some survivors did not learn of the surrender for months or even years later.

Not all were ready to come home even when word finally reached them. The fighting culture of the Japanese armed forces rejected the idea of surrender and aimed to instill in its soldiers a conviction to fight to the death. It had not always been this way. In the late 1800s, Japan adopted Western attitudes toward prisoners of war. Enemy combatants captured by the Japanese military during the First Sino-Japanese War and World War I were treated in accordance with international standards. Likewise, Japanese soldiers who surrendered were accepted back into society upon their return. But these attitudes hardened after 1918. By 1941, the Senjinkun (Code of Battlefield Conduct) became standard issue for all Japanese soldiers. Among its instructions was a stark command: “Never live to experience shame as a prisoner.”

Japan’s standards for battlefield conduct applied even more so to senior leaders. Officers were expected to lead by example and inspire their men with acts of self-sacrifice when the odds became insurmountable. What makes today’s artifact spotlight so unique is that it sheds light on a rare example of a Japanese officer who chose to surrender.

General Tomoyuki Yamashita following the fall of Singapore

Tomoyuki Yamashita joined the Japanese Army in 1905 and rose to the rank of lieutenant general by December 1941. As commander of the Twenty-Fifth Army, he forced the surrender of Singapore and captured 80,000 British, Indian, and Australian troops, the largest surrender of British and Commonwealth soldiers in history. Despite his success, Yamashita found himself at odds with Prime Minister Hideki Tojo who assigned him to an unimportant command in Manchuria. He spent most of the war there until recalled in late 1944 to defend the Philippines. Even with 262,000 troops under his command, Yamashita was unable to stop the Allied invasion and retreated to the mountains of northern Luzon.

Other officers in his position might well have ordered a banzai charge as their final act of defiance, but Yamashita was unique among the Japanese senior leadership. He did not care for human wave tactics and resisted ordering his men to sacrifice themselves needlessly. By September 2, 1945, Yamashita’s command was surrounded by Allied forces. Hearing that day that Japan had signed the formal instrument of surrender, he decided there was no need to continue fighting. Yamashita walked down from the mountains and presented himself to the U.S. garrison in Kiangan, Ifugao. The next day, he officially surrendered to General Jonathan Wainwright and Lieutenant General Arthur Percival. It was an ironic end to the war for Percival who had surrendered to Yamashita after the fall of Singapore back in February 1942.

General Yamashita and his staff walking down a mountain trail to surrender to the Allies

With that done, the next task was to inform the Japanese soldiers still hiding in the mountains. Yamashita and his chief of staff wrote a set of orders with instructions on how to surrender which were printed by the Allies and distributed around the Philippine Islands. In some cases, the leaflets were dropped by air near suspected Japanese positions. The example shown below was dropped on Bohol Island and includes very specific directions for the reader to follow.

Munios

September 4, 1945

Shobu Operation Order No. 2005

1. On September 2, the Empire of Japan signed a letter of surrender to the Allied Forces

2. On September 3, based on the surrender document set forth in the previous paragraph, I signed a written surrender to the Supreme Commander of the U.S. Army in the Philippine Islands by imperial order. On August 25, 1945, the operational mission of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army was cancelled.

3. The Commander of the Shōbu Group, the Commander of the Shinbu Group, the Commander of the Kenmu Group, the Commander of Teppei Group, the Commander of the Shunhei Group, the Commander of the Tsubasa-hei Group, and the Commander of the [?] Branch, are hereby relieved of their operational duties. Transfer of armaments and munitions and [?] actions are to be negotiated with the nearest U.S. military commander as appropriate.

4. The Chief of Staff will be responsible for the details.

Commander of the Shōbu Group

Tomoyuki Yamashita

--------------------

Chief of Staff Instructions based on Shobu Operation Order No. 2005

1. Commanding the troops assigned to each corps branch will be the same as before.

2. Each branch of the Corps shall maintain strict discipline of military morals and conduct itself in a fair and dignified manner, and the Imperial Army shall exert itself with dignity and those who recklessly violate the military order will be punished immediately and severely.

3. All Japanese troops acting on the basis of their orders are treated by the U.S. military as prisoners of war, but the Japanese Imperial Army does not recognize them as prisoners of war after they return to their home country.*

Assistant Chief of Staff of the Shōbu Group Akira Muto

*This was meant as a reassurance to soldiers who might be concerned about the social consequences of being taken alive. In essence, this instruction allowed Yamashita’s men to return home with honor since they could rightly claim they had been ordered to cease resistance and had not voluntarily surrendered.

--------------------

Message to Imperial Japanese soldiers

As mentioned above, the war is over. Come to "Mayana" between April 26 and 29, 1946. "Mayana" is the highest point on the road leading north from the city of "Hagna" on the southeast coast. There will be U.S. officers and Japanese military attachés there, just show them the white flag or the "flyer" of the Philippines and come in a line. If you meet Filipinos, show them the "flyer" of the Philippines and you won't be in danger of being harmed. The U.S. military has enough food and medical supplies. Having the benefit of that, most of your companions have already returned to their home country.

---------------------

On the reverse side is a map to go along with the instructions on the front, as well as a personal appeal from Yamashita.

Dear Imperial Japanese soldiers!!

On August 14, 1945, we begrudgingly surrendered to the U.S. military after request for a cease-fire.

The U.S. military invented a new weapon with terrible destructive power called the "atomic bomb" and it reduced both Hiroshima and Nagasaki cities to ashes in an instant.

Receiving ample food and generous medical treatment, I recovered from [?] in the mountains at once and now I'm waiting for the day of my return. Most of the 25,000 Japanese soldiers from the islands such as Leyte, Samar, Negros, Panay, Cebu, Bohol, Mindanao, etc. have returned to Japan and now there are about 4,000 remaining.

It seems like a long time ago that the dust of war settled. When it's time to calm down, what do we see and feel in our hearts? The struggle should not be the main focus of our lives. Our spirit should be like the sacred Mount Fuji.

May the day when you live with the thought of the struggle be as short as possible. And we hope that as many of you as possible will come down from the [mountains?].

Map of the Philippines showing the location of Bohol Island where the leaflet was dropped

Detail of map showing location where Japanese soldiers were instructed to turn themselves over to the Allies

View of same area on modern map. The red star marks the location described in the surrender instructions.

---------------------

It would be fascinating to know how many Japanese soldiers turned themselves over to the Allies after finding copies of this leaflet.

What made General Yamashita so different from his fellow officers that he would consider surrender an acceptable course of action? Some historians point to his scholarly interests and travel around the world that exposed him to different ways of thinking about the military. Others point out that he began practicing Zen Buddhism before the war, a development which by all accounts mellowed his character. Regardless, Yamashita could not escape the often-fatal consequences of holding command in the Japanese Army. He was tried for war crimes committed by his soldiers against Filipino civilians and sentenced to death by hanging in 1946.

Rob Doane

Naval War College Museum

Curator

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #VJDay #WWII #WorldWarII #VictoryinthePacific #Newport #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

USS Revenge and Oliver Hazard Perry

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Wed, 15 Jul 2020 16:22:00 +0000

In May of 2006 I got a call from Craig Harger and Charlie Buffum of Conn. They had just visited me at NWC to attend my elective class “Shipwrecks and Naval History” and had apparently decided that I was not a stuffy and self-righteous academic. They asked if I would dive on an apparent shipwreck site they had recently located in Westerly, R.I. and of course I said yes.

First dive on the Revenge site, note the shallow water. Bob Cembrola observes the action, diver on the right holds a metal detector.

The site is in very shallow water on Watch Hill reef close to the CT. border, in fact the marina their dive boat was kept is in Stonington, CT. The area is comprised of reefs not far from shore and of course had seen scores of shipwrecks in the last 300 years, so I wasn’t too optimistic about their discovery being very significant. Once I hit the water the surge immediately demonstrated how destructive it could be to the human body as this is my first dive in forty years where I almost got seasick underwater.

Map of Narragansett Bay, note the location of Watch Hill reef in the center.

My malaise was soon forgotten after Craig and Charlie pointed out large objects on the bottom nestled amongst the rocks. These were immediately recognized as a cannon and the unmistakable profile of a stubby carronade, a naval weapon designed for close in combat. It was evident that this was a late 18th or early 19th century wreck site because the carronade was not introduced until approximately 1780. Also visible were a broken anchor and other signs that a sailing vessel had struck here and jettisoned heavy items to float off this treacherous reef. The presence of such items is not surprising, a former lighthouse keeper at Watch Hill claimed to have witnessed forty-five wrecks in his twenty years of service. This density of shipwrecks often makes quick identification of a site impossible, but the absence of other artifacts nearby kept telling me that they had indeed found remnants of USS Revenge, known to have struck the reef on January 8, 1811. They had been inspired to search for her by several books about local shipwrecks and by folklore common to all coastal communities which pass tales of disasters from generation to generation.

One of the Revenge's anchors, still sitting atop the reef that broke her back.

I told Craig and Charlie that since Revenge was a US Navy vessel, she is subject to the Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004. This act gave management responsibility of over 17,000 sunken ships and aircraft around the world to the Underwater Archaeology Branch of Naval History and Heritage Command, which is the parent command of all Navy museums including the NWC museum. They had found diagnostic artifacts in 2005 and kept the discovery a closely guarded secret only letting a few close friends in on the thrilling find. I felt honored to be among the chosen few and knew that the site must be protected and that only the federal government is authorized to conduct research and recovery of military craft.

Somehow Craig and Charlie managed to keep their secret until the 200th anniversary of Revenges’ sinking when they announced to the world their discovery on January 6, 2011. This announcement was made from the Ocean House in Watch Hill, within sight of the reef that claimed the Revenge. That day the NHHC Underwater Archaeology Branch learned of the discovery and thus ensued a relationship with Craig and Charlie which is still full steam ahead.

The Newport Mercury also made an announcement in their January 12, 1811 edition:

We learn with regret the U.S. schooner REVENGE, Lieut. Perry, which sailed from this port on Tuesday afternoon last for New London, went ashore on Wednesday morning on Watch Hill reef, and soon afterwards went to pieces. The officers and crew were saved.”

The Mercury of January 19, 1811 gave more information:

"We are sorry to find that the report mentioned in our last, of the loss of the U.S. schooner REVENGE, is confirmed by the following extract from the New-London Gazette of Wednesday last. “Loss of the U.S. schooner REVENGE, of 14 guns, Lieut. Perry in proceeding from Newport for this port, unfortunately struck on Watch Hill Reef and in a few hours went to pieces. The sails, rigging, 6 cannon and almost every article of value was saved. The remainder of the cannon, it is said will be got up without much difficulty. At the time REVENGE struck, the fog was so thick that the jibboom could not be seen from the quarter deck. There was a branch pilot on board”

Court of Enquiry. OHP was resolved of guilt for the loss.

The question is what was Revenge doing in such shallow water in January and why does anyone care about a couple of cannons and carronades which have limited monetary value? The answer to this lies in the short but momentous carrier of her captain, Oliver Hazard Perry, (OHP) of Newport, who along with his younger brother Matthew Calbratih Perry had perhaps more influence on American naval history than any other sibling combination.

OHP was born on August 23, 1785 in South Kingston, R.I. and his father Christopher was a well-placed naval officer and not surprisingly, Oliver chose to follow in his footsteps. At just 13 years of age, OHP received his midshipman’s warrant from the Secretary of the Navy, a necessary step for those aspiring to become a naval officer before the US Naval Academy was founded in 1845. He received this warrant on April 7, 1799.

For the next six years he served on some famous vessels including Constellation and Constitution but missed out on some of their famous engagements. His next assignment was to oversee the construction of a fleet of gunboats in Rhode Island and Connecticut, a tedious task which he performed until he received his first seagoing command in April of 1809 on the USS Revenge. That tedious task however would serve him well on Lake Erie in 1813 when he acquired the fame that still surrounds him today.

The Revenge was a fourteen gun 70-foot schooner built in 1805 and originally named Ranger, she was sold to the Navy in December of 1806 and first served on the Mississippi under Commodore John Shaw. OHP then took command of Revenge in 1809 as a 26-year-old lieutenant and spent much of that year sailing the US east coast. In December she returned to Newport and on the 22 of that month OHP was instructed to conduct a survey of New London, Newport and Gardiners Bay including depth soundings.

Revenge cannon undergoing cleaning.

Carronade ready for action!

That order almost ended the career of OHP when on January 8, 1811 the Revenge under Perry’s command left Newport at midnight to begin this sounding and charting mission. His departure was timed to allow safe sailing through Watch Hill Passage and avoid the treacherous currents between Fisher’s Island and Long Island in daylight. After about an hour sailing, fog set in and Perry asked his pilot Peter Dagget if they should proceed and OHP was assured things were under control due to Daggett’s extensive experience. Perry nevertheless had an anchor readied just in case conditions deteriorated further. By 6 a.m., Revenge passed Point Judith and the next hazardous point of land was Watch Hill approximately thirty miles west. Making just 3 knots, Revenge would take hours to reach there but a favorable current pushed her faster than expected while Perry caught up on his sleep below decks. At 9 a.m. Perry heard the leadsman report a depth of ten fathoms and this brought him to the main deck where he encountered heavy fog “so thick as to envelop all on board Revenge in almost total darkness and was accompanied with a heavy swell.” He saw the depth rapidly decreasing so he ordered the anchor dropped but at the same instance the stern struck the reef.

Perry realized Revenge was doomed when her bow was swung onto the reef by the strong high tide which meant that low tide would leave her high and dry. He ordered 8 of the guns thrown overboard with other heavy items in a futile effort to float her off the reef. After cutting down both masts, just twenty minutes after striking, her seams opened in two places and Perry knew all hope was lost. His actions in saving all the crew set the tone for his subsequent exoneration for this loss as Peter Daggett accepted total responsibility for the sinking. Perry calmly directed the rescue of all 78 crew members along with sails, rigging and small arms and as might be expected he was the last to leave the stricken vessel. Perry's composure demonstrated his coolness in tense situations, demonstrated many times later in his career.

Following the obligatory investigation of the loss of any US Navy vessel, Perry was cleared and then enjoyed a leave of absence in Newport where he was married on May 5, 1811. He remained unemployed until May of 1812 when war with England seemed certain and was declared officially on June 18, 1812. He was again put in command of the gunboat flotilla in Newport while his friends sailed in harm’s way on vessels such as Constitution and Hornet. This letter reveals the frustration that OHP felt at being left in a backwater of the conflict with England:

Lieutenant Oliver H. Perry to Secretary of the Navy Hamilton

New Port June 6, 1812

Sir,

As war appears now to be inevitable and not far distant, I hope and earnestly entreat that I may in the event be called immediately into actual service. I am highly sensible Sir, of the very great favor which you have shown in suffering me to remain the last twelve months with my family-although this indulgence has been the source of much happiness: in case of war it would cease to be so, on the contrary I should consider it the greatest mortification and misfortune.

Pardon me for troubling you Sir, on this subject, as I solicited this station some time since when there was no prospect of war, I am desirous should such a thing take place to prevent the possibility of a thought entering your mind it would be agreeable to continue at home. The time appears near when I shall have it in my power to convince you Sir, that the observation in your letter Comr. Rodgers relative to the loss of the Revenge viz. “an officer just to himself, and to his country will not be depressed by defeat, or misfortune, but will be stimulated by either cause, to greater exertions” has made a proper impression on my mind. I have the honor."

O.H. Perry

This letter initially resulted in Perry being promoted to master commandant on 6 October 1812, but it was not until February 8, 1813 that he received orders to report to old friend Isaac Chauncey who was in command of naval forces on the Great Lakes.Before he left Newport and achieved great fame, Perry was once again involved with a shipwreck, thankfully not his own vessel. On September 29, 1812 US gunboat no. 46, under the command of Lieutenant Samuel Blodget sank in a violent storm on the eastern shore of Jamestown, with the loss of Blodget and eight of her crew. As commander of all the ten Newport gunboats, Perry assumed the responsibility for retrieving what he could from # 46.

Perry, in a November 10, letter to Secretary of the Navy Hamilton reports:

Sir,

With the assistance of Mr. Palmer, the proprietor of the Diving-bell, I have been so fortunate as to regain gun, anchors, cables and small quantity of the shot of the late US Gunboat No. 46. Mr. Palmer charges the department with one-third of the value for salvage, which with your permission I will cause to be paid to him-his vessel was considerably exposed in this business, and he has exerted himself to save as much of the public property as possible-the gun above referred to us a 32 pounder, and is at present on Fort Wolcott, loaned to the US-for which I have the commanding officer’s receipt until your pleasure is known.

Respectfully, O.H. Perry

Once he arrived at Lake Erie, Perry was given command of the American naval forces there but also had to assist with the construction of the fleet, a task that was under the supervision of Daniel Dobbins. Perry distinguished himself before the battles even began with his enthusiasm and leadership as nine vessels were constructed and ready for battle by August. Knowing his adversary Commodore Robert Barclay was at least experienced as himself, having served with Nelson at Trafalgar, Perry issued these Nelson inspired instructions to his captains:

Commanding officers are particularly enjoined to pay attention in preserving their stations in the Line, and in all cases to keep as near the Lawrence as possible. Engage your designated adversary, in close action at half cable’s length” (approximately 100 meters)

Oliver H. Perry, General Order, USS Lawrence.

USS Lawrence was named by Perry after Captain James Lawrence who died after being wounded by enemy fire on June 1, 1813. Lawrence uttered the immortal battle cry “ Don’t give up the ship” and when Perry learned of this, he had a battle flag made with that famous command which he would carry into the now immortal fight against Barclay’s fleet.

OHP statue in the Naval War College Museum collection.

Finally, the day for battle arrived on September 10, 1813 and Perry’s determination and courage resulted in one of the most important victories for American naval forces in the 19th century. Perry’s after-action report to General William Henry Harrison is now famous: “we have met the enemy and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop”

Though a small one, this is the first time that an entire British squadron had surrendered. Perry’s sailing master, William Vigneron Taylor penned a letter on 15 September which captures the intensity of the battle: “ The Lawrence alone received the fire of the whole British squadron 2 /12 hours within pistol shot-we were not supported as we ought to have been. Captain Perry led the Lawrence into action and sustained the most destructive fire with the most gallant spirit perhaps that was ever witnessed under similar circumstances”

As if that was not enough action, Perry volunteered to assist General William Henry Harrison at the battle of the Thames in Lake Ontario on October 5, 1813. This victory gave Harrison a legacy which propelled him to become the 9th US president and further cemented Perry’s legacy.

After this intense action Perry requested a transfer back to more peaceful Newport and in November 1813, he resumed duties with the gunboat flotilla. Perry had been promoted to captain on September 10, 1813 while still on Lake Erie.

This promotion resulted in Perry getting command of the still under construction 44 gun frigate Java. He took Java for a relatively peaceful cruise to the Mediterranean to deal with Barbary pirates and was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Venezuela by President Monroe in June of 1819. The mission was of minor significance, but Perry as always threw himself into the tasks assigned to him but rampant yellow fever in the hot humid jungle eventually claimed his life on August 23, 1819, his thirty-fourth birthday.

President Monroe upon hearing of Perry’s death: “It is with deep regret I have to state the loss which has been sustained by the death of Commodore Perry. His gallantry in the late war added to the renown of his country. His death is deplored as a national misfortune.”

OHP statue graces Washington Square in Newport, Rhode Island.

As he lay dying on his way to Trinidad, having completed his mission, Perry once again displayed his courage with these words: “ few persons have greater inducements to make them wish to live than I, but I am perfectly ready to go if it pleases the Almighty to take me, the debt of nature must be paid”

Carronade in situ on Watch Hill Reef.

Thus, ended the short but momentous career of OHP, but his legacy is being cared for by the Naval History and Heritage Command who have recovered artifacts from Revenge which are currently being conserved. His beloved Newport is graced with a fitting statue in Washington Square and hopefully the Naval War College Museum will be the future home of a Revenge carronade.

Sail training vessel the Oliver Hazard Perry.

Reminders of OHP are also fittingly sailing around in the form of the largest sail training vessel in the US, aptly named and Newport based Oliver Hazard Perry, cruising the same waters as her namesake.

Bob Cembrola

Naval War College Museum

Exhibitions Manager

#Navy #USNavy #History #NavalHistory #NavalWarCollege #OliverHazardPerry #Diving #Newport #Museum #USNWCM #NavyReadiness

The Battle of Trafalgar and the Naval War College Museum

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Mon, 15 Jun 2020 16:55:00 +0000

It is a warm, breezy day in Newport, Rhode Island. You are standing looking out at Narragansett Bay from the steps of Founders Hall, once a poor house, converted in 1884 to the first home of the Naval War College. You turn north and make your way through the two sets of double doors, into what is now home to the Naval War College Museum. Upon entering, the first thing you see is a large (7x7 foot) model of HMS Victory. After admiring its craftsmanship you start to wonder, what does this British ship have to do with the U.S. Navy, and moreover, why is it the first thing one sees when entering a museum dedicated to showcasing the history of the U.S. Naval War College and the Navy in the Narragansett Bay?

HMS Victory Model: Model of the HMS Victory from inside the Naval War College Museum. Built by Captain Frederick E. Story and Captain Sumner, the model was presented to the Naval War College in 1953 by Lieutenant Francis L. Higginson, Jr, class of 1944.

The Battle of Trafalgar

HMS Victory earned its fame for its role in the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined French and Spanish fleet. After the fourteen-month Peace of Amiens fell apart in the summer of 1803, Britain found itself under threat of invasion from Napoleonic France once again. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson was given command of the Royal Navy’s Mediterranean Fleet on the resumption of war and was charged with containing French naval forces in the Mediterranean (Lambert, 2011). Nelson was on the defensive, waiting for France to attack his fleet in a play to combine the two major French fleets, stationed at Toulon and Brest, and attempt to overpower the British and secure control over the English Channel (“The Battle of Trafalgar 1805”, n.d.). In 1804, Spain entered the war as a French ally, increasing Napoleon’s sea-power (Lambert, 2011), prompting a new campaign with the ultimate goal of a cross-Channel invasion of Britain (“The Battle of Trafalgar 1805,” n.d.). In March of 1805, the French Fleet escaped Nelson’s blockade, combined with Spanish ships at Cadiz, then raced across the Atlantic to the West Indies, before returning to Western Europe in an attempt to deceive the British. Nelson chased the Franco-Spanish fleet, commanded by Vice-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, across the Atlantic and back, until it found safe-haven in Cadiz. In the meantime, Napoleon’s invasion plans, overly complex and reliant on less-than-aggressive admirals, had fallen apart, and French armies departed Northern France for campaigns in Austria and Italy. However, the combined Franco-Spanish fleet remained in Cadiz and Nelson had been dispatched to blockade the port (Dancy & Wilson, 2020). The presence of Nelson and the British Mediterranean Fleet caused unrest for Villeneuve, who was already receiving pressure from Napoleon to reposition his fleet to support attacks on Naples. Underestimating the power of Nelson’s fleet, Villeneuve put 33 of his ships to sea. While Nelson’s fleet was smaller, made up of only 27 ships, his ability to predict tactical moves enabled him to stay steps ahead of his adversary (Lambert, 2011). Nelson devised a plan to overwhelm the Franco-Spanish fleet by dividing his ships into two columns, cutting the Franco-Spanish line of battle and dividing the enemy fleet. On 21 October 1805, Nelson’s plan was put to action, led on one column by his Flag Ship, HMS Victory, and the on the other by HMS Royal Sovereign. While the battle was bloody, costing nearly 6,000 French-Spanish and 1,700 British lives, the British claimed victory only hours after the battle had begun, just in time for Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson to receive word before succumbing to his battle wounds. The battle, later named Trafalgar, ravaged Napoleon’s fleet and maritime strategy, restricting his ability to grow his empire, arguably laying the course for his downfall (“The Battle of Trafalgar 1805,” n.d.).

Trafalgar Map: This map of the sea off of Cadiz shows the British Fleet positioned to attack the Franco-Spanish Fleet from the middle and rear at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805.

The Crew

At the time of Trafalgar in October 1805, 821 crew members were serving on HMS Victory, including 23 Americans. At least another 337 American sailors fought in Nelson’s Mediterranean Fleet at Trafalgar, including an estimated 20 Rhode Islanders. Among the Rhode Island natives was John Johnson, a 24-year old seaman on board Nelson’s flagship, born in Newport. Another Newport born sailor, George Almy, served as the Ship’s Master on board the HMS Pickle, which brought word of the British victory to London following the battle (Wheeler, 2005). While Naval service was attractive to some, providing regular access to food and a chance to earn prize money for captured vessels, life at sea was dangerous; disease and accidental shipwrecks were credited for 90 percent of British fatalities at sea (“The Crew,” n.d.). Records show 217 men serving on HMS Victory during the battle were pressed into service, and most of the Americans who fought at Trafalgar were listed as joining from other British vessels (Poppyland Publishing, n.d.). Data on the Rhode Islanders who fought at Trafalgar is scarce, with little available details surrounding who these men were and what led them to Cape Trafalgar on that day nearly 215 years ago. While many Americans played a role in Trafalgar, its ties to American seamanship do not stop there.

Trafalgar and the Naval War College

Historic case studies have been a cornerstone to academic learning at the Naval War College since its establishment in 1884. Often cited for its strategic and tactical genius, the Battle of Trafalgar inspired some of the first war games at the college. Wargaming, introduced by William McCarty Little in 1887, enabled students to expound upon tactics of historic battles to improve operational art and planning (Hattendorf, Simpson, & Wadleigh, 1984). In order to accomplish this, McCarty Little used charts and cardboard ship cutouts to reenact battles, such as Trafalgar, in hopes of gaining an objective, first-hand perspective of historic combat and decision-making in order to better prepare for future conflict (Kohnen, Jellicoe, & Sims, 2016). Historic battles like Trafalgar were amongst the most studied at the college, paving the way for the introduction of modern wargaming. Today, the Wargaming Department is well-known and respected at the Naval War College, comprised of over 40 military and civilian faculty members serving on the core team of gaming professionals, hosting approximately 50 games and events each year.

Modern War Game: This photo, courtesy Chief Mass Communication Specialist James Foehl, depicts a modern-day reenactment of the Battle of Jutland, demonstrated by U.S. Naval War College staff.

The Battle of Trafalgar has long-standing ties to Rhode Island seamanship and helped pave the way for historic and modern-day study at the Naval War College. Thus, it seems fitting that the HMS Victory, a well-known symbol of British triumph at the battle, stand tall inside the entry way of the Naval War College Museum, taking visitors on a trip through time and setting the stage to introduce them to early exploration in the Narraganset Bay.

Meghan Brown

Naval War College Museum

Administrative Officer

Contributions by

J. Ross Dancy, DPhil (Oxon)
Naval War College
Assistant Professor

References

Dancy, J., & Wilson, E. (2020). Sir John Orde and the Trafalgar Campaign—A Failure of Information Sharing. Naval War College Review, 73. Retrieved from https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol73/iss2/10 Hattendorf, J. B., Simpson, B. M., & Wadleigh, J. R. (1984). Sailors and scholars: the centennial history of the U.S. Naval War College. Newport, RI: Naval War College Press. Kohnen, D., Jellicoe, N., & Sims, N. (2016). The U.S. Navy Won the Battle of Jutland The U.S. Navy Won the Battle of Jutland . Naval War College Review, 69(4). Lambert, A. (2011, February 17). History - British History in depth: The Battle of Trafalgar. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/trafalgar_01.shtml Poppyland Publishing. (n.d.). Aspect 2: Trafalgar - The American Crew. Retrieved from https://www.poppyland.co.uk/nelact2.html The Battle of Trafalgar 1805. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/features/trafalgar-day/battle-of-trafalgar The Crew. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.hms-victory.com/content/history/crew Wheeler, D. (2005). The Trafalgar dispatch: the meteorological background to the voyage of HMS Pickle. Weather, 60(10), 280–283. doi: 10.1256/wea.112.0

Acts of Bravery: Fighting Kamikazes and Saying "No" to Admiral Halsey

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Sat, 30 May 2020 20:43:00 +0000

The U.S. Navy joins the nation in celebrating Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month. Not long ago, one of our former staff members who served in the Navy donated to us his “Safari to Suez” certificate he earned while serving on USS Chung-Hoon (DDG-93). This ship was named after the first Asian American to be promoted to admiral, and we are proud to recount his story here.

Commander Gordon Paiʻea Chung-Hoon, 1945

Gordon Paiʻea Chung-Hoon was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, on July 25, 1910. He was the fourth of five children born to William Chung-Hoon Jr., a Chinese-English-Hawaiian, and Agnes Punana, a Hawaiian. Chung-Hoon attended the United States Naval Academy where he starred on the football team as a halfback and punter. He helped Navy break an eleven-year winless streak against Army before graduating in 1934.

His assignments in the following years included two ill-fated ships that witnessed disaster in World War II. Chung-Hoon's first posting was to USS Indianapolis (CA-35) where he spent two years training with the Scouting Force. Indianapolis was infamously sunk by a Japanese submarine after delivering parts for the atomic bomb to Tinian in 1945. As a lieutenant, Chung-Hoon served on USS Arizona (BB-39). He was with the ship in December 1941 but had secured a pass in Honolulu on the morning of the 7th. Chung-Hoon heard the attack from the city and attempted to return to his ship, but Arizona exploded and sank before he could reach it.

USS Sigsbee (DD-502)

He served on destroyers and cruisers for the rest of the war, eventually receiving command of USS Sigsbee (DD-502) in May 1944. On April 14, 1945, while on radar picket station off Okinawa, Sigsbee and 7 accompanying destroyers were attacked by 20 kamikazes approaching from multiple directions. The sky was overcast, and the attacking planes were not spotted until they dropped below the low-level clouds. One aircraft scored a direct hit on Sigsbee which knocked out the ship’s port engine and steering control. Despite the damage, Commander Chung-Hoon kept his antiaircraft batteries firing at attackers while simultaneously directing damage control efforts. The damage was so severe that Admiral William Halsey, Jr. told Chung-Hoon to scuttle the ship. However, Chung-Hoon refused, telling the admiral "No, I have kids on here that can't swim, and I'm not putting them in the water. I'll take her back." Few commanders could get away with disobeying a direct order from an admiral, but Chung-Hoon was one of them.

The next day Chung-Hoon led a burial at sea for the twenty-three sailors who were killed during the attacks. One crew member said of Chung-Hoon during the burial, "I often remember that the only man tough enough not to duck, was also the only man tender enough to cry." Thanks to his extraordinary leadership, Sigsbee remained afloat and eventually returned to Pearl Harbor for repairs.

Chung-Hoon received the Navy Cross and the Silver Star for his heroic performance in command of Sigsbee. He continued to serve in the Navy after the war and commanded USS John W. Thomason during the Korean War. Chung-Hoon retired in October 1959 after a twenty-five year career and was promoted to rear admiral upon retirement.

This Safari to Suez certificate was donated to the Naval War College Museum by our former collections manager, Mr. Walter Nicolds. The certificate is similar to a crossing the line certificate, but it indicates that the owner has successfully transited the Suez Canal.

USS Chung-Hoon (DDG-93) is an Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyer serving with the Pacific Fleet and homeported in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Recent deployments to the 5th Fleet operational area have seen the ship operating closely with partner nations. In one instance, Chung-Hoon conducted three drug seizures and confiscated more than $5 million worth of illegal drugs bound for Yemen.

Rob Doane
Curator
Naval War College Museum

The Battle of Cape Henry: Prelude to Final Victory

noreply@blogger.com (NWCMCurator2) — Wed, 27 May 2020 14:03:00 +0000

The scene should be familiar to any student of the American Revolution: two fleets fighting for control of Chesapeake Bay while a small army anxiously awaits the outcome, hoping that victory will bring needed reinforcements. Though it certainly describes the situation in which General Cornwallis found himself while defending Yorktown in September 1781, a similar drama had played out in these same waters six months earlier. While it did not bring the war to an end, the Battle of Cape Henry demonstrated the value of controlling the Chesapeake and gave American, British, and French forces alike a preview of the final showdown of the American Revolution.

When Benedict Arnold switched sides in September 1780, he presented both an opportunity and a problem for the British. They were pleased to have won over a high-ranking officer from the Continental Army. Arnold had a reputation as a skilled, aggressive commander who was instrumental in halting two British invasions, one at Valcour Island and the second at Saratoga. Yet the British didn’t quite know if they could trust his military skills. The Commander in Chief, General Sir Henry Clinton, knew that Continental Army officers often obtained their commissions despite having no formal military training. Still, he needed somebody to support Cornwallis’ upcoming invasion of the South, so he assigned Arnold to conduct a series of raids in Virginia that would tie down local militia and prevent them from joining the main fight in the Carolinas. Clinton played it safe by imposing restrictions on Arnold’s movements. In all cases, he was to defend Portsmouth with an eye towards establishing a base for Cornwallis’ future operations.

To counter Arnold, George Washington formulated a plan to trap him between two converging forces. The first, composed of 1,200 soldiers under the Marquis de Lafayette, would march from New Jersey to Virginia and prevent Arnold from leaving Portsmouth. The second, a fleet of eight ships carrying another 1,200 soldiers, would sail from Newport, Rhode Island under the command of Commodore Charles-René Sochet, Chevalier des Touches. The French vessels — seven ships of the line and one frigate — sailed from Newport on March 8, 1781. Des Touches also carried instructions from General Washington to hang Benedict Arnold on the spot without the necessity of a trial for his treason.

Vice Admiral of the White Mariot Arbuthnot, the British fleet commander in North America, received intelligence reports indicating that the French were planning an operation, but did not learn of des Touches' sailing until March 10. He immediately led his fleet of eight warships out of Gardiner's Bay at the eastern tip of Long Island to pursue the French. Their destination lay approximately 300 nautical miles to the south at Cape Henry, the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, through which all reinforcements bound for Portsmouth had to pass. The first fleet to arrive there would have the advantage and force the opposing fleet to either risk an attack or withdraw. Des Touches, wishing to surprise the British, took an indirect route farther out to sea to avoid being spotted. Arbuthnot, already having the advantage of faster ships due to their copper-clad hulls, decided to take the direct route. Despite leaving two days later, he arrived at Cape Henry slightly ahead of the French on March 16.

Diagram of the Battle of Cape Henry drawn by Alfred Thayer Mahan

At 6:00 that morning, the British frigate Iris reported that five sail of the line were in the haze astern to the north north-east, about forty miles northeast of Cape Henry. Arbuthnot immediately ordered his ships to close with the enemy. Both fleets maneuvered for several hours attempting to gain the weather gage. Des Touches initially held the advantageous upwind position, but strong winds and heavy seas convinced him to surrender it to the British. A ship firing downwind in heavy seas could not safely open its gunports on the lowest deck for fear of flooding. The French line turned 180 degrees and wore around to the starboard tack, now heading northwest toward the Cape Charles Peninsula. The ensuing battle lasted for an hour, during which Arbuthnot's three leading vessels, including his flagship, the 98-gun HMS London, were severely damaged. At the end of the engagement, superior British gunnery forced des Touches to break off the fight and return Lafayette's reinforcements to Rhode Island. British casualties were 30 killed and 73 wounded while the French suffered 72 killed and 112 wounded. Arbuthnot remained in the area to repair his ships and support the landing of 2,000 fresh troops for Arnold.

This painting illustrates the advantage of fighting downwind in heavy seas. The guns facing the viewer on the lowest deck may safely be fired, while those on the other (starboard) side may not.

From a tactical perspective, the French gave slightly better than they got. Though des Touches suffered higher casualties, he caused more damage to the British fleet and forced Arbuthnot’s squadron to remain out of action for two weeks while they made repairs. Writing in 1913, American naval strategist and former President of the Naval War College Alfred Thayer Mahan commended des Touches for outmaneuvering a superior opponent: “The French commodore displayed very considerable tactical skill; his squadron was handled neatly, quickly, and with precision. With inferior force he carried off a decided advantage by sheer intelligence and good management.”

At the operational and strategic levels, the battle must be judged a British victory. By chasing off the French and seizing control of Chesapeake Bay, Arbuthnot enabled Arnold with his reinforcements to launch further raids into the Virginia countryside. Opposing these raids drained valuable resources and prevented Virginia officials from sending soldiers and supplies to nearby Continental Army forces.

Model of the 80-gun Duc de Bourgogne, one of the French ships at the Battle of Cape Henry

Naval War College Museum Collection

The Comte de Barras, who arrived in May to take command of the Newport station, supported des Touches' actions and argued that it was sound strategy to risk less on the attack than when fighting to defend a position. Mahan was not impressed with his reasoning, writing that “[t]his exaltation of the defensive above the offensive, this despairing view of probabilities, this aversion from risks, go far to explain the French want of success in this war. No matter how badly the enemy was thrashed, unless he were entirely destroyed, he was still a fleet ‘in being,’ a paralyzing factor.”

Indeed, the British fleet remained a threat to French and American forces throughout the summer of 1781. The two navies would meet again near Cape Henry in September, this time with the roles reversed as the French fought to maintain control of the Chesapeake and prevent the arrival of British reinforcements. In many ways, Cape Henry was a dress rehearsal for the larger showdown that sealed the fate of the British in the American Revolution.

Rob Doane

Curator

Naval War College Museum

Soundings in Narragansett Bay's Naval History

Beneath the Waves: Thomas Eadie and the Tragedy of S-4

USS Constellation, sloop-of-war

The Mediterranean Squadron, USS Constellation Protecting American Interests Abroad

Five Ships, One Name

A Day in the Life: Director of Education and Public Outreach

Celebrating in Time of War

A Day in the Life: Curator

The Hunted becomes the Hunter: Sloop Providence and the Revolutionary War

Planning on the Fly: The Spanish-American War

The Short, Tragic Life of ABDACOM

"You Sank My Aircraft Carrier!" Did a Japanese War Game Predict Defeat at the Battle of Midway?

Rose Island Lighthouse

Lovell General Hospital

Operation Ke: War Gaming the Japanese Withdrawal from Guadalcanal

Newport and Navy Diving

Matthew Calbraith and Oliver Hazard Perry

Perry monument in Shimoda Japan, Perry monument in Shimoda Japan, Perry monument in Newport, R.I.

United States Naval Academy and the U.S. Naval War College

Inchon Artifact Spotlight: Tokarev TT Pistol

Five Stars: Chester William Nimitz and William Frederick Halsey

Five Stars: William Daniel Leahy and Ernest Joseph King

Artifact Spotlight: World War II, Japanese Surrender Leaflet

USS Revenge and Oliver Hazard Perry

The Battle of Trafalgar and the Naval War College Museum

The Battle of Trafalgar

The Crew

Trafalgar and the Naval War College

References

Acts of Bravery: Fighting Kamikazes and Saying "No" to Admiral Halsey

The Battle of Cape Henry: Prelude to Final Victory

Perry monument in Shimoda Japan,

Perry monument in Shimoda Japan, Perry monument in Newport, R.I.