NEED HEALTHY BODY

Leaf tissue organs in plants

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 18 Nov 2014 22:10:00 +0700

Welcome all still meet again with me that always gives the experience of life in the world, this time I'll tell you how the performance of the plant leaves.

Leaf is the most effective plant organ to organize the process of photosynthesis. Leaves in monocot plants are not much different from dicotyledonous plant leaves. Leaves monocot plants generally have bones leaf arrangement parallel or curved.

While leaves on dicotyledonous plants generally have a composition of bones menjari or pinnate leaves. Regarding the preparation network, basically leaves dicots and monocots have the same network which is composed as follows:

a. Epidermis

The epidermis is the outermost layer consisting of a single layer of flattened cells, sometimes coated with a thick-walled cuticle or waxy coating. At the mouth of the epidermis are stomata or leaf functions facilitate gas exchange and transpiration (evaporation).

Land plants are generally stomata in the lower epidermis of the leaf surface while water plants, stomata many upper surface. In some plant species on cut or leaf tips are structures called hydathodes.

This structure is useful for the release of water, if the water is absorbed large plants while evaporation bit. The structure has similarities with leaves that continue to break their mouth and associated with timber vessels on leaf veins.

b. Parenchyma

Parenchyma is part of the leaf epidermis located between the upper and lower epidermis. Parenchyma there are 2 kinds:

1. palisade parenchyma (palisade tissue) is the parenchymal tissue that lies below the upper epidermis. Consists of cells that form Prismatic, meeting each other and contain many kloropis.

2. spongy parenchyma (spongy tissue) is the parenchymal tissue that lies between the palisade parenchyma tissue below the epidermis. Thin-walled cells, have spaces between cells, chlorophyll and because it is composed like a sponge so-called spongy parenchyma. In the spongy tissue found in the form of xylem transport bones leaf.

c. File carrier

Nerkas carrier consists of phloem file at the top and bottom of the xylem. Phloem and xylem are enveloped by a sheath comprising transporting files from cells sklerenkrim, so it is rather strong. Framework leaf / leaves no other bone is the carrier leaves the file system.

So the carrier beam consists of xylem that transports water and minerals serves to leaves, while the phloem transport function of photosynthesis from leaves to all parts of the plant.

Structure and function of plant stems in the world

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Sun, 16 Nov 2014 20:58:00 +0700

The welcome we meet again here to discuss about the plant life that works for us all to balance life in this world. Because the plant is also to enhance the lives of God's creatures in the world. This time I will discuss about the plant stem in anatomy, composition different dicotyledonous plant stem with stem arrangement monocot plants.

a. In monocot plants (berkepingan one).
- Trunk berkambium not, so it does not grow bigger.
- Binds haul collateral vessels closed.
- File transport vessels scattered visible.

b. In dicotyledonous plants (dashed two).
- Trunk berkambium so it can grow bigger.
- Association payload type of collateral vessels open.
- File transport vessels appear regularly in a circle.

Primary and Secondary Growth Growth.

Primary growth is caused by the growth of the primary growing point, namely the growing point at the far ends of the roots and stems of primary growth in the root tip and the tip of the stem, causing root and stem length increases.

Secondary growth is growth caused by secondary growth point, there is a growing point between the xylem and phloem, the cambium, a secondary growth point. Cambium activity resulting in the roots and stems of dicotyledonous plants grow.

Because of this cambium activity out form phloem or wood bark vessels, whereas in the form xylem or wood vessels. Because the monocots not found the cambium, the roots and stems of monocots can not grow bigger.

Growth direction in the cambium tissue faster than the formation of the network towards the outside. This causes the tissue protective outer cracked or damaged. Secondary thickened growth does not take place throughout the year.

But only when sufficient water and nutrients or during rainy. While the drought, where water and illicit substances bit, secondary growth stalled. Events grow and atrophy occurs interchangeably throughout the plant life. So that the cross sections of roots and stems of plants dicotyledonous appears the concentric circles called the circle.

Structure and function of plant roots in the world

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Sun, 16 Nov 2014 17:10:00 +0700

Welcome brothers still meet again with me. This time I will review the plant life that has balance in the life of this world. Plants are living organisms are composed of some of the principal organs.

1. The root is a very important plant organs. In addition to absorbing water and nutrients, will serve to anchor the plant body in his place. Even some that serves to store food reserves.

In seed plants closed between monocot plant root structure with the root structure of dicotyledonous plants have differences, as follows:

a. Plants Monocots (dashed one):

- Root root fibers are arranged in the system.

- Kaliptra protected root tip and the boundary between the tip of the root kaliptra obvious.

- Kaliptra has a growing point called kaliptragen.

- Do not have the cambium.

- Having endodermis and persikel (fairy cambium).

- Branching on endogenous ie root branching from within.

b. Dikotil plants (two-layered).

- The roots are arranged in a taproot system.

- The boundary between the root tip kaliptra unclear.

- Has the cambium, endodermis and parisikel.

- Not memunyai kaliptrogen (forming kaliptra).

- Branching endogenous roots.

In the transverse container monocot or dicot roots generally have parts from the outside to the inside is as follows:

a. Epidermal cells are compact, thin cell walls, making it easy to penetrate the water. Epidermal cells can form root hairs that function expands the absorption field.

b. Cortex is composed of several layers of thin-walled cells. In the cortex there is plenty of space between cells. This serves to ventilate the room. The innermost layer of the cortex is a barrier between the cortex with a central cylinder is called endothermic.

c. Endodermis endodermis cell shape and arrangement different from the shape and composition of the surrounding cells, the cell walls of the endodermis which is perpendicular to the central cylinder coated cork substance (suberin). So that water and substances drawn therein can not pass through the wall.

At the root of the cross section, thickening agents cork it looked as midpoints endodermis cell wall that is located radially. The points were named point Kapsari. So with the thickening agent that cork, endodermis cell wall that is perpendicular to the cylinder center impassable water and substances dissolved in it in force to penetrate the endodermis cell plasma.

Plasma cells are semi-permeable, allowing water entry and endodermis regulate substances that are dissolved in it before entering the central cylinder. Cross-sectional diagram that shows how to root water uptake and mineral.

d. Central cylinder / stele deepest part of the root is the central cylinder / stele. The outermost layer is called the center of the cylinder parisikel / perikambium. Cells were dealing with file perikambium xylem located to the right or the left can be meristem tissue to form a branch of the root, so the formation of endogenous root branch.

Next to the parisikel are radial-type transport vessels. In dicotyledonous plants, between the xylem and phloem cambium which there is a growing point of the secondary. Cambium divides to form the bark outwards and inwards forming wooden vessels.

Circulation of Lymph Nodes

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 28 Oct 2014 18:02:00 +0700

Circulation of the lymph system (lymph) is composed of lymph fluid, lymph vessels, and lymph glands. This system plays a role in fat transport and eradication of the disease. Blood circulation in most existing capillaries that seeps out of the blood capillaries.

The liquid then goes into the lymph vessels and lymph fluid called. Lymphatic vessels divided into two kinds, namely the right lymphatic vessels and lymph vessels left (chest lymph vessels).

Right lymphatic vessels accommodate lymph fluid that comes from the head, right side of the neck, right chest, right arm. These vessels lead to the vein below the lymph coming from the head, left neck, left chest and left arm and lower body. These vessels lead to the vein below the left collarbone.

Work human circulatory

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 27 Oct 2014 20:40:00 +0700

The organ in charge of pumping blood is the heart and circulated throughout the body by the blood vessels. The human heart has four chambers, and the chest cavity is encased by perikardia. The four heart chambers, namely the right atrium and left atrium, right ventricle and the left ventricle.

Human circulatory system including blood circulation and double covered. Blood circulation is always closed due to circulating blood in the vessels of the heart. Double blood circulation because the blood circulating through the heart twice.

a. Small circulation is the blood starts from the heart (right ventricle) to the lungs, back to the heart as much as (the left atrium). Blood is carried from the heart to the lungs in the form of a rich blood and carbon dioxide is returned to the heart of oxygen-rich blood. Under this scheme small circulation. The heart (the right ventricle) to the lungs to the heart (left atrium).

b. Large blood circulation is the blood of the heart (the left ventricle) to the rest of the body, back to the heart (right atrium). The left ventricle of the heart contracts to pump blood throughout the body through the net except the aorta to the lungs and back to the heart (right atrium) in the form of dirty blood. Scheme circulatory big heart (the left ventricle) to the rest of the body to the heart (right atrium).

c. Porta Systems, where the blood of an organ prior to the heart, stop by prior to other organs in humans and mammals live sifina portahepatil. Here the blood from the digestive tract prior to stopping heart to heart. So that the liver receives blood from two vessels, namely the tone of the heart that carries clean blood (arterial) blood from the portal vein and containing venous blood (CO2-rich and rich nutrients).

Factors affecting the growth of tumors

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 6 Oct 2014 21:00:00 +0700

Although the process of malignant growth have autonomic properties, but clearly influenced by several circumstances contained in the host organism and are mostly located outside the tumor cells. Every tumor, however '' autonomous '' - his, to be able to grow depending on the food that is obtained from the surrounding.

Poor vascularization in tumors will also result in necrosis and tissue damage. Most of the surrounding tissue will inhibit the uncontrolled growth. Until organs, bones, periost, tendons and tendon vaginal may temporarily inhibit tumor expansion.

More general circumstances that affect the growth, perhaps even influence the occurrence of tumors, is the status of individual hormonal and immunological defenses. Surely not just those factors that play a role in this regard. These factors will be discussed separately, since it is the starting point of a particular therapy.

It is known that some malignant tumors such as prostate carcinoma, breast carcinoma and endometrial carcinoma may also, showed a susceptibility to hormonal and growth can be affected by changing the hormonal status of the individual concerned.

Sometimes prostate carcinoma showed good reaction to castration or estrogen administration. Breast carcinoma can sometimes be improved by administering hormones, castration and adrenalectomy. Pda pregnancy sometimes we find the opposite, namely an existing breast carcinoma sometimes grow faster.

Hormonal status and hormonal therapy will be discussed separately in the relevant chapters in the special part of this book. Until recent time the possibility that the organism can affect tumor growth in immunologik not be taken seriously.

Because tumor cells occurs in the host organism itself otochton, so they would be recognized as 'self' alone because the cells were not there '' determinants-determinants '' antigens that are not tolerated by the organism.

So different from the organisms-microorganisms that have entered '' determinants-determinants '' this will be recognized as foreign by the organism on tumor growth is not expected that the reaction of the organism immunologik.

But the transplant experiments led to the discovery of the laws of tissue transplantation and familiar immunogenetik 'genes' dominant undergoing segregation according to Mendel's laws and then are called '' histocompatibility genes '' or '' H-H-gene-gene ''.

Antigens present in tumor cells that induce immunity reaction, called 'Tumor Specific Transplantation Antigens'' (TSTA) or '' Tumor Associated Transplantation Antigenecity '' (TATA). As demonstrated by the transplantation experiments showed antigen-entigen transplantation is associated with tumors in a purely tribal.

So healthy recipients suddenly confronted with tumor cells. With this it is clear that tumor antigens are located in the host ctochton be bound to a tumor that occurs in the organism, and induces immunity reaction is not really a transplant antigens earnest but to simply so called.

In tumors experimentally dituymbuhkan emergence is dependent antigens than the agent that causes the growth of the tumor. Experimental tumors as a result of viral infection have surface antigens specified in the code by the viral genome.

The vaccines are made from such tumor cells can sometimes protect other animals against oncogene activity of the virus. Tumors induced by chemical carcinogens and different physical reactions. Tumor cells resulting from stimulation of the carcinogen, showed only weak antigenicity together.

If in this case the specific antigenicity increases, then this may indicate that large differences within the population of tumor cells. Tumors induced by a non-carcinogen in an animal virus antigenicity can show large differences.

There are two kinds of immunity reactions. There humoral response means no '' antibodies '' made directed against TSTA, and no cellular reaction, meaning that the tumor cells can be destroyed by specific lymphoid cells. Perhaps the destruction of tumor cells is a very complex process with a synergistic role of T cells-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes and macrophages-magrofag.

Immunity against tumors solide based mainly on the activity of T-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes. 'Antibodies' made by B-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes may have the ability to destroy tumor cells in circulation. Despite the proven existence of immunologic rejection power against tumors that grow in an organism, but the tumor cells can also escape from this reaction.

Way of escape that can be demonstrated experimentally, which is certainly a bit much also found in humans may be three kinds. They can occur at the level of tumor cell host interaction at the level of the tumor cells, and at the host level.

At the level of the host tumor experiments destroy tumor cells by immunologic reactions show that this mechanism can only be the tumor cells are limited in number, and the level of immune reaction that occurs is dependent on the strength of excitatory antigenetik the tumor cells.

This is in contrast to tumors with one another. Can be described that the tumor is growing quickly and is a bona fide antigenistas, can easily penetrate the immunologic barrier. At the level of the tumor cells, we are dealing with some theoretical possibilities:

1 tumor cells while having no antigenic akspresi, which is specific for the tumor. This we call modulation.
2 There antigenitas loss, because the loss of genetic determinants, or due to epigenetic changes.
3 Sometimes it looks interactions between lymphocytes that disensibilisasi specifically by antigen, and tumor cells is inhibited. This effect may be due to blockade of the antibodies or antigen-antibody complexes that exist.

At the host level decreased immunological surveillance role. With immunologic surveillance is the ability of higher organisms to protect themselves by immunologic mechanisms against tumor cells of the organism itself can take place as a result of cell transformation.

Certain drugs and corticosteroids among sitostatica and ionizing rays, reducing the activity of immunologic apparatus. Also the aging process, this activity is reduced and this leads to a lack of immunological surveillance. Because the tumor cell population is usually not homogeneous, then the existence of such surveillance a certain portion of the population can be eliminated earlier, so that the others would get a better chance and also can infiltrate or form metastases.

How important immunologic apparatus in humans in preventing and inhibiting tumor growth is still not clear. Things are pointing in this direction is more often found malignant tumors in people who use drugs that inhibit the immunologic apparatus, in people with congenital immunologic deficiency and in advanced age. Therapy based on immunologic rejection will be discussed in a separate chapter.

Growth-metastatic tumor metastasis

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 1 Oct 2014 08:57:00 +0700

The strongest argument for the nature of the primary tumor is malignant metastasis-metastasis in the acquisition of other body parts. The occurrence of metastases tersifat by several separate processes: the penetration of tumor cells into the channels of blood and lymph in and around the primary tumor, hematogenous spread of tumor cells or limfogen (the hematogenous dissemination of tumor cells attached to the capillary wall and prekapiler), penetration of the vessel wall and eventually proliferation of tumor cells outside the vessels in the interstitial tissue stroma with formation fibrovaskuler.

Despite the clear majority of tumors in the beginning mainly held hematogenous metastasis (Kaposi-sarcoma) and others are more often spread limfogen (breast), but both the metastasis is interconnected through the thoracic duct and the relationships limfatiko-venosa.

In aksperimen tumor cells are injected into the blood circulation can also be found in the thoracic duct. In general, tumor cells carried through the lymph vessels of the primary tumor to the lymph nodes first station. Often these glands serve as a filter, but it turns out the function of this filter is not as effective as originally suspected.

Tumor cells can pass through lymph nodes. Filter function seems to decline after radiation and Lymphangiography. Not all tumor cells are caught in the regional lymph nodes can survive and multiply. Experimental studies show that the lymph nodes have a local defense mechanism; immunologic and inflammatory reactions have an important role in this regard (Carier and Gershon).

In some circumstances the tumor cells will multiply and lymph nodes can be completely replaced by tumor tissue, with sometimes results in retrograde lymphatic flow. Of these lymph nodes may occur not only spread further limfogen, but can also occur through hematogenous dissemination limfatiko-venosa relationship as indicated by the Barn.

Problem tumor cells that continue to circulate for some time attracted a lot of attention (Griffiths and Salsburg, Circulating Tumor Cells, 1965). In many cancer patients can be demonstrated tumor cells in venous blood draining the tumor area and sometimes also in the blood that is taken from elsewhere.

Manipulation of the tumor in whom palpation, massage and curettage, increase the likelihood of obtaining these cells in the blood. In patients with low tumor differentiation, is more often found circulating tumor cells can be shown to not always lead to metastasis.

Also based on experimental observations it is likely that most of the cells circulating in the blood is destroyed even though this does not mean that the actions of diagnostic and therapeutic we do not have to prevent the spread.

Although circulating tumor cells can be destroyed by the organism in question most will reach the capillary nets and prekapiler alive and will be stuck here. Investigations conducted by Wood showed that these cells 'attached' to the endothelium and surrounded by a net of fibrin, platelets and leukocytes before they penetrate the wall.

Fibrinolysin and anticoagulants can reduce the number of metastases in humans is unclear. Little is known about how tumor cells penetrate the vessel wall. Should endothelial damage or are we dealing with a process that can be likened to lekodiapedesis on inflammation.

Regarding survival and tumor cell cultures that have penetrated the vessel wall is very dependent on the vascularization area into a new place cells. Tumor fragments were implanted in the camera oculi anterior rabbit eye with minimal vascularity, be destroyed; The same tumors that were grown in the iris area with very good vascularization grow very quickly.

In the course of metastatic human does not always follow a certain pattern. Growth rate may be lowered temporarily or permanently; and spontaneous regression, although very rare it can occur for example in the metastasis of renal carcinoma and melanoma.

On the other hand there are times when metastases become apparent several years after the primary tumor is completely removed (as far as can be determined). There is no information regarding the latent metastasis. Investigations conducted by Breur shows that we may face a tumor with a very long self duplication. Between start-borne tumor cell growth until the tumor nests can be diagnosed lasts a very long time.

The localization of the first hematogenous metastases are often determined by the localization of the first capillary nets reached the tumor cells through the bloodstream. If dissemination occurs through the vena cava system among kidney tumors, testicular and lung, the bones had been the first station of type vena cava.

When circulation through the portal vein among tumors of the stomach, pancreas and colon), the liver is the first localization of type venaporta. Tumor cells through the pulmonary veins into the arterial system tumors metastatic to the lung can make all the organs with a capillary nets.

Frequent localization is the brain, liver, bone and adrenal type pulmonary veins. In the second phase of metastasis formation determine the localization of the first metastasis subsequent dissemination. Although the localization of metastatic mostly according to the place that we expect based on the state of vascularization, as discussed above, we are often faced with the localization of such a nature as to be received by the possibility of other factors.

Anatomic clinical and experimental observations may partly explain this deviant pattern of metastasis. Tumor cells can pass through capillary nets, so it is not caught in the web of first instance found the nets of pulmonary metastasis until finally found in many other organs but not found in the lung.

Metastatic carcinoma of the prostate that is often the first that can be shown there in the lumbar vertebral column. This may be explained by a retrograde blood flow to an increase in intra-abdominal pressure. If this happens, the blood from the prostatic plexus which has an anastomosis with the vertebral plexus venosa can get into the last plexus.

Departing from vascular manner, then in some organs obtained only slightly metastasis. A good example for this is the heart and skeletal muscle. This observation led to the emergence of the theory match the culture medium. The tumor cells more easily 'grow' in one organ than in other organs.

What causes this difference is not clear. In the liver, are more prevalent liver metastases after experiencing mechanical failure or after administration of dextran or giving foods that contain a lot of fat. At the trial of radiation on organs such as the lungs and liver increase the occurrence of metastasis.

Not all malignant tumors metastatic hold. The time and rate of occurrence of this process can be different from each other. Basal cell carcinoma skin metastases almost never make. There is also a very small tumors and has not given the slightest complaint has led to the dissemination of mass, so the first symptoms are caused by metastasis.

On the other hand a very large primary tumors may not give metastases can be diagnosed. Tumors often unpredictable behavior. In general, tumors with low differentiation earlier and more extensive metastases than tumors with a high degree of differentiation.

But even this does not always apply. Tumors of the thyroid and adrenal with structures that still is in accordance with normal thyroid and adrenal tissue, can also make a metastasis. The old observation that tumors are characterized by limfositer infiltrates, plasma cells and macrophages often have a fairly good prognosis becomes clearer after we know that perhaps we are dealing with immunological rejection of the host against the tumor.

The third form of dissemination is, if the primary tumor continues to grow into one of the cavities of the body and the tumor cells make planting metastasis in the pleura and peritoneum. In our efforts to understand the occurrence of metastasis in malignant tumors should always we note that the population of cells in the primary tumor may be very heterogeneous.

Maybe there are big differences regarding the dependence on hormones, antigenicity, kinetic and khromosomal configuration, ie properties that can greatly affect the biological behavior and reaction to radiation, hormones or chemotherapy or immunotherapy. With this prevention and elimination metastasismetastasis got most of the basic biologic approach to replace the anatomic and mechanical ago.

Infiltrative growth of the tumor

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 29 Sep 2014 12:43:00 +0700

One of the characteristic properties of tumor cells is their ability to penetrate normal tissues and penetration into the channels of blood and lymph channels. In this case the tumor cells often use structures that already exist that facilitate infiltration, such as perineural cavity.

On the other hand, the expansion can be dipersukar by such structures until an organ or periosteum. It is possible that many factors affect imfiltrasi. There is a TV CONNECT that increase pressure in the tumor as a result of the addition of tumor volume, tumor cells penetrate easier into normal tissue.

Although the experiments by Young models support this conjecture but it is unlikely that this is the most important reason for the invasion. Tumors that grow slow sometimes showed extensive infiltration surrounding the tumor was growing rapidly sometimes only slightly infiltrate the surrounding tissue.

However, observations show that the palpation of the tumor is often followed by the spread of tumor cells in the blood stream. One with another adhesion and motility of tumor cells with different malignant cells are not malignant. Both malignant cells and non-malignant can move in vitro.

But if the benign cells in vitro in contact with one another, the motility and often also growing very subtract ('' contact inhibition '') (Abercrombie). Malignant cells do not show '' contact inhibition 'is, or if there is only little once.

The cells continue to grow without restrictions and rules and form nests ('' piling up '). Tumor cell motility is often also not inhibited by contact with fibroblast-fibroblast. The phenomenon of the nullification '' contact inhibition '' This may also be the basis of invasive growth in vivo.

For this phenomenon has not obtained a satisfactory explanation. Anticipated levels and kinds mukopolisakharida in a thin layer which is '' glycocalyx '' outside the plasma membrane, plays a role in these interactions.

Adhesion to one another from the malignant tumor cells are smaller than those found in benign cells of the same type. Coman showed that cells of normal stratified squamous epithelium is more difficult to separate than epidermoid carcinoma cells.

He argues that this lack of adhesion is due to lack of calcium levels in malignant cells. Later investigations, including by Patinkin and his colleagues, doubted the role of calcium in these circumstances. Although there is no clear explanation of the lack of adhesion to one another of malignant tumor cells of these factors appears to be important also for infiltrative growth.

Various investigators provide an important role in the production and expenditure-enzyme lytic enzymes by tumor cells. Enzyme-enzyme is considered to decide the adhesion of tumor cells to each other and also the relationship between the cells around the tumor. Intercellular substance in normal tissue is broken down.

Although the results of the various experiments did not show similarity, at this time appears to be primarily a lysosomal enzyme-enzyme plays a role in the occurrence of invasive growth. Enzyme-enzyme is probably a product of the tumor cells were alive but may also enzyme-enzyme produced by macrophages.

How far is the reaction of the organism to the presence of the tumor can affect the growth of this invasive, yet clear. Vasiliev showed a proliferation of connective tissue around the tumor that helps the spread of tumor cells. Tumor cell migration, according to this view, takes place following the connective tissue formed.

Smeulers strengthen this hypothesis in experiments with transplanted tumor tissue in '' chorion allantois' chicken eggs. Invasive growth mechanisms are still largely be explained. What is certain is that we are dealing with a process that is influenced by various factors.

Speed of tumor growth (cells)

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 29 Sep 2014 12:06:00 +0700

In adult individuals, under normal circumstances there is a balance between formation and destruction of tissue. Tersifat tumor growth mostly by a positive balance: more cells than cells that lost the case. But the growth rate is generally smaller than the normal growth rate of fetal tissue or tissues in the regeneration.

The time needed by tumors to increase the volume of two times can vary from a few weeks to several years, depending on the type of tumor and its condition. This volume increase depends on: elapsed time between two cell divisions, intermitotik phase, the composition of the population of cells (not all cells divide or split up just as fast) and the number of cells that die in a given period. This last factor is perhaps the second most important.

When the cell cycle, mitotic phase plus the phase intermitotik, plays an important role in the speed of growth. After dividing cells, the cells in the G1 phase children come, the time period of the cell-specific function, eg protein synthesis.

From the G1 phase to the S phase of the cell comes, when the cells begin to synthesize DNA, the genetic material in preparation tuck split. Before cells divide (M phase), there is still the G2 phase. At this time the nucleus contain twice as much DNA. The minimum time a cell cycle, measured on cells in tissue culture, approximately 16 hours.

This time for the in vivo intestinal epithelium is 12 hours, 21 days epidermis, liver 160 days. When S phase and G2 phase roughly constant; great variability, which are also in tumor cells located in the G1 phase. There are cells that are always or years are in the G1 phase, the cell-cell differentiation-specific functions.

As will be explained in the following chapters, the various phases are very different sensitivities to exogenous influences, such as X-rays that ionize and sitostatica. Many conditions can affect the growth process; perhaps most importantly, the tumor vascularity of the surrounding tissue.

Angiogenesis of the tumor and the area around the tumor may be influenced by the products of tumor cells. Much attention is given to the substance-specific growth inhibitor to tissue which is found by Bullough and are called 'chalon' '. Tumors contain and produce '' chalon 'fewer than tissue from which the tumor had been.

Investigations by Collins et al and Breur indicate that certain tumors such as metastases in the lungs, takes a very constant to multiply the volume up to two times. Can be calculated that the contrast of the tumor cells with an average volume of tumor cells, it takes 30 times folding to reach a volume of 1 cm.

When in a state of time for one-time folding is 100 days, and this remains constant, then for 30 times the folding takes approximately 8 years. Folding within the next 10 times (10 X 100 days) volumes will rise from 1 cm to about 1.000 cm.

So it is clear that the tumor had actually been there long before we were able to demonstrate the methods and diagnostic tools are very sharp though. And throughout the period of clinical observation, diagostik and new therapies that cell division takes place between the 30th and 40th.

The structure and biologic properties of malignant tumors

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Sun, 28 Sep 2014 18:54:00 +0700

Malignant tumors distinguish themselves from the tissues where they occur with: structural changes, blokimiawi and functional, often accelerated growth, infiltrative growth, and ability to form metastases. These properties are determined by changes in the tumor cells themselves, the general state of the local and outside the tumor.

Structural changes.

Tumor composed of cells in many different morphologic slightly from the cells in the organ where the occurrence of malignant transformation. In these cells are not obtained a high differentiation and orderly arrangement of the nature of the abnormal tissue.

These changes are often called 'de-differentiation', but the term is actually a misnomer. Because this would mean that this malignant transformation occurs in cells that have a high differentiated and de-differentiation then occurs. We know that tumors originating in 'reserve cells' 'or' 'stem cells' undifferentiated, and after it happens differentiation in different levels.

Sometimes a high level of differentiation such that practically achieved network structure of origin. In tumors of low differentiation almost nothing in common with their home network. This is often not possible origin of the tumor revealed it, and we are dealing with an anaplastic tumor.

Nomenclature of tumors based on differentiation histologiknya. Called epidermoid carcinoma if there is a real differentiation in the direction of stratified squamous epithelium, such as pertandukan formation and the formation of cytoplasmic bridges (plasmodesmen). Adenocarcinoma is a carcinoma with glandular structure leads to a form. So this does not depend on the cell type from which the tumor was.

In addition anaplasia, tumor cells still showed some rather specific morphologic properties. The point is usually large, and show real differences in shape and size (poly or pleomorfi). Nucleic acid levels in the nucleus are often high, making it easier stained with dyes such as hematoxylin base (hiperkhromasi).

Distribution in the core khromatin rough. Often nucleoli increased in number and larger than the nucleoli of cells that are not malignant. Most of these changes can be restored to the irregular distribution of DNA into daughter cells during cell mitosis.

Regarding khromosomnya this pattern often resulted in an tetraploidi and polyploidy (chromosome number several times a haploid number) or aneuploidy (an additional amount that is typical khromosomal ('marker chromosomes'') is known only in some malignancies (Philadelphia chromosome in chronic myeloid lekemi). Perhaps changes in patterns of chromosomes as the only large bandwagon phenomenon and not the main cause of the abnormal properties.

Heart and blood vessels

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 26 Sep 2014 22:25:00 +0700

The heart is pumping blood tool, found in the chest cavity, have parts:

a. Heart wall consists of three layers: Pericardium (the lining of the heart wrappers), Myocardium (heart muscle), endocardial (membrane lining the heart room).

b. The room heart consists of 4 rooms, two pancake (atria) of the right and left, and the two chambers (ventricles) of the right and left. At the unborn baby, between the right atrium and left the porch there is a hole (foramen ovale).

Atrium is the room where the influx of blood from a vein (vein booth). The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava and superior vena cava inverior. While the left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins (pulmonary vein chamber) containing oxygen-rich blood.

Vertical is the heart that pumps blood meinggalkan heart. From the right ventricle CO2-rich blood is pumped to the lungs. And arterial blood from the left ventricle (rich in O2) is pumped throughout the body. Therefore, the myocardium of the left ventricle of the heart muscle is thickest.

c. Heart valves to keep the blood flow in the direction of the heart is equipped with a valve (valvula).

1 Between the right atrium and right ventricle are three leafed valve called the tricuspid valvula.

2 Between the left atrium and left ventricle there is a valve called the leafy two bicuspid valvula.

3 At the base of the stem of rice (the aorta) are crescent-shaped valve spring called valvula Lunair.

Heart muscles get food and oxygen from the blood which is transported by the pulse canopy (coronary arteries). Blockage of the arteries is called coronariasis canopy.

Transfusi Blood

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 26 Sep 2014 21:27:00 +0700

People usually before a blood transfusion must be medically examined and his blood pressure and blood type should be known first. So it must be really healthy if people are going to take the blood to prevent disease transmission.

If the condition is not healthy donors or contain the disease, the blood mengngambil parties will not be done because it can harm the user or recipient. People who give blood are called donors, while the person receiving the blood is called the recipient. Here is a schematic for a blood transfusion blood type:

Blood type O is called the universal donor because it can be transfused to all blood types. Blood type AB is called the universal recipient because it can receive blood type.

Classification of blood

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 26 Sep 2014 20:52:00 +0700

Human blood groups distinguished by composition and aglutininya aglutinogen. Aglutinogen is the protein in red blood cells that can be coagulated by glutinin.

Aglutinogen there are two kinds of aglutinogen A and B. aglutinogen Aglutinogen is a protein in blood plasma that can crumple aglutinogen. Aglutinogen the antibodies. There are two kinds, namely agglutinin agglutinins A and B.

A blood can be classified into broad categories according to the ABO system (read: a, b and zero) blood type A, B, AB and O (zero). The following is a table of the ABO system of blood classification based on the presence or absence aglutinogen and agglutinins.

a. Blood type A aglutinogen A agglutinin B.

b. B blood group B agglutinins aglutinogen A.

c. AB blood type A and B agglutinins aglutinogen no.

d. Blood type O aglutinogen no agglutinins A and B.

To test the use of serum anti-blood group A and anti-B serum with the following information:

a. Ditetasi serum anti-A blood clot while in B does not, then including blood type A.

b. Ditetasi serum blood does not clot while anti-A anti B serum ditetasi clot, then including blood type B.

c. Blood in A and in B clumping, then including AB blood type.

d. Blood in A and in B does not clot, including blood type O.

Cancer registration

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 19:19:00 +0700

Important tool to gain an understanding of cancer is cancer registration. But do not underestimate the expense and effort required to build the system and to maintain it. Registration is not perfect, does not mean anything.

Only a perfect system could form the basis of reliable epidemiological investigation. The requirements that must be met for a perfect cancer registration, first of all lies in the medical profession. The participation of private practitioners (private) can only be expected if they believe that the epidemiological investigation in order to have a large enough power.

In addition, the physician should be sure that the organization is different under good management, meaning not only trustworthy but also communicative and inventive. It requires leaders who are also capable of public relations, in order to explain that cancer registration is the base or reference frame or reference for any beginning research on human cancer.

Furthermore, the leadership of the registration should be easy to know the statistics of death, and this is a useful complement to statistical disease. In the Netherlands, the interest in this case so strongly protected by law, so the practical epidemiologists have not overcome the obstacles to run a massive investigation.

In other countries, especially in the countries around us material is arranged somewhat differently, so that the causes of death and patient identification data can be connected more easily. In the Netherlands from 1953 to 1974 there is a form of cancer registration which was originally built as an ambitious national systems, both for registration and for the incidence of clinical follow-up, then it is limited to the registration of incidence in the province of Friesland, the cities of Rotterdam and Den Haag and an area between Eindhoven and Venlo.

This registration does not give results comparable to the costs incurred. The fact that in the Netherlands in 1975 can not be met the requirements mentioned above, is a reason to abolish this system, though by various agencies realize that this can not continue for long.

Perhaps a way to penetrate this impasse is to educate experts in epidemiology are young, ambitious enough. In recent years the notion of prevention is only a mere byword. Perhaps '' lip-servisce '' This better be converted into concrete decisions.

From what is mentioned above looks possibilities and difficulties descriptive epidemiology. In the following chapters is given a brief overview of the data obtained from retrospective ddan prospective investigation with the conclusions that can be drawn therefrom.

Rapidly increasing knowledge and understanding so that the snapshot is nothing more than a basic knowledge that can be developed by any doctor with the research literature. At this time, in addition to statistics on causes of death around the world we also have cancer morbidity figures thanks to a variety of systems to regional and national cancer registration in Europe, North America, Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Pacific region.

Statistics published in 3 publications with the title '' Cancer incidence in five continents '' (1966, 1970, 1976) presents the incidence figures, classified by sex and age (5-year groups). By constituent material published is cultivated through certain quality requirements that can be taken several conclusions that can be accounted for.

These statistics once again teaches us that cancer is a complex notion. For example, it can not be said that cancer was rare in the tropics without mentioning specific localization. But looks are also some forms of cancer of various localization were more frequently found in Western countries also when it is considered that in Western countries the proportion of older people aged greater than in developing countries.

Presumably cancer frequency difference between the countries is based on a way of life rather than its geographic localization. For example, patterns of cancer in the white population in Australia or South Africa closely resembles the pattern of cancers of Western Europe and North America.

(An exception may apply for carcinoma of the skin is relatively easy to occur in the pigmented skin does not get much sun exposure). That genetic factors are important in general does not appear from the comparison between the Negro nation in Africa and in North America.

The pattern of cancer in the first group shows characteristics that are also encountered in the various countries of Asia and Latin America from the second group is more 'western' '. Strong reason for the hypothesis that environmental factors and habits kehidupanlah which primarily determines the risk of various forms of cancer statistics obtained from migrating population.

Japanese children who immigrated to the United States has shown some differences from their parents (decreased gastric carcinoma, colon carcinoma and breast increases). In a country often obtained frequency differences between town and country.

Also in the Netherlands, it can be shown (and Meinsma Versluys, 1967). Diehl and Tromp (1953, 1955) has conducted a detailed investigation of the regional cancer mortality in the Netherlands. Typical for the pattern of cancer in the Western world is the frequency of lung cancer (in men) and the prostate, which is relatively high, mama, ovarian, corpus uteri (in women) and colon (in both sexes).

It's just a very striking alone, for other lokalisasis see the table. The global picture is not only colored but also complicated by national and regional specificities. In Africa for example, there are differences in inter-regional contrast in hepatoma frequency, and, more strikingly more about the frequency of esophageal carcinoma (Transkei, Nyanza) and tumor Burkit.

In Asia the Japanese people are karsioma gastric frequency is very high in many Chinese populations Nafospharynx cancer. Thus these observations is the starting point formulation of the hypothesis that the etiology of tumors. But the manufacture of demographic hypotheses.

Blood platelets (Platelets)

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 18:58:00 +0700

Platelets have a size smaller than red blood cells are not nucleated and irregularly shaped. In every 1 mm3 blood of normal adults generally are 200,000 to 400,000 platelets grains. Platelets are formed in the red bone marrow.

The function of blood platelets for blood clotting is so often called clotting of blood cells. In patients with hemophilia blood froze so hard to continue to flow from the wound. Blood clotting is itself a set of processes that take place in the body tissues, blood plasma, and platelets.

White blood cells (leukocytes)

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 18:36:00 +0700

Leukocytes has no fixed shape (ameboid), have a cell nucleus are rounded or concave and colorless. Leukocytes formed in the red bone marrow, spleen, glands, and tissues retikuloendotelium. Generally, about 12-13 days, and its size is generally larger than red blood cells.

In normal adults every 1 mm3 of blood are approximately 6,000 to 9,000 grains of leukocytes. If there is an infection that number could increase to 25,000 per mm3. The state of white blood cells is called leukocytosis more than normal, for example in patients with leukemia white blood cell count can reach 200,000 per mm3 of blood.

We recommend that if the number of white blood cells is less than normal (less than 6,000 per mm3) called leukopeni. In patients with typhoid number of leukocytes can be decreased up to 3,000 eggs per mm3 of blood. Function of white blood cells is to protect the body from infection.

In connection with the function of white blood cells has the properties: can form antibodies, can eliminate the disease by eating seeds (phagocytes); can penetrate the vessel wall and move toward the prey (diapedesis). White blood cells fight germs losers will be pus.

How to prevent Primary Cancer (Dr. RJ van Zonneveld)

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 14:19:00 +0700

Prevention is better than treatment, so applies to all diseases with the name of a collection of cancer. Due to the possibility of healing cancer is not large, even very small, it is very important try to prevent this disease.

Prevention of skin cancer, for example by avoiding too much exposure to sunlight (UV rays) is very important, but if the disease arises, with both treatments cure still reaches 95%. On the other hand the possibility of 5-year survival is only 5-10%.

Also because of the high frequency of this disease in the prevention of this by not smoking tobacco, especially cigarettes, is relatively very large benefits. This great benefits not only for the benefit of patients and their social environment (family, acquaintances, friends, colleagues, and so on) but also in the light of society and the economy it is very important.

Is it cancer prevention?

Prevention of cancer is the prevention and spread of the circumstances and processes (pre) pathological characterize various cancers. Prevention of cancer in a person also called primary prevention (so there is no sign of the disease something).

Prevention, eradication of early symptoms, including cure, or slow the progressive growth of a cancer in people so in this case already in the early stages of the disease is called secondary prevention (cancer control), although in this case we actually have run a therapy.

In other words, secondary prevention aims to recognize the disease process as early as possible after meaning arise before the onset of certain symptoms or complaints were obviously disturbing for the sufferer.

Secondary prevention leads to a living:

1. preliminary signs (precursors) of a disease such as carcinoma in situ of the cervix uteri is, or specific risk factors for this disease, such as sexual intercourse too young or change partners often.

2. latent symptoms such as the presence of a shadow on the photo lungs without subjective complaints, or symptoms are mild or vague (eg fatigue, care, cough, blood in sputum, the cells in sputum, hematuria).

Regarding early detection, for example with 'screening' the population or certain groups of the population, discussed in a special chapter on this subject (Valkenburg). A section of certain people based on certain circumstances (offspring, the effects of excessive carcinogenic materials, such as jobs in a particular industry, intrauterine irradiation, treatment in threatened abortion) have a greater likelihood to get cancer.

Systematic overview of the factors in the host and external factors that pointed to the habits of life that carries risks, contained in the chapter 'epidemiology of cancer'. Sections of the so-called 'high risk' should receive special attention.

Does custody, (surveillance) is still included primary prevention, or is already a first step of secondary prevention is not an important thing. The meaning and importance factions' 'high risk' in the overall eradication and prevention of cancer will be discussed separately (by van Dongen).

Primary Prevention:

Which will be discussed later in this chapter is primary prevention. Primary prevention aims to reduce the incidence of, reducing the incidence of new cases; Secondary prevention seeks to early diagnosis and proper treatment, directed and premature ill shorten the shortest possible time, so improving healing and reducing the 'prevalence' 'the number of cases found in a particular time or in a certain period.

Etiology.

Primary prevention only really effective if various causes, etiology, certain cancers has been known. But sometimes the clues one or more than one because it was so clearly, until a complete understanding of the mechanisms of the disease in this case does not need to wait longer onset to already start prevention or eradication of this disease such as the relationship between smoking a lot of cigarettes with lungs cancer lung.

But this does not mean that the search for factors other suspected causes are complex and do not have to be done in earnest. Regarding the nature and meaning of various carcinogenic materials will be discussed more in depth in a separate chapter.

The activities are aimed at primary prevention and the environment or in humans. From various investigations, especially epidemiological investigation is clear, how much sense environmental factors to the occurrence of cancer. Approximately 70-90% of all cancer cases, caused by environmental stimuli.

In international relations, especially the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in Lyon, France, which is related to the WHO, epidemiological and pathological studies deal-geographic. The program of this Institute and the Netherlands also participated in it addressed to the identification, control and eradication (control) of the factors that have carcinogens in the environment and find ways to protect the environment against the entry of stimuli (stimuli) new cancer.

As examples can be mentioned among others: vinilkhlorida arsenic, asbestos, cider. It's been absolutely clear that this task can only be handled well by a variety of disciplines, which is sometimes very different from one another (epidemiologists, sociologists, environmental hygiene expert, physician, immunologist, biochemist, statistician, etc.), in a good cooperation.

That many cancers are caused by the environment, or environmental factors participate in the occurrence of cancer, it is a thing that gives hope. Because with it the cancer diseases in principle there are consequences that can not be avoided of human life, but it may be because of its association with factors influenced the way of life in a good direction, even partially or wholly avoidable of human life.

In this case a so-so designated possible meanings of the foods and certain parts of the food to the occurrence of certain cancers (breast carcinoma, colon karsinoam).

Carcinogenic Factors and Information (Dr. RJ van Znneveld) smoking

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 02:59:00 +0700

Welcome Gentlemen ...... hopefully still healthy always I will explain a little about the factors Carcinogens and lighting that I can from a study by the writing in the book of Oncology is described by Dr. R.J. van Zonneveld. The important thing is to affect people in a good direction with real protection and with an explanation of the various ways of life.

This not only applies to individuals but especially for those who rule, leaders, educators, interpreters lights, and so on. It is clear here that often conflicts between interests. One striking example is the example about smoking, particularly smoking a lot of cigarettes.

Almost everyone in the Netherlands a little more aware that smoking (a lot) is not good for health. On the one hand the rulers in many countries including the Netherlands, said it is important to reduce tobacco consumption as much as possible, on the other hand they are rarely willing to strictly limit the consumption and production of tobacco and cigarettes, on the grounds that the money raised from tobacco excise so very needed and reducing production and advertising of tobacco trade led to unemployment of workers in plantations often in developing countries, industry, transport and trade.

Be seen when the expenses for medical and social care for victims and less productivity, will exceed the inclusions due to tobacco and tobacco in general.

In the Netherlands only hesitation is executed emphasis on advertising for tobacco products and some other products that cause cancer and other diseases such as heart and blood vessels, lung disease and respiratory tract, diseases of the stomach and intestines .

It has often been pointed out that the money is used to make anti-smoking billboard-advertisement-smoking only part that does not mean financing compared with billboard-advertisement for smoking purposes.

It is clear that in the Netherlands illumination associated with the eradication of cancer should be primarily addressed to the rulers, officials, and representatives of the people. It is also clear that these factions will move seriously if public opinion forced in that direction.

However, except for a few makers in the financial action is also not strong and the class-faction seems to be a matter of life and death is as if the move is not a big community. Another group that can have a big impact sometimes also did not participate involved, because they can not or do not want.

The politics and power, union leaders, teachers, people who frequently appears on television screens and so on are also rarely provide a good example for example not smoking themselves or convince others that they should reduce smoking or not at all smoking.

In this case especially with the lighting doctors are individuil to people who come to them can provide a lot of relief to fade one ingredient known carcinogen that can be controlled and powerful effects can be limited.

It's only natural that here would appear the reason that each person must decide for themselves the risks if he wants to expose himself, but in this case also each person should have got the light loss can be given to the public in general and those because of behavior that carries the risk of it.

On the other hand, one should realize that eliminating smoking can also lead to other habits are also not preferred, such as overeating; Excessive weight can also mean an illness that carries risks.

But it all does not mean that everyone should just stay apathetic. Has a lot of actions that are running. Regarding smoking, among others, in the Netherlands, the Nederlandse Vereniging Nietrokers CAN (Club voor Actieve Nietrokers), Stichting and Stichting Leven en Gezondheid Volksgezondheid en Roken there is still a lot of walking provide directional enlightened about bad influence of smoking on health.

Also what are called passive smokers began to move against. In many public places and half of the train-train people should not smoke anymore, also because of their actions. Regarding others here fktor carcinogens also have started a lot of search activity and its eradication; especially in the various industries it gets a lot of attention.

Some examples for this: prevent or avoid disposal of carcinogens in the air outside, protection of exposed workers with masks, gloves, special clothing and so on; protections against asbestos, nickel, chromium compounds bonds, certain paint materials.

In the field of food and food ingredients food cooking there are various possibilities for both the prevention of consumer protection to avoid the addition of food additives, for example, ban the use of certain substances and so on as well as an explanation of the parts of adverse or beneficial foods such as certain vitamins groceries rich in fibers.

Despite the limited sense of the word alcohol is not a food ingredient, reducing alcohol use among others, the lighting may be useful to prevention efforts. Finally had also emphasized the importance of the role of physicians who are caring for someone in preventing certain cancers premises to avoid (or provide meticulous dose) iatrogen stimuli.

Here we recall irradiation (X-ray, ultra violet), drugs (arsenic, tar ointments with, butazolidin, and sometimes other drugs such as reserpine, for example), other materials (eg isotopes, giving iron intramuscular or dextran).

But a lot of primary prevention is only possible action or behavior directed toward a person. Information and health education in this regard should play an important role. It required knowledge of carcinogenic stimuli (for this see the chapter on carcinogenesis), but also a healthy behavior and aspects that carries some risk of certain habits (genital hygiene, which technically is not a good circumcici, chewing tobacco, chewing betel nut , lime, also using tobacco and alhkohol, which is too great to avoid radiation from the sun, and so on).

But unfortunately often still have to be witnessed, that the ways of health education and information many still fail. If obtained good results, it can be returned to the personal relationship between the doctor and the man who asked for her advice.

In order to provide the best possible illumination it is only logical that the doctors themselves have got good lighting. He must always understand the factors that protect and harm in general, need to know the order of life, food, work, and family circumstances of the person concerned.

Reasonably well but this part also applies to secondary prevention, he knows also likely to hold examination by experts concerned, the basics of therapy, prognosis, and a variety of possible further treatment, both medical and social.

This knowledge adds confidence to the doctor and reduce the fear of cancer and thus a tendency to stay away from any light on cancer to be reduced as well. But his own doctor should work with the attitude and behavior of educating a doctor who examined the patient while smoking is not uncommon to undermine its own trust him, at least in terms of the use of tobacco.

One and the other pointing to the need for good medical education and is returned to the attitudes and behavior of the teachers. In the future it can be expected that cancer centers are now being established will play an important role within enlighten the people.

But it is clear, that there are many investigations in the field of the behavioral sciences on this to be done before we can change the attitudes and behavior of human health and can move people gave sacrifices for it by for example removing the fun things.

This is an important task for the Centre for the Study of Social Oncology established by KWF 1976 study centers, among others dealing with problematic lighting to those who provide services.

Components of bloodRed blood cells (erythrocytes).

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 22 Sep 2014 02:12:00 +0700

Blood is divided into two parts, namely blood plasma and blood cells. Blood plasma is the yellow liquid that it contains 92% water, protein and serum.

The task of the blood plasma are as follows:

a. Bringing food juices.

b. Bringing metabolic waste.

c. Transporting or hormone secretion.

Blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes).

Erythrocytes is a major part of the blood cells due to the many number between other blood cells. Flattened shape with two concave surfaces (biconcave), no core, and yellowish.

The red color in erythrocytes due to a hemoglobin (Hb), which is a protein compound that combines with hemin compounds. Hemin compound containing iron. Hemoglobin serves to transport oxygen throughout the body and transports carbon dioxide from body cells to the lungs.

Blood that contains oxygen pink, while blood that contains carbon dioxide dark red. In normal adults every 1 mm3 of blood contains about 5 million red blood cells if the number of red blood cells means less than 5 million people are suffering from anemia (lack of blood).

Anemia can be caused by several things, such as low hemoglobin levels, reduced blood volume (eg due to accidents), blood cancer (leukemia), hookworm disease, malaria diseases and disorders of the bone marrow.