Julian built a solid foundation for the successes he had as Caesar. It was not by sheer luck that he managed to beat back the barbarians in Gaul. But to understand the reasons for his success, we have to look at the habits of the man. How did he live? How did he use his newfound power? How did he use his time? Not only do these questions reveal the reasons for his success, they also reveal personality of the man.

Spartan Habits

The duties of Caesar weighed heavily upon the shoulders of Julian, but he was determined to do a good job. Although he had access to food, drink and comfort that was befitting his station, he cared little for them. Instead, he shunned delicacies and shared the same food and drink as his soldiers. He also shunned comfort when it came to rest. Julian did not sleep on a bed of silk but made do with a rug and a coarse blanket.

The actions of Julian must have endeared him to his troops. Not many leaders were willing to share the same hardships as their men. This behaviour had many examples throughout the ages and in various parts of the world. Many commanders believed that they were better than the men they led. As such, they ate better food and had better sleeping arrangements under the pretext of leading their armies better. Meanwhile, their men who did most of the fighting suffered great hardships. By shunning comforts, Julian made it clear to his men that he shared their lot. Thus, they were more willing to follow and to die for him.

Daily Routine

As Caesar, Julian led a lifestyle of strict discipline to fulfil his duties. He had high expectations of himself and did not take his position lightly. During the day, he trained with his army to ensure that everyone was in top fighting condition. The severity of the barbarian threat in Gaul left no room to be lax. At any moment, the barbarians could attack the Romans. Until Julian pacified Gaul, there would be no peace.

But brute force alone would not bring lasting peace to Gaul. Julian realized that he had to win the hearts and minds of the people as well. Thus, he devoted his time to reforms in his administration to make it more efficient. He streamlined it and did his best to root out corruption. Where tax and tributes were concerned, he made sure to take measures that benefitted the poor.

Finally, Julian had to handle many appeals from the common people. As Caesar, he was the highest authority in the West. The common people looked to him to stand up for them and to redress their wrongs. In the judgments he meted out, Julian tried to be impartial. Where he felt it was necessary, he did not hesitate to adjust the punishment to fit the crime. Due to the mildness of his nature, he generally showed mercy where he could, believing it his duty to temper the law with clemency. This did not please everyone, but Julian focused on doing what he felt was right. He knew the weight of his decisions and the irreversibility of sentencing a man to death. While Julian ruled, mercy and mildness characterized his reign.

Nightly Routine

The many duties that Julian had kept him busy all day. But even night did not bring rest and relaxation for him. Often, he had to deal with state affairs long after the sun had set. To manage, Julian divided the time he had each night into three parts. The first part he dedicated to public matters. The second part he used for self-study. The last part he reserved for his much-needed rest. Most men would have found it hard to adhere to such a strict regimen. But Julian was not like most men. His willpower was so great that he could get by on a few hours of sleep and stick to the schedule he had set for himself.

Even though Julian loved learning, he placed his duties first. Only after he had seen to the public matters that needed his attention, did he allow himself to engage in his studies. Knowledge was Julian’s lifelong passion. Although he loved philosophy the most, he was prudent enough to devote his time and effort to other areas as well. These areas included poetry and rhetoric, history and Latin. His growth in knowledge and wisdom helped him to carry out his duties as Caesar more efficiently.

Reflections of the Vizier

Julian’s success as Caesar was due to hard work and abstinence from fun and pleasure. He devoted all his waking hours to his duties and used his free time to study. Although he had high expectations of his men, he had even higher expectations of himself. It is no wonder he attained his successes in Gaul.

The Creation of Eunuchs

The Romans viewed castration as a shameful thing. No free and self-respecting Roman citizen would dream of turning into a eunuch. As such, they forbade castration from taking place within the empire. Thus, in the early days of the Roman Empire, castration took place at the borders instead. Foreign captives or slaves would have their testicles and penises surgically removed before traders brought them into the empire to sell as eunuchs. In the 6th century, Procopius informs us that many eunuchs came from Abasgia in the Caucasus. But that was not the only region where eunuchs came from. There were also Arabs, Balkans and even Scythians eunuchs.

With the rise of Islam, slave markets began to spring up in Rome, Venice and Spain. But the demand for eunuchs was so great that these markets were not enough. As the world began to change, the Byzantine Greeks realized that a career as a eunuch had many benefits. To obtain the power and prestige that eunuchs had for their families, the Greeks castrated their younger sons to prepare them for careers as eunuchs. In the past, the Romans frowned on castration. But as the Byzantine Empire evolved, many Greek-speaking eunuchs came from the local province of Paphlagonia.

Two Types of Eunuchs

There were two types of eunuchs. The first type underwent the procedure before they reached puberty. Due to a lack of testosterone, these eunuchs had longer limbs and softer bones than a normal male. They also had a unique and flexible voice that led many to become respected singers in the choir. The second type underwent the procedure after puberty. These eunuchs would retain their defining male characteristics.

Eunuchs in the Early Roman Empire

Eunuchs were vital to the running of the empire. Despite the shameful view that the Romans had of eunuchs, they still needed their services. In fact, they needed a ready source of eunuchs to draw from. While a Roman would not dream of becoming a eunuch, it was permissible for a non-Roman to be a one. Even so, they could not just take any non-Roman and castrate him. There was however a ready source of non-Romans who could be eunuchs. They were the slaves or prisoners of war. As these people had little rights, the Romans had no qualms about having these men castrated to serve as eunuchs.

Even in the 6th century, the view towards eunuchs had not changed much. The Emperor Justinian forbade castration to take place within his domains. But this did not eliminate the need for eunuchs; it only caused the procedure to take place outside of the empire. After the operation, the traders continued to bring in the newly formed eunuchs to sell as slaves in the market.

Eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire

The rise of Islam however, caused the state of affairs to change. As the power of the new Caliphate grew, it led to a greater demand for eunuchs that outstripped the ready supply. New slave markets began to flourish in Rome and Venice as the Caliphate controlled the markets in the East. Even so, the demand was far too great. Byzantium had to look for new sources of eunuchs instead of the usual slaves and captives.

During this time, being a eunuch became less of a taboo for the Byzantines. The common people were well aware that eunuchs held many key positions in the empire that gave them great power. Powerful eunuchs could use their influence to better the lot of their families. Since there was a demand for eunuchs, the local Greeks were now willing to castrate their younger sons to meet this need. These Greek-speaking eunuchs would enter the Great Palace or the Church in the hopes of carving out a lucrative career. If they made it, they could advance the standing of their family as well.

Castration as Punishment

Not all eunuchs were slaves, captives or power-hungry locals. Failed usurpers, rebels or deposed emperors could also end up as eunuchs. The Byzantines expected their emperors to produce heirs to carry on their dynasty. Since castration made this impossible, reigning emperors could get rid of their rivals by castrating them and their sons. Doing so removed potential threats to the throne. Although castration may seem barbaric by the standards today, the Byzantines viewed it as more humane than death.

Reflections of the Vizier

It is interesting to see how the view of eunuchs evolved in Byzantium. What was once shameful to the Romans became acceptable to the Byzantines. Byzantium saw itself as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In fact, they referred to themselves as Romans. But in reality, they were distinct in many ways. The view of and the role that the eunuch played in Byzantium is one major difference.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

The Nature of Eunuchs

The Byzantines viewed eunuchs with a mixture of feelings. On the one hand, eunuchs had an instability that made them unpredictable. On the other hand, eunuchs were also loyal, discerning and industrious which made them highly valued. It was because of their nature that eunuchs held important posts and managed palace affairs. But their strange manner and esoteric knowledge of palace routines, caused people to believe that some eunuchs possessed arcane talents.

Eunuch as Gifts

Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, visited the Byzantine Empire on a diplomatic mission in 949. But before he arrived, he realized that he did not have acceptable gifts to present. Luckily, he recalled the advice of his father and stepfather. Both men had been to Byzantium on as diplomatic envoys before. They told him that eunuchs made good gifts since the emperor valued them highly. Thus, Liutprand purchased some eunuchs with a few other gifts and received a warm welcome at Constantinople.

Eunuchs and Monasteries

It was common for eunuchs to become monks. But some monasteries feared eunuchs so greatly that they banned them from entering. The reason for this was the fear that eunuchs might arouse desire in the other monks. Rather than allow temptation to cause the monks to stray, some monasteries chose to ban eunuchs.

The De Facto Eunuch Ruler

A eunuch could not take the throne for himself because he could not produce an heir. But, there was nothing to stop him from becoming the de facto ruler of the empire. One such eunuch was Basil Lekapenos, the bastard son of the Emperor Romanos I. During his career, he served four emperors and wielded great power. During the first decade of the Emperor Basil II’s reign, the eunuch Basil effectively ruled the empire on behalf of his young charge. He was so rich and powerful that he could afford to become a patron of the arts.

The Eunuch Patriarch who was the Son of the Emperor

The Emperor Romanos I castrated his son Theophylact and made him Patriarch of Constantinople on 2 February 933. This gave him control over the Church. As Patriarch, Theophylact bowed to his father’s wishes. He ensured that the Church remained united so that his father could focus his energies on the rest of the empire. Everyone knew that the Patriarch loved his huge stable of horses more than his flock. He would gladly forgo the Divine Liturgy to watch his favourite mare give birth. Ironically, the Patriarch died after a nasty fall from his horse in 956.

References

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Eunuchs and Byzantine society

The Orthodox worldview was strict and hierarchical. It had clearly defined roles for all members of Byzantine society. Men and women, emperor and subjects, patriarch and laity all had expectations to fulfil. The rigid nature of the system needed a special class of people to act as intermediaries. The answer lay in the use of eunuchs.

A eunuch was neither male nor female. They were in effect a third sex. As such, conventional gender roles did not apply to them. This allowed eunuchs to serve in a variety of positions in the Byzantine world. Eunuchs could be teachers, doctors, actors, singers and even prostitutes.

Eunuchs and Rich Households

As slaves or servants in rich households, eunuchs might end up waiting on their mistresses. The master of the house felt safe in leaving his wife in the hands of eunuchs because they could not defile her in any way. Eunuchs therefore became responsible for the safety of their mistresses and attended to their demands. Learned eunuchs could also become tutors to children in rich households. They might oversee the education and upbringing of their young masters and mistresses. Finally, eunuchs could also serve as intermediaries for their masters.

Eunuchs and the Imperial Court

In the imperial court, eunuchs had many chances to advance in station. As eunuchs could not father children, they could not take the throne for themselves. Thus, the court created many key posts for eunuchs due to their perceived loyalty to the imperial household. Firstly, the imperial household relied on eunuchs to look after them. This involved personal security, counsel, daily needs, education of royal children and acting as intermediaries. Secondly, eunuchs took care of the ceremonials and etiquette that were vital to the court. Lastly, experienced eunuchs trained new arrivals in the ways of the court to ensure the smooth transition of duties in the future.

Eunuchs who were trusted with such responsibilities could wield great power and influence. Naturally, this power tempted many people and families. The more enterprising ones would castrate their younger son in the hopes that he would have a successful career in the palace. It was easy for a high-ranking eunuch to amass a fortune. Many of these rich eunuchs used their vast wealth to become patrons of the arts.

Eunuchs and the Army

Eunuchs also served in the army or as imperial guards. There was no discrimination in this area and eunuchs excelled on the battlefield as well as any normal male. Narses was one of the most famous eunuchs to hold military command. In fact, many emperors felt safe in giving command of the army to eunuchs because they could not seize the throne for themselves. Many emperors believed that this fact made the eunuchs more trustworthy and loyal to them.

Eunuchs and the Church

The early Church forbade castration and eunuchs from joining the clergy. They expected men to control their urges and lusts if they wanted to pursue a career in the Church. But the Byzantine Church welcomed eunuchs into the clergy. They also allowed eunuchs to become monks. So open was the Byzantine Church to eunuchs that they even allowed them to become the patriarch of Constantinople. This was the highest position in the clergy. But that was not all. Eunuchs could also become saints, so noted for their great holiness.

Eunuchs and the Choir

A particular type of eunuch, known as castrati, played a prominent role in the choir. As castrati, young boys underwent castration before they reached puberty. This caused their voice to develop a unique vocal range. Due to a lack of testosterone, the castrati also grew differently from normal males. Their body frame, limbs and bones were softer and longer. With proper training, they gained great lungpower that made them singing sensations. The castrati often performed at the imperial court and major churches due to their great popularity.

Eunuchs and Sex

There were many men in Byzantine society who prized their eunuch slaves as sexual objects. Eunuchs who underwent castration before they reached puberty maintained their youthful boyish image that appealed to men. Despite their lack, eunuchs also had their own sexual urges as well. Sex for eunuchs involved sodomy, which the Church frowned upon. Many priests urged the eunuchs to resist sodomy to save their souls. But since the eunuchs were at the mercy of their masters, they could not resist without facing the consequences. Some monasteries also banned eunuchs. They feared that the beauty of the eunuchs would drive the other monks to distraction.

Reflections of the Vizier

Thus far, I have been mainly interested in Byzantine emperors and the wars of the empire. I always knew that Byzantium employed eunuchs. But I never knew how integrated they were in society. It is just fascinating to learn how dependent Byzantium was on eunuchs to keep it going. Having read about the vital roles that eunuchs played has given me a deeper appreciation of Byzantium.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

1st Arab Siege of Constantinople (674-678)

The Arabs lay siege to Constantinople, the capital and heart of the Byzantine Empire, in 674. Thus far, they had swept away the Byzantine troops, forcing them back to the capital to make their last stand. But things did not go as planned. The Arabs could not breach the famous land walls, so they focused their attacks on the sea walls with their navy. The Arab blockade cut off supplies to the capital and slowly starved the defenders.

For five years, the empire fought for its life. Thankfully, Kallinikos, a military engineer, arrived in the empire just before the siege. He had discovered the secret of Greek fire and he shared it with the Byzantines. This secret gave the Byzantine navy the edge they needed to defeat the Arab navy repeatedly. In 678, the Arabs finally accepted defeat and lifted the siege. But as they made their way home, the Arab navy ran into a severe storm, suffering further loss and damage as a result.

2nd Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718)

In 717, Arab forces once again pushed the Byzantines right back to Constantinople and lay siege to it. This time the Arabs attacked by land and sea. This pincer attack forced the defenders to divide themselves to man both the land and sea walls. Despite the dire circumstances, their Emperor Leo III led the defence with a sure hand.

The wily monarch used Greek fire to wreck havoc on the Arab fleet while making sure the Arab army could not breach the land walls. In the meantime, he negotiated with the Bulgarians and got them to smash the Arab army from the rear. The Bulgarians scattered the surprised Arab troops who fled homewards. Meanwhile, the Arab navy, crippled by Greek fire, also lifted the siege and returned home. Déjà vu occurred when the Arab navy ran into a storm that destroyed most of the fleet.

Civil War between Michael II and Thomas the Slav (821-824)

Michael II and Thomas the Slav fought one of the most severe civil wars in the history of the empire. At the start, Thomas controlled most of the empire and its forces. Meanwhile, Michael held control over the capital and a few outlying regions. To reign as emperor, Thomas had to control Constantinople. Once again, the capital came under siege from superior numbers by land and sea in 821.

While holding on to his capital, Michael got his navy to whittle down the navy of Thomas with Greek fire. This helped to relieve the pressure placed on the sea walls and allow supplies to reach the city. Taking a page from the book of Leo III, Michael sought and received Bulgarian aid. The Bulgarians forced Thomas to lift the siege and inflicted heavy losses on him. This allowed Michael to defeat and mop up the remains of Thomas’ forces, uniting the empire once more.

Rus-Byzantine War (941)

Greek fire saw action against the sea-faring Rus in 941. Igor, the Prince of Rus, led 1,000 ships southwards to raid the Byzantine Empire. But as luck would have it, the Byzantine army and navy were not at Constantinople. Due to the grave danger, the Emperor Romanus gave orders for both the army and navy to return at once. In the meantime, he salvaged fifteen old ships from the scrap yard and loaded them with Greek fire. Placing this fleet under the command of Theophanes, the emperor ordered him to buy time and hold off the Rus.

Theophanes set off at once to prevent the Rus from sailing through the Bosphorus. By positioning his fleet at the northern opening of the Bosphorus, he clashed with the Rus on June 11. As the Greek fire ravaged the front of his fleet, Igor ordered the rest of his ships to disembark at Bithynia where they plundered the land. Soon, the Byzantine army arrived to drive them back to their ships. As the Rus tried to flee for home, they ran straight into the Byzantine navy. This time, the Byzantines set ablaze the Rus fleet and destroyed it. Only a handful of survivors managed to escape.

Reflections of the Vizier

Greek fire did not win battles for the empire by itself. It was a potent but not an all-powerful weapon. This meant that it played its part in the overall strategy to defeat the enemy. This could mean buying time for reinforcements or whittling down enemy forces for the final blow. Used skilfully at the right moments by wise leaders, Greek fire was able to turn the tide of battle for the Byzantines. The examples above are ample proof of how Greek fire made a difference.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium (II): The Apogee. England: Penguin Books, 1993.

Byzantium fought for its very survival throughout its existence. Often, the empire faced enemies who were superior in military and economic might. Despite these odds, Byzantium always managed to survive. One of the main reasons for its survival was the secret weapon: Greek fire. Used skilfully by its leaders, Byzantium managed to come back repeatedly from the brink of disaster. Read on to learn about Greek fire.

What was Greek Fire?

Greek fire was a sticky liquid flame used in land battles during sieges and naval battles. The soldiers would use a firing tube to spray the liquid that would engulf their target in flames. A loud noise that sounded like a roar and lots of smoke accompanied the discharge of Greek fire. To enhance the effect, the Byzantines installed figureheads of animals like lions on their ships. Thus in naval combat, it would seem as if the animals were spewing fire from their mouths. Unsuspecting and superstitious enemies would greatly fear the fire, as they had never seen such a spectacle before.

Origins of Greek Fire

Historical records first mention Greek fire in 678. A story credits Kallinikos, a military engineer from Syria, as the creator of Greek fire. After he had found the secret, he brought it to Byzantium and shared it with the empire. The secret could not have come at a better time as Constantinople was holding off an Arab siege. The soldiers put the Greek fire to good use when they drove off an Arab naval attack with it.

Alternatively, the leading alchemists and chemists in the capital could have discovered Greek fire. During their research of the classical texts on chemistry and physics, they could have chanced upon the composition of Greek fire. Whatever the case, the Byzantines soon got the formula right. From there, they went on to use Greek fire with lethal effect against their foes.

Composition and Usage

The exact Byzantine formula of Greek fire has been lost. But many historians believed it contained the following ingredients: crude oil, bitumen, naphtha, resin and sulphur. Due to the dangers involved, the soldiers had to heat the mixture with great care first. Then they sprayed it through the firing tube with a siphon and ignited the flames. But this was not the only way to use Greek fire. It could also be stored in ceramic pots and thrown like grenades. The use of Greek fire required caution and technical skill that selected soldiers specially trained in.

State Secret

This potent weapon gave the Byzantines an edge over their enemies in warfare. It also had a psychological effect on foes that had never seen such a spectacle. As the fire was hard to extinguish, it struck fear in their hearts of the enemies and weakened their resolve. Due to its great importance, Greek fire was a closely guarded secret of the empire. No foreigner could expect to gain this knowledge from the Byzantines. Although many nations sought the secret of Greek fire in diplomatic exchanges, the Byzantines never shared this knowledge. Even so, the Arabs managed to create their own version of Greek fire.

Safety Measures

Greek fire was so potent that it could even burn on water. Once Greek fire set its target ablaze, it was very hard to extinguish. Since the fire did not differentiate friend from foe, Byzantine troops took several safety measures to protect themselves. Firstly, the soldiers and marines who handled Greek fire wore fireproof leather armour. Secondly, the ships and equipment used a unique mixture of vinegar, alum and talc to remain fireproof. Thirdly, city defences and buildings also received treatment that protected them from fire attacks.

Reflections of the Vizier

Greek fire was clearly a potent but double-edged weapon. Used correctly, the Byzantines managed to turn the tide of many battles with it. But if they were not careful, they could also end up burning their own troops with the flames. Even so, Greek fire was not a super weapon that made the Byzantines invincible. It had limited range that made it easy for enemies to work around once they got used to it. Other civilizations like the Arabs also created their own form of Greek fire. Although Greek fire was useful, it was merely one reason that the Byzantines managed to endure for a thousand years.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

The Nature of Gallus

When Gallus became Caesar, he allowed his newfound wealth and power to go to his head. For ten odd years, he had been a prisoner, but now he was Caesar of the East. He was proud that he shared the same name as the emperor and was now a member of the imperial household. As Caesar, he viewed it as his right to do as he pleased. Worsening matters, he was quick to anger and had no mercy or compassion for his subjects. His reign soon degenerated into one of terror.

Gallus and Constantina

To assure Gallus’ loyalty to him, Constantius gave his younger sister Constantina to Gallus in marriage. Constantina was little better than her husband. As the proud sister of the emperor, she was born into a life of privilege. Naturally, she was also used to getting her way. Instead of restraining her husband, she encouraged and even helped him in his arbitrary rule. The couple cared little for the lives of their subjects and murdered as they pleased.

The Misdeeds of Gallus

The couple preferred to listen to rumours instead of verifying the facts. Against their enemies, they showed no mercy. Instead, they condemned innocent people to death on trumped up charges of black magic or for scheming to take the throne. Adding insult to injury, they made sure to take their victim’s possessions for themselves.

For instance, when a senator gave him well-meaning but blunt advice, Gallus flew into a petty rage. He went on to order the deaths of all the senators in Antioch. Then, when the people of Antioch asked him to deal with the famine, Gallus ignored their pleas. Instead, he blamed the famine on the incompetence of Theophilus, the Governor of Syria. The angry mob tore the innocent man to pieces.

To monitor his domains, the Caesar had spies in all parts of the land. These spies infiltrated the noble houses and brought back intelligence to keep him ahead of his perceived enemies. Through his spy network, the Caesar was privy to all kinds of private conversations. An atmosphere of distrust soon grew amongst the people. They had to watch their words and could not trust anyone, as they might be spies for the Caesar. Gallus even enjoyed travelling incognito amongst his people and asking them what they thought of the Caesar. A wrong answer would only lead to trouble for the unsuspecting victim.

Constantius Moves Against Gallus

When Constantius made Gallus Caesar, the threat Magnentius posed weighed heavily on his mind. So, he did not expect Gallus to rule as badly as he did. But when he heard reports of Gallus’ misrule and how he had alienated the people in the process, Constantius decided to act.

Firstly, he reduced Gallus’ power by taking away part of his troops. The excuse he gave was that too many restless troops would turn on Gallus himself. Secondly, he made Domitian Praetorian Prefect with orders to lure Gallus to Italy. But things did not go as planned. Domitian foolishly offended Gallus with his haughty speech and manner. In his anger, Gallus incited his troops to kill Domitian and Montius, a Quaestor who also angered the Caesar. The killings soon got out of hand and many innocent people lost their lives.

Constantius Executes Gallus

By now, Gallus was completely out of hand. Due to the way he alienated the people with his reign of terror, a revolt was imminent if he remained as Caesar. After careful discussions with his advisors, Constantius summoned Gallus to Milan under the pretext of urgent business. To allay the suspicions of Gallus, the emperor also sent for his sister. But Constantina died along the way before she could reach Milan.

Without his wife to shield him, Gallus became afraid that Constantius would kill him for his misdeeds. But Constantius managed to cajole Gallus with lies and sweet words into thinking he would forgive him for anything. When the Caesar had travelled far from his base of power, Constantius’ troops captured him without any trouble. During a quick trial, Gallus blamed his misdeeds on Constantina. Seeing that such an ungrateful and unrepentant person would only cause him trouble, Constantius executed him in 354.

Taking Action

Had Gallus been a better ruler, Constantius would have had no reason to order his death. But instead of ruling well, Gallus caused great unrest in the east with his reign of terror. An internal revolt would only leave the empire open to attacks from the Persians. Also, as Gallus became more bold and unhinged, he would one day challenge Constantius for the throne as well. With these matters weighing heavily on his mind, Constantius executed the cousin he had made Caesar.

References

Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: A.D. 354-378 (Penguin Classics). Translated by Walter Hamilton. England: Penguin Books, 2004.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Limited Power

On November 6, 355, the twenty-four year old Julian became Caesar of the Western Roman Empire. Although he did not wish to be Caesar, he made up his mind to do a good job. After his coronation was over, he set off for Vienna to assume command. But along the way, he was appalled to learn that barbarian troops had destroyed Cologne, a major city in Germany. Despite the gladness with which the people of Vienna received him, Julian was in no mood to celebrate.

Due to his youth and inexperience, Julian’s chief military and civil officers took orders from Constantius himself. The emperor wanted to make sure that his cousin made the best choices in ruling and war. At the same time, he also wanted to prevent Julian from turning against him or causing a mess like Gallus did. These measures did not daunt Julian. He set out to learn all he could about being Caesar and soon proved that he was good one.

The Successes of Julian

The fall of Cologne drove home the severity of the barbarian threat to Julian. Not wanting to waste any time, he spent the winter of 355 in Vienna learning the ropes and laying his plans. Soon, Julian learned of an attack on the city of Autun. Although the city survived the onslaught, the barbarians were likely to try again. Instead of waiting, Julian decided to take the fight to the barbarians and to gain experience in battle. After careful preparations, the Caesar and his troops reached Autun on June 24.

Upon arrival, Julian held a war council with his generals to discuss their course of action. Aware that the barbarians threatened the city of Troyes, most of the generals advised caution. They preferred to take a safe route in relieving the city. But Julian had other ideas. Although this was his first war council, he displayed a preference for boldness, creativity and speed. Upon learning of a dangerous route through the dark woods that would give him the element of surprise, Julian went ahead with this suggestion.

Despite objections, the Caesar set off with a small but speedy force through the woods where he came upon the barbarians. A fierce battle ensued. The barbarians hurled their superior numbers at Julian’s troops with all their might. But despite their ferocious onslaught, they could not break Julian’s army. Soon, the barbarians lost heart and fled. Julian allowed them to leave because he knew his armoured troops could not catch them.

Having relieved Troyes, Julian rested his troops for a short while before heading for Reims to meet up with his main force. From there, Julian managed to defeat the Alamanni and the Germans while going on the retake more towns in Gaul. The most important city that Julian retook was Cologne. To buy time, he forced the Franks to accept a peace treaty. This gave him a chance to rebuild the devastated city.

The Problems Julian Faced

The campaign season ended with the approach of winter in 356. Julian could look back on his first campaign with satisfaction. Firstly, he had gained hands on experience in battle. Secondly, he had racked up a string of successes against the barbarians due to his boldness and speed. After leaving instructions for the rebuilding of Cologne, he dispersed part of his forces to various towns to gather supplies. Having done so, he left for the town of Sens.

The lull in the fighting did not mean rest for Julian. He still had to sort out the various problems he faced. Firstly, there was the issue of deserters. The town garrisons had fled their posts in the face of the barbarian onslaught. How was he going to entice them to return? Secondly, he had to consider the problem of the barbarians. Knowing that the empire was weak, the barbarians banded together to plunder the land. How was he to defeat them all? Lastly, Julian had to find a way to supply his forces as he split them up to deal with the various threats. Without a proper logistical solution, his troops faced certain defeat.

The Siege of Sens

As Julian mulled over his problems, the barbarians learned that he had few troops at Sens. Not wanting to miss this chance, they besieged the town hoping to capture it and the young Caesar. Despite the surprise, Julian kept his cool. He closed the gates and directed his small force to defend the walls. Due to the severity of the situation, he had to get the citizens to help in repairs for the damage done to the walls.

Throughout the siege, Julian worked hard to encourage his men to hold out. Thanks to his boundless energy, the barbarians failed to breach the walls and gave up after a month of trying. The narrow escape reminded Julian once more of the barbarian threat. Due to their frequent raids, the land, crops and property lay in ruins. Famine would set in soon if Julian did nothing about the matter. Thankfully, the energetic young Caesar had plans to address the issues and the support of his men to carry out his ideas. But before he could tackle the threat, he gave his men a short rest to recover from the siege.

Reflections of the Vizier

Julian proved he was not a mere scholar. During the first year of his ascension as Caesar, he had learned to govern and fight in battle. The threat that the barbarians posed forced him to learn quickly. Due to his boldness and speed, he managed to score a few victories against the barbarians and retook some towns in the process. His successes earned him the respect of his troops who were more eager to follow his plans. The scholar whom no one expected to succeed was coming into his own.

References

Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: A.D. 354-378 (Penguin Classics). Translated by Walter Hamilton. England: Penguin Books, 2004.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Julian’s Background

Julian was born the son of Julius Constantius. His father was the son of the Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Theodora. This made him half-brother to Constantine the Great. When Constantine came to power, he made his mother Helena an empress. Due to Helena’s dislike for Theodora and her family, Julius had to keep a low profile. Thus the greater part of Julius’ life was spent in obscurity.

When Helena died, Constantine sent for Julius and his family to stay in Constantinople. By this time, Julius had a second wife by the name of Basilina. Following them were two sons and a daughter from his earlier marriage. The family settled happily in the new capital and soon, Julian was born in 332. Sadly, Basilina died shortly after giving birth to him. Despite her death, life had to go on. Constantine showed great favour to Julius by giving him high positions in his court. As such, Julius was able to give his large brood a proper upbringing, getting the best nurses and tutors for them. But this peaceful existence did not last.

Massacre of 337

In 337, Constantine the Great died. Following in the wake of his death was the struggle for the throne. Constantius II, the son of Constantine, was eager to wipe out potential rivals. Under a false pretext, he ordered the deaths of his father’s half-brothers and their families. Imperial troops executed Julius and his eldest son. But Constantius spared the five-year-old Julian and his older half-brother, Gallus, due to their young age.

The massacre left a deep impact on Julian. In the blink of an eye, for no apparent reason, he lost his father and older brother. As he grew older and learned the truth of the massacre, he could not help but hate his cousin. Yet he was not in a position to do anything for the moment. Survival came first.

The Early Upbringing of Julian

Although Constantius had spared the lives of Gallus and Julian, they were a nuisance to him. He decided that the best way to deal with the brothers was to send them off to Nicomedia to study. There the Bishop Eusebius would take care of and educate them. Thus, Christian teachings shaped the early years of Julian’s life.

In his eleventh year, Julian’s life underwent another upheaval. The emperor sent Julian and Gallus to Macellum as a safety measure. There, in the ancient palace, cut off from the rest of the world, the brothers had little to do but study. It was during this period that Julian stumbled upon classical literature. This began a lifelong interest that would define his worldview.

In 349, after six years at Macellum, Constantius allowed the brothers to return to Constantinople. There their paths diverged. Gallus would go on to serve in the imperial court. As for Julian, he had discovered his passion for learning. Bent on the pursuit of knowledge, he asked for and gained the permission to further his studies. Constantius did not think that a bookworm could do him much harm.

Julian the Philosopher

During the next six years, Julian roamed the Greek world. In his quest for knowledge, he visited the various philosophical schools and sought out the best thinkers of his day. Day and night, he read and engaged in discourses. Soon he heard of Libanius, a famous pagan philosopher and he set off to Nicomedia to learn from him.

By this time, Julian had begun to favour the classical teachings over the Christian ones. When one of his former Christian tutors learned of his admiration for Libanius, he became alarmed. To save the soul of his wayward pupil, he made Julian promise not to attend Libanius’ lectures. Julian kept his word by paying someone to copy the lectures for him.

From Nicomedia, he travelled to Pergamum, then to Ephesus and finally he reached Athens. Somewhere along the way, Julian made the fateful choice to turn his back on Christianity. This was not a decision made on a whim. Julian was too deep a thinker to make haphazard choices. He had come to realize that he did not agree with Christian teachings. In its place, he embraced the old Pagan ways that appealed to him on a spiritual level. But despite his conviction, he had to keep his religious views to himself. Christianity was on the rise while paganism was on the decline. If word got out of his views, he would face grave consequences.

The Reluctant Caesar

In late 355, at the age of 23, Julian learned that Constantius intended to make him Caesar. By now, the future Caesar was a grown man. Stocky in build and plain looking, he was socially awkward and shy. The way he carried himself did nothing to inspire confidence in others. Furthermore, he did not wish to rule. All he wanted in life was to learn. But he had no choice. He had to leave Athens for Milan to meet Constantius.

At Milan, Constantius informed Julian he was to rule as Caesar. After the needed personal grooming to look the part of a Caesar, Julian appeared before the troops on November 6. Constantius gave a short speech as he presented Julian to those present. There, despite his reluctance, Julian received the acclamation of the troops as their new Caesar. Constantius also married his sister Helena to Julian to bind him to his household. For his part, Julian was fulsome in his praise of Constantius. Although he hated the murderer of his family, he had no choice but to submit for now.

Reflections of the Vizier

Despite trying to stay away from the throne, the throne found Julian. For years, he had kept a low profile and immersed himself in study. He did so because it was his passion. But fate would not leave Julian alone. After the execution of his brother Gallus, Julian was the best choice that Constantius had left as Caesar. Even though Julian tried to live the life of a scholar, fate called upon him to be Caesar. Julian would go on to prove he was a dynamic one.

References

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

The Massacre of 337

When Constantine the Great died in 337, his son Constantius II was closest to the capital. Upon learning the news, he returned at once to Constantinople to preside over the funeral. A skilled actor, Constantius put on a convincing show of mourning with his brothers. But as soon as they laid Constantine to rest in his tomb, the peace was over. On September 9, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans had their coronation as joint emperors. The struggle to consolidate their power began almost at once.

The first victims were the half-brothers of Constantine. Rumours spread that they had poisoned the emperor to seize the throne. As a filial son, Constantius had these traitors executed along with their families. But the murders did not stop there. Constantine’s brothers-in-law also met with gruesome ends. Only three young boys survived the massacre, likely due to their tender ages.

The Settlement

With their potential rivals out of the way, the three emperors met in the summer of 338 to carve up the empire. For the sake of simplicity, the brothers agreed to carry on ruling the domains they had while they were Caesars. There were a few minor tweaks to the boundaries, but for now, the former divisions remained mostly unchanged. The eldest brother Constantine took Britain, Gaul and Spain. The middle brother Constantius got Asia Minor and Egypt. Meanwhile, the youngest brother Constans, who was only 15 years of age, retained control over Africa, Italy, the Danube, Macedonia and Thrace. Due to Constans’ age, Constantine served as his guardian until he was ready to rule alone.

The Rise and Fall of Constans II

Peace between the brothers did not last long. It could not hope to last when each of the brothers wanted the empire for himself. Constantine struck first. He could not tolerate the fact that his youngest brother would not fall in line and submit to his wishes. In 340, he attacked Constans in a bid to assert control over him. This led Constans to ally with Constantius against Constantine. Meanwhile, Constans set an ambush that took and killed Constantine by surprise. With his eldest brother out of the way, the balance of power changed. Constans was now the supreme ruler of the West.

However, Constans was merely 17. Although he led a few successful campaigns in the early years of his reign, he soon neglected his duties. Being young and impressionable, he chose to indulge in wanton pleasures instead. He went so far as to enjoy himself with his blonde German prisoners who liked the hedonistic lifestyle he led. But his critical mistake was to lose the respect of the soldiers that served him.

Thus in early 350, while Constans was away hunting, the disgruntled troops revolted and proclaimed Magnentius their new emperor. A Briton by birth, Magnentius was a pagan in his beliefs. But as an emperor, he was decisive. He quickly issued orders to have Constans killed. With little support, Constans soon met his end while fleeing for his life. Thus in less than a decade, the control of the West changed hands again.

Constantius vs Magnentius

Of the sons of Constantine, only Constantius remained. During these years, Constantius had his hands full with the Persians in the East. When he learned of Magnentius’ revolt, he had to move against the usurper. As the sole son of Constantine, no one else but he had the right to rule the empire.

But before he could move west, he had to resolve the defence against the Persians. To deal with this matter, he made his cousin Gallus Caesar of the East and tasked him with this responsibility. Gallus had the good fortune to survive the massacre that happened in 337. To bind Gallus closer to him, Constantius married his widowed sister Constantina to him.

With his eastern frontier secured, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in September 351. Although Constantius won the Battle of Mursa Major, both sides suffered heavy losses. After his defeat, Magnentius escaped from Croatia back to Northern Italy to regroup. But fortune did not favour Magnentius. After two years of struggling, he had nothing to show for his efforts. Unable to watch any further as he lost support and territory to Constantius, he took his own life. Now that Magnentius was gone, Constantius was the ruler of the reunited empire.

The Caesar Julian

While campaigning in the west, Constantius received reports about Gallus that disturbed him. Due to his suspicions, he summoned Gallus to a meeting and had him executed to pre-empt any potential revolt. With Gallus out of the way, Constantius was truly the supreme ruler of the empire. But he could not manage alone. The size of the empire made it an impossible feat. In the end, he decided to appoint his last living male relative Julian, as Caesar and married his younger sister Helena to him.

Reflections of the Vizier

Constantius II was the sole surviving son of Constantine the Great. In a time of chaos and uncertainty, he had the good fortune to be in the right place at the right time. Although he was responsible for the massacre of his relatives, he had less opportunistic rivals to contend with as a result. Other rivals like Magnentius had a weaker claim to the throne. They could not hope to last long if the soldiers did not support them. For now, Constantius enjoyed the fruits of his labour and remained safely in power.

References

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.