new sicence

The science of tricks

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Mon, 28 Aug 2023 14:15:00 +0300

The science of tricks is the Arabic name for what is called the science of mechanics, and its aim is to know how to obtain a great action with little effort, and that is why the Arabs called it tricks, the use of tricks in place of strength, the mind in place of muscles, and the machine instead of the body.

The values and morals of the message of Islam had a great role in prompting Muslims to pay attention to this science and to develop machines to provide more capabilities and energies. If other civilization relied on forced labor in obtaining benefits for the elites and upper classes of rulers, princes and people of prestige, then Islam forbade entrusting what is not required. Unbearable, and the exhaustion of servants and slaves, and even animals as well, so there was an urgent need to use machines that save effort and energy and achieve large production with minimal effort.

Al-Khwarizmi considered the science of tricks as one of the eight main sciences, and divided it into two branches: dragging weights with easy force, tricks of water movements, and the manufacture of wondrous utensils and the related craftsmanship of moving machines themselves.

Among the most important books written in the science of tricks is the book “Al-Hil” by the sons of Musa bin Shaker, in the third century AH, and they formed a scientific team among themselves, and they wrote this book that contains a hundred mechanical structures with explanations and illustrations of operating and installation methods, eighty of which are of type Which the Arabs called "wonderful pots", which are devices that work automatically, and the rest are from the fountains that change their shapes automatically at certain periods of time, and from the lamps that feed themselves automatically and from other devices, including a mechanical bulldozer to pick things up from the bottom of the seas or rivers, and these devices were the nucleus that The science of cybernetics developed from it.

And the book “The Combiner between Knowledge and Useful Action in the Industry of Tricks” by Badi’ Al-Zaman Abi Al-Ezz bin Ismail Al-Razzaz Al-Jazari, who lived in the sixth and seventh centuries AH, is also one of the important books in this field, and this book is considered the greatest book of its kind in mechanical engineering until modern times, This book included various designs for automatic clocks and levers; In which linear motion is transferred to circular motion by means of toothed gears, which is the basis on which modern motors are built.

There is the book “Asrar fi Nahat al-Afkar” by Ahmed bin Khalaf al-Muradi, who lived in the fifth century AH. It includes an explanation of more than thirty types of mechanical machines, a highly developed sundial, and important parts about mills and water presses.

And the book “Sunni Methods of Spiritual Instruments” by Taqi al-Din ibn Ma’ruf al-Dimashqi, who lived in the tenth century AH. In this book, many mechanical devices are described; such as hourglasses, water and automatic machines, levers with pulleys, gears, water fountains, and spinning machines. This book is of special importance. As it was written in the era of the European renaissance, but the history of the book precedes the dates of books written in Europe on the same subject. The author of the book finished it in the year 1552 AD, i.e. before the book “Agricola” appeared in the year 1556 AD, and the book “Ramelli” in the year 1588 AD, and in the book “The Sunni Paths” he described mechanical machines before a similar description was given in Western references, and technology historians thought that the first description For these machines was in the books of Agricola and Ramelli.

It was confirmed that Muslim scholars preceded the laying down of sound scientific foundations for the three laws of motion formulated by Newton, and Muslims dealt with the laws of science of tricks or mechanics in a scientific way, not out of superstition, fortune-telling, and contact with the world of jinns and demons, or the supernatural powers of gods, as was happening in other nations in order to Controlling peoples and ensuring their service to a small class of rulers and soothsayers.

The exploits of Muslim scholars in the field of the science of tricks are one of the pages of the bright history of Muslims, which needs a new resurrection in which Muslims are interested in the various sciences of the universe in order to achieve civilizational progress that helps achieve the goodness of this nation, and qualifies for its survival in competition with the development of humanity.

Mathematics for Muslims

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sun, 27 Aug 2023 13:40:00 +0300

Al-Khwarizmi's Concise Book on Calculating Algebra and Contrast, one of the pages of the book
.

In Baghdad, al-Khwarizmi established the science of algebra and counterpoint in the early ninth century. During the succession of Abu Jaafar al-Mansur, some of the works of the ancient Alexandrian scholar Ptolemy T. were translated. 17 AD)، the most important of which is his book known as “Almagest”. And the name of this book in Greek is “EMEGAL MATHEMATIKE,” meaning the greatest book in arithmetic. The book is an encyclopedia of knowledge in astronomy and mathematics. Muslim scholars benefited from it and corrected some of its information and added to it. On the Indian language, many works were translated, such as the famous Indian book on astronomy and mathematics, Siddhanta, meaning “knowledge, science, and doctrine.” The Arabic translation appeared during the reign of Abu Jaafar al-Mansur under the title Al-Sind Hind. Muslims have the zero system, which made Arab mathematicians solve many mathematical equations of various degrees. It facilitated its use for all arithmetic work, and the numbering system rid itself of complexity. The use of zero in arithmetic operations led to the discovery of the decimal fraction, which was mentioned in the book Key to Arithmetic by the mathematician Jamshid bin Mahmoud Ghiyath al-Din al-Kashi (d. 840 AH, 1436 CE), and this discovery was the real introduction to infinitely small arithmetic studies and operations. Ibrahim al-Fazari extracted an astronomical arithmetic table showing the positions of the stars and calculating their movements, which is known as zigzag

Among the scholars of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (d. 232 AH 846 CE), whom al-Ma’mun entrusted with writing a book on the science of algebra. Ibn Khaldun said: Algebra and contrast (i.e. equation) are branches of the number sciences, and it is an industry by which the unknown number is extracted from the known number if there is a connection between them that requires that, then it is opposite each other, and the fraction in it is forced until it becomes correct. Algebra is an Arab science that the Arabs called it with a word from their language, and it was Al-Khwarizmi who gave it this name that moved to European languages with its Arabic word ALGEBRA. This book was translated into Latin in the year 1135 AD. He continued studying at universities in Europe until the 16th century. Arabic numerals also moved to Europe through translations of Al-Khwarizmi’s books, which he called ALGORISMO in Latin, then ALGORISMO was modified to denote the system of numbers, arithmetic and algebra, and the method of solving mathematical problems. It has the name “Al-Sind Hind Al-Saghir”, and it combined the doctrine of India, the doctrine of the Persians, and the doctrine of Ptolemy (Egypt). West Mathematical Sciences was quoted as Arabs and developed. And define the Abacus account: Abacus. Or Abacus. (Counting plate). It is a frame with balls for manual counting. This painting was used by the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans and some European countries before the arrival of the Arab account in Europe in the thirteenth century. Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division were carried out through the counting board. Ibn Al-Haytham was also the first to extract the general formula for the sum of the arithmetic sequences of the fourth degree (mathematics) in mathematics.

An old Arabic manuscript dating back to the seventeenth century on geometry and astronomy

The Arabs worked with algebra and were familiar with it in a scientific and organized manner, so that Kajuri said: “The mind is amazed when it sees what the Arabs did in algebra…” Among the most famous books that the Arabs wrote are: “Algebra and the Matching” by Al-Khwarizmi, as well as the book of Khayyam, which he published (Wobek in the year 1851 AD); The Arabs divided the equations into six sections and developed solutions for each of them, and used symbols in mathematical works and researched the binomial theory, and created a law to find the sum of natural numbers, and dealt with deaf roots and paved the way for the discovery of logarithms. In the thirteenth century A.D., the mathematical sciences of the Arabs and others began to spread to Europe through Andalusia, so they translated the writings of the Arabs in various sciences, including algebra, so the monk Jordanes (about 1220 AD) replaced words in algebraic expressions with symbols, and his contemporary Fibonaki did the same and wrote a book on arithmetic And Principles of Algebra, he explained his influence on the writings of Al-Khwarizmi and Abu Kamel, the two Arab worlds. In the sixteenth century, scientists reached the solution of equations of the third and fourth degrees, and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they reached impressive results in their research on power series and their properties.

Among the most prominent achievements of Arab Muslims in mathematics:

787 A.D. The numbers and the zero drawn in the form of a dot appeared in Arabic literature before they appeared in Indian books.

830 AD, the Arabs gave this name to the science of algebra for the first time.

835 A.D. Al-Khwarizmi used the term as-saam for the first time to refer to a number that has no root.

888 A.D. Arab mathematicians laid the first building blocks of analytical geometry, using geometry to solve algebraic equations.

912 AD Al-Battani used the sine instead of the double bowstring in measuring angles for the first time.

1029 A.D. Arab mathematicians took advantage of plane and stereoscopic geometry in light research for the first time in history.

1252 A.D. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi drew attention - for the first time - to Euclid's mistakes in parallels.

1397 AD Ghiyath al-Din al-Kashi invented decimal fractions.

1465 A.D. Abu al-Hasan al-Qurashi put for the first time symbols for the science of algebra instead of words.

صناعة الزجاج

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sat, 26 Aug 2023 16:27:00 +0300

صناعة الزجاج

مصانع الزجاج

في القرن الثامن الميلادي؛ تأسس أول مجمع صناعي لإنتاج الزجاج والخزف في مدينة الرقة السورية. جرت العديد من التجارب في ذاك المجمع البالغ طوله نحو 2 كم لتطوير زجاج عالي النقاوة، كما اكتشف موقعين مماثلين لهذا المجمع، فأصبح الزجاج في تلك المواقع الثلاث ينتج بطرق كيميائية مختلفة تصل إلى ثلاثمائة طريقة.

تأسست أول مصانع الزجاج في العالم الإسلامي بأيدي عمال مسلمين في القرن الثامن، في حين أن مصانع الزجاج في أوروبا بُنيت لاحقاً في القرن الحادي عشر على أيدي حرفيين مصريين من مدينة كورنث اليونانية

الزجاج الصافي الشفاف عالي النقاوة

أُنتجت أقدم نماذج الزجاج الصافي الشفاف عالي النقاوة من قبل المسلمين في القرن التاسع الميلادي، ومثال ذلك زجاج الكوارتز المنصهر الذي اخترعه عباس بن فرناس.

نوافذ بزجاج معشق ملون في مسجد ناصر الملا في مدينة شيراز في إيران.

الزجاج الملون والمعشق

أُنتج الزجاج المعشق لأول مرة من قبل المعماريين المسلمين في جنوب غرب آسيا باستعمال الزجاج الملون بدل الحجارة (التحجير). في القرن الثامن وصف العالم الكيميائي جابر بن حيان في كتابه «الدرة المكنونة» ستًا وأربعين طريقة لإنتاج الزجاج الملون، بالإضافة إلى اثني عشرة وصفة أخرى كتبها المراكشي في نسخ لاحقة من الكتاب

اللآلئ والأحجار الكريمة

وصف جابر بن حيان في كتاب «الدرة المكنونة» أول طريقة أو وصفة لإنتاج اللؤلؤ الصناعي، كما وصف طرق تنقية اللآلئ من الشوائب عند تغير لونها من البحر أو من الشحوم المختلفة

أما بالنسبة للأحجار الكريمة فقد وصف جابر أول طريقة لصباغة الأحجار الكريمة واللآلئ وتلوينها بلون اصطناعي كما وصف طريقة إنتاج الزجاج الملون عالي الجودة الذي كان يشذب إلى أحجار كريمة اصطناعية.^[

المرايا

وصفت مرايا القطع المكافئ (مرايا على شكل قطع مكافئ) لأول مرة من قبل ابن سهل في كتابه «عن الأدوات الحارقة» في القرن العاشر الميلادي، كما وصفت لاحقاً من قبل ابن الهيثم في كتابه عن المرايا الحارقة وكتاب المناظر عام 1021.

كما ناقش ابن الهيثم خواص المرايا المقعرة والمحدبة في الشكلين الأسطواني والكروي، ووصف المرايا الكروية ومرايا القطع المكافئ وأجرى عدداً من التجارب على المرايا، وأوجد حلاً لمشكلة تحديد نقطة على مرآة محدبة، والتي ينعكس عليها الشعاع الوارد من نقطة إلى نقطة أخرى. وبحلول القرن الحادي عشر بدأت صناعة المرايا من الزجاج النقي في الأندلس

زجاج الكوارتز والسيليكا

اخترع عباس بن فرناس (810-887) زجاج الكوارتز والسيليكا الشفاف عالي النقاوة، وكان أول من أنتج الزجاج من الرمل والصخور مثل الكوارتز المنصهر.

Golden Ages -The first mobile robot for service in homes

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Thu, 12 Dec 2013 21:00:00 +0200

The golden Ages

I did not imagine the day that I find this sea of knowledge always they tell us in the shares of contemporary history from that era of Time - Middle Ages - it ages dark spread its evil, ignorance and disease, but today I realized that those times of evil and ignorance and disease were not but in a small spot of land there is always a glimmer of light appear in another place is the east

When Europe was drowning in ignorance and disease was blessed with good Middle and prosperity and modern science that preceded its age. It's really the golden ages

The first mobile robot for service in homes

Lots and lots of discoveries and inventions of high-tech, guiding the lost time and laid the foundation for all contemporary inventions have had one goal is to serve humanity and the challenge of evil,

ignorance and disease.

Did you know he was the invention of the first robot in the 12th

century AD?

Yes, this happened at the hands of the inventor Badi'ozaman bin Razi Jazari he invented the first mobile robot for service in homes

Did so when asked the Prince of Diyarbakir making machine is spared for a butler whenever he wishes to ablution

And he made his machine as a boy standing upright in one hand water jug in the other towel and turban bird If it's prayer time warbling bird then advanced server about Prince and hurt him water from a jug by a certain amount If finished ablution give him the towel and then goes back to his place and the bird sings.

Jazari's book named for science and the useful work contained tens of fees for the machines operate mechanical engineering and water resources, including time, including the robot, including the machine, including the safe ablution with figures

القادمون - The Arrivals Arabic (قائمة تشغيل)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sun, 21 Jul 2013 02:03:00 +0200

"Einstein the Arabs" died poisoned

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Tue, 7 May 2013 23:34:00 +0200

Professor Ali Mustafa Mosharafa

One of the scientists who found their bodies covered with question marks. He died on January 16, 1950 in a very primitive way .. Poison.

May be the Egyptian monarchy at that time role in the killing, especially if we know that the professor. Senior he formed the group under the name "Egypt's youth," it includes a large number of intellectuals, scientists and students, and was designed to exclude system Farouk monarchy and declare an independent Arab Republic of Egypt. And shot to is this secret group The news reached the royal palace, which gives the palace excuse to get rid of a professor. Mustafa. The World Zionist it is sufficient to say that the outlook for the student genius professor. Samira Moussa will not differ from their approach to mentor the most genius Mustafa superintendent, and played dirty Zionism played a physical liquidation, and one look was meant to get rid of them and like them.

And Mostafa Mosharafa is the world of mathematics and physics Egyptian born in 1898. In 1917 was chosen for a scientific expedition for the first time to England. He joined "Ali" Faculty Nottingham Nottingham then Faculty of the "King" in London, where he received a Bachelor of Science with honors in 1923. Then earned a Ph.D (Doctor of Philosophy) from the University of London in the shortest period allowed by the laws of the university. Egypt has returned to the order of the ministry, and was appointed as a teacher at the Supreme teachers, then traveled back to England and received a Doctor of Science degree D.Sc was the first Egyptian to get it. In 1925 he returned to Egypt, and was appointed professor of Applied Mathematics at the Faculty of Science at the University of Cairo, and then grant the degree of "Professor" in 1926 despite the objections of the university law to grant title to anyone who is less than thirty. Appointed professor "Ali honorable" Dean of the Faculty in 1936 and was elected to the deanship four times sequences, also elected in December 1945 as an agent of the university. Research began Dr. "Ali honorable" take their place in scientific journals and old did not exceed fifteen years. In London's Royal University of King's College has published the first five research on quantum theory for which they received my degree Ph.D (PhD) and Dsc. (The Doctor of Science). Kanalastaz honorable made the first scientific research on finding a vacuum gauge, where it was based on vacuum engineering theory of "Oenchen" subject only to the movement of a particle moving in the gravitational field. We have added new theories to explain radiation from the sun, but the theory of Dr. supervisor at radiation and the speed of the principal theories and the cause of his fame and universality, as demonstrated by Dr. honorable that Article radiation in origin, and can be considered as two for one thing becomes one of the other .. I have this theory paved the material world to turn to atomic radiation.

Dr. "Ali" one of the few who knew the secret of the fragmentation of corn and one of the scientists who fought used in the war .. It was first added a new idea is that hydrogen can be made from such a bomb .. However, he did not wish to make bomb Aloedrugenih, which is what happened years after his death in the United States and Russia .. Research estimates, "Ali honorable" excellence in quantum theories, corn and radiation, mechanics and thermodynamics about fifteen search .. The total drafts of scientific research before his death to about two hundred .. Perhaps Dr. was collected intends to get out on the Nobel Prize in mathematics. Was invited by the German scientist Albert Einstein originally to participate in the dumping of research related to maize in 1945 as a visiting professor for a year, but he apologized, saying: "In the national needs to generation"

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Tue, 7 May 2013 21:34:00 +0200

Professor Ali Mustafa Mosharafa
One of the scientists who found their bodies covered with question marks. He died on January 16, 1950 in a very primitive way .. Poison.
Prof. Ali Mostafa Mosharafa - the first Egyptian to participate in space research, and even more importantly, it was one of the disciples of the world Albert Einstein, and it was one of his most important aides in access to the theory of relativity, and was a professor. Honorable title of "Einstein the Arabs", and now the circumstances of his untimely death too vague, and all the surrounding circumstances indicate that he was murdered either by a representative of King Farouk, or at the hands of international Zionism, and each cause.
May be the Egyptian monarchy at that time role in the killing, especially if we know that the professor. Senior he formed the group under the name "Egypt's youth," it includes a large number of intellectuals, scientists and students, and was designed to exclude system Farouk monarchy and declare an independent Arab Republic of Egypt. And shot to is this secret group The news reached the royal palace, which gives the palace excuse to get rid of a professor. Mustafa. The World Zionist it is sufficient to say that the outlook for the student genius professor. Samira Moussa will not differ from their approach to mentor the most genius Mustafa superintendent, and played dirty Zionism played a physical liquidation, and one look was meant to get rid of them and like them.
And Mostafa Mosharafa is the world of mathematics and physics Egyptian born in 1898. In 1917 was chosen for a scientific expedition for the first time to England. He joined "Ali" Faculty Nottingham Nottingham then Faculty of the "King" in London, where he received a Bachelor of Science with honors in 1923. Then earned a Ph.D (Doctor of Philosophy) from the University of London in the shortest period allowed by the laws of the university.
Egypt has returned to the order of the ministry, and was appointed as a teacher at the Supreme teachers, then traveled back to England and received a Doctor of Science degree D.Sc was the first Egyptian to get it.
In 1925 he returned to Egypt, and was appointed professor of Applied Mathematics at the Faculty of Science at the University of Cairo, and then grant the degree of "Professor" in 1926 despite the objections of the university law to grant title to anyone who is less than thirty.
Appointed professor "Ali honorable" Dean of the Faculty in 1936 and was elected to the deanship four times sequences, also elected in December 1945 as an agent of the university.
Research began Dr. "Ali honorable" take their place in scientific journals and old did not exceed fifteen years. In London's Royal University of King's College has published the first five research on quantum theory for which they received my degree Ph.D (PhD) and Dsc. (The Doctor of Science).
Kanalastaz honorable made the first scientific research on finding a vacuum gauge, where it was based on vacuum engineering theory of "Oenchen" subject only to the movement of a particle moving in the gravitational field.
We have added new theories to explain radiation from the sun, but the theory of Dr. supervisor at radiation and the speed of the principal theories and the cause of his fame and universality, as demonstrated by Dr. honorable that Article radiation in origin, and can be considered as two for one thing becomes one of the other .. I have this theory paved the material world to turn to atomic radiation.
Dr. "Ali" one of the few who knew the secret of the fragmentation of corn and one of the scientists who fought used in the war .. It was first added a new idea is that hydrogen can be made from such a bomb .. However, he did not wish to make bomb Aloedrugenih, which is what happened years after his death in the United States and Russia ..
Research estimates, "Ali honorable" excellence in quantum theories, corn and radiation, mechanics and thermodynamics about fifteen search .. The total drafts of scientific research before his death to about two hundred .. Perhaps Dr. was collected intends to get out on the Nobel Prize in mathematics.
Was invited by the German scientist Albert Einstein originally to participate in the dumping of research related to maize in 1945 as a visiting professor for a year, but he apologized, saying: "In the national needs to generation"

History of Islam Sciences

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Wed, 31 Oct 2012 00:00:00 +0200

History of science is a actual conduct as its name signifies, and as such it is sometimes black by historians’ biases. There are analytical issues that defied attempts to ability the accuracy about them such as the aboriginal analysis of nitric acid, the analysis of alcohol, the aboriginal conception of atomic gunpowder, the aboriginal cannon, how the ambit accomplished Europe, and the catechism of whether the columnist of the Latin works of Giber was Giber Ban Hayyan or a Latin author.

Even a specific Latin columnist is afresh appropriate to alter the pseudo-Giber.

History of science cannot be accounting on the base of assumptions and conjectures. This cardboard will abridge the after-effects of a contempo analysis into this problem. It is hoped that it will active historians of science into alarmingly re-examining this accomplished catechism again.

Transmission of Arabic abracadabra into the Latin West – a abrupt review

The works attributed to Jabir bin Hayyan are actual ample in number. Giber’s works awning about every acreage of acquirements abnormally alchemy. There are about several treatises on applied abracadabra attributed to Giber that became accepted alone in the accomplished few decades.

The doubts aloft by Paul Kraus on the antecedent of the Giberian bulk and the agitation that ensued accept no address on our analysis into the agent of Geber’s Latin works. It does not bulk whether Giber himself was the columnist or a after pseudo-Giber. Similarly the religious behavior of Geber do not affect his scholarship and has no appulse on our investigation.

Before the adaptation of the Arabic works into Latin, abracadabra was alien in the Latin West. Robert of Chester accomplished in the year 1144 the aboriginal adaptation from Arabic of a book on alchemy, Libber de blended one abracadabra “The Book of the Composition of Abracadabra ”, which is the argument of a chat amid the abbot Maryanus (Morienus) and Prince Khalid bin Yazid (d. 704 AD). Until recently, doubts were casting on the captivation of Khalid ibn Yazid in abracadabra and on his appointment with Maryanus. Even the adaptation by Robert of Chester was questioned, and a historian of science like Julius Ruska attributed the Libber de blended one alchemies to an Italian of abundant after date. But these doubts were expelled afresh with the analysis of the Arabic aboriginal of the Latin work.

Between the aboriginal adaptation of Robert of Chester in 1144, and 1300 some added important Arabic actinic works were translated into Latin including, the Turba Philosophorum, The Secret of Creation of Apollonius of Tyana, the Tabula Smaragdina, De Perfecto Magisterio attributed to Aristotle, De anima in arte alchemies attributed to Bin Sina, De Aluminibus et Salibus and the Book of Secrets, both of al-Razi, and genitalia of the Book of Seventy of Geber. And several added work.

One actinic work, the Libber claritatis, ascribed to Geber, appeared in Latin in the aftermost third of the thirteenth century. During this aeon the Libber misericordiae (considered to be a adaptation of Kitab al-rahma) had appeared Additionally about the year 1300, the Summa Perfectionism absolute (Sum of Perfection) address the name of Geber, emerged. This book is usually accompanied by three or four added treatises which backpack the name of Geber: De investigate one perfectionism (The Analysis of Perfection), De ad-lib one veritatis (The Invention of Verity), Libber fornacum (The Book of Furnaces), and sometimes the Testamentum (The Testament). The name of Geber became accepted as a aftereffect of these treatises. The Summa, in particular, was so acknowledged that it became the capital actinic argument book of medieval Europe. This book and the treatises associated with it were decidedly notable for their accuracy and abandon from mysticism and allegory. Naturally they appealed to applied alchemists and they exerted a abundant access on Western chemists until the acceleration of avant-garde chemistry. The name of Geber in its Latin anatomy "Geber" became aback a best acclaimed one.

The actualization of the Geber problem

Towards the end of the nineteenth aeon Berthelot came out with a antecedent that the Latin works of Geber were accounting by a European alchemist who acclimated the name of Geber to accord accent to his work... These angle were proclaimed in Bertha lot’s massive assignment of three volumes (La Chimie au moyen age, Paris, 1893). Bertha lot was the best affecting historian of allure in France, and he enjoyed abundant ascendancy and authority. Holmyard, as we shall anon see, had arise several accessories arduous the assumptions of Bertha lot. Others additionally like Stapleton and departing ton aloft doubts as well... The capital assumptions of Berthalot

The assumptions of Berthalot are broadcast in the assorted capacity of his three volumes, abnormally in volumes I and III, but Chapter X of aggregate I, (pages 336-50), actualize his capital hypotheses. Several writers had abbreviated these assumptions and with the access of time they were adapted by his supporters after abnormal from his band of thinking.

This analysis will advice us in discussing anniversary acceptance independently.

First Assumption

There are no Arabic Originals

Second Assumption

The Latin Works were attributed to Geber because of his aerial acceptability amid the Latins.

Under this acceptance we shall altercate accession annual of Berthalot: that no absolute citation of Geber is fabricated by Albertus Magnus or Vincent de Beauvais, (the pre-sumption actuality that the Latin works of Geber were accordingly not accepted to these two alchemists.

Third Assumption

a -In the Arabic treatises of Geber the accent is ambiguous and allegoric.

b -One does not appointment in the Arab works of Geber absolute formulae for the alertness of metals, or salts, or some added substances.

Fourth Assumption

The appearance of the Summa recalls that of the schoolmen.

Fifth Assumption

The Summa does not accommodate any Muslim expressions while they are absurd in Geber’s Arabic texts.

Sixth Assumption

The Summa contains an annual of the arguments of those who denied the achievability of transmutation. Of this one finds no trace of it in the Arabic treatises of Geber.

Seventh Assumption

a- (All the Summa) "is of a compactness of anticipation and expression, alien to the above authors, in accurate the Arab Geber.”

c- No absolute doctrines or facts are stated, no appearance is quoted.

d- While the Arabic texts acknowledgment the apparent and the abstruse commodity yet accession allotment of these doctrines misses absolutely and appropriately appears to accord to a added avant-garde period. There is no allusion in the Arabic texts to the sulphur and mercury approach of the bearing of metals.

e- In the assessment of the columnist (of the Latin works), there abide three accustomed attempt of metals: sulphur, arsenic and mercury. This is, actually, a fresh approach consecutive to the theories of Avicenna. .

Eighth Assumption:

The beneath opuscula of Investigate one perfectionism, Invention veritatis and Libber fornacum are alone extracts and summaries of the Summa. They carbon the aforementioned affairs and operations with the accession of added avant-garde abstracts and facts such as the names of (1) saltpeter, (2) alkali of tartar, (3) bedrock alum, (4) calamus alum; and (5) the mineral acids (dissolving waters) abnormally nitric acid. Also, the Arabic treatises which buck the name of Geber bin Hayyan do not acknowledgment these abstracts or the alertness of nitric acid. These discoveries abide alone in the Latin works of Geber, and they arise to be adopted to the Arabic works and subsequent. Refutations of Bertha lot’s assumptions

Since Bertha lot came out with his assumptions in 1893, there appeared several criticisms to that acceptance by some eminent historians of allure and abracadabra that were added abreast in Arabic allure and abracadabra than Bertha lot himself.

One of the ancient criticisms was accounting in 1905 by Henry E. Stapleton who was a acclaimed historian of Arabic allure and who contributed significantly, through his abundant papers, to the advance of our ability of the subject. We shall accept the befalling to altercate Stapleton’s cardboard in our present study.

But the greatest bulk of criticism and acknowledgment was launched by Eric John Holm backyard who was additionally a acclaimed historian of allure with a complete ability of Arabic. In a alternation of affidavit that appeared amid 1922 and 1928 Holm backyard dealt thoroughly with anniversary of Bertha lot’s assumptions proving their invalidity. Our assignment actuality can be advised as an addendum of Holm yard’s assignment admitting the access of about 80 years in between. We are advertisement actuality the after-effects of fresh allegation based mainly on the analysis of fresh Arabic works of Geber, while apropos to Holmyard and others whenever necessary.

R. Departing ton. Ernst Darmstaedter in an commodity that followed the advertisement of the German adaptation of Geber Latin texts in 1922, wondered why the Libber fornacum cannot be a adaptation from Arabic? In added accessories he alluded to some works attributed to Geber as re-workings by the translators in one commodity he accepted that some genitalia of the Summa appear, to be from Arabic origin, apparently al-Razi[. At that time (1923), Geber’s works on applied abracadabra were not yet known.

After the agitation of the twenties had abated, some historians of allure such as Robert Multhauf were not abundant assertive by the antecedent of the Latin columnist and they declared in their monographs that the Geber works represent Arabic abracadabra and chemistry. Some others took a aloof position by advertisement the Latin works back discussing Geber and advertisement at the aforementioned time the assumptions of Bertha lot.

Islam underlying science program produced by German TV

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Fri, 27 Aug 2010 22:56:00 +0200

The film is produced channel RTL, German, talk about achievements and scientific inventions of Muslim Scholars, and Europeans may have stolen and translated into the languages and make use of them and deliberately hide the sources of Islamic real, and write European sources instead, which is the largest thefts in history
The film shows how the Muslim scholars proficient in all areas, including medicine to carry out complex surgical operations, while the Church in Europe the Dark Ages, dealing with epilepsy patients, for example the patient's head shaved and Cross Tattoo on the head!!!!Reveals this wonderful movie about the virtues of Islamic civilization to the world and threw light on many of the science and inventions that were discoverers Muslim scholars, as well as exposing the Iestela Western sciences and discoveries was credited with the first and last yet a God of the Muslim scholars and all of this admittedly Germans (and saw A witness from her family).

The movie also:

Battle of Hattin and tactical military genius of Saladin.
The invention of safe and magnifying glass.
The invention of the first bomb and the first tank missile and the first Muslim.
Construction of the first water system up and disposal of all the houses in the cities, through the pump screw.
The invention of medical devices including a device for measuring the amount of blood emanating from the artery.

And other and other and other ..

Genius Woman(called "Miss Corey" The Egyptian)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Wed, 17 Mar 2010 14:53:00 +0200

Samira Moussa

The first atom scientist dubbed the Egyptian-Arab and Corey Mays on behalf of the East, the first lecturer in the Faculty of Science, Fouad I University (now Cairo University).

Samira Moussa was born in March 3, 1917, the village of Grand Center Senbo Zefta, where he learned since childhood to read and write, and preserved parts of the Koran, as they were fond of reading newspapers and has a strong memory, entitling them to save the thing as soon as read.

After moving with her father to Cairo, I went to school, "Palace of Desire" primary, "the girl's school supervision" secondary special and is built on the establishment and management "Prophet Moses" women's well-known political activist.

In 1932 Samira draws a book in the simplification of algebra to her colleagues in the study, which is in the first grade secondary school, and got first place in the baccalaureate-level Egyptian country in 1935.

I went to university and graduated at the Faculty of Sciences in 1939, cum laude with honors, and objected to the university administration on her appointment as Lecturer. Where it was not yet decided on the appointment of women faculty, but Dr. Ali supervisor first Egyptian he is dean of the Faculty of Science insisted on the appointment and threatened to resign from the university if it does not, assembled the Council of Ministers issued a resolution set in the university.

I got a master's degree from Cairo on the subject entitled "Reaching out to the greenhouse gases" with distinction, and then traveled on a mission to Britain, studied the nuclear radiation, and obtained a doctorate in "X-rays and their impact on various materials" and the duration of the mission three years.

But managed to get a doctorate in less than two years, was the first Arab woman to get this class, which they called "Miss Corey," The Egyptian, and used the remainder of the mission in the study of maize and can be used for peaceful purposes and treatment. And she said: "I will address the maize aspirin such as medical treatment."

I got a scholarship to study corn in the United States in 1951 at the University of California, showed Genius unrivaled in its research, and allowed her to visit the secret lab corn in the United States, and received offers to get the American nationality and remain in the United States, but refused to do so and confirmed that they will return to Egypt.

Samira Moussa was the participation in public affairs in Egypt, participating in student demonstrations in 1932, and participated in the Assembly of the students of general education which aimed to eradicate illiteracy in the countryside, and was a member of the Association for the Advancement of social and for Save the Children displaced.

Samira Moussa died first Egyptian scientist atom in a mysterious car in the United States in August 5, 1952 at the age of 35 years.

Source: General Authority for Information - Egypt

Al-IDRISI

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Mon, 22 Feb 2010 21:52:00 +0200

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Idris al-Sharif Al-Idrisi AL-Sharifi, or Arab world ends attributed to Hassan ibn Ali and Fatima al-Zahra Daughter of Mohammed bin Abdullah peace be upon him, hence the title for Shareef attributed to the Messenger of God.

Coordinates of a senior in history and founders of the science of geography, as he wrote in history, literature, poetry, and plant and studied philosophy, medicine, and the stars, in Cordoba,

Born in the city of Ceuta in Morocco in 493 AH (1100 AD) and died in 559 AH in 1166, Learning Albelq and toured the country visited the Hijaz (Saudi Arabia) and Egypt. Reached the coast of France and England Traveled to Constantinople and the shores of Asia Minor, He lived a while in Sicily and as a guest of king Roger II, left at the end of his days, to return to his home town of Ceuta, where he died.

Drawings and maps used in other statements of the European Renaissance. Where in order to identify trends in upland rivers and lakes, and also including information on major cities in addition to the borders of States

Idrissi chose to move to Sicily after the fall of the Islamic government, because the King Norman at the time "Roger II" was a lover of knowledge. Explanation Idrisi for Roger space land in the site using the egg to represent the earth, semi-Idrissi Earth Center for Egg surrounded by Egg whites just as she roams the earth in the sky surrounded by galaxies.

The king Roger II of Sicily has money to work engraved map of the world, known as the "registration plate" on a circle of silver. On one occasion he described the development of the Sudan, and the status of cities such as "sites quite accurately, as it is on the ground, although it was only by listening to some of the stories and words. Idrissi use latitude or horizontal lines on the map and the globe that manufacture, the meridians used by him only to re-Idrissi audited to explain the difference between the classes. Destroyed the ball during the civil unrest in Sicily after the death of the King "Roger II"

Select the source of River Nile, Al-Idrisi, in a particular location point of intersection of River Nile under the equator, and this is the correct location. Egypt before entering the tributaries of the River Nile meet in Khartoum, Sudan, the Nile River is formed from two rivers are the White Nile and Blue Nile are the rivers through the territory of the Sudan and meet in Khartoum, which lies under the equator. That the location of the River Nile eliminates the Ptolemaic theory that the source of River Nile is a hill in the moon

Titles

Shareef title on account of the Messenger of Allah Muhammad, peace and blessings of his daughter Fatima Zahra no peace.
Adjective al-skulai to the island of Sicily, he took his place after the fall of the Islamic State.
And the title of the Arabs strap on proportion of the large geographical Greco Strapon. And Mustafa Al-Idrisi

His

Al- Idrissi, his famous (Excursion of the longing in crossing horizons) also called (Book Rjar) or (Alrjari book) because Rjar King is the King of Sicily, who asked him as she is the author asked him to make a ball of silver engraved with a picture of the seven regions, and said that the Chamber Silver crashed in the revolution was in Sicily, after a short time to complete it, or the book it has become the most famous monuments of Arabic geographical, according to information from the Europeans on the great Levant, as reported by him to the Orientals, he took him two and transferred maps, and some sections translated into different languages.

In the year that set the book known as Al-Idrisi, the king died Rjar Gliam or succeeded by Wilhelm I, and remained on its position in the IDRISI tiles, and he composed another book of the king called in geography (Rod company, self-outing) or (Book kingdoms and routes), but did not know him online This manuscript is in the library Hakim oglu Ali Pasha in Istanbul. Idrissi said the book as well as called in the vocabulary (the whole plant to the attributes of sundries), and reminded him another book entitled (Lance Uprooted and Rod El-Farag).

Ibn al-Haytham

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Tue, 16 Feb 2010 03:43:00 +0200

Is Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, and engineer, who died in the optical e 430, was born in Basra in 354 AH probably. He moved to Egypt, where he stayed until his death. According to the book (news wise) for Al-gafti on the lips of Ibn al-Haytham: (if you worked in Egypt for its achievement pursuant to get benefit in each of the cases of the increase and decrease). Bringing saying this to the ruler of Egypt, the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim, so he sent him some money secretly, and asked him to come to Egypt Ibn al-Haytham Patriarch agreed to the request and traveled to Egypt, where the Governor ordered him to accomplish what God promised. Ibn al-Haytham began to study the river along its course, and what amounted to descend near Aswan Nile water goes into it in all its aspects, he realized that he was delusional and hasty in what he claimed estimated and that he is unable to fulfill his promise. Then returned to the Governor, apologizing for God, before the excuse and otherwise one of the seats However, Ibn al-Haytham thought the ruling pretended satisfaction satisfied, it was feared that Liquide him, and pretended to go mad, and persisted in the demonstration until the death of the Fatimid period. After his death, he returned to pretend madness, and out of his home, and dwelt on the door of the Dome of the Al-Azhar mosque, rolled up the rest of his authors and investigators and researchers in the fields of science, was his tremendous achievements.

And is described by Ibn Abi Usaibia in his book (the eyes of the news in the layers of doctors) says: (Ibn al-Haytham was the preferred defense, a strong intellect, broad knowledge, not matched by one of the people of his time in sports science, and some of it. He was always engaging, many of classification, a multitude asceticism ...).

Ibn al-Haytham large number of books covering various purposes of science The most important of these books: Book of Optics, Book of the Whole of the assets of the account, the user account transactions, the authors explain the origins of Euclid in geometry and number, the user in the analysis of engineering problems, the book forms the Crescent, an article in the analysis and synthesis, an article in circles Brcar bone, an article in properties of the triangle on the column, an article in the light, an article in the Holocaust mirrors, an article in the mirrors of the Holocaust Chambers, an article in the ball of the Holocaust, an article on how the shadows, an article in the Indian account, the question in the space, is of the ball, a book in the halo and the Rainbow , a picture book eclipse, the moon differing views, see the planets and the moon landscape, called the True account, altitudes of the planets, a book in the world. Some argue that Ibn al-Haytham to leave books in theology, medicine, philosophy, and others.

The Book of Optics was a revolution in the world of optics; Son of al-Haytham did not adopt the theories of Ptolemy being suck by some modification, but rejected a number of theories in the science of light, after reaching new theories became the nucleus of modern optics. We are trying to stop at the following main views contained in the book:

• Ptolemy claimed that the vision is done by the radiation emitted from the eye to the visible object; Subsequent scholars have adopted this theory. As Ibn al-Haytham came to blow up this theory in the book scenes, he said that the vision is done by the radiation emitted from the visible object at eye sighted.

• After a series of tests conducted by Ibn al-Haytham showed that the optical beam spread in a straight line within the central homogeneous.

• Ibn al-Haitham discovered the phenomenon of reflection of light, and the phenomenon of turning light any deviation from the photo place in the event of the passage of light rays in the center to the center of a particular non-homogeneous with him. The smaller the hole, if passed light rays in accordance with the angle from the center to the center of another non-homogeneous with him.

• Development of Ibn al-Haytham research in relation to zoom lenses, and thus paved the way for the use of lenses in dealing with various eye defects.

• The most important achievements of Ibn al-Haitham eye autopsy, it was explained fully, and the functionality of each section.

Reached Ibn al-Haytham to find his way that they are sight sighted, if they wanted to compare the two bodies after one of his eyesight is not connected by an object is visible, it would seem that his two closest is run, and the longer is the closest. For example, if he was standing in a vast plain extends to the horizon, and if see the city in the horizon (ground up the body of a visual tool sight in the city), and if he sees at the same time overlooking the moon over the mountain close to it (no visible body up sight tool the moon), the moon in this case seems closer to him and two of the city.

History of Islam Sciences(Ibn al-Banna)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sat, 13 Feb 2010 03:43:00 +0200

Ibn al-Banna al-Marrakchi

Abu Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Othman al-Azdi known as Ibn construction morocco (721 AH - 654 AH / 1321 to 1256) was a Muslim born in the city of Marrakech, known as the son of the building relative to the grandfather who Profession builder. Arab innovative in the science of benefits has emerged in particular in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and science hidden, as well as in medicine.

Spent most of his life in his hometown of Marrakesh, and therefore attributed to it, and would have taught grammar, hadeeth and fiqh (science of the Islamic religion), and then went to Fez, and studied medicine, astronomy and mathematics. One of the teachers ibn makhlouf Sijilmassi astronomer, and ibn Hijleh mathematicians. The assessment of al-Banna was the son of the kings of the State Marinid in Morocco, who brings to Fez repeatedly. He died in the city of Marrakech in 721 AH / 1321.

Professors

Receiving an education in the era of the language and the law and jurisprudence in the cities of Marrakesh and Fez, at the hands of a group of modern scientists such as Abu Ishaq ibn Mansur, Abu Bakr Alwlosi, Abu Musa Alhernati. In astronomy, ibn Makhlouf Sijilmassi astronomer, In Fez, receiving an education in mathematics at the hands of his mentor, Ben Hijleh, and the back of his genius since an early age, focused his life to learn the mathematics of the expense and reparation and engineering.

Scientific Contributions

He quit mathematics earned him great popularity among his contemporaries, he received favors in the court of the state of Bani Marine in Fez was called to teach arithmetic, geometry, algebra. He was notorious for relying on the numbers, known Indian Baghabarip figures Andalusia known in Arabic, also known aspects of applied mathematics and music.

From the contributions of Ibn al-Banna in the account, it was explained theories difficult and intractable rules, and has extensive research on fractures, and establish rules for the collection of square numbers and cube, and a Base anonymous first-class to solve equations, business calculations, and enter some amendment to the method known as "accidentally" one and put this on the form of law.

It says in the Islamic knowledge that the Ibn al-Banna has outpaced the previous scholars of Islam in the east in mathematics, especially in the calculation of fractions.

His

Ibn al-Banna left us a number of books numbered eighty-two was the most composed in arithmetic, mathematics, geometry and algebra and astronomy, astrology, lost, mostly only a few of them, most notably:

Authors summarize the work of the account: recognize "Smith" and "Sarton" as one of the best books that appeared in the account. Western has been working to the end of the sixteenth century AD, and wrote many of the scholars of Islam explanations him, and I quote from Western scholars, and scientists interested in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Has been translated into French in 1864 by Marre, translated and published in Rome. Has re-translated into French, Dr. Mohamed Souissi, and then publish the text and translation with the provision and the achievement of the year 1969.

Articles in the account, an examination of whole numbers and fractions, roots and proportionality
Assets and advances in algebra and interview
Book chapters in his obligatory prayers
Message in the spaces
Book astrolabe and use
Book Alessara in the evaluation of the planets
Platform for the student to modify the planets has made the Spanish Orientalist Vernet Gens introduction to the book and some chapters were translated into Spanish in 1952
Book of the provisions of the stars
Message in the roots of the deaf and collected and presented
Measuring surfaces
Introduction to Euclid

Has been issued by Professors Mohamed reporting, Ahmed Jabbar book entitled "The Life and Works of Ibn al-Banna," a publication of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Mohammed V University in Rabat in 2001, contains a comprehensive inventory of his works

History of Islam Sciences(Al-Biruni)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Fri, 12 Feb 2010 02:48:00 +0200

Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni Muslim scholar was born in a suburb of the capital Cath Khorezm (Uzbekistan) in September about a year (326 AH, 973 CE, he moved to Gorgan at the age of 25 about 388 e 962 AD where he joined the tiles Sultan Qaboos bin Abu Hassan and Shams Excellencies, first deployed there It was written by the lingering effects of centuries of free and when he returned to his right to a footnote Prince Abu'l Abbas Ma'mun ibn Ma'mun Khorezm Shah entrusted him with some political functions because of his tongue and fluent in the fall of the Emirate, however Bin Mahmoud Saboktakin Governor Aznpaam 407 e wrought with a range of scholars to his court and the dissemination of its author's second major achievement (What of India accepted the argument in the mind) other authors also wrote two major (law Masoudi) and (Explanation of the early mining industry) died in 440 AH, 1048) and called orientalists naming Ptolemy Arabs.

Scientific Contributions

Recognizes the contribution of Al-Biruni in the various sciences, the pinpoint longitude and latitude, and discussed the question of whether the earth revolves on its axis or not, and discuss the specific weight, density and accurately as 18 species of precious stones and metals, and concluded that the speed of light is greater than the speed of sound, as he explained how the natural springs and artesian wells on the principle of hydrostatic.

Al-Biruni was the brightest scholar of his time in mathematics also recognizes that, "Smith" in the first part of his book "History of Mathematics". And besides that dabble in astronomy, and discuss the world and the provisions of the stars, develop a method to extract the amount of the Earth known to Western scholars as the "base-Biruni"; described the phenomena of the aurora and eclipse of the sun and other natural phenomena, referring to the side of the earth's rotation on its axis. Also was familiar with the knowledge of trigonometry, one of those who discussed the tripartite division of the angle.

The most important books

What of India accepted the argument in the mind (by Dr. Edward Sgu University of Berlin)
Absorption in the internal pressure the ball
Reasoning to transmit the meanings of the illusion systems
The public to know the essences

Al-Biruni in this book explain the gems and precious metals and stones, is one of the first to develop the specific weight of some metals and precious stones, said that many of the precious gems in the color look-alikes. The description of precious stones such as pearl, sapphire, emerald, diamonds, turquoise, agate, coral and Aljst (quartz) and other precious stones. It was also metals such as mercury, gold, silver, copper, iron and lead

Book extract strings from the department, the properties of the curved line

Most of his books have been translated into French, German, and English, and published in the nineteenth and twentieth

The story of invention the crank

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Fri, 12 Feb 2010 00:51:00 +0200

Earliest Application in 1206 by Al-Jazari

The crank is the most important single mechanical device after the wheel. It transforms continuous rotary motion into a reciprocating one. Hand operated cranks were known for centuries, but the incorporation of a crank-connecting rod system in a rotating machine had a different story.

The invention of the crank-connecting rod system is considered by historians of technology to be the most important mechanical device of the early fifteenth century in Europe. Bertrand Gille says that this system was unknown before that date and this had considerably limited the applications of mechanization

Conrad Keyser (d. c. 1405) described in his book Bellifortis a hand mill operated by the crank and connecting rod system. But Francesco Giorgio Martini (1439-1502) in his Treatise on architecture illustrated a saw for timber driven by a water wheel in which the crank and connecting rod system was applied for the first time in a continuously rotating machine. (Fig 1).

Leonardo da Vinci (d. 1519) incorporated a crank and rod in his designs. Ramelli also used the crank-connecting rod in a pump in his book of 1588.

In 1206 the crank-connecting rod system was fully developed in two of al-Jazari’s water raising machines. This is about three centuries prior to Francesco di Giorgio Martini. In al-Jazari’s fourth machine (Fig 2) the draw bar of an animal rotates a vertical axle. On this axle is a gear wheel meshing at right angles with a second wheel mounted on a horizontal axle which has a crank fitted to it. The free end of the crank enters a connecting-rod under the channel of a flume-beam swapped the scoop of which is in a pool.

Al-Jazari’s fourth machine (Fig 2)

As the animal walks in a circle the horizontal axle is turned by the gears and the end of the crank slides in the hinged connecting rod causing it to oscillate around its hinge and thus causing the swapped to rise and fall. Fig 3 is a line drawing of the mechanism for this machine.

The other pump in which the crank-connecting rod system was used is al-Jazari’s piston suction pump (his fifth) which we discussed under the title The Origin of the Suction Pump in this site. We reproduce the illustration of this pump for convenience (Fig 4). We give also the illustration of a similar pump described by Taqi al-Din in 1551 A.D

History of Islam Sciences(Buno Musa)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Wed, 10 Feb 2010 00:43:00 +0200

Banu Musa

Mohammed and Ahmed (Abu Jaafar), al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Musa ibn Shakir, athletes and astronomers and practitioners tricks (mechanics), brothers Iranians, they lived in the ninth century AD, contact caliphate safe and excelled in the sciences, attracted around scientists, doctors and translators many.

Abu Jaafar Muhammad ibn Musa ibn Shaker (before 803 to 873) has excelled in astronomy, engineering, geography and physics.
Ahmed bin Musa bin Shakir (803 to 873) has excelled in engineering and mechanics.
Al-Hasan ibn Musa ibn Shakir (810 to 873) has excelled in engineering and geography.

Life of Benu Moses and taught them

His father Musa bin Shakir mines and in the service of Al-Maamon, when he became close connection with him and documented him Al-Maamon advised him before his death, his children, Ahmed and Mohamed Hassan, Recommended them Al-maamon to an astronomical in the House of Wisdom, Yahya ibn Abi Mansur, who taught mathematics, astronomy and science tricks (mechanics), Excelled Mohammed and Hassan - which informed them died 873 AD - in the first two (mathematics and astronomy), and excelled in the latter Ahmed (mechanics).

Banu Musa collect huge sums of money, and pulled around them, scientists, doctors, translators, many of them Honin ibn Ishaq, Thabit ibn Kora, and did not hoard something on science, and they Travel many of the Byzantine state to get on the books, and set up in the lavish palace in Baghdad observatory full and complete, and they had at the time of Al-Maamon tremendous influence, they are to be assigned projects astronomical, mechanical, translating books, and in turn commissioned by the them by.

Business

Having examined the Banu Musa in the centers of gravity, and identified ways to use the body weight of the laptop, any point that balance then the weight of the body and the cradle. And created a different method of dividing the angle into three equal sections, and the formation of elliptical shape two pin users and a string length equal to twice the length of the distance between the two pin and the Registry is moving at the end of the string stretched, as well as select the Banu Musa and scientists the House of Wisdom in Baghdad degree meridian (the circumference of the earth) was much higher precision, and chosen for this purpose a piece of flat in Sinjar desert, and Registered high Arctic at the point of their choice, and then hit the wedge, and they tied a long rope and marched northward until they reached a place of increased high pole height, the first degree is complete, they smite a new wedge, then measured the distance between the two wedges, and found that one-degree offset by a distance of 66 miles and two-thirds, and repeated this process in the south and found the same thing. In this way, unique set circumference of the earth slightly less than the amount it Aratostin in Alexandria 230 BC. Or about 24 thousand miles, and identified a tendency zodiac about 23 degrees and 35 seconds, and appreciated the initiative of the equinox and fifty four seconds, a little more than the truth.

Their books and their marks

It is almost impossible to separate the work of the Banu Musa separately, or on the work of their assistant’s scientists who have worked with them. Perhaps the most important successors translations of Archimedes is a book (on the measurement of flat and round shapes), translated by Gerardo of Cremona into Latin in the 12 century AD under the name (sayings of the Banu Shaker), and examined the most prominent leaders of the European renaissance such as Roger Bacon, and they, too (book tricks), sometimes called (tricks Banu Musa), which recently moved into English, this book is one of the first books written in Arabic in the science of tricks or mechanics, and with about a hundred in the installation of various mechanical means, and also have the book (in the centers of weightlifting), and (in the book scales gold), and (A book in the corner to the apportionment of the three sections), and (A book in an area of acre).

History of Islam Sciences(Taqi al-Din al-Shami)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Tue, 9 Feb 2010 21:56:00 +0200

Taqi al-Din

Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn maarof Shami (1526 Damascus, Syria - 1585). The Ottoman military works, one of the Arab Muslims who had taken all of science: the scientist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer and inventor, and maker of clocks and watches, mathematically and physically, agricultural experts and criminally, a doctor and a pharmacist, a Muslim ruler and maintained for Prayer in the mosque, a Muslim philosopher and author theology, and school teacher. Was the author of more than 90 books on various topics, which include: astronomy, astrology, clocks, engineering, mathematics, mechanics, optics, natural philosophy; Despite this, the only 24 books had been saved from these books. Has been appreciated and widely known because of his reputation, which was contemporary scholars of his time in the Ottoman Empire as the greatest the world on the earth.

Described one of his books: High road machinery in spirituality in 1551, describes the essential parts, which consists of steam turbines, the steam engine, earlier this most important and famous discovery of steam power by Giovanni Branca in 1629. Taqi al-Din was also known for his invention the pump cylinder six years in 1559, and his invention of various types of micro-hours (including the first mechanical alarm clock, and the first astronomical clock going strong spring, and the first wristwatch calculated time in minutes, and the first clock that calculates the time in minutes and seconds), so of the year in 1556 to 1580, and the early invention of the telescope for some time before the year in 1574, and created the Observatory astronomer Taqi al-Din Istanbul in the city of Istanbul in 1577, and his astronomical there until 1580.

Biography

Taqi al-Din was born in 1521 AD in the city of Damascus, Syria, who studied in Damascus, Cairo, Istanbul and became a judge, and his words Muslim and kept for Prayer in the mosque, and a teacher at the school for some time; while the publication in some scientific books during this time. In 1571, he moved to Istanbul to become a staff astronomer at the court of Sultan Selim II, Ruler of the Ottoman Empire. When he died of Sultan Selim II, and the Crown on the Throne: Sultan Murad III, Taqi al-Din was persuaded to donate to build a new observatory on the basis that it will help in the development of accurate astrological predictions. The project began in 1575 AD, and completed construction in 1577 AD; about the same time of the completion of construction of an observatory of the world Ooraniburg Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. This became known as the Observatory Taqi al-Din Istanbul Astronomical Observatory, which was built to compete with Oolog Peak Astronomical Observatory in the city of Samarkand. Astronomical Observatory in the new Justice Taqi al-Din Zij astronomical tables of old, and specifically connubial Royal Oolog Beck;, which describes the movements of the sun and the moon and the stars and planets. In any case, within months of the completion of the Astronomical Observatory, Taqi al-Din saw the emergence of the comet, but believed that the comet appeared a herald good; and predicting the triumph of the Ottoman army. This prediction was wrong, and for this reason: the view of the Sultan that it is pointless to be working from the use of the observatory he decided to destroy it to save money to spend on the war effort. The only observatory to earth in the year 1580

Mechanical Works

Taqi al-Din wrote the following in the literature on the mechanics:

1. Planets are rare in the development of Alpennekmat periodic (in 1556 or 1559): It is the first book Ottoman talking about self-propelled machines. Taqi al-Din discussed the various types of mechanical watches, from the viewpoint of engineering perspective - automated.

2. Hours in the science of water: Book of Hours of water.

3. Road Commissioner in Spiritual Machines (1551): The book covers six chapters, which speaks on topics water clocks, machines and lifting weights, machines and lifting water, fountains and brass band music in successive play, kettle drums, and irrigation equipment, and aerosols self-movement, which works strongly steam. Taqi al-Din focused on the structural engineering - mechanical hours that have already been tested by the brothers Moses and Aljzari, and a description of the water pump lifting the six-cylinder, and some machines for lifting weights, and the primitive model for steam turbine as the main engine of Sprayer self-rotation.

4. Message in the work of the balance of the doctor: a book about the balance of fluids, and weights and measures, and specific weight of materials. Book Description Scale Archimedes and the rest of the machines that physicists invented by Muslims.

Road Commissioner in Spiritual Machines

Vapor turbine, vaporizer self-propelled, steam crane

In 1551, Taqi al-Din invented a primitive model of steam turbine as a key driver for the first Sprayer self-rotation, which works strongly steam, smoke and flying. Taqi al-Din completed writing his book: Roads Commissioner in machinery spiritual year 1551 AD (959 AH). Books Taqi al-Din says: "Part VI: the manufacturing vaporizer which carries meat over fire so that it is about the same strength without any animal. Has been done by people in many ways, and one of these ways is to put the wheel of a number of blades at the end of vaporizer, and the adverse to place the wheel hollow pitcher made of copper with a closed and filled with water. Find the pitcher mouth opposite the wheel blades. Sets fire to the pitcher under the steam begins sprung from its crater restricted, going to run feather the wheel. When the pitcher becomes empty of water, bring near the cold water in a pot Find ceramic and crater pitcher immersed in cold water. Attraction will cause the heat all the water in a ceramic pot into the pitcher, and begin the management of steam feather wheel again. "

Six-cylinder pump (single cluster)

Taqi al-Din invented the pump is also six-cylinder engine (single cluster), the first machine has been described in his book: Roads Commissioner in machinery spirituality. Powered water pump - including components involved in the installation of the machine asked: valves, pipes and suction pipes and distributed, and the piston rods of lead weights, and cranes objecting endings cuneiform, and the camshaft on the axis of the scoop wheel and orbit water. Also used a mechanism related to the penis shaft crankshaft as well, which are similar to those pump-cylinder twin pistons supplied with mutual suction tubes, which was invented by former Aljzari in the year in 1206. Also included a pump Taqi al-Din single cluster on the vacuum as well, which is similar to the weight of the bullet is moving upwards, and pulling him the piston, the vacuum thus created which absorbs water through a valve to not see my tongue around a cylinder piston

Planets are rare in the development of Alpennekmat periodic

Alarm clocks mechanical

Invented the first mechanical clock alarm by Taqi al-Din. And description the alarm clock in the book: “Planets are rare in the development of Alpennekmat periodic", was published in 1556 AD or 1559 AD. Was able to watch alarm sounding in the time allotted, which was achieved by placing a wedge on the wheel disc on the time that he wants to hear one time and also by the production of a bell ding automation and resonance that starts on the time allotted

Astronomical time managed a strong spring of water

Taqi al-Din invented the first astronomical clock run strongly fountain. This is also one of the first mechanical watches are managed strongly fountain, and created almost at the same time, who created the Peter Hinlen time also, the year in 1556.

Pocket Watch strongly managed water fountain

Taqi al-Din also invented the first pocket watches, which run strongly fountain, after a short period of innovation similar to the hour by Peter Hinlen in the year in 1524. In any event, it is an hour Taqi al-Din the first hour measuring time in minutes, by incorporating the three-wheeled rotary for hours, degrees and minutes.

History of Islam Sciences (Bin Sina)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sat, 6 Feb 2010 01:48:00 +0200

Bin Sina

Is Abu Ali al-Hussein bin Abdullah bin Hassan bin Ali bin Sina, known Muslim scholar in medicine and philosophy and worked with them. Born in the village (Ovcnp) near Bukhara (Uzbekistan) of the father of the city of Balkh (Afghanistan now) mother in a village 370 AH (980 AD) and died in the city of Hamedan (in Iran for now) in 427 AH (1037 AD). Known as the Sheikh, President and called the prince of Western doctors, Father of Modern Medicine. He has written 200 books on various subjects, many of which focus on philosophy and medicine. The Bin Sina is one of the first books on medicine in the world and I have followed the approach or method of Hippocrates and Galen. The most famous work was healing and book of the law in medicine.

Early life

Afshna born in a village close to the steam of August Balkhi, and his father to follow the esoteric, as Bin Sina was attending the secret meetings and hold some of them in his house and is keen to attend the Bin Sina and his brother to those meetings, and Avicenna was not satisfied. Gone to the city of Bukhara and there he joined the tiles Sultan bin Mansoracommani Noah, who was assigned the follow-up to financial business of the Sultan.

Steam began in Bin Sina flight sciences, memorize the Koran and age did not exceed the tenth and then receiving an education in jurisprudence, literature, philosophy and medicine.

Event that was submitted to the Bukhara a specialized science and philosophy of logic called "Abu Abdullah Naieli," a mystical philosophers, and hosting of Bin Sina's father and asked him to teach a thing of the Bin Sina Sciences, what was this world only to devote himself to the disciple, and took upon lessons of the Book of the entrance to the discipline of logic known as "Iisagoji." What was most impressive Naieli of the student and his grandfather, while answering questions logical conundrum correct answers to almost Ataktr on the minds of the teacher. Bin Sina and continued with a mentor until he left this teacher Bukhara.

Bin Sina began genius from a young age, as he tells it which did not exceed eighteen treatment Sultan Nuh bin Mansur al-Samani, and she was the golden opportunity that allowed by Bin Sina, joining the tiles and placed the Sultan own library at the disposal of Bin Sina

Peripatetic

Avicenna was a lover of travel, to seek knowledge, he moved to Khiva and stayed there ten years and then move between the country and then migrated to Hamadan and stayed there for nine years

Philosophical thought

The philosophical thought of Abu Ali Bin Sina's Thought for the extension of the Farabi Farabi was taken from natural philosophy and philosophy of the divine conception of any assets and perception of the existence and taken from him in particular, the theory of the breasts and developed the theory of self-defense which is what is meant for.

He was saying the same principles advocated by al-Farabi by him that the world is old and eternal uncreated, and God knows colleges, not the trees, and denied that objects are with life in the Day of Resurrection. Has kufr ideas as a result of this al-Ghazali in his book "savior of the misguided" and said the same information by Bin Katheer in the beginning and end (12/43). The son of Imad gold nuggets (3 / 237) that his "healing" is not included on the philosophy of it gladdens the heart of the devout. The Sheikh al-Islam said it was the esoteric Ismaili who is not Muslims or Jews or Christians.

He said the bin al-kaim in Cavite:

He spent that God makes creation * OR LACK unturned and the second presence
Throne and the Holy and life and property and * the spheres, the two satellites
Land and sea, but the other * universes of view, and the body
All perish purely * not stay the effect of the shade
And returns a perishing again* also exist purely one's time re -
This resurrection and that principle has been * with some and they ascribe it to Koran
This is what led the Bin Sina and al- alii * said to his article misbelieving

There is no doubt that the man was with a suspicious mundane, but it was heading towards its cautiously and deliberately. It was narrated by Bin Abi Usaibia student sincere who was accompanied 25 years: that Bin Sina addresses the desires of his share of the world, and that overindulgence in sex extravagance was partly due to the deterioration of his health, and that when he completed the lessons of the night brought medicine drink, musical instruments, dicing continued for hours

Definition of the same

Bin Sina's philosophical importance lies in his theory of self and ideas in the philosophy of self-introductions to Bin Sina's self is the beginning Aristotelians.

Bin Sina's definition of the same: the first self-completeness body naturally to a life force which is generated on the one hand (this is the principle of power generated) and over (this principle a pullulant force) and fed (this is the principle of force carbonated); all of what he calls self-Plant.

Completeness is the first to know what the particles are moving will and this is what he calls self-fauna. Completeness is the first to know what the colleges and reasonable choice of intellectual and this are what he calls the human soul. Explain the definition: that is, in the above definition that the soul at the Bin Sina 3 plant / animal / human. Completeness first: means the first principle of a life force: I mean we have an object ready to accept the natural life principles of self-plant: grow and breed and feed on plants and do more than that. Principles of animal psychology: aware of the particles (for example, aware of a snake in front of him / person in front of him) will move the will of any orientation (for example, the lion of his own possible to jump to humans and swallowing). The principles of the human soul: aware of the colleges, namely, freedom of choice of intellectual property that we have to choose between different alternatives.

Bin Sina's conception of the origin of self: 1 - where they came from / 2 - relationship to body self / 3 - the fate of the soul. Is unclear at the Bin Sina, but perhaps the poem is the kind that reflect more than others from Bin Sina's view on the three issues. Poem composed of 4 sections to read clear answer to the three previous questions.

Proofs of the existence of self-Bin Sina:

Bin Sina has demonstrated the existence of self by:

1 - natural proof: The proof relies on the principle of movement and which are of two types: - the movement of coercive: batch resulting from foreign object hit to Move it - a movement to Not coercive: This is This is a intended Bin Sina types: Including what happens on the appropriate nature Fall stone from top to bottom.. Of what is happening against the appropriate nature and here lies the "proof" as people who walk on earth, written for the weight of his body calling for sleep, the movement of anti-nature and its laws require a special engine, plus the elements of a moving object, namely, (self)

2 - proof of the psychological: The proof of the acts of this compassionate and understanding, man is characterized by an animal that wonder and laughing and crying, and that the most important properties: speech and the use of symbols, signs and recognize meanings abstract and extract the unknown is known. Such acts and conditions which are unique to the rights, which are not due to the body, but is an independent force as Bin Sina's nothing else you called self. It is this essence acting in parts of your body is you have one you check

His

Philosophy

Signals and alerts: references in writing a book that went on the doctrine of Aristotle and its proximity to a bit of religions, is the founder of the philosophical trend which defied belief and the idea of prophecy and the message of Islam used to say the old of world and the denial of re-denied the knowledge of God and his ability and character of the world and his resurrection in the grave.

Bin Sina and went doctrine of philosophers such as Abu Nasr Farabi the Turkish philosopher, and al-Farabi says bundling body not spiritual, and allocates bundling life scientist does not ignorant, with the doctrines of the violation of Muslim and philosophers of his predecessor, senior, and he turned that idea was supported by Bin Sina, was refuted by al-Ghazali Incoherence of the Philosophers in the twenty council has misbelieving in three cases, which is saying foot of the world, and not re-body, and saying that God does not know the details, and heresy in the residuum.

There is no doubt that accompanied the esoteric philosophers (Abu Abdullah, who taught him young) have influenced the thinking of Bin Sina, and prepared him for the role he played in the revitalization of philosophy and the current position taken by the challenge of the Islamic faith, and an example of this "theory of knowledge", which equated with the philosophers, prophets, singled out the advantage of other philosophers is that philosophers have continued to improve their message and their knowledge at the time concluded prophet Muhammad.

The call followed by the "al-alii" and said his article is the best known advocate Tusi named Mohammed bin Abdullah and said to him Khawaja Nasir al-Din, defeated the finest of the doctrine of Bin Sina, defending him and explain the signs and called it "Koran special", and is called the Holy Book "Koran Assembly", stated the Shahristani Massarath Bin Sina's book called Wrestling wrestler.

Healing

Science mechanism

Include books on logic, and damages which language books, poetry, science and medicine, and its language: the causes of the Lamb.

In science theory

And include the total science books, science divine, and Mathematical Science, and Psychiatry

In practical sciences

Include books on ethics, Housekeeping, and management of the city, and legislation.

Science speaker

Branches and affiliates, for example medicine practitioners of the consequences of natural science, music and science disciplines of the sport. Books on medicine months, Bin Sina Medical book of the law which has been translated and printed several times: and which has been studying at the universities of Europe until the late nineteenth century. It is also the book written by medical cardiovascular drugs, and the book to pay for college physical disadvantages of humanity, and the book Alcolnj, and a message in the policy body and the virtues of drink, and a message in anatomy, a message in the intake, and a message of food and medicines. Ibn Sina has Of leaves many other medical, including: Of leave in anatomy, and Of leave experimenters in medicine and medical Millennium famous translated and printed. Bin Sina has a valuable book on medicine is "the law", as defined by the collection of ancient medicine and is devised theories and discovered diseases, has collected more than seven hundred and sixty properties with the names of plants that brings them the property. And Bin Sina in the various diseases the most important stroke, meningitis, paralysis, organic, and paralysis resulting from the injury center in the brain, infection, tuberculosis, and transmission of sexual diseases, and abnormalities in human behavior and digestive system. He distinguished colic bladder, kidney colic and how to extract stone inflammation characterized them as crystal (a membrane lung) and meningitis, acute meningitis secondary.

In mathematics

Message Corner
Acronymic Euclid
Acronymic Alaratamatiqi
Acronymic aalm al- haiaa
Acronymic Almagest
Message in a statement that the bug land in the midst of heaven, printed in total (gamaa al- Bdaeaa), in Cairo in 1917

Comment Physical and accessories

Letter to invalidate the provisions of the stars
A message in a celestial top, the causes of lightning and thunder
Message in the space
Message in the plant and animal

Medicine

Book of the law in medicine which has been translated and printed several times and who has been studying at the universities of Europe until the late nineteenth century
Book cardiovascular medicine
The user to pay for college physical disadvantages of humanitarian
Book Alcolnj
Message in the policy body and the virtues of drink
Message in the anatomy
Message in the intake
Message in the Food and Drug
Of leaves medical
Of leave in anatomy
Of leave experimenters in medicine
Millennium Medical famous translated and printed

Music

Retrieved from mosques Musicology
Article in the music
And other articles

says about him

Professor George Sarton, "Bin Sina's greatest scholars of Islam Among the most famous international celebrities,"
Says Professor Sarton also "The thought of Bin Sina is the ideal of philosophy in the Middle Ages"
Says Dr. Khairallah said in his book values of Arabic medicine "and is difficult for us in this era to add something new about Bin Sina described the symptoms of bladder stones clinical"
Sir William Osler says of the book of the law of the Bin Sina "It was medical gospel for the longest period of time"
Ooparvik say about Bin Sina "It was worth the value of a thinker to fill his time ... and was a senior princes of humanity at all"

History of Islam Sciences( AL-JAZARI)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Fri, 5 Feb 2010 20:38:00 +0200

The History of the Water Clock

Al-Jazari’s life and environment

Al-Jazari’s full name is given at the start of his book He was al-Sheikh Ra’s al-Amyl Badi’ al-Zaman Abu al-‘Izz bin Isma’il bin al-Razzes al-Jazari The first three titles indicate that he was a chief engineer (Ra’s al-A’mal), and was unique and unrivalled, (Badi’ al-Zaman). The al-sheikh was a title of honor indicating that he was a learned and a dignified person.

The word ‘Al-Jazari’ indicates that his family came from Jazirat bin ‘Omar in Diyar Bakr. We do not know the date of his birth and our information about his life is obtained from his book.

Al-Jazari was in the service of three Artuqid rulers: Nur al-Din Muhammad bin Arslan (570-581/ 1174-1185), books al-Din Sukman bin Muhammad (681-697/ 1185-1200) and Nasser al-Din Mohamed bin Muhammad (597-619/ 1200-1222.).

It was in response to the request of Nasser al-Din Mohamed that al-Jazari wrote his book. He says in his introduction that he started his service at the Artuqid court in the year 570/1174, and that when he started writing the book he had already spent twenty five years in the service of Nur al-Din Muhammad, the father, and Books al-Din Sukman, the brother. From this information we conclude that probably al-Jazari started writing his book in the year 595/1198, two years before Nasser al-Din became king. From the Oxford manuscript we learn that al-Jazari finished writing his book on 4 Jumada the Second, 602/ 16 January 1206. The oldest extant copy (Topkapi Sarayi Libray, Ahmet III, 3472) was completed by Muhammad bin Yusuf bin ‘Othman al-Haskafi at the end of Sha’ban 602/ 10 April 1206. From al-Haskafi’s colophon we learn that al-Jazarī was not living at this date. We conclude besides, that he died in the year 602/1206, just few months after he had completed his work.

Amid, that is called now Diyar Bakr was on the left bank of the Tigris. Travelers who visited the city during the 11th century admired its buildings, its walls and its affluence. In 438/1046, Nasser Khusraw visited the city and wrote: ‘I have seen many cities and fortresses at the extremities of the world in the lands of the Arabs, Persians, Indians and Turks, and yet I have never seen anything comparable to Amid anywhere in the world; nor have I heard anyone claim that he had seen any place matching this glorious city’

During this period amid was prosperous, and it enjoyed a period of peace and stability. Thus al-Jazari lived in the court of the Artuqid kings under conditions favorable for the invention and construction of his machines and for writing.

Al-Jazari’s book:

The title of the oldest manuscript of al-Jazari’s book is: al-Jamia bayn al-ailm WA AI-amal, al-nafia fi sinaat al-hiyal (A Compendium on the Theory and Practice of the Mechanical Arts). The Arabic edition (of al-Hassan) carries this title. The English translation of Hill carries the title Book of Knowledge of Mechanical Devices. This translation was based mainly on MS Graves 27 of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, where the Arabic title is Kitab fi maarifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Between 1915 and 1921, Wiedemann and Hauser published in German a series of seven articles in which they covered the six categories using the Bodleian copy.

The book describes in detail fifty devices (ashkal), which are grouped into six categories (anwaa, singular kind). These are: 1) ten water and candle clocks; 2), ten vessels and figures suited for drinking sessions; 3), ten pitchers and basins for phlebotomy (faṣd ) and washing before prayers; 4), ten fountains that change their shape alternately, and machines for the perpetual flute; 5), five water raising machines; 6), five miscellaneous devices.

Each device or shakl is described in simple Arabic that is easy to understand, and each is accompanied by a general drawing. There are fifty of these and are numbered by the letters of the Arabic alphabet from one to fifty. For the complicated devices al-Jazari gave detailed drawings for the components of a device or for subassemblies so that the operation can be understood. There are a total of 174 drawings. An alphabet letter marks each part in a device. The text explains the construction of the device with the aid of the letters so that the reader can understand the device by reading the text and referring to the illustrations.

The published Arabic text enumerates fifteen manuscripts of al-Jazari’s book in world libraries with one only probably in private hands. One is a Persian translation. The best five manuscripts were used in arriving at the final printed text. The main one, however, was MS Ahmet III 3472 in the Topkapi Sarayi Librarary, Istanbul. This is the closest copy to the time when al-Jazari completed his writing in 602/1206.

The history of water clocks and ingenious devices before and after al-Jazari

The first water clocks in their simplest form were used by the ancient civilizations of Babylonia and Egypt.

About the developments that followed we have two historical reports. The known one in the histories of science is that of Vitruvious who said that Ctesibius, an Egyptian engineer and craftsman who worked in Alexandria about 250 BC, improved the design of the water clock.

The second report came from Ridwan bin al-Saati in his book and is not known to historians of science. Ridwan mentioned in his book that a man called Hormuz invented the mechanisms of the water clock that were used by his father in the construction of the Damascus clock. He says further that “the design [of Hormuz] continued in the land of Fares for a long time, and was transmitted from there to the land of the Greeks, and its construction spread out in the land until it was transmitted to Damascus, where it was constructed up to the days of the Byzantines and after that in the days of Banu Umayya, according to what is mentioned in the histories. This clock attributed to Hormuz continued to be reproduced by one man after another on this pattern, and it was in the shape that we described above”

The report of Ridwan seems credible, since he links the development of the water clock with both Iran and the Hellenistic world. His story is of great historical importance and it deserves the attention of research workers. We should remark here that the practice of water clocks was limited to the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia in the early centuries of Islam which gives support to Ridwan’s account.

The only public water clock known before Islam was erected in a public square in Gaza in the fifth century AD.

Automata in general were known before Islam. The first musical automaton is attributed to Ctesibius of Egypt. In Asia Minor, Philon of Byzantium who was a contemporary of Ctesibius wrote the first major treatise on ingenious devices. Philon’s work was continued and extended by Heron of Alexandria, who flourished in the middle of the first century AD.

The tradition of water clocks and ingenious devices of pre-Islamic lands was further developed under Islam. Monumental water clocks in Islamic cities continued to be installed. The Abbasid Caliphs were interested in clocks and ingenious devices. The story of the clock that was presented by Harun al-Rashid (170-193/786-809) to Charlemagne in 807 AD is well known. It is reported also that the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil was so obsessed with moving machines, that he favored the Banu Musa who wrote their famous book al-Hiyal during this period.

In Kiitab al-hayawan, al-Jahiẓ (160-253/776-867 AD) when discussing the measurement of time, says: “Our kings and scientists use the astrolabe by day and the binkamat (water clocks) by night”

Al-Khazini (flourished 515/1121) reported that Bin al-Haytham (354/965 - 450/1038) who was a noted engineer as well as a great scientist, described a water clock. In the same period historians reported that Nasser al Dawla of Diyar Bakr (d. 453/1061 AD) constructed a public binkamat (water clock) for the city of Mayyafariqin in the year 414/1012. This is 200 years before al-Jazari.

The technology of clock- making was transferred to Muslim Spain and to Al- Morocco. About the year 442/1050 AD, al-Zarqali constructed a large water clock on the banks of the Tagus River at Toledo in Spain. The clock was still in operation when the Christians occupied the city in 1085 AD. A treatise describing Andalusia monumental clocks was written in the eleventh century by bin Khalaf al-Mururadi. Water clocks were constructed for public places in al-Morocco. The remains of two public water clocks in Fās from the fourteenth century AD can still be seen.

An Arabic treatise of unknown date and authorship describes a monumental water-clock. It is attributed to a Pseudo-Archimedes but it is not listed among Archimedes works in any history of science. Hill thinks that part of it may be of Greek origin, but most of it being written by Arabic writers. Both Ridwan and al-Jazari mentioned it.

In Damascus, Muhammad al-Khurasani al-Saati (the clock-maker) built a monumental clock around 556/1160. Ridwan bin al-saati re-built the clock of his father and gave a detailed description of its construction in 600/1203. Al-Jazari was writing his book in amid at the same time.

The skills in constructing clocks and ingenious devices were also established in the eastern lands of Islam. We should remember that Muúammad al-Saati who constructed the monumental clock in Damascus came from Khurasan in 549/1154 and started constructing the clock shortly after his arrival. He was considered unrivalled in his skills in clock making. It is reported that the noted astronomer Ali Qushji who was in Maragha, wrote a treatise (tadhkira) on spiritual (or ingenious) machines.

The last important writer on the same subject was Taqi al-Din bin Maaruf who wrote a book on water clocks and ingenious machines in 1552 and another on mechanical clocks in 1556.

Evaluation of al-Jazari’s work

Al-Jazari’s book deals with a whole range of devices and machines, with a multiplicity of purposes. What they have in common is the considerable degree of engineering skill required for their manufacture, and the use of delicate mechanisms and sensitive control systems. Many of the ideas employed in the construction of ingenious devices were useful in the later development of mechanical technology.

About al-Jazari’s book Sarton says that “this treatise is the most elaborate of its kind and may be considered the climax of this line of Moslem achievement.” Hill concludes also that “until modern times there is no other document, from any cultural area, that provides a comparable wealth of instructions for the design, manufacture and assembly of machines”.

Al-Jazari inherited the knowledge of his predecessors, but he improved on their designs and added devices of his own invention. The merit of his book is that it was the only book to discuss such a large variety of devices and to present them with text and illustrations and dimensions so that a skilled craftsman is able to construct any device on the basis of al-Jazari’s description. In the World of Islam Festival in 1976 it was possible to construct three of al-Jazari’s machines under Hill’s supervision. They worked perfectly well. One was a monumental water clock which is exhibited now in the Natuuurmuseum Asten in the Netherlands. [The toy machine shown below incorporates several principles: the use of water power and water rising at the same time. An actual machine like this from the thirteenth century, was supplying water from river Yazid in Damascus to Bin al-‘Arabi’s mosque until recently, and can be seen until now. ]

Fig. 1

Many of al-Jazari’s components and techniques were useful in the development of modern mechanical engineering. These include the static balancing of large pulley wheels; calibration of orifices; use of wooden templates; use of paper models in design; lamination of timber to prevent warping; the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit; casting of brass and copper in closed mold boxes with greensand; use of tipping buckets that discharge their contents automatically; and the use of segmental gears.

Al-Jazari’s double acting piston pump is unique (Fig. 2). It is remarkable for three reasons1) it incorporates an effective means of converting rotary into reciprocating motion through the crank-connecting-rod mechanism; 2) it makes use of the double-acting principle and 3) it is the first pump known to have had true suction pipes.

Fig. 2

Al-Jazari occupies an important place in the history of automata, automatic control, robotics and automated musical theaters. His pioneering work is duly acknowledged in most histories.

The inventions of al-Jazari are a source of inspiration to modern designers such as the use of rolling balls to sound the hours on cymbals and operate automata. This concept is currently used in toys and other devices and their makers had registered patents in their names.

Al-Jazari described a combination lock. There are now in world museums three combination locks that were made in the same period of al-Jazari. Although they are simpler than the lock of al-Jazari yet they follow the same principle. Two were made around 597/1200 AD by Muhammad b. Hamid al-Asturlabi al-Isfahani and are located in Copenhagen and Boston. The third is in Maastricht. The first combination lock in Europe was described by Buttersworth in 1846 and the wheels of this lock are strikingly similar to the discs of al-Jazari.

All illustrations in al-Jazari’s book are in colour, and among the fifty main drawings are miniatures that are of great artistic merit. This resulted in the disappearance of some of these paintings from the manuscripts and they found their way to the international museums of art or to private collections.

Historians of art are of the opinion that there existed at the court of the Artuqids in Amid a school of painting that produced narrative paintings of great value Three of the existing al-Jazari’s manuscripts were illustrated by members of this school.

The illustrations of the book enable historians to study the clothing styles of men and women in Diyar Bakr in the thirteenth century, and some of their living habits. See the illustration below (Fig. 3) of the automated girl serving drinks.

Fig. 3

History of Islam Sciences( how made the seel in islamic history)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Tue, 2 Feb 2010 19:29:00 +0200

Crafting steel in Damascus

The main function of this paper is to make available to historians generally a selected number of passages in Arabic medieval literature (some of which were hitherto unpublished) which bear upon ferrous technology. There are other numerous sources which are not cited here. Thus, this paper is not exhaustive in this respect. For each source, an English translation is presented followed by the Arabic text.

Thus, Section 2 below quotes al-Kindi on the location of steel centers, and Section 3 give al-Biruni's description of Damascene crucible steel production. The following section from al-Jildaki describes what seems to be the production of pig iron and cast steel, and so on.

The review of sources concludes with Section 8. No attempt is made to draw general conclusions, except that the evidence adduced seems ample to demolish the commonly held notion that Damascene steel was produced only or mainly from Indian wootz steel, or that Damascus was not a center for producing steel. Section 8 locates iron mines in the Damascus region, and documents the persistence of the ferrous industry there down to modern times.

AI-Kindi on Sources and Centers of Production

Among the extant works of Abu Yusuf b. lshaq al-Kindi, "the philosopher of the Arabs", is "A Treatise (Addressed) to some of His Brethren Concerning Swords" The treatise contains much useful technological information. But we shall be content in this paper to give al-Kindi's classification of the various kinds of iron and steel from which swords were being made. The passages below have been excerpted from this treatise

Natural and not-natural iron:

Learn that iron from which swords are forged is divided into two primary or main divisions: natural (as mined) and not-natural (I. e. manufactured). Natural iron is divided into two divisions: shaburqan and it is the male, hard iron which can be heat-treated by its nature, and narmahin (narm-ahin), which is the female soft iron which cannot be heat-treated by its nature. [Swords] can be forged from either of these two kinds or from both combined. Thus, al; kinds of swords made of natural iron fall into three kinds: shaburqani, narmahani, and those made of a combination of both.

Not-natural or manufactured iron or steel:

Iron which is not natural (i.e. Manufactured) is steel. 1t means the refined or purified. It is made of natural iron by adding to it while smelting sorne (ingredients) for purifying it, and for decreasing its softness, until it becomes strong, flexible, susceptible to heat treatment, and until its firind appears.

Three main qualities of steel:

This steel is divided into three divisions: the antique, the modem, and the non-antique, non-modern. Swords may be forged from all these steels. Thus, there are three kinds of swords: the antique, the modern, and the non-antique, non-modern.

Antique" means top quality steel:

Antique is not related to time (or age) but it indicates the noble or the generous qualities, as when it is said "an antique horse" meaning a noble horse (of good breed). That (sword) which has the noble qualities is "antique", no matter in which age it was forged. At the extreme end of the "antique" is its opposite in meaning, I mean that (sword) which is deprived of the qualities of the "antique". That is why it was given an opposite name, I. e. modern, even if was forged before the time of `Ad.

Those (swords) which have sorne qualities of the "antique", but which are deprived of sorne of its qualities, are the swords which exhibit sorne of the qualities of the "modern". Therefore, these swords are given a name in the middle between both, and they are classified as non-antique, non-modem even if they are forged in ancient or modern times. Sword- makers called some of these swords "non-antique", and called some others "non-modern".

Three kinds of "antique" or quality swords:

The antique are divided into three kinds. The first and best in quality of all is the Yemenite; the second is the Qal`i; and the third is the Indian.

Swords forged from imported steel:

Some swords were called non-native. They were forged from imported steel. Some Khurasani swords for example were forged from steel imported from Sarandib; and this is the case in several other cities.

Swords forged from local iron:

As for those native swords, they fall into five kinds. Of these are the Khurasani, the iron which is produced and forged in Khurasan; the Basriyya, the iron of which is produced and forged at Basra; the Damascene, the iron of which is produced and forged at Damascus; the Egyptian, which is forged in Egypt. Swords in this category may be forged in other places like those of Baghdad, of Kufa, and a few other places, but are not attributed to such places because of their scarcity. These are all the types of swords which are made from manufactured iron, I mean from steel. Continuous..............

History of Islam Sciences(The Inventory of Jabir's Latin Works)

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sat, 30 Jan 2010 04:46:00 +0200

The Arabic inventory of Jabir's Latin Works

The works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan are actual ample in number. Jabir's works awning about every acreage of acquirements abnormally alchemy. Some of Jabir's important works abide alone in Latin and their Arabic originals in the libraries of the West are absent and cannot be located. This is what had happened to the majority of added aboriginal Arabic works that were translated into Latin.

Before the adaptation of Arabic works into Latin, abracadabra was alien in the Latin West. Robert of Chester accomplished in the year 1144 the aboriginal adaptation from Arabic of a book on alchemy, The Book of the Agreement of Alchemy, which is the altercation of a chat amid the abbot Morienus and Khalid ibn Yazid (d. 704 AD). In the beginning Robert says: "Since what Alchymia is, and what its agreement is, your Latin Apple does not yet know, I will explain in the present book."

Between the aboriginal adaptation of Robert of Chester in 1144, and 1300 the above Arabic actinic works that were translated into Latin were the Tabula Samaragdina, the Turba Philosopher, The Secret of Creation of Balinus, De Perfecto Magisterio attributed to Aristotle, De Anima of Ibn Sina, De Aluminibus et Salibus (On Alums and Salts), and the Secret of Secrets, both of al-Razi, an genitalia of Kitab al-Sab'in (the Book of Seventy) of Jabir.

An actinic altercation which is believed to be of Arabic agent agitated the name of Michael Scot, who died in 1232. Several abundantly adulterated Arabic names, allegedly from al-Andalus, are given, but Jabir's name is not amid them. In the actinic part, Vincent's alone ascendant authorities were al-Razi, ibn Sina and Aristotle; and Jabir was not amid them.

The abundant scientists of the thirteenth aeon in Europe were Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon. The alone ascendancy for Albertus (1206-1280) in abracadabra was Ibn Sina, and like Ibn Sina, he argued adjoin the about-face of metals. Roger Bacon (1214-1294), believed in the abundant accent of abracadabra and in transmutation. He did not acknowledgment Jabir in his works although he became acquainted with abracadabra from the Latin translations of Arabic works. The afterward extract from this book describes the accompaniment of ability of abracadabra amid the abstruse circles in the Latin Apple in the additional bisected of the thirteenth century:

“But there is addition science which is about the bearing of things from the elements, and from all azoic things, for archetype the elements, simple and circuitous humors, accepted stones, gems, and types of marble, gold and added metals, sulfurs, salts, and inks, azures, minium, and added colours, oils and afire pitches, and endless added things of which we accept annihilation in the books of Aristotle; nor do accustomed philosophers apperceive of these things, nor the accomplished Latin army of Latin writers. And back this science is not accepted to the generality of students, it necessarily follows that they are apprenticed of all accustomed things that chase therefrom, for archetype the bearing of activated things, such as vegetables, animals, and men, for above-mentioned things accepting been ignored, it is all-important that after things be abandoned Whence, on annual of their benightedness of this science, accepted accustomed aesthetics cannot be known, nor abstract medicine, nor, consequently, applied medicine, not alone because accustomed aesthetics and abstract anesthetic are all-important for its practice, but because all simple medicines from azoic things are accustomed from this science which I accept affected upon, as is fabricated bright in the additional book on anesthetic by Avicenna who enumerates the alleviative simples, and as is apparent by added authors. In the Latin West, during this period, the amount of Jabir's Kitab al-Sab'in was not absolutely accepted compared with the added translated actinic books, and it did not apply the aforementioned access as the works of al-Razi and Ibn Sina. The adaptation movement of Arabic accurate works into Latin which started in the average of the twelfth aeon connected into the thirteenth and beyond. One actinic work, the Liber Claritatis, ascribed to Jabir, appeared in Latin in the aftermost third of the thirteenth century. Additionally about the year 1300, addition of Jabir's books the Summa Accurate absolute (Sum of Perfection) was translated into Latin. This book is usually accompanied by four added treatises which were additionally translations from Arabic: De analysis accurate (The Analysis of Perfection), De apparatus veritatis (The Apparatus of Verity), Liber fornacum (The Book of Furnaces), and the Testamentum (Testament). The Summa and the treatises associated with it were of the aforementioned ability as al-Razi's treatises. The name of Jabir in its Latin anatomy "Geber" became aback a best acclaimed one. Indeed Jabir was alleged by Western historians "the ancestor and architect of chemistry".

There were several translations for the Sum of Perfection. The date 1300 A.D. was based on citations in added works. The aboriginal printed book appeared in 1481, apparently in Rome and it independent two of the bristles Latin treatises. A adaptation of best of these tracts into Latin appeared in Strasburg in 1529; additionally 1531 .Other editions appeared in Nuremberg 1541; Venice 1542; Bern 1545; Leaden 1668; Danzig 1682; etc. Towards the end of the nineteenth aeon Berthelot came out with a antecedent that the Latin works of Jabir were accounting by a European alchemist who acclimated the name of Jabir to accord accent to his work. Berthelot was the best acclaimed historian of allure in France and Europe, and he enjoyed abundant ascendancy and authority. According to this information, there is apparently one Latin copy translated from Arabic by a able-bodied accepted Arabs in Leaden.

The Elementa deals with the history, science, and applied abstracts of chemistry. Soon it became the best accepted altercation on the allure of the period. The Latin altercation anesthetized through ten editions amid 1732 and 1759 which were appear in several cities in Europe, and it was translated into German, French, and English in several editions. Thomson says that it "was assuredly the best abstruse and best beaming altercation on allure that the apple had yet seen."

In discussing Jabir, Boerhaave says that "His works were translated into Latin by several hands, and appear by Golius" .In the footnotes he gives the afterward details:

"Golius, assistant of the oriental languages in the University of Leiden, fabricated the aboriginal present of Geber's pieces, in manuscript, to the accessible library; and translated it into Latin, and appear it in the aforementioned city, in folio; and accordingly afterwards in quarto, beneath the appellation of Lapis Philosophorum. In both visits he calm attenuate Arabic manuscripts. Thomas Thomson, (1773-1852) who was assistant of allure at Edinburgh, wrote The History of Allure in 1830, about 60 years afore Berthelot. A adaptation of the longest and best important of his tracts into Latin appeared in Strassburg in 1529. There was addition adaptation appear in Italy, from a arrangement in the Vatican. Holmyard discussed Berthelot's arguments and refuted them. One capital altercation was that the Arabic originals are not available. But Holmyard acicular out that until afresh the Book of Seventy was accessible alone in its Latin adaptation and the Arabic altercation was apparent alone recently. Additionally a accurate analysis into the history of the Latin editions may advance to specific locations of the Arabic manuscripts. The chase should be done by workers able-bodied abreast in Arabic, to abstraction all the works of Jabir in Arabic and analyze them with the acknowledged Latin versions and with their translations into added European languages.

The treatises accommodate some important recipes for mineral acids, such as nitric. It was ambrosial also, to accord this honour to a Latin Pseudo-Geber.

(History of Islam Sciences (Jabir ibn Hayyan

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Wed, 27 Jan 2010 22:14:00 +0200

Jabir ibn Hayyan

His name is

Abu Abdullah Jabir bin Abdullah al-Azdi, Was built-in the best acclaimed novels in the year 101 e/721 A.D It was additionally 117 AH / 737 A.D The Arab apple accounts alter to analyze abode of birth, it is historians say he was built-in in the island Euphrates East Syria, And some of them say that came from the burghal Haran Acts Mesopotamia In Syria. Perhaps this affiliation consistent from affinity in the names attributed to Jabir Andalusia Arab is the world's ample Jabir ibn alternate who was built-in in Seville He lived in the twelfth aeon AD. Some altercate that he was built-in in the burghal Acts Khorasan in Iran.

Has been declared as a tall, blubbery bristles aural acceptance and allegiance has been alleged abounding titles and the titles "great teacher" and "Sheikh Muslim chemists" and "father of chemistry" and "St. High Mysticism" and "King of India."

Jabir ibn Hayyan and a arresting figure, and the greatest scientists of the average Ages, Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan Azdi. And sometimes nicknamed Baharani and mystic. He knew back the Europeans in Medieval On account of Geber. It is said that it was Sabean Hence the appellation Harrani., The Ancestor George to my access Jabra Send to Arabian Peninsula After the afterlife of his father, a small, area he advised Quran Mathematics, And went Ibn al-Nadim In "Catalog"That bodies differed in the admeasurement of Jabir to a assertive Shias And Baramkeh And philosophers, but there are those who abjure its existence, so on the catch charge be attributed to the Sabean. Although the agent of Khorasan He lived best of his activity in the Kufa. Jabir was built-in in Tus about 721A.D/102 A.H and died about the year 199 AH OK 815 A.D on the aberration amid historians.

March Jaber anesthetic at the alpha of his activity beneath the advocacy of the Minister Jaafar Barmaki Days of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. After the accident Baramkeh Bastille Kufa He remained in bastille until his death

Scientific Contributions

The capital contributions of the Jaber Chemistry, Is alien beginning access to chemistry, the artist of Alkali Accepted in agreement of avant-garde chemistry, the Arab name (Alkali), And baptize silver. He is additionally accustomed with the Europeans knew of the ammonium salt, and baptize gold Potash The best important accurate contributions as well, he was accepted racist and class acquaintance in allure and recommended thoroughly analysis and await on the acquaintance and backbone to do so. Jabir is one of the antecedents of activated science. Reflected his contributions in this acreage in metal refining, and alertness of steel, and dye Textiles and tanning And blanket the bolt with Anti-leak water, and the use of Manganese dioxide Making Glass.

Jaber has been disconnected according to actual characteristics of three altered types, namely: 1. Behavior, those abstracts that clear back heated, such as Camphor, Chloride and aluminum; 2. Minerals such as Gold, Silver, Lead, Iron; 3. the vehicles, which can be adapted into powders. In sum, by "Sarton", said he can not apperceive the absolute amount of what he has done Jaber alone if there is the liberation of all his writings and published

Education

Joined the console of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, therefore, we acquisition that Jabir ibn Hayyan had angary and linguistic sciences and actinic by the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. He additionally advised at the easily of Humairi. And best historians of science accede Jabir ibn Hayyan accustomed Sciences of the absolute teacher, Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. Although it was adamantine he is an Arab, built-in in southern Iraq, based on reliable sources such as Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia of Islam and added historically did not acknowledgment the article of Kofi, area the doctrines at that time is not alone a political attitude of assumption in accession to the doctrinal class not acclimated to analyze the characters added religions

Some of the achievements of Ibn Hayyan

This is a list simple and concise about some of the achievements of Jabir ibn Hayyan in the science of chemistry:

Discover "Caustic soda"Or Algatron (NaOH)
First to recall the water gold.
First to introduce the method of separating the gold from the silver solution by acids. This is how the
prevailing to this day.
The first to discover Nitric acid.
First person to discover Hydrochloric acid.
Believed Baltold Territories.
He Johreinn to Greece four elements, namely (SO Mercury) and added a third Arab substance(Salt)
The first to discover Sulfuric acid the designation as oil of vitriol.
Improvements in the methods of evaporation, filtering, and fusion and crystallization and distillation.
Was able to prepare a lot of chemicals Kslved mercury Oxide Alarsen (arsenious oxide)
Succeeded in developing the first method of distillation in the world. Have invented a distillation is used when a glass has long suppression is still known today in the West as "Alembic" from "Alombaiq" in Arabic. Has been able to Jabir ibn Hayyan improve the quality of this tool by blending glass Manganese dioxide

Books

Secrets Chemistry
The assets of Chemistry
Flag of the body
Mercy
Syndrome
Yeast small
"Usool Chemistry"
"Fund wise"
"Book King"

Other Books

"Book Properties"
"Poisons book and pay disadvantages"
The total messages and other books have been translated many of them Latin

His

Return Fame Geber to his writings numerous, including "Seventy-book messages", Translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in 1187 and added to these books accord with abounding added classifications, as able-bodied as Chemistry, The annotations to the books Aristotle And Plato ; And letters in Philosophy, Astrology, Mathematics, Medicine, Music. The "flags" The Zrcelli the Jabra has abounding classifications alignment amid two hundred and thirty-two (232) bristles hundred (500) book, but absent the most. Some books accept been translated into Latin Jaber in the aboriginal twelfth century, additionally translated some of them from Latin into English Common 1678. Continued Europeans Depend on the books for several centuries, has had a cogent appulse in the development of avant-garde chemistry. In this, "said Max Otto Meyerhof: the change of allure can be traced in Europe to Jabir Ibn Hayyan directly. The greatest affidavit of this is that abounding of the agreement that he created are still acclimated in assorted European languages

Death

Died in 815 A.D in Kufa Iraq at the age of ninety years old. Continuous.......

History of Islam Sciences

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Mon, 25 Jan 2010 22:29:00 +0200

Giber Ben Hayyan

who this man?..................

Even a specific Latin columnist is afresh appropriate to alter the pseudo-Giber.

Some of Giber’s works abide alone in Latin and their Arabic originals in the libraries of the West were absent and cannot be located. This is what had happened to the majority of added aboriginal Arabic works that were translated into Latin.

The doubts aloft by Paul Kraus on the antecedent of the Giberian bulk and the agitation that ensued accept no address on our analysis into the agent of Geber’s Latin works. It does not bulk whether Giber himself was the columnist or a after pseudo-Giber. Similarly the religious behavior of Geber does not affect his scholarship and has no appulse on our investigation.

Before the adaptation of the Arabic works into Latin, abracadabra was alien in the Latin West. Robert of Chester accomplished in the year 1144 the aboriginal adaptation from Arabic of a book on alchemy, Libber de blended one abracadabra “The Book of the Composition of Abracadabra ”, which is the argument of a chat amid the abbot Maryanus (Morienus) and Prince Khalid bin Yazid. Until recently, doubts were casting on the captivation of Khalid ibn Yazid in abracadabra and on his appointment with Maryanus. Even the adaptation by Robert of Chester was questioned, and a historian of science like Julius Ruska attributed the Libber de blended one alchemies to an Italian of abundant after date. But these doubts were expelled afresh with the analysis of the Arabic aboriginal of the Latin work.

Between the aboriginal adaptation of Robert of Chester in 1144, and 1300 some added important Arabic actinic works were translated into Latin including, the Turba Philosophorum, The Secret of Creation of Apollonius of Tyana, the Tabula Smaragdina, De Perfecto Magisterio attributed to Aristotle, De anima in arte alchemies attributed to Bin Sina, De Aluminibus et Salibus and the Book of Secrets, both of al-Razi, and genitalia of the Book of Seventy of Geber. And several added work.

One actinic work, the Libber claritatis, ascribed to Geber, appeared in Latin in the aftermost third of the thirteenth century. During this aeon the Libber misericordiae (considered to be a adaptation of Kitab al-rahma) had appeared Additionally about the year 1300, the Summa Perfectionism absolute (Sum of Perfection) address the name of Geber, emerged. This book is usually accompanied by three or four added treatises which backpack the name of Geber: De investigate one perfectionism (The Analysis of Perfection), De ad-lib one veritatis (The Invention of Verity), Libber fornacum (The Book of Furnaces), and sometimes the Testamentum (The Testament). The name of Geber became accepted as a aftereffect of these treatises. The Summa, in particular, was so acknowledged that it became the capital actinic argument book of medieval Europe. This book and the treatises associated with it were decidedly notable for their accuracy and abandon from mysticism and allegory. Naturally they appealed to applied alchemists and they exerted a abundant access on Western chemists until the acceleration of avant-garde chemistry. The name of Geber in its Latin anatomy "Geber" became aback a best acclaimed one.

The actualization of the Geber problem

This analysis will advice us in discussing anniversary acceptance independently.

First Assumption

There are no Arabic Originals

Second Assumption

The Latin Works were attributed to Geber because of his aerial acceptability amid the Latins.

Third Assumption

a -In the Arabic treatises of Geber the accent is ambiguous and allegoric.

b -One does not appointment in the Arab works of Geber absolute formulae for the alertness of metals, or salts, or some added substances.

Fourth Assumption

The appearance of the Summa recalls that of the schoolmen.

Fifth Assumption

The Summa does not accommodate any Muslim expressions while they are absurd in Geber’s Arabic texts.

Sixth Assumption

The Summa contains an annual of the arguments of those who denied the achievability of transmutation. Of this one finds no trace of it in the Arabic treatises of Geber.

Seventh Assumption

a- (All the Summa) "is of a compactness of anticipation and expression, alien to the above authors, in accurate the Arab Geber.”

b- No absolute doctrines or facts are stated, no appearance is quoted.

c- While the Arabic texts acknowledgment the apparent and the abstruse commodity yet accession allotment of these doctrines misses absolutely and appropriately appears to accord to a added avant-garde period. There is no allusion in the Arabic texts to the sulphur and mercury approach of the bearing of metals.

d- In the assessment of the columnist (of the Latin works), there abide three accustomed attempt of metals: sulphur, arsenic and mercury. This is, actually, a fresh approach consecutive to the theories of Avicenna. .

Eighth Assumption

Since Berthalot came out with his assumptions in 1893, there appeared several criticisms to that acceptance by some eminent historians of allure and abracadabra that were added abreast in Arabic allure and abracadabra than Bertha lot himself.

But the greatest bulk of criticism and acknowledgment was launched by Eric John Holm backyard who was additionally a acclaimed historian of allure with a complete ability of Arabic. In a alternation of affidavit that appeared amid 1922 and 1928 Holm backyard dealt thoroughly with anniversary of Berthalot’s assumptions proving their invalidity. Our assignment actuality can be advised as an addendum of Holmyard’s assignment admitting the access of about 80 years in between. We are advertisement actuality the after-effects of fresh allegation based mainly on the analysis of fresh Arabic works of Geber, while apropos to Holmyard and others whenever necessary.

Inductive Pressure Transducers

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Sun, 24 Jan 2010 21:45:00 +0200

• As the core is pushed into the solenoid, the inductance of the coil increases in proportion to the amount of metal inside the coil. The sensitivity and linearity of the ratio inductance transducers is better than that of the variable inductance units.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

• A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), which can also be called a mutual-inductance element, that operates on the inductance ratio principle. Here three coils are wound onto the same insulating tube containing the high permeability iron core. Alternating current is applied to the primary coil (P) in the center, and if the core is in the center, equal voltages are induced in the secondary coils (#1 and #2)

Inductive Transmitters

• The oscillator-amplifier excites the oscillator.

• A change in process pressure results in a slight movement of the laminated core, strengthening the inductive coupling, which increases the secondary voltage to the DC amplifier.

• As the current in the feedback motor coil increases, an increased force is developed, which repositions the laminated core in the detector.

• The feedback coil applies an equal and opposite force to that produced by the change in process pressure, and, therefore, maintains the system in continuous force balance.

• The elastic sensing element deflects in proportion to the process pressure, thereby exerting a force on the balance beam through the input spring. The resulting motion changes the air gap in the detector assembly. The output current is fed through the magnet coil in the feedback motor, producing an equal and opposite force on the beam to balance the force produced by the change in process pressure.

Inductive Pressure Transducers

Nondestructive testing

islamabdelkarim@gmail.com (IslamAbdElkarim) — Mon, 18 Jan 2010 15:57:00 +0200

Nondestructive testing (NDT), also called nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and nondestructive inspection (NDI), is testing that does not destroy the test object. NDE is vital for constructing and maintaining all types of components and structures. To detect different defects such as cracking and corrosion, there are different methods of testing available, such as X-ray (where cracks show up on the film) and ultrasound (where cracks show up as an echo blip on the screen). This article is aimed mainly at industrial NDT, but many of the methods described here can be used to test the human body. In fact methods from the medical field, where there tends to be more development funding available, have often been adapted for industrial use, as was the case with Phased array ultrasonics and Computed radiography.

Nondestructive test