Home Of News

Lik-Berry Ft Establish - Alright

2018-09-14T13:23:00.001+01:00

Am LIK-berry from Delta state warri am 18 my real name ogbemudia Matthew and this song is my first track!!!!! Ft Establish This one is a blash Check down to download it

Home of Exchanges

2018-09-03T10:12:00.001+01:00

We buy all E-currency

Paypal

Payoneer

bitcoin

Itunes Card

Amazon Gift Card

Fiverr Funds

And alots more

Contact via Email: godspowerjacob@gmail.com Instagram godspowerjacob whatassp 2349034012513 facebook.com/godspowerjacob

Top 10 Highest-Paid Musicians 2012

2012-11-30T15:39:00.000+00:00

Top 10 Highest-Paid Musicians 2012
Another year, another crop of musicians creating bank. Forbes has discharged its list of highest-paid musicians, semiconductor diode this year not by a popstar or dance band, however a doctor. Despite sounding angry in each song, rapper and beatmaker Dr. Dre earned a cool $110 million between might 2011 and will 2012. Most of that had nothing to try and do with the assembly of music, though: Dre earned the overwhelming majority of that from his über-trendy earphone line, Beats by Dre.

TerryG And Tonto Dikeh In The Studio For New Hit Songs

2012-11-30T15:32:00.000+00:00

What else can I say when "free Madness" meets going "High" in the studio... they will definitely produce "HIGH MADNESS"Really Great.

The ex-head of state female offspring died

2012-11-30T13:28:00.002+00:00

The ex-head of state female offspring died some few hours past, my condolences to the Buhari Family, she died from the red blood cell syndrome

Nollywood Already Working On _ALUU4 Movie

2012-11-28T14:44:00.001+00:00

The culprits haven't been delivered to book nonetheless however folks ar already wanting to form cash out of matters, however pathetic and disrespectful for the lost souls

LAPO/OLOKO MEJI!! Meet 9ice New Girlfriend, Funmi Omotosho

2012-11-28T14:35:00.002+00:00

After since his recent musical failures, yoruba pop singer 9ice has determined to show to the opposite facet of his life wherever he will still shine - finding duaghter of wealthy folks and impregnating them, my sources told Pine Tree State, his latest lover could be a young feminine undergrad from one among the personal unis in African country, her name is Funmi Omotosho, we have a tendency to would like the couple the best whereas it lasts

THINKING OF MAKING MONEY ON BETTING TRY THIS LINKS

2012-11-19T15:54:00.003+00:00

https://nairabet.com/Odds/registration/affiliate87165

The 4 Worst-Performing Cities in America

2012-09-20T18:42:00.003+01:00

While the U.S. recovery creeps forward, some cities are getting left behind.

We identified the weakest economic recoveries based on the latest MetroMonitor from the Brookings Institute, which looks at employment, unemployment, production, and home prices. They're located in places like upstate New York, where the initial housing crash was less dramatic, but the slowdown more prolonged.

*1 Little Rock, Arkansas

-- Unemployment rate down 0.7 percentage points since 2011Q3
-- Employment up 0.7% since 2010Q1
-- Gross metro product up 2.9% since 2010Q1
-- Home prices at a new low in 2012Q1

*2 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

-- Unemployment rate down 0.9 percentage points since 2010Q1
-- Employment down 1.2% since 2010Q1
-- Gross metro product up 1.5% since 2009Q3
-- Home prices at a new low in 2012Q1
\

*3 Virginia Beach, Virginia

-- Unemployment down 1.1 percentage points since 2010Q1
-- Employment up 1.5% since 2010Q1
-- Gross metro product up 1.0% since 2012Q1
-- Home prices at a new low in 2012Q1

*4 Albany, New York

-- Unemployment hit a new high in 2012Q2
-- Employment up 1.7% since 2011Q1
-- Gross metro product up 5.0% since 2009Q3
-- Home prices at a new low in 2012Q1

IRS Whistle-Blowing for Fun and Profit

2012-09-20T18:30:00.000+01:00

The financial community is all astir with the recent news that Bradley Birkenfeld was awarded $104 million for blowing away the entire Swiss banking community’s veil of secrecy.
OK, that’s not really what he did. That was just a side-effect. In fact, all he did was provide detailed information about the illegal financial practices of his employer, UBS.
Granted, whistle-blowers are not popular. And Birkenfeld is going to jail for his own illegal activities. But when he gets out, he won’t have to worry about being ostracized in the financial community and making a living. He’ll have enough money to do whatever he likes. (I’ll bet he doesn’t stash that money in Switzerland.)
In fact, like many graduates of Club Fed, he’ll probably make a fortune hitting the speaker circuit. (Think Michael Milken and Martha Stewart, among others)
Why bring this up here?
Because of the IRS program designed to encourage snitching and whistle-blowing. There is a special form, Form 211, you can use to turn someone in to the IRS and collect a reward.
There are two ways to get the reward:
- You can bring a case that is worth over $2 million in taxes, penalties and interest, involving an individual with at least $200,000 annual income. The reward is 15%-30% of whatever the IRS collects. Should you disagree with the outcome, you can take the IRS to Tax Court and plead your case. Note: Cases on the Tax Court docket are open to public scrutiny. Your name will be on the docket. The issue will not. But the final determination is usually published.
- The individual’s income is under $200,000 and the amount at issue is less than $2 million. The reward can be up to 15% or $10 million. All IRS actions at this level are discretionary and you have no protest or appeals rights.
You can get more details at IRS’s special web site for informant awards.
It’s not all that easy to collect a reward. In order for informants to collect a reward, a few things must happen:
- You must be the first person to file a claim against this taxpayer. If anyone else reported them first, you lose.
- You must reveal your identity to the IRS. How else could IRS know who to pay?
- You must provide specific information about the illegal activities and how they are being done, so that IRS has the means to start the investigation.
- You must provide as much information as possible about the identity of the person so that IRS doesn’t make a mistake and investigate the wrong person. For instance, Social Security number, taxpayer ID numbers, home and/or business addresses, etc.
- You must provide information about the extent of the illegal activities. After all, IRS isn’t going to waste a lot of time investigating someone who’s engaged in penny-ante tax evasion. Resources are limited — without an open-and-shut case worth at least high six figures, or better yet, seven figures, it’s not worth pursuing.
- This is the most important part about collecting a reward: You need to provide solid information about where that person’s assets are, and approximately how much they are worth. This is especially important when the tax crook is hiding assets under someone else’s name. In which case, it would really help if you could explain how it got into that other person’s name illegally. Remember, you only collect a reward based on a percentage of the amount that the IRS collects.
Let’s analyze the rules a little more closely.
First of all, the IRS doesn’t investigate all referrals. So filing a Form 211 does not guarantee that the IRS will follow up. Staff is limited. They will only follow up when they have enough detail to help build a case; or the information you provide indicates that this taxpayer’s behavior may be affecting a lot of tax returns (a tax preparer or promoter); or there is a lot of money at stake, with assets available to pay the potential taxes due.
That first condition about being the first person to turn someone in may be something you can protest. After all, if someone filed an earlier Form 211, but didn’t provide enough specific information so that the IRS could find the ways in which a taxpayer was specifically evading tax, but you did — was their initial claim valid?
Also, if they did not provide detailed information on how to find this taxpayer’s assets (which might have been hidden, or elusive), then the IRS would never have been able to collect on the judgment. So, it may be worth your while to appeal a rejection of your submission when the IRS tells you the reason is that you are not the first person to turn in this taxpayer.
Then there’s that condition about identifying yourself. That can be pretty scary. After all, what if the person you turned in learns you’re the rat? Or even suspects you. Can they get proof? Some people can get quite violent and retaliate physically — even if they only suspect you.
With a good attorney, demanding to see all documents under the Freedom of Information Act, will your identity be revealed? According to IRS counsel in Los Angeles, in a number of relatively informal conversations, the answer is no. The documents, including the Form 211, will be redacted to conceal the whistle-blower.
Naturally, you can see that Bradley Birkenfeld’s identity is not concealed. Well, when it comes to testifying, and being a witness…Yup, your identity is just apt to be revealed, isn’t it? The IRS promises to notify you before this happens. Uh huh…
Even when you qualify for a reward, it can take years for IRS to build the case and collect the taxes. So even after you’ve gotten the award approved, don’t count on getting paid anytime soon.
But, if you know of someone who is an outrageous tax criminal, and is throwing their ill-gotten gains in your face, get even. Who knows, perhaps someday you’ll be able to live well on the proceeds of their crime.
Eva Rosenberg, an enrolled agent, is the publisher of TaxMama.com , where your tax questions are answered for free. She is the author of several books and ebooks, including “Small Business Taxes Made Easy.” She teaches tax courses at IRSExams.com and CPELINK.

Popping a binky in a baby's mouth is a quick way to stop them from fussing, but for boys, it may also short-circuit their emotional growth.

2012-09-20T18:27:00.000+01:00

Popping a binky in a baby's mouth is a quick way to stop them from fussing, but for boys, it may also short-circuit their emotional growth.
Read More: 10 Simple Ways to Boost Kid's Self-Esteem
Before a baby can talk, he or she relies on non-verbal cues, especially facial expressions, to communicate. Babies also mirror those cues, and in so doing, discover the emotions the cues are attached to. In a recent study published in the Journal of Basic and Applied Social Psychology researchers from the University of Wisconsin scientists evaluated over 100 kids and found that that six and seven-year-old boys who had heavily used pacifiers were worse at mimicking emotions expressed by faces on a video. They also interviewed more than 600 college students and discovered that college-age men whose parents reported they had relied on pacifiers scored lower on tests measuring empathy and the ability to evaluate the moods of others. For girls and young women, the researchers found there was no difference in emotional maturity based on pacifier use.
Related: Baby Bottles, Sippy Cups, Pacifiers, Can Injure
"Females tend to be more precise both in both expressing and reading emotional cues," lead author Paula Niedenthal, PhD, tells Shine. "We don't exactly know how that occurs. One reason might be that be that society encourages girls to read emotions. They might work harder at it." She adds, "Parents talk to girls about emotional processing more than they do to boys. That's not a revolutionary statement." Since boys aren't expected to be as emotional, parents may not compensate for pacifier use by helping them learn in other ways.

ABC News Blogs Female Soldier Ambushed by Baby At Afghan Base

2012-09-20T18:10:00.000+01:00

A British team of pediatric specialists is being deployed to Afghanistan to attend to a female gunner who unexpectedly gave birth in an Afghan outpost that was the scene of a bitter battle just days ago.

The soldier reportedly didn't realize she was pregnant until she developed stomach pains two days ago. The baby was born five weeks premature.

She gave birth in Camp Bastion, a sprawling base in Helmand Province where Britain's Prince Harry is assigned as an Apache helicopter pilot.

The camp was the target of a sophisticated attack last week when three teams of insurgents dressed in U.S. Army uniforms breached the defensive perimeter and destroyed several attack jets and killed two Americans.

The camp is getting a different kind of reinforcements this week as a pediatric team from Oxford's John Radcliffe Hospital is en route to Afghanistan to tend to the soldier and her premature baby.

The soldier, who has not been publicly identified, was deployed to Afghanistan in March. She is believed to be the first soldier to give birth on the frontline.

A Ministry of Defense spokesperson told ABC News that the mother was a gunner in the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Both she and her baby boy are healthy and in good condition.

Pregnant servicewomen are not allowed to be deployed on operations, the Ministry of Defense told ABC News.

"Usually once we find out about a woman being pregnant, we send her back to the UK on maternity leave, but this time, the baby came too fast," the spokesman said.

Even the mother was taken by surprise, officials said, unaware that she was pregnant.

"Medically, it is possible for a woman not to notice a pregnancy, but it's very, very unusual," Dr. Jack Singer, from Harley Street Pediatric Group in London, told ABC News.

"It's with great difficulty that a pregnancy goes unnoticed," joked Singer. "I mean, most women would find amenorrhea (the lack of menstrual bleeding and growth of breasts) unusual, or notice a bump at least in the third trimester."

"All it would take is a simple urine to blood test, before the women are deployed," said Singer. "If you're wearing all that gear and carrying equipment, it's not as obvious as if you're used to wearing black cocktail dresses. These women are under huge stresses and strains, so they can ignore what's going on with their body," he added.
Around 70 women have been sent back from Afghanistan in the last decade after discovering they were pregnant, and twice that number from Iraq in the same period. The Ministry of Defense commented that these figures account for fewer than one percent of British servicewomen ever deployed on operations.

Major Charles Heyman, an author of books about the British Army and a former soldier, said: "The Army needs to make sure for the welfare of the female soldier concerned that they are not pregnant before they deploy."

Servicewomen are usually on leave for at least six months after the birth of their child, but according to according to UK law maternity leave can last up to a year.

Lady Gaga Debuts Yet Another ‘Meat Garment’

2012-09-20T17:57:00.002+01:00

Lady Gaga Debuts Yet Another ‘Meat Garment’

Ready to meet Lady Gaga's meat, yet again? The superstar singer is continuing on a seemingly endless quest to offend vegetarians with yet another version of her infamous "meat dress"--this time, in a showy corset version much more form-fitting than the original. (Er, as form-fitting as a garment made of meat can be, that is.)

Gaga's "meat corset" debuted at a concert in Budapest last month and made a repeat appearance at her show in Amsterdam this week. The corset featured a strapless neckline and, reportedly, a thong-style backside...how comfortable that could be, we're not quite certain. Of course, Gaga chose matching "meat booties" to complete the look.
Although certainly revealing, this outfit isn't the most risque in Gaga's meat locker. She wore a bikini made of the stuff for the September 2010 cover of Vogue Japan. The original "meat dress" was worn for the 2010 Video Music Awards, and is now part of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's exhibit "Women Who Rock: Vision, Passion, Power," currently touring in Washington D.C.

MEANING OF MENOPAUSE AND MERIT AND DEMERIT

2012-09-12T15:41:00.000+01:00

MENOPAUSE

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Change of Life" redirects here. For the Eureka Seven episode, see Change of Life (Eureka Seven). For the Goodies episode, see Change of Life (The Goodies).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)

Menopause
Classification and external resources
ICD-10	N 95.0
ICD-9	627.2
DiseasesDB	8034
MedlinePlus	000894
eMedicine	article/264088

Menopause is the permanent cessation of the primary functions of the human ovaries ^[1]: the ripening and release of ova and the release of hormones that cause both the creation of the uterine lining and the subsequent shedding of the uterine lining (a.k.a. the menses or the period). Menopause typically (but not always) occurs in women in midlife, during their late 40s or early 50s, and signals the end of the fertile phase of a woman's life.^[2]

The transition from reproductive to non-reproductive is the result of a reduction in female hormonal production by the ovaries. This transition is normally not sudden or abrupt, tends to occur over a period of years, and is a natural consequence of aging. However, for some women, the accompanying signs and effects that can occur during the menopause transition years can significantly disrupt their daily activities and sense of well-being. In addition, women who have some sort of functional disorder affecting the reproductive system (e.g., endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, cancer of the reproductive organs) can go into menopause at a younger age than the normal timeframe. The functional disorders often significantly speed up the menopausal process and create more significant health problems, both physical and emotional, for the affected woman.

The word "menopause" literally means the "end of monthly cycles" from the Greek word pausis (cessation) and the root men- (month), because the word "menopause" was created to describe this change in human females, where the end of fertility is traditionally indicated by the permanent stopping of monthly menstruation or menses. However, menopause also exists in some other animals, many of which do not have monthly menstruation;^[3] in this case, the term means a natural end to fertility that occurs before the end of the natural lifespan.

The date of menopause in human females is formally medically defined as the time of the last menstrual period (or menstrual flow of any amount, however small), in those women who have not had a hysterectomy. Women who have their uterus removed but retain their ovaries do not immediately go into menopause, even though their periods cease. Adult women who have their ovaries removed however, go immediately into surgical menopause, no matter how young they are.

Menopause is an unavoidable change that every woman will experience, assuming she reaches middle age and beyond. It is helpful if women are able to learn what to expect and what options are available to assist the transition, if that becomes necessary. Menopause has a wide starting range, but can usually be expected in the age range of 42–58.^[4] An early menopause can be related to cigarette smoking, higher body mass index, racial and ethnic factors, illnesses, chemotherapy, radiation and the surgical removal of the ovaries, with or without the removal of the uterus.^[4]

Menopause can be officially declared (in an adult woman who is not pregnant, is not lactating, and who has an intact uterus) when there has been amenorrhea (absence of any menstruation) for one complete year. However, there are many signs and effects that lead up to this point, many of which may extend well beyond the "official" declaration date of menopause. These include: irregular menses, vasomotor instability (hot flashes and night sweats), atrophy of genitourinary tissue, increased stress, breast tenderness, vaginal dryness, forgetfulness, mood changes, and in certain cases osteoporosis and/or heart disease.^[5] These effects are related to the hormonal changes a woman’s body is going through, and they affect each woman to a different extent. The only sign or effect that all women universally have in common is that by the end of the menopause transition every woman will have a complete cessation of menses.

Age

In the Western world, the most typical age range for menopause (last period from natural causes) is between the ages of 40 and 61^[6] and the average age for last period is 51 years.^[7] The average age of natural menopause (in Australia) is 51.7 years,^[8] although this varies considerably from one individual to another. In India and the Philippines, the median age of natural menopause is considerably earlier, at 44 years.^[9]

Girl before menarche

Woman of reproductive age, see menstrual cycle

Older woman in post-menopause

Additional factors

On average, women who smoke cigarettes experience menopause significantly earlier than non-smokers.^[10] Women who have undergone hysterectomy with ovary conservation go through menopause on average 3.7 years earlier than the expected age.

Premature menopause

In rare cases, a woman's ovaries stop working at a very early age, ranging anywhere from the age of puberty to age 40, and this is known as premature ovarian failure (POF). Spontaneous premature ovarian failure affects 1% of women by age 40, and 0.1% of women by age 30. POF is not considered to be due to the normal effects of aging. Known causes of premature ovarian failure include autoimmune disorders, thyroid disease, diabetes mellitus, chemotherapy, being a carrier of the fragile X syndrome gene, and radiotherapy. However, in the majority of spontaneous cases of premature ovarian failure, the cause is unknown, i.e. it is generally idiopathic.^[11]

POF is diagnosed or confirmed by high blood levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) on at least 3 occasions at least 4 weeks apart.^[11] Rates of premature menopause have been found to be significantly higher in fraternal and identical twins; approximately 5% of twins reach menopause before the age of 40. The reasons for this are not completely understood. Transplants of ovarian tissue between identical twins have been successful in restoring fertility.

Background

The menopause transition, and postmenopause itself, is a natural life change, not a disease state or a disorder. The transition itself has a variable degree of effects: it can be a difficult time of life.

Menopause is perhaps most easily understood as the opposite process to menarche, the start of the monthly periods. However, menopause in women cannot satisfactorily be defined simply as the permanent "stopping of the monthly periods", because in reality what is happening to the uterus is quite secondary to the process; it is what is happening to the ovaries that is the crucial factor.

As an illustration of the central role that the ovaries play, it is worth pointing out that when for medical reasons the uterus has to be surgically removed (hysterectomy) in a younger woman, her periods will of course cease permanently, and the woman will be incapable of pregnancy, but as long as at least one of her ovaries is still functioning, the woman will not have reached menopause. Even without the presence of the uterus, ovulation and the release of the sequence of reproductive hormones will continue to cycle on, until menopause is reached. In contrast to this, in circumstances where a woman's ovaries are removed (oophorectomy), even if the uterus were to be left intact, the woman will immediately be in "surgical menopause". Surgical menopause is a menopause which is induced both suddenly and totally, by removal of both ovaries prior to the age of natural menopause.

On average, assuming there has been no surgical intervention, the first evidence of the onset of the menopause transition time is slight variations in the length of the menstrual cycle. These variations become more pronounced over time, and eventually lead to cycles that can be considerably longer or considerably shorter than usual, flow that can be significantly lighter or heavier than usual, skipped ovulations, skipped periods, and spans of time of many months with no flow at all, after which menstruation may resume. The transition is considered to be over once a woman has experienced 12 months without any menstrual bleeding at all, even though perimenopause effects may extend well beyond this point in time. The term "perimenopause", which literally means "around the menopause", refers to the menopause transition years, a span of time both before and after the date of the final episode of flow.

The hormonal context

The stages of the menopause transition have been classified according to a woman’s reported bleeding pattern, supported by changes in the pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels.^[12]

In younger women, during a normal menstrual cycle the ovaries produce estradiol, testosterone and progesterone in a cyclical pattern under the control of FSH and luteinising hormone (LH) which are both produced by the pituitary gland. Blood estradiol levels remain relatively unchanged, or may increase approaching the menopause, but are usually well preserved until the late perimenopause. This is presumed to be in response to elevated FSH levels.^[13] However, the menopause transition is characterized by marked, and often dramatic, variations in FSH and estradiol levels, and because of this, measurements of these hormones are not considered to be reliable guides to a woman's exact menopausal status.^[14]

Menopause is based on the natural or surgical cessation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries, which are a part of the body's endocrine system of hormone production, in this case the hormones which make reproduction possible and influence sexual behavior. After menopause, estrogen continues to be produced in other tissues, notably the ovaries, but also in bone, blood vessels and even in the brain.^[15] However the dramatic fall in circulating estradiol levels at menopause impacts many tissues, from brain to skin.

In contrast to the sudden fall in estradiol during menopause, the levels of total and free testosterone, as well as dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and androstenedione appear to decline more or less steadily with age. An effect of natural menopause on circulating androgen levels has not been observed.^[16] Thus specific tissue effects of natural menopause cannot be attributed to loss of androgenic hormone production. However, women who have had their ovaries surgically removed, who have had their ovaries damaged by chemotherapy or radiotherapy, or who have ovarian gonadotropin suppression, do have loss of ovarian androgen production as a result.

Menopause can be surgically induced by bilateral oophorectomy (removal of ovaries), which is often, but not always, done in conjunction with removal of the Fallopian tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy) and uterus (hysterectomy). Cessation of menses as a result of removal of the ovaries is called "surgical menopause". The sudden and complete drop in hormone levels usually produces extreme withdrawal symptoms such as hot flashes, etc. Removal of the uterus without removal of the ovaries, a hysterectomy, does not cause menopause, although pelvic surgery can often precipitate a somewhat earlier menopause, perhaps because of a compromised blood supply to the ovaries.

Terminology

There is some overlap in the meaning of the various terms used to refer to menopause and the menopause transition years. In addition some of the terms are used differently in common parlance than they are by medical professionals.

Menopause

Clinically speaking, menopause is tied to a specific date. Assuming the woman still has a uterus, menopause is defined as the day after her final episode of menstrual flow finishes. This date is fixed retrospectively, once 12 months have gone by with no menstrual flow at all. At this point a woman is considered to be a year into postmenopause, is considered to be infertile, and no longer needs to take into consideration the possibility of pregnancy.

In common parlance, however, the word "menopause" usually refers not to one day, but to the whole of the menopause transition years. This span of time is also commonly called the change of life, the change, or the climacteric and more recently is known as "perimenopause", (literally meaning "around menopause").

The word menopause is also often used in popular parlance to mean all the years of postmenopause.

Perimenopause

Perimenopause is the term used to describe the menopause transition years. In women who have a uterus, perimenopause describes the years before and after the final period (although it is only possible to determine in retrospect which episode of flow was indeed the final period). As a medical convenience, perimenopause is technically defined as the time from which menses start to become irregular and FSH levels have increased, until the time when it is known that periods have ceased completely. However, the hormonal changes are gradual, both in onset and in termination, and therefore the various possible perimenopause effects often start before and continue after this neatly defined time slot.

During perimenopause, the ovarian production of the estrogens and progesterone becomes more irregular, often with wide and unpredictable fluctuations in levels. During this period, fertility diminishes, but is not considered to reach zero until the official date of menopause. The official date is determined retroactively, once 12 months have passed after the last appearance of menstrual blood.

Signs and effects of the menopause transition can begin as early as age 35, although most women become aware of the transition in their mid to late 40s, often many years after the actual beginning of the perimenopausal window. The duration of perimenopause with noticeable bodily effects can be as brief as a few years, but it is not unusual for the duration to last ten or more years. The actual duration and severity of perimenopause effects for any individual woman currently cannot be predicted in advance. Even during the process, the course of an individual woman's perimenopause can be difficult if not impossible to predict.

During the perimenopause years, many women undergo noticeable and clinically observable physical changes resulting from hormonal fluctuations. The most well-known of these is the "hot flash" or "hot flush", a sudden temporary increase in body temperature. The "flash" sensation in a "hot flash" occurs as the body temperature soars upward, reaching a peak very rapidly. The "hot" sensation in a "hot flash" is not the initial temperature rise; instead, it is a reaction to the slowness of the body's return to a more normal temperature range.

Hot flashes can be so strong that they raise the body temperature multiple degrees in a very short period of time; this extreme temperature differential can cause the sufferer to feel weak and break out in heavy sweating. Despite the discomfort to the woman, hot flashes are not considered harmful by physicians. In most cases, flashes can be treated to ease extreme discomfort, using prescription medications such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or SSRI medications, or by using over-the-counter plant estrogens and herbal remedies. Many women manage hot flashes by dressing in ways that dissipate heat quickly (natural fibers, loose clothing, easily removable layers of lightweight garments) as well as mechanical means which help the body to remove excess heat, such as fans, drinking ice water, and staying in cool rooms.

Other common effects encountered during the perimenopausal period include mood changes, insomnia, fatigue, and memory problems.

Menopause may, in some women, bring about a sense of loss related to the end of fertility. In addition this change often occurs at a time of life when other stressors may be present in the life of a woman:

Having to deal with caring for, and/or the death of, elderly parents
The so-called "empty-nest syndrome" when children leave home
The birth of grandchildren, which places people of "middle age" into a new category of "older people" (especially in those cultures where being older is a state that is not venerated but looked down on)

Recent research shows that melatonin supplementation in perimenopausal women can produce a significant improvement in thyroid function and gonadotropin levels, as well as restoring fertility and menstruation and preventing the depression associated with the menopause.^[17]

Premenopause

Premenopause is a word used to describe the years leading up to the last period, when the levels of reproductive hormones are already becoming lower and more erratic, and the effects of hormone withdrawal may be present.

Postmenopause

The term postmenopause is applied to women who have not experienced a menstrual bleed for a minimum of 12 months, assuming that they do still have a uterus, and are not pregnant or lactating. In women without a uterus, menopause or postmenopause is identified by a very high FSH level. Thus postmenopause is all of the time in a woman's life that take place after her last period, or more accurately, all of the time that follows the point when her ovaries become inactive.

A woman who still has her uterus (and who is neither pregnant nor lactating) can be declared to be in postmenopause once she has gone 12 full months with no flow at all, not even any spotting. When she reaches that point, she is one year into postmenopause.

The reason for this delay in declaring a woman postmenopausal is because periods are usually extremely erratic at this time of life, and therefore a reasonably long stretch of time is necessary to be sure that the cycling has actually ceased completely.

At this point a woman is considered infertile, and no longer needs to factor in the possibility of becoming pregnant. However the possibility of becoming pregnant has usually been very low (but not zero) for a number of years before this point is reached.

In women who have no uterus, and therefore have no periods, post-menopause can be determined by a blood test which can reveal the very high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) that are typical of post-menopausal women.

A woman's reproductive hormone levels continue to drop and fluctuate for some time into post-menopause, so any hormone withdrawal symptoms that a woman may be experiencing do not necessarily stop right away, but may take quite some time, even several years, to disappear completely.

Any period-like flow that might occur during postmenopause, even just spotting, must be reported to a doctor. The cause may in fact be minor, but the possibility of endometrial cancer must be checked for and eliminated.

Indications and signs

During the menopause transition years, as the body responds to the rapidly fluctuating and dropping levels of natural hormones, a number of effects may appear. Not every woman experiences bothersome levels of these effects; the range of effects and the degree to which they appear is very variable from person to person.

Effects that are due to low estrogen levels (for example vaginal atrophy and skin drying) will continue after the menopause transition years are over; however, many effects that are caused by the extreme fluctuations in hormone levels (for example hot flashes and mood changes) usually disappear or improve significantly once the perimenopause transition is completely over. All the various possible perimenopause effects are caused by an overall drop, as well as dramatic but erratic fluctuations, in the absolute levels and relative levels of estrogens and progesterone. Effects such as formication (crawling, itching, or tingling skin sensations), may be associated directly with hormone withdrawal.

Both users and non-users of hormone replacement therapy identify lack of energy as the most frequent and distressing effect.^[18] Other effects can include vasomotor symptoms such as hot flashes and palpitations, psychological effects such as depression, anxiety, irritability, mood swings, memory problems and lack of concentration, and atrophic effects such as vaginal dryness and urgency of urination.

The average woman also has increasingly erratic menstrual periods, due to skipped ovulations. Typically, the timing of the flow becomes unpredictable. In addition the duration of the flow may be considerably shorter or longer than normal, and the flow itself may be significantly heavier or lighter than was previously the case, including sometimes long episodes of spotting. Early in the process it is not uncommon to have some 2-week cycles. Further into the process it is common to skip periods for months at a time, and these skipped periods may be followed by a heavier period. The number of skipped periods in a row often increases as the time of last period approaches. At the point when a woman of menopausal age has had no periods or spotting for 12 months, she is considered to be one year into post-menopause.

One way of assessing the impact on women of some of these menopause effects is the Greene Climacteric Scale questionnaire.

Vascular instability

Hot flashes or hot flushes, including night sweats and, in a few people, cold flashes
Possible but contentious increased risk of atherosclerosis ^[19]
Migraine
Rapid heartbeat

Urogenital atrophy, also known as vaginal atrophy

Main article: Atrophic vaginitis

Thinning of the membranes of the vulva, the vagina, the cervix, and also the outer urinary tract, along with considerable shrinking and loss in elasticity of all of the outer and inner genital areas.
Itching
Dryness
Bleeding
Watery discharge
Urinary frequency
Urinary incontinence
Urinary urgency
Increased susceptibility to inflammation and infection, for example vaginal candidiasis, and urinary tract infections

Skeletal

Back pain
Joint pain, Muscle pain
Osteopenia and the risk of osteoporosis gradually developing over time

Skin, soft tissue

Breast atrophy
breast tenderness +/- swelling
Decreased elasticity of the skin
Formication (itching, tingling, burning, pins and needles, or sensation of ants crawling on or under the skin)
Skin thinning and becoming drier

Psychological

Depression and/or anxiety
Fatigue
Irritability
Memory loss, and problems with concentration
Mood disturbance
Sleep disturbances, poor quality sleep, light sleep, insomnia and sleepiness^[20]^[21]

Sexual

Dyspareunia or painful intercourse
Decreased libido
Problems reaching orgasm
Vaginal dryness and vaginal atrophy

Cohort studies have reached mixed conclusions about medical conditions associated with the menopause. For example, a 2007 study found that menopause was associated with hot flashes; joint pain and muscle pain; and depressed mood.^[22] In the same study, it appeared that menopause was not associated with poor sleep, decreased libido, and vaginal dryness.^[22] However, in contrast to this, a 2008 study did find an association with poor sleep quality.^[23]

Cause

The causes of menopause can be considered from complementary proximate (mechanistic) perspectives (how it happens) or from ultimate (adaptive evolutionary) perspectives (why it happens). The latter group are hypotheses only.

Proximate perspective

Natural or physiological menopause occurs as a part of a woman's normal aging process. It is the result of the eventual depletion of almost all of the oocytes and ovarian follicles ^[24] in the ovaries. This causes an increase in circulating follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels because there are a decreased number of oocytes and follicles responding to these hormones and producing estrogen. This decrease in the production of estrogen leads to the perimenopausal symptoms of hot flashes, insomnia and mood changes. Long term effects may include osteoporosis and vaginal atrophy.

Adaptive hypotheses

The mother hypothesis

The mother hypothesis suggests that menopause was selected for in humans because of the extended development period of human offspring and high costs of reproduction so that mothers gain an advantage in reproductive fitness by redirecting their effort from new offspring with a low survival chance to existing children with a higher survival chance.^[31]

The grandmother hypothesis

The Grandmother hypothesis suggests that menopause was selected for in humans because it promotes the survival of grandchildren. According to this hypothesis, post reproductive women feed and care for children, adult nursing daughters, and grandchildren whose mothers have weaned them. Human babies require large and steady supplies of glucose to feed the growing brain. In infants in the first year of life, the brain consumes 60% of all calories, so both babies and their mothers require a dependable food supply. Some evidence suggests that hunters contribute less than half the total food budget of most hunter-gatherer societies, and often much less than half, so that foraging grandmothers can contribute substantially to the survival of grandchildren at times when mothers and fathers are unable to gather enough food for all of their children. In general, selection operates most powerfully during times of famine or other privation. So although grandmothers might not be necessary during good times, many grandchildren cannot survive without them during times of famine. Arguably, however, there is no firm consensus on the supposed evolutionary advantages (or simply neutrality) of menopause to the survival of the species in the evolutionary past.

Indeed, analysis of historical data found that the length of a female’s post-reproductive lifespan was reflected in the reproductive success of her offspring and the survival of her grandchildren.^[32] Interestingly, another study found comparative effects but only in the maternal grandmother – paternal grandmothers had a detrimental effect on infant mortality (probably due to paternity uncertainty).^[33] Differing assistance strategies for maternal and paternal grandmothers have also been demonstrated. Maternal grandmothers concentrate on offspring survival, whereas paternal grandmothers increase birth rates.^[34]

A problem concerning the grandmother hypothesis is that it requires a history of female philopatry and yet present day evidence shows that the majority of hunter-gatherer societies are patriarchal.^[35] In addition, all variations on the mother, or grandmother effect fail to explain longevity with continued spermatogenesis in males (oldest verified paternity is 94 years, 35 years beyond the oldest documented birth attributed to females).^[36] It also fails to explain the detrimental effects of losing ovarian follicular activity, such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, Alzheimer’s disease and coronary artery disease.^[37]

Management

Perimenopause is a natural stage of life. It is not a disease or a disorder, and therefore it does not automatically require any kind of medical treatment at all. However, in those cases where the physical, mental, and emotional effects of perimenopause are strong enough that they significantly disrupt the everyday life of the woman experiencing them, palliative medical therapy may sometimes be appropriate.

Hormone replacement therapy

In the context of menopause Hormone replacement therapy or HRT, known in Britain as Hormone Therapy or HT, refers to the use of estrogen plus progestin for a woman who has an intact uterus, or estrogen alone for a woman who has had a hysterectomy.^[38] Traditionally such therapy was provided as tablets but now is available in a range of formulations including skin patches, gels, skin sprays, subcutaneous implants and so forth. A popular alternative to conventional HRT is a synthetic hormone (derived from the Mexican yam) called tibolone. Of the non hormonal therapies for hot flushes, some of the SSRIs appear to provide some pharmaceutical relief.^[39] Adverse effects of HRT appear to vary according to formulation and dose. See the section below on "Adverse effects of conjugated equine estrogens".

In addition to relief from hot flashes, hormone therapy can alleviate vaginal dryness, improve sleep quality and joint pain. It is also extremely effective for preventing bone loss and osteoporotic fracture.^[40]

A woman and her doctor should carefully review her situation, her complaints and her relative risk before determining whether the benefits of HT/HRT or other therapies outweigh the risks. Until more becomes understood about the possible risks, women who elect to use hormone replacement therapy are generally well advised to take the lowest effective dose of hormones for the shortest period possible, and to question their doctors as to whether certain forms might pose fewer dangers of clots or cancer than others.

Until recently the most widely used estrogen preparation worldwide in postmenopausal women was oral conjugated equine estrogens. Other oral oestrogen preparations include synthetically derived piperazine estrone sulphate, estriol, micronised estradiol and estradiol valerate. Estradiol may also be used transdermally as a patch or gel, as a slow release percutaneous implant, and more recently as a metered dose skin spray. Intravaginal estrogens include topical estradiol in the form of a ring or pessary, estriol in pessary or cream form, dienoestrol and conjugated oestrogens in the form of creams. Oral micronised estradiol and other oral estrogen preparations may result in up to 10 fold higher levels of circulating estrone sulphate than transdermally administered estradiol at comparable or even higher doses.^[41] This is of concern in that estrogen sensitive tissues such as breast and endometrium have high capacity to metabolise estrone sulphate through to estradiol. Orally administered estrogen therapy also increases sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) to a greater extent than non orally administered estrogens. SHBG binds estrogen and testosterone in the blood and this may result in a clinically significant reduction in the bioavailability of these hormones. Thus it would seem that the prescription of oral estrogen therapy should be at the lowest available dose to minimise effects on circulating estrone sulphate and SHBG.

In those women who have no uterus (usually due to a previous hysterectomy), estrogen alone is a suitable hormone therapy and is in fact preferable to continuing to use progesterone when its function as a moderating influence on growth of the endometrium (uterine lining) is no longer required. Women who still have a uterus need to take progesterone in addition to estrogen to protect against the development of endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial carcinoma.

Oral administration of progesterone is convenient, however the oral micronised form is rapidly metabolized and inactivated in the liver, therefore high doses must be administered to achieve adequate circulating blood levels. Synthetic progestins have been developed and are prescribed to overcome this problem. Synthetic progestins are more resistant to liver metabolism, therefore lower doses can be used to achieve the desired endometrial effect. It is not uncommon for women to experience side effects with progesterone or progestin therapy. Progesterone may cause sedation so is best taken at bedtime.^[42] Synthetic progestins may cause irritability and mood changes in some women.^[43]

Conjugated equine estrogens

Conjugated equine estrogens contain estrogen molecules conjugated to hydrophilic side groups (e.g. sulfate) and are produced from the urine of pregnant Equidae (horses) mares. Premarin is the prime example of this, either alone or in Prempro, where it is combined with a synthetic progestin, medroxyprogesterone acetate.

Women had been advised for many years by numerous doctors and drug company marketing efforts (at least in the USA) that hormone therapy with conjugated equine estrogens after menopause might reduce their risk of heart disease and prevent various aspects of aging. However, a large, randomized, controlled trial (the Women's Health Initiative) found that women undergoing HT or HRT with conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin), in combination with a synthetic progestin (medroxy pogesterone acetate (Premarin plus Provera, known as Prempro)), had an increased risk of breast cancer and heart disease.^[44] An increase in breast cancer risk was not seen in the Women's Health Initiative study of conjugate estrogen alone (Premarin) versus placebo, however this study was stopped prematurely as an increased risk of stroke was observed in women treated with Premarin.^[45] Although this increase in risk was small overall, it passed the thresholds that had been established by the researchers in advance as sufficient to ethically require stopping the study.

When these results were first reported in 2002, the popular media sensationalized the story and exaggerated the risk, while the manufacturer continued to attempt to minimize the degree of risk. However most news stories failed to mention that the average age of the women in WHI was 62 years old, significantly older than the time when most women start HRT, and in fact many years into postmenopause. To enroll in the study, patients had to be asymptomatic of hot flashes, so they would not know whether they received the placebo. For these reasons, WHI was not representative of generally accepted clinical practice.

The 2002 and 2003 announcements of the Women's Health Initiative of the American National Institute of Health and The Million Women Study of the UK Cancer Research and National Health Service collaboration respectively, that HRT treatment coincides with an increased incidence of breast cancer, heart attacks and strokes, lead to a sharp decline in HRT prescription throughout the world,^[46]^[47]^[48] which was followed by a decrease in breast cancer incidence.^[49]^[50]

On hearing the news about the WHI study, many women discontinued equine estrogens altogether, with or without their doctor's knowledge. The number of prescriptions written for Premarin and PremPro in the United States dropped within a year almost to half of their previous level. This sharp drop in usage was followed by large and successively larger drops in new breast cancer diagnoses, at six months, one year, and 18 months after the drop in Premarin and Prempro prescriptions, for a cumulative 15% drop by the end of 2003. However, the apparent meaning of this correlation is called into question by the fact that prescriptions of Prempro and Premarin fell dramatically in Canada as well, but no similarly dramatic drop in Canada's breast cancer rates was observed during the same time period. Studies designed to track the further progression of this trend after 2003 are under way, as well as studies designed to quantify how much of the drop was related to the reduced use of HT/HRT.^[45]

The WHI study results have created a new scenario for postmenopausal women.^[51]

Researchers at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill are currently undergoing a study to determine if estrogen replacement therapy can improve cardiovascular health and prevent depression in perimenopausal women between the ages of 45 and 55.^[52] Dr. David Rubinow, UNC's chair of Psychiatry, and one of two principal investigators on the NIH-funded 5-year study, notes there is a very important difference between the UNC study and the WHI estrogen study. Dr. Rubinow states that “the Women’s Health Initiative study led to the mistaken belief that estrogen replacement therapy is bad for all women. And as a result, it has served to deprive some women of a treatment that might greatly and favorably impact their lives. Much of the negative impact of estrogen that they found was related to the fact that most of the women in the Women’s Health Initiative study were far past the menopause and up to 79 years old.” Dr. Rubinow continues by explaining that “there are now a large number of studies that demonstrate what has been called the timing hypothesis. That is, giving estrogen within a year or two of menopause has beneficial effects, but giving estrogen in women more than five years beyond the menopause can actually be harmful. When the women who were close to menopause were looked at separately, the adverse effects on the heart were not seen and in fact some suggestion of beneficial effects was seen. Perimenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative who received estrogen had significantly lower coronary artery calcification compared to the women who didn’t take estrogen.” As Dr. Rubinow states, “given the mortality and morbidity associated with depression and heart disease, and the tremendous increase in risk of these disorders during the perimenopause, it is critical that we identify those women who will be helped by estradiol.”^[53]

Antidepressants

Antidepressants such as paroxetine (Paxil), Fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac), and Venlafaxine hydrochloride (Effexor) have been used with some success in the treatment of hot flashes, improving sleep, mood, and quality of life. Paroxetine and venlafaxine may cause nausea and insomnia. In addition, venlafaxine may cause dry mouth, constipation and decreased appetite whereas paroxetine may cause headaches. There is a theoretical reason why SSRI antidepressants might help with memory problems: they increase circulating levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain and restore hippocampal function.^[62] Fluoxetine hydrochloride (Sarafem) is also prescribed for premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), a mood disorder often exacerbated during perimenopause. PMDD has been found by PET scans to be associated with dysregulation of serotonin pathways in the brain^[63] and to respond quickly and powerfully to SSRIs^[^{citation
needed}^].

.^[ Blood pressure medicines

Blood pressure medicines including clonidine (Catapres) are about as effective as antidepressants for hot flashes, but do not have the other mind and mood benefits of antidepressants. However they may merit special consideration by women suffering both from high blood pressure and hot flashes.^[65]

Alternative medicine

It is important to examine the claim that herbal remedies help relieve menopausal symptoms.^[66] Some botanical sources, referred to as phytoestrogens, do not simply mimic the effects of human steroidal estrogen but exhibit both similar and divergent actions. The ultimate actions of these compounds in specific cells is determined by many factors including the relative levels of the estrogen receptors ER alpha and beta and the diverse mix of coactivators and corepressors present in any given cell type. Thus they have been described to act somewhat like selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). Effects vary according to the phytoestrogen studied, cell line, tissue, species and response being evaluated.^[67]

Systematic reviews of intervention studies question the validity of the proposed benefits of phytoestrogen supplementation, with little data in postmenopausal women to support a role for phytoestrogens as an alternative for conventional HT.^[68] Femarelle is a mixture of DT56a soy derivative and ground flaxseed at a ratio of 3:1, for oral administration. Each capsule contains 344 mg soy and 108 mg flaxseed – altogether 430 mg powder. It is being promoted for the treatment of menopause and prevention of bone loss and has also been described as having SERM qualities,^[69] thereby reducing the safety risks involved in estrogenic-like treatments^[^{citation
needed}^]. In 2008 the European Food Safety Authority concluded that "a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of Femarelle and increased BMD, increased bone formation, or decreased risk of osteoporosis or other bone disorders in post-menopausal women.".^[70]

In the area of complementary and alternative therapies, acupuncture and acupressure treatments are promising. Numerous studies indicate positive effects, especially on hot flashes^[71]^[72] ^[73] but also others^[74] showing no positive effects of acupuncture regarding menopause.

There are regular claims that soy isoflavones are beneficial concerning some symptoms of menopause. Isoflavones are naturally occurring compounds, and daidzein and genistein are the main isoflavones found in soy.^[75] After consuming soy containing daidzein some, but not all, humans produce S-equol (7-hydroxy-3-(49-hydroxyphenyl)-chroman),^[76] which may have some health benefits, particularly the reduction of some menopausal symptoms.

The ability to transform daidzein into S-equol is based on the presence of certain intestinal bacteria. In fact, several studies indicate that only 25 to 30 percent of the adult population of Western countries produces S-equol after eating soy foods containing isoflavones,^[77]^[78]^[79]^[80] significantly lower than the reported 50 to 60 percent frequency of equol-producers in adults from Japan, Korea or China.^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84] S-equol is not of plant origin. Kenneth D. R. Setchell, Ph.D., et al., proposed in 2002 that S-equol had potential for disease prevention and treatment. The scientists stated "There is good rationale for expecting greater efficacy in equol-producers because equol binds with greater affinity to estrogen receptor than daidzein."^[85]

Recent human clinical studies showed that S-equol provided as a standardized soygerm-based dietary supplement helped reduce menopausal symptoms, bone loss and crow’s feet skin wrinkles in menopausal women. Studies of Japanese postmenopausal women documented that those who can produce S-equol after soy consumption had milder menopause symptoms than those who were equol nonproducers.^[86]^[87] Key basic animal and human studies, in both women in Japan and the United States, have documented the efficacy and safety of the soygerm-based supplement containing S-equol to modify menopause symptoms, particularly the reduction of the severity and frequency of hot flashes and neck and shoulder stiffness.^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91]

However, one study^[92] indicated that soy isoflavones did not improve or appreciably affect cognitive functioning in postmenopausal women.

Other remedies which work in some studies, but in other studies^[^{citation
needed}^] appear to be no better than a placebo,^[93]^[94] include red clover isoflavone extracts and black cohosh. Black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, also known as Actaea racemosa) is a North American native plant. It has common usage internationally for the treatment of hot flushes and sweats experienced by postmenopausal women. However, study results do not support a benefit of black cohosh for the treatment of menopausal symptoms.^[94] Black cohosh has been associated with reports of acute liver toxicity^[95] and a concern has been raised regarding the stimulation of pre-existing breast cancer based on an animal study.^[96] One study found, black cohosh and red clover, when compared to a placebo, did not reduce the number of vasomotor symptoms, although safety monitoring indicated that chemically and biologically standardized extracts of black cohosh and red clover were safe during daily administration for 12 months.^[97] Another study reported that black cohosh used in isolation, or as part of a multibotanical regimen, had little potential to relieve vasomotor symptoms.^[98]

More promising data from an emerging treatment comprising a multibotanical compound MF-101 (trade name Menerba) can be located here Menerba

Education

Many women arrive at their menopause transition years without knowing anything about what they might expect, or when or how the process might happen, and how long it might take. Very often a woman has not been informed in any way about this stage of life; at least in the US, it may often be the case that she has received no information from her physician, or from her older female family members, or from her social group. In the US, there appears to be a lingering taboo which hangs over this subject. As a result, a woman who happens to undergo a strong perimenopause with a large number of different effects, may become confused and anxious, fearing that something abnormal is happening to her. There is a strong need for more information and more education on this subject.^[18]

Other therapies

Lack of lubrication is a common problem during and after perimenopause. Vaginal moisturizers can help women with overall dryness, and lubricants can help with lubrication difficulties that may be present during intercourse. It is worth pointing out that moisturizers and lubricants are different products for different issues: some women feel unpleasantly dry all of the time apart from during sex, and they may do better with moisturizers all of the time. Those who need only lubricants are fine just using the lubrication products during intercourse.

Low-dose prescription vaginal estrogen products such as estrogen creams are generally a safe way to use estrogen topically, to help vaginal thinning and dryness problems (see vaginal atrophy) while only minimally increasing the levels of estrogen in the bloodstream.

In terms of managing hot flashes, lifestyle measures, such as drinking cold liquids, staying in cool rooms, using fans, removing excess clothing layers when a hot flash strikes, and avoiding hot flash triggers such as hot drinks, spicy foods, etc., may partially supplement (or even obviate) the use of medications for some women.

Individual counseling or support groups can sometimes be helpful to handle sad, depressed, anxious or confused feelings women may be having as they pass through what can be for some a very challenging transition time.

Osteoporosis can be minimized by smoking cessation, adequate vitamin D intake and regular weight-bearing exercise. The bisphosphate drug alendronate can help prevent loss of bone mass, reducing the risk of fractures, according to a Cochrane review of studies. This applies both to women that have suffered bone loss but have not yet suffered fractures, and women that have suffered both bone loss and fractures.^[99]

The risk of acute myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular diseases rises sharply after menopause, but the risk can be reduced by managing risk factors, such as tobacco smoking, hypertension, increased blood lipids and body weight.^[100]^[101]

Society and culture

The cultural context within which a woman lives can have a significant impact on the way she experiences the menopausal transition. Within the United States, social location affects the way women perceive menopause and its related biological effects. Research indicates that whether a woman views menopause as a medical issue or an expected life change is correlated with her socio-economic status.^[102] The paradigm within which a woman considers menopause also influences the way she views it: women who understand menopause as a medical condition rate it significantly more negatively than those who view it as a life transition or a symbol of aging.^[103]

Ethnicity and geographical location also play a role in the experience of menopause. U.S. women of different ethnicities report significantly different types of menopausal effects. One major study found Caucasian women most likely to report what are sometimes described as psychosomatic symptoms, while African-American women were more likely to report vasomotor symptoms.^[104] Additionally, while most women in the United States have a negative view of menopause as a time of deterioration or decline, some studies seem to indicate that Asian women have an understanding of menopause that focuses on a sense of liberation, and celebrates the freedom from the risk of pregnancy.^[105] Diverging from these conclusions however, one study appeared to show that many U.S. women "experience this time as one of liberation and self-actualization."^[106] Postmenopausal Indian women can enter Hindu temples and participate in rituals, marking it as a celebration for reaching an age of wisdom and experience.

Generally speaking, women raised in the Western world live long enough so that a third of their life is spent in post-menopause. For some women, the menopausal transition represents a major life change, similar to menarche in the magnitude of its social and psychological significance. Although the significance of the changes that surround menarche is fairly well recognized, in countries such as the USA, the social and psychological ramifications of the menopause transition are frequently ignored or underestimated.^[^{citation
needed}^]

Cultural Policy in Nigeria - Webster's World of Cultural Democracy

2012-09-03T15:21:00.003+01:00

Cultural Policy in Nigeria - Webster's World of Cultural Democracy

Introduction

Nigeria is one of the largest (923,768 km2) and geographically, socially and culturally most diversified African countries. It is the most populous country of Africa (the population estimated at 110 million in 1990), and potentially one of the richest. Richly endowed with human and natural resources, benefiting of a large internal market, Nigeria is, however, highly dependant on external economic sector, particularly oil revenues (93 per cent of exports in 1989). The domestic industry is import dependant. More then 60 per cent of population is employed in agriculture, which provides the bulk of Nigeria's food and raw materials supply and non-oil exports.

Rich resources, large internal market and human potentials did not prevent Nigeria from being a low income country with GDP per capita declining from about 1,000 US dollars in 1980 to about 250 dollars in 1990. The world oil crisis, poor agricultural development, and internal civil war are usually cited as the main reasons for such an economic decline.

Nigeria became independent in 1960. The post-independence history of the country has been dominated by ethnic and regional antagonisms, and the interplay between military and civilian rule. The military take-over of government in 1966, the civil war from 1967-1979, and the rule of military government from 1970 to 1979 alternated with the attempts to introduce civilian rule and democracy. The civilian rule was introduced in the period 1979-1983, when it was interrupted by military coup. The preparations to introduce the civilian rule again, promised to be set-up in October 1992, have so far included the formation of political parties to contest elections, and the local and state government elections in 1991.

Nigeria is in the process of socio-economic restructuring and adjustment. The over-all situation of the majority of people remains of utmost concern: the population growth is estimated at 3,2 per cent, the life expectancy stands at 51 years, and the male/female adult literacy is limited to 54/31 per cent. According to the Human Development Index, Nigeria ranks as 129th out of 160 countries. Re-instating civilian rule through participatory politics and general elections, scheduled for August 1992, is regarded to be of paramount importance for the future of the nation.

The federal administrative structure is reflected in establishment and functioning of 21 federal states. Upon the independence (1960) Nigeria had three states; it was split into 12 states in 1967, and in 19 states in 1975. The Nigerian federalism is based on the strong centralized administration in the federal state and army, and the parallel fragmentation of the country in small states which may symbolize the emancipation of Nigerian ethnic groups.

The ethnic diversity of Nigerian society is reflected in the fact that the country has over 250 identified ethnic groups. Three very large ethno-linguistic entities dominate: the Yoruba, the Ibo and the Hausa-Fulani in the North. The Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Ibo, Kanuri, Tiv, Edo, Nupe, Ibibio and Ijaw groups account for almost 80 per cent of the population. The Muslims comprise more then 50 per cent of the population, Christians account for about 35 per cent, while the balance of the population are animists.
General Directions of Cultural Policy

The rights and various attempts of the people of Nigeria to develop their culture have been supported by both the civilian and military governments and have been given consideration in the Nigerian Constitution. However, neither the systematized cultural policy, nor the set of main aims of cultural policies within the states have not been presented. Some of the clearly set directions of cultural policies are:

- analysis and understanding of the Nigerian cultural life, cultural values and cultural needs and expectations of people;

- affirmation of the authentic cultural values and cultural heritage;

- building up of a national cultural identity and parallel affirmation of cultural identities of different ethnic groups;

- development of cultural infrastructure and introduction of new technologies in cultural activities;

- establishment of links between culture and education, as well as between education and different cultural industries, particularly mass media.

National cultural policy is generally regarded as an instrument of promotion of national identity and Nigerian unity,as well as of communication and cooperation among different Nigerian or African cultures, while the federal states' cultural policies stand for the affirmation and development of particular (ethnic) cultures.
Administrative and Institutional Structures
Public or Semi-public Bodies

Ministry of Culture and Social Welfare has two departments responsible for administering and implementing cultural policies. The Federal Department of Culture is responsible for the formulation and execution of the national cultural policies, for the financing and promotion of all national cultural organizations and for international cultural relations. The National Council for Arts and Culture encourages and develops all aspects of Nigerian cultures and interacts with private or public organizations.

Other federal bodies partly involved in cultural life and policies are Ministry of Information and Ministry of Education.

Different cultural sectors are covered by the statutory bodies at the federal level, such as the following: National Commission for Museums and Monuments, National Library of Nigeria, Center for Black and African Arts and Civilization, National Gallery of Modern Art, Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, Nigerian Television Authority, Film Corporation of Nigeria.

The Federal Ministry of Culture and Social Welfare is in charge of cooperation and coordination among various bodies at the national, state and local government levels.

The promotion and development of culture is the exclusive responsibility of each Nigerian state, although the Federal Government finances and offers administrative support for culture to each state. State or provincial authorities have all established State Art Councils set up by law. These art councils have the responsibility to develop, administer and promote state cultural policies.
Non-governmental cultural institutions

Cultural organizations at both federal and local levels, artistic associations, specialized institutions, agencies, etc., operate through registration with the authorities. Organized cultural centers usually function within the local communities or at the universities. They are self-organized and sometimes supported for specialized, particular activities only. Some may also operate as small private enterprises, which is the case of small performing groups, small publishers, etc.
Instruments of Cultural Policy
Financing and planning of cultural activities

Functioning of public and semi-public bodies dealing with culture, as well as the main inputs in cultural infrastructure such as building of museums, theaters, establishment of libraries etc. are mainly covered from the federal budget. This also stands for the organization of large events such as national or literary festivals organized by federal or state agencies of culture.

Planning of cultural activities or of the establishment of cultural infrastructure is linked to the budget provisions preparations. It hardly goes beyond an action or project planning. A general development plan of the country may provide for the construction of cultural infrastructure or for major cultural events. The project planning is restricted to either the local level, or, in the case of international cultural cooperation, fully complies with the provisions of the donor organization.

Spending for culture depends on the interests and possibilities of the large public, particularly in the case of pop music, smaller performing groups, artisans, etc.
Legislation

The Nigerian Constitution has the provisions regarding the rights of Nigerian people to develop and promote their cultures, and to apply their cultures as an instrument promoting national identity and unity.

The Legislative List of the Nigerian Constitution defines the mandate of the Federal government, as well as of the state and provincial authorities, in the field of culture. According to the List, each Nigerian State government has the exclusive responsibility for the promotion and development of local culture(s).

Acts of the National Assembly of Nigeria define the role and functioning of the specialized bodies dealing with culture.

Particular laws passed by the state or provincial authorities represent the statutory basis for the establishment of arts councils and the other local bodies.
Sectoral Policies
Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage is widely recognized as the most important input in defining the national and ethnic cultures in Nigeria. Nigeria inherits great cultures of the Benin plateau, but also an impressive body of plastic, music and literary arts. All Nigerian governments, notwithstanding their political backgrounds and developmental orientations, proclaimed their intention to preserve cultural heritage and allow for its full recognition. The National Archives, the National Museum, the National Library and all the existing universities have taken over the task to work on research, restoration and preservation of the cultural heritage. Both federal and a few state agencies working in this field are fully supported from the federal funds.

Although a lot of work has been done in research, systematization and preservation of cultural heritage. There is a need for well established documentation on cultural heritage, as well as a need for a well organized service for its restoration and preservation.
Artistic and literary creation

Artistic and literary creation depends mostly on the individual initiatives or on the local support. The federal Fund for the Assistance to Arts and Drama offers assistance to artists in the provision of fellowships, study grants for travels and purchase of the needed materials. Other types of support available to artists or writers depend on cultural industries that are directly involved or influence artistic and literary creation.

Performing arts are to a certain extent supported through investments in cultural infrastructure, such as building of theaters, stadiums hosting large festivals, etc.
Training of personnel for cultural action

Nigeria is among the countries which have training capacities and could organize either formal (university) or informal training for cultural action. The needs are large, but the curricula and programmes are not very well adapted to meet them.

University courses, apart from those designed to train journalists, are not specialized enough to prepare students for work in either cultural industries or as organizers of cultural activities. Specialists at higher level are usually trained on the job, and often also in the specialized institutions abroad.

Informal training carried on through seminars, workshops etc. is usually organized in accordance with the pressing needs for specialized personnel.
Cultural Industries

Cultural industries develop either as a state monopoly (i.e., television broadcasting), as public, or as private industries. The ownership structure is clearly reflected in the development of cultural industries.
Publishing and Reading

Publishing and reading are estimated to be underdeveloped in Nigeria. The first printing outfit was established in Calabar in 1846. Newspapers, political and religious literature constituted the bulk of publishing activity in Nigeria for nearly a century. It is estimated that Nigeria now has over 500 publishers and there are about 50 registered member-firms in the Nigerian Publishers Association. They are expected to serve about half a million of Nigerian students and general public.

Inconsistent fiscal and education policies in Nigeria and the heavy dependence on government patronage were not in favour of improving rather weak publishing infrastructures. However, the publishing industry relies mostly on the enormous needs for school books and teaching materials. Over 95 per cent of books used in the primary and junior secondary schools are locally printed (and written, edited and illustrated by the Nigerians). Nigerian publishers are now going into the senior secondary school sector and into the technical, professional and tertiary sectors of textbook production. The estimates made in the mid-eighties showed that a minimum of 285 million textbooks per annum at all levels of education would be needed.

The main problems encountered by the publishing industry are the following: printing equipment is rather obsolete and scarce; there are constant shortages of paper; the publishing personnel is not always well trained. The linguistic problem is also important, as most indigenous languages do not have developed orthographies. The inconsistent educational policies, unreliable authorities supposed to support some publishers, piracy and poor promotion and distribution are also mentioned as problems.

Large internal markets and ever greater needs linked to the fast spreading education and reading culture support strongly the development of publishing industry.
Broadcasting

Mass media/radio and television broadcasting industries have been spreading very tastly, motivated by 2 main factors: politics and education. Technical and technological reasons should be added as these enabled a very fast proliferation of radio and TV stations in Nigeria during the last about thirty years.

TV transmission began in Western Nigeria in 1559, and a year later the Eastern Nigeria TV Service and Radio TV Kaduna Service were established. The Federal government established the Nigerian Television Service (NTS) in Lagos in 1962. The development of television broadcasting reflected the regional versus federal politics and aspirations. Each of the 21 Nigerian states opted for its own radio and TV station, as well as for university, colleges, hospitals, etc. 34 TV stations had been established in Nigeria over 25 years, at a rate of 1.5 station a year.Nigeria has the fourth largest TV network in the world, with the constantly growing staff and the figure of imported programmes going constantly down. There is an ever increased choice of TV channels, and the oil revenues helped to increase the number of TV sets. In the mid-seventies about 87 per cent of population had access to TV programmes.

Educational television began broadcasting to schools in 1959 and soon became a very important input in development of TV. The merits of TV for the development of education in Nigeria are also enormous both in the processes of formal and informal education.

There were efforts to coordinate the growth of TV. The military government introduced in 1976 the Nigerian TV authority - NTA that took over the 10 then existing TV stations and created 9 more. However, in 1979 the Constitution gave the Nigerian president the mandate to allow state governments, organizations and individuals to establish and operate TV stations. In 1984 the military government nationalized all TV stations and established a state monopoly over television broadcasting. Proliferation of TV and radio stations proved to be a very powerful means for the emancipation of ethnic cultures and values.
Film

Film production seems to be the least developed among the Nigerian mass communications industries. The local production of films is not encouraged neither financially nor through some cultural policy. The poor distribution networks operated mostly by strangers and dependent on Indian and American production do not support the production of domestic films. The state censorship also prevents production and distribution of domestic films. Some authors claim that the restructuring of the film industry through the nationalization of film production and distribution would be welcome. The need to set up laboratories and train professionals is also emphasized.
Cultural Development

Neither in the sphere of economics, nor in the sphere of politics, Nigerian authorities and Nigerian intellectuals have never denied culture a very important role. The need to integrate cultural activities and values in all spheres of life has been very loudly pronounced in the post-independence development of Nigeria. General ideas on Nigerian development were linked to the authentic cultural values.

However, the clash between modernization (westernization) on one, and the traditional cultural values on the other side could not have been avoided. The traditional cultures have been more or less left to the local initiatives. In the context of rather radical developmental changes, they have generated different types of pop-cultures: pop-music based on the strong authentic traditions; pop-literature (market literature) produced for the barely literate audience and expressing the general popular concerns; performing arts and groups inheriting the status of traditional performers (like for instance popular theater performances by more then 100 Yoruba professional popular ambulant groups), etc. Cultural industries and new technologies have very much influenced such developments by enabling fast communication and creation of internal (music, literature, etc.) markets.

The most important issue of cultural development is certainly the issue of creation of either national Nigerian, or affirmation of ethnic cultural identity. This is also an important political issue, as the Nigerian federalism tried to put together the achievements of the modern democratic West European state and the local cultural traditions. The whole process of restructuration and adjustment is in fact the process of defining the identity of Nigerian peoples and individuals.

Development of education, establishment and growth of cultural institutions and cultural industries all reflect the constant processes of change in Nigerian life and Nigerian cultures. It is impossible to quantify these processes, but it is evident even now that the cultural growth is reflected in the new type of Nigerian culture and identity. It is not based on the merging of different cultural traditions, but it implies a certain selection of values that would define a modern cultural identity of Nigeria.
Recent evolution of cultural life

The local cultural milieu of Nigeria is extremely diversified, and depends not only on the ethnic cultural values and habits, but also on religious habits and obligations. There are also major differences between rural and urban cultural life, and rural and urban habits and norms.

Generally speaking, the cultural life in Nigeria is to the large extent marked by tradition, and traditional forms of cultural events are most popular: festivals, exhibitions, performing, playing music and dancing in the open. This can be illustrated by citing the actions planned to be implemented in cooperation with UNESCO: National Festival of Children's Toys, Rhymes and Games; or, National Exhibition of the Craftmanships of the Nigerian People; or, Developing Educational Activities for Children and the Youth in Nigerian Museums, etc.

On the other side, the cultural life is very much influenced, and defined, by the cultural industries, particularly mass media. Cultural industries bring into the Nigerian cultural life new civilizational and technological standards that are easily accepted by the majority of population.

The recent evolution of cultural life in Nigeria is thus strongly marked by the traditional and religious habits, and by mass media and easily spreading cultural industries.
International Cultural Cooperation

Cultural cooperation of Nigeria is carried on the basis of the signed agreements, either bilateral or multilateral. The coordinating agency for cultural cooperation is the Federal Department of Culture.

Regional African cooperation is mostly based on the common developmental experience and some similar characteristics of African cultures. It is motivated by the need to work on the emancipation of African cultures. The Black African arts and civilizations try to establish mutual links and exchange, which is not very easy as the authentic values and types of communication do not normally bring them closely together. Pan-African festivals offer an occasion for over-all presentation of arts and crafts, and the Nigerian government has hosted such manifestations (e.g. in 1977.).

Cooperation with western countries is mostly based on the presentation of Nigerian arts and crafts, or Nigerian music to the western audiences, and on the transfer of knowledge on cultural institutions and activities from the West. Nigerian cultures are very much in contact with the western cultural production and mass media, while the information on Nigerian cultures are very scarce in the West. The balance can hardly be reached.

The Nigerian government backs the cultural exchange through exchange of artists, exhibitions, information materials, etc. on the reciprocal basis.

Cooperation with UN, and particularly UNESCO, is of special concern. Apart from the support for festivals, exhibitions, etc., UNESCO pays particular attention to relevant cultural issues, such as copyright information management and enforcement, collection, analysis and documentation of the oral traditions, restoration and conservation of national monuments, creative writing, education, training in cultural development, establishment of a specialized National Institute for Cultural Orientation, etc. It is also through this organization that the Nigerian cultural institutions or associations join specialized international associations and organizations.

Hip-hop mogul Chris Lighty death ruled a suicide: medical examiner. Friend of Lighty's wife says financial difficulties played role

2012-09-01T18:26:00.001+01:00

Hip-hop mogul Chris Lighty death dominated a suicide: doctor. Friend of Lighty's mate says monetary difficulties vie role in his death

Hip-hop mogul Chris Lighty death dominated a suicide: doctor. Friend of Lighty's mate says monetary difficulties vie role in his death

The mogul walked out of the house, saying, “I’m uninterested in this,” and walked to the rear yard and shot himself within the head with a 9-mm. handgun, sources aforementioned.

But Lighty’s mate, speaking through Downes, recommended that Lighty’s monetary issues might need finally pushed the flourishing businessperson over the sting.

Iran, North Korea agree to cooperate in science, "share common enemies"

2012-09-01T18:22:00.001+01:00

DUBAI (Reuters) - Iran and North Korea have signed an agreement to cooperate in science and technology, Iranian media reported on Saturday, and Iran's supreme leader declared that the two countries had "common enemies."

The two countries will cooperate in research, student exchanges and joint laboratories, and in the fields of information technology, engineering, biotechnology, renewable energy, the environment, sustainable development of agriculture and food technology, the Iranian Labour News Agency (ILNA) reported.

ILNA said the agreement was signed by Iran's Minister for Science, Research, and Technology Farhad Daneshjoo and North Korean Foreign Minister Pak Ui-chun.

North Korea has had close ties with Iran. Leaked U.S. diplomatic cables from 2010 showed that U.S. officials believe Iran has acquired ballistic missile parts from North Korea.

Pyongyang's Communist government and Iran's Islamic republic share little in the way of ideology, but both were named as part of an "axis of evil" by former U.S. President George W. Bush in his 2002 State of the Union speech.

Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei also met with North Korea's Kim Yong-nam, seen as a figurehead head of state, who was in Tehran for the Non-Aligned Movement summit held this week.

"The Islamic Republic of Iran and North Korea have common enemies, because the arrogant powers do not accept independent states," Khamenei was quoted as saying by ILNA on Saturday.

There had been rumors that North Korean supreme leader Kim Jong-un would attend the summit of developing countries. The Non-Aligned Movement is one of the few multilateral forums in which the North takes part.

Iran's first vice-president, Mohammad Reza Rahimi, also called on Saturday for greater economic ties between his country and North Korea, Iranian state television reported.

(Reporting By Yeganeh Torbati; Editing by Roger Atwood)

Why i am the foremost Criticised President within the World –Jonathan

2012-08-29T15:54:00.001+01:00

Why i am the foremost Criticised President within the World –Jonathan

I want to inform this audience that before I leave [office] i'll be the foremost praised President... Sometimes, I ask, were there roads during this country and eating apple brought flood to destroy the roads? Was there power and eating apple brought cyclone to wipe it out?

President Goodluck eating apple on Mon declared that he's the foremost criticised President within the whole world as a result of some persons simply do not like him.

The president, WHO same this at the gap of the 52nd Annual General of the Nigerian Bar Association in Abuja, however, vowed to become the foremost praised before he left workplace.
He guiltless himself of associate degreey blame for the country’s issues that he same he had become an object of criticism. "I am the foremost criticised President within the whole world," he stressed.

“If Boko Haram is that of financial condition within the North, were there farms and eating apple brought moving ridge and drought to destroy them? among 2 years – is that possible? however what I will tell Nigerians is, let those talking keep talking, time can tell.”

The keynote speaker at the event, Bishop Matthew Hassan Kukah of the Sokoto Catholic jurisdiction, had earlier picked holes within the 1999 Constitution and same the President of the Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Nigeria was the foremost powerful President within the world.

Bishop Kukah conjointly same a messiah is required within the country, however he emphatic that the identity of the messiah was still unknown. “There isn't any President of Federal Republic of Nigeria until date that didn't return to power inadvertently.

“This ought to teach US to be diminished as a result of God invariably finds the way of conveyance someone WHO was heading in other places – WHO has no ambition,” he said.

Jonathan Sacks Minister Of Power, Barth Nnaji

2012-08-29T15:50:00.001+01:00

Jonathan Sacks Minister Of Power, Barth Nnaji

Minister of power, Barth Nnaji, has been destroyed by his important person, Goodluck Jonathan. a lot of details soon! A step within the right direction, what does one think?

2012-08-29T15:48:00.001+01:00

Apple Inc. (NASDAQ: AAPL; formerly Apple Computer, Inc.) is an American multinational corporation that designs and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and personal computers. The company's best-known hardware products are the Macintosh line of computers, the iPod, the iPhone and the iPad. Its software includes the Mac OS X operating system; the iTunes media browser; the iLife suite of multimedia and creativity software; the iWork suite of productivity software; Aperture, a professional photography package; Final Cut Studio, a suite of professional audio and film-industry software products; Logic Studio, a suite of music production tools; the Safari web browser; and iOS, a mobile operating system. Apple is the world's third-largest mobile phone maker after Samsung and Nokia.^[5]
As of July 2011, Apple has 364 retail stores in thirteen countries,^[6] and an online store.^[7] It is the largest publicly traded company in the world by market capitalization, ^[8] ^[9] as well as the largest technology company in the world by revenue and profit, more than Google and Microsoft combined.^[10]^[11] As of September 24, 2011, the company had 60,400 permanent full-time employees and 2,900 temporary full-time employees worldwide;^[4] its worldwide annual revenue in 2010 totalled $65 billion, growing to $108 billion in 2011.^[3]
Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from 2008 to 2012.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] However, the company has received widespread criticism for its contractors' labor, and for its environmental and business practices.^[17]^[18]
Established on April 1, 1976 in Cupertino, California, and incorporated January 3, 1977,^[19] the company was named Apple Computer, Inc. for its first 30 years. The word "Computer" was removed from its name on January 9, 2007,^[20] as its traditional focus on personal computers shifted towards consumer electronics.^[21]

GAMBIA: All death row prison inmates to be executed by mid-September 2012

2012-08-29T15:46:00.001+01:00

Many of Gambia's cellblock inmates area unit former officers and prime military officers WHO are detained for treason since 1994, once Mr Jammeh took power in an exceedingly coup.

The European Union's policy chief, Catherine Sir Frederick Ashton, urged African nation to prevent the executions directly.

Eid address
One lady was among those dead, the inside Ministry aforesaid, listing crimes like murder, treason, arson, drug and human trafficking as being punishable by death.

It was not clear what crimes every of the 9 prisoners were dead for.

The corporal punishment was abolished once former President Dawda Jawara semiconductor diode the country however reinstated in 1995 shortly when Mr Jammeh taken over power.

"By the center of next month, all the death sentences would are distributed to the letter; there's no approach my government can permit ninety nine of the population to be command to ransom by criminals," President Jammeh aforesaid in an exceedingly speech, that was broadcast on national tv on nineteen August, marking the Muslim competition of Eid.

In response, Benin's President Thomas Boni Yayi, WHO presently holds the chair of the African Union, sent his government minister to African nation to warn Mr Jammeh to not perform any executions.

strongwallet

2012-08-07T17:17:00.000+01:00

2012-08-07T12:22:00.002+01:00

Cristiano Ronaldo was inspirational for Real Madrid last season scoring 46 league goals in 38 appearances, as they wrestled the Liga title back from Barcelona. He became the first player to score against every other team in the division in a single season, while he also achieved the accolade of being the first player to score more than 40 goals in successive league campaigns. His performances were recognised as he was awarded the Trofeo Alfredo Di Stefano, given to the best player in La Liga over the course of the season. He dispelled the myth that he does not perform in the big games by scoring the match-winning goal against Barcelona in April and also impressed at Euro 2012. Ronaldo netted twice against Netherlands in the final group match, before scoring the decisive goal in the 1-0 quarter-final win over Czech Republic.

Moment of the Season - Effectively sealing the league title for Madrid by scoring the winning goal against Barcelona in El Clasico in April. The attacker latched on to a scintillating pass from Mesut Ozil before firing a firm effort past Victor Valdes and into the back of the net.

2011-12 STATS

	GAMES	GOALS	ASSISTS
REAL MADRID	55	60	15
PORTUGAL	11	6	2
TOTAL	66	66	17

Editor's view - "Cristiano Ronaldo had his greatest ever season as he inspired Real Madrid to the title. To stop the current Barcelona team you need someone special and in the Portuguese attacker, Los Blancos have that man." - Luis Herrera - Deputy Editor for Goal.com Spain

Team GB 1-1 South Korea (aet, 4-5 on penalties): Sturridge miss sends hosts crashing out

2012-08-07T12:15:00.001+01:00

Daniel Sturridge's missed penalty proved decisive as Team GB was defeated on penalties by South Korea after a tight and tense clash ended 1-1 at the Millennium Stadium.

Sturridge saw his spot-kick saved by substitute goalkeeper Lee Bum-Young after all eight of the previous penalties had been converted, and Celtic's Ki Sung-Yeung netted to send his side into the last four.

Don't Miss

Aaron Ramsey had earlier cancelled out Ji Dong-Won's opener from 12 yards and then missed another spot-kick as the two sides played out a contest low on quality but high on drama.

The result ends Team GB's involvement in the Olympic football after the women's side crashed out to Canada at the same stage on Friday evening, with the nature of this defeat all the more galling.

Perhaps intimidated by the capacity crowd at the Millennium Stadium, the hosts started tentatively. Their opponents took full advantage of the opportunity to dominate the opening exchanges, and on 15 minutes Jack Butland was forced into a flying stop to deny Ji.

A breakthrough looked simply a matter of time, and so it proved on 29 minutes when Ki’s lay-off found Ji around 20 yards out, and the Sunderland man’s swerving strike deceived Butland as it flew into the far corner.

Stung into action, Team GB poured forward with greater purpose, and was granted a chance to level the scores when Ryan Bertrand’s scuffed shot struck the arm of a sliding Oh Jae-Suk in the penalty area. The right back was booked for his trouble, and Ramsey’s low spot-kick just about crept under Jung Sung-Ryong.

All of a sudden panic reigned in the South Korea defense, and five minutes later Sturridge went down under the clumsy challenge of Hwang Seok-Ho.

Once again referee Wilmar Roldan pointed to the spot, and once again Ramsey stepped up. His second effort was no more tame than his first, but this time Jung parried it away, and the Welshman was left cursing a golden opportunity missed as the halftime whistle sounded.

Both sides emerged for the second period with a more cautious mindset, as if the fact a semifinal place was at stake had just dawned on them, although Tom Cleverley was unfortunate not to give Team GB the lead on 49 minutes when Craig Bellamy’s excellent cross somehow managed to evade him at the near post.

As the closing stages approached chances grew fewer and further between. Ji caused panic in the Team GB defense on 84 minutes when he headed Ki’s floated ball in dangerously back across goal, but none of his teammates had gambled on a late run into the box.

With five minutes of normal time to go Pearce replaced the tiring Bellamy with Giggs, much to the delight of the frustrated Millennium Stadium crowd, but the Manchester United veteran proved unable to create a decisive breakthrough and the match went into extra time.

It was South Korea which began brighter after the restart, and Butland atoned for his earlier mistake by pulling off an excellent save to deny Koo Ja-Cheol from the angle. Ji pounced on the goalkeeper's parry, but could only direct his header well wide.

In the dying moments the tireless work-rate of Sturridge looked to be Team GB's best hope of a winner but, with both sides too weary to carve each other open and too afraid to take the risk, the contest slid intevitably towards penalties.

In the shootout, Ramsey, Cleverley, substitute Craig Dawson and Giggs all netted for Team GB as all of the first eight penalties were converted. But Sturridge saw his effort saved by substitute goalkeeper Lee Bum-Young, and Ki fired high into the net to send South Korea into the semifinals.

Oscar: I hope I can persuade Neymar to join Chelsea

2012-08-06T18:44:00.001+01:00

Chelsea's new Brazilian midfielder Oscar has revealed he is eager to see his international colleague Neymar follow him and make a move to west London.

The pair are currently on Olympic duty for their country, where they have progressed to the semifinals, and Santos star Neymar has impressed.

He has been linked with a move to Europe for several years, and Oscar has revealed he will be doing all he can to ensure when that move comes, he will be coming to Stamford Bridge.

"While we are in London, I have been telling Neymar about the ambition of Chelsea," he told The People. "When the time comes for him to join a European club, I hope I can persuade him."

Oscar joined Roberto Di Matteo's side for 32 million euros before the Olympic tournament began, and he admits that after hearing of the Blues' interest he had little hesitation in deciding to move to England.

He added: "When my agent told me that Chelsea were interested it was not something I even needed to think about. They are the champions of Europe, but they are still showing so much ambition by improving the squad.

"To win the European Cup and still sign guys like myself and Eden Hazard shows you the ambition the owner and manager have. With the squad we have I will be looking at winning the Premier League title and also the Champions League.

"I know it is very difficult to win [the Champions League] twice in a row and even Barcelona could not do it, but with what Chelsea have in place it is very possible."

However before he gets his Chelsea career underway, the former Internacional man hopes to win Olympic gold for Brazil.

"The Brazilian Football Confederation have told us that they don't expect anything less than gold - and that is what we are going to deliver," he added. "To win an Olympic gold would be very special for me."goal.com