NRS Notes: Biology- Cleveland

Plant Cell

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Energy Flow

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Sunlight- main energy source for life on Earth.
-Some organisms rely on energy stored in inorganic chemical compounds (IE: mineral H₂O that flows underground).
Autotrophs- use energy from environment to fuel assembly of simple inorganic compounds into complex organic molecules. Include plants and bacteria, produce living tissue and make their own food, ergo they are also called producers.

Photosynthesis- using light energy to power chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and H₂O into O.
Chemosynthesis- when organisms use chemical energy, rather than sunlight, to produce carbohydrates (bacteria).
Heterophs- organisms that rely on other organisms for their food and energy supply (animals).
Consumers- another common name for heterophs.
-Herbivores- eat plants.
-Carnivores- eat animals.
-Omnivores (us)- eat plants and animals.
-Detritivores- eat dead matter.
Decomposers- break down organic matter (fungi and bacteria)

-Energy flows through ecosystem in one direction sun/inorganic compounds- autotrophs- heterotrophs.

Food chain- how energy is passed along through a series of steps, in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten.
Food web- links all food chains in an ecosystem together.
Trophic level- each step in a food chain or web 1^st- producer, 2^nd, 3^rd etc...-consumers.
Ecological pyramid- a diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter contained within a trophic level food chain/web.

-10% of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to the organisms at the next trophic level.
Biomass- total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level (grams of organic matter per unit area)

-Energy pyramid
-Biomass pyramid
-Pyramid of Numbers

Ecology

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Ecology- scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment.
Biosphere- "largest of the houses" contains the combined portions of the planet in which all life exists (land, water, air, atmosphere).

-Ecologists ask questions about events and organisms that range from single individual- entire biosphere.
Species- group of organisms similar to one another. Can produce offspring.

Observing- asking questions.
Experimenting- testing hypotheses.
Modeling- models are made to gain insight into complex phenomena. Consist of data, equations, etc...

Planet Earth

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100 years ago. 1.5 billion people on Earth
Today- 6 billion

Winter in Antarctica- (-70^o), penguins inhabit this place. Dark and cold. Polar bears emerge from "den" in spring.
-cubs take 1^st steps.
Rely on mothers milk. Mother must hunt seals for food.
1/2 of newborn cubs die during first year of life.

Every year- 3 million caribou migrate across arctic tundra
-hungry wolves hunt new born calves

Russian leopards- thick fur to help in cold.

Japan- cherry blossom of spring.
Some forests may be small, but are more than 50% of Earth's flower life.
-42 different bird species

Seals breed in summer
-great white shark- hunt seals

Deserts- 1/3 of lands surface.
In Africa- Elephants travel from desert in search for H₂0, buffalo as well.
-Heading for swamps
Arrival:
Hyenas hunt,
-birds
-buffalo

Atomic Theory

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Sub Atomic Particles
-protons (+) 1 atomic mass unit (AMU) , neutrons (0) 1 AMU, electrons (-) 0 AMU
-atoms
-molecules
-macro-molecules
-organelles
-cells
-tissues (cells of similar structure or function)
-organs
-organ systems
-organism
-population (species within a certain defined area)
-community
-ecosystems
-biomes
-biosphere

If no electrons move, no electricity.
Number of electrons matches number of protons.
-electrons orbit in energy levels
-1^st electron shell can hold up to 2
-2^nd shell 8
-3^rd shell 8

theory- an explanation based on a set of hypotheses that have been tested and confirmed many times.

Science Study Guide

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Photosynthesis Study Guide

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Glycolysis

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Ecology Study Guide

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Biodiversity

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Photosynthesis

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Animals

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~symmetry
-radical
-lack mesoderm
(Chideria lack mesoderm)
Chideria have mesoyliea (glue)

Bilateral symmetry-
~Dorsal and Ventral
~Anterior and Posterior
~Cephalization

Body cavities
-acoelomates "without body cavity"
-pseudoceolomates "fake body cavity"
-celomates "without body cavity", cavity in the middle of mesoderm.

Tissue layers:
-ectoderm (skin) outside
-messoderm middle
-endoderm inside
~Digestive track from endoderm.
~Outside tissue of guts- mesoderm.
Ectoderm- outside skin.

Development
Blastula Invagination:
Protostome- mouth comes 1^st
Dueterostome- anus comes 1^st

Sesslle- stationary or stuck down (sponges)
~Chideria (nerve net)- no central nervous system, but there is a network of nerves.

Animals

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All animal cells are eukaryotic. Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophs, cells lack cell walls.
-Invertabrates
-Vertebrates
-All animals have nervous and muscle tissue, but sponges.
-Reproduce sexually.
-Made up of 35 phyla
Fish, amphians, reptiles, birds, mammals.

-Origin is colonial, flagellated protest
-2 models used to distinguish possible phylogenetic orgins.
-Body plan grades
-Sequencing of rRNA= ribosomal RNA

Category, percentage, description, ex.
invertebrate, 95%, without backbone, worms.
vertebrate, 5%, with backbone, mammals.

Animal functions:
Feeding, respiration, circulation- blood contains urine, excretion- kidney and bladder,
movement- skeletal system, reproduction, responce.

Urea- waste product
Parasite and host- one benefits, and the other loses (sybiotic).

Types of feeders
-herbivore- feed on plants
-omnivore- meat and plants
-carnivore- feed on animals (meat)
-filter feeder- strains tiny floating animals and plants
-detritivores- eat decaying plants and animals

~cephalization- you have a head distinctly seperate from body.
~coelom- cavity
~platyhelmines- flatworm

~dicotomys key
~nemotoda- roundworms
~blastula- hollow ball of cells

~parazoa (means beside the animals)
~No true tissue but not colonial

Byrophyte Life Cycle

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Spore-1N-release from plant and goes to appropriate environment to grow. 1/2 will grow into anteridium (male), other 1/2 grow into arcegonium(female) (all 1N structures). Will produce 1N sperm and eggs. Gamedaphytes (structure producing gammetes) are produced, sperm swims to warer to an egg, and a 2N zygote is formed. 2N structure grows (mitosis) and the infant plant will grow on top of archigohium, producing spores through meiosis (sporelike generation).

Alternation of generation- altering from sporefite (protects species during hard times. Produce asexually so you do not get much variation) to medophite body of plant is 2N. Product is in spore. Spore grows to gamedophyte stage. Spore produces 1N (haploid) body or plant. Gamedophyte makes gammet (sex cell). When 2 sex cells fertilize a new sporophyte body is produced.

In all plants perdominant stage is sporefyte. In Bryophyte, it is gametophyte.

~monocotyledonous- monocots (single seed leaf) ie: corn.
~dicotyledonous-dicot (double seed leaf)- part of the seed that holds energy for plant growth.
~gravatropic- root grows down, plant grows up (responding to gravity).
~cotyledon=seed leaf
~Root of a monocot is called fibrous (grows every which way).
~Dicots have top root system (principle roots tap, drive into soil).
~Monocot leaf has parallel veins. Dicot leaves have net veins ( main vein, with others coming off sides).
~Monocot has vascular bundles, random, Dicot = arranged.

~Flowering parts in monocots are multiples of three. Flowering parts in dicots are multiples of four and five.
~petal=coroloa (all together)
~sepal=calyx (all together)
~entire female part of flower=carpel/pistol
~pollin- encased in shell
~sperm- flagellates (need aquatic area)
~anther- produces pollin

Entire carpel structure- long, thin, tube like structure. Color is a light green.

Plant Kingdom

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-Plants are eukaryotic with cell walls. Multicelluar, photosynthetic, landbased, photoautotrophs derived from multicellular embryos. All plants need sunlight, H₂O, minerals, gas exchange (because they are multi-celled they need a method of movement of H₂O and nutrients).
Vascular- tubes, roots, stems, leaves
-seed producers- naked seed (gymnosperm)
- fleshy seed (angiosperm)
-nonseed- pteridophyte

Non-vascular
-bryophytes- need H₂O
-hornwort
-moss
-liverwort

Land Plants (most simple to most complex)
-bryophytes- terrestial, but have no vascular tissue. Very close to H₂O. Includes mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
-pteridophytes = ferns- produce spores, no seeds. Need H₂O to reproduce. Include whisk-fern and hore tails, ferns.
-gymnosperms- bearing plants, produce seeds and vascular.
-angiosperms (flowering plant)- produce seeds and vascular.
Naked seed- no supporting tissue as nutrient- gymnosperm,
flushtie- angiosperm

charophytes- prehistoric origin of modern plants.

likin- combination of moss and fungi.

Kingdom

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-Fungi and mold are decomposer's
~hyphae- little hairs of living cells (basic structure of all Fungi)
-mycelial mat- lots of hyphae put together
-mushrooms are made of hyphae
-hyphae release enzymes into environment which digest dead material, then absorb material.
-plastics
-mitochondria

Fungi- all have cell walls made of chitin (heterotrophs), mainly multi-celluar
zygomycota ascomycota
(mold) (sac)- pennicilum

basideomycoda dueteromycota
(club)- mushroom (imperfect)

chytridiomycota (loss of flagella)- may be a protiest - cannot classify based on sexual reproduction

Asexual
Spore grows by putting down hyphae and create rhizoide (no seperate) cell wall. When they grow out to the side they make stolon. When it can reproduce, it will create a 1N sporangium. The cycle repeats.
Sexual
Stolon are both in cells, but they bond together to create a 2N zygospore. The zygospore goes through meiosis several times.

Biodiversity

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Both prokaryotic
~Archebacteria- live in harsh enviroments
~Eubacteria- rod, round (coci), spiral, peptidoglycan in cell wall
locomotion- small hairs (fallopean tube), animals with flagella-whip-like hairs (sperm)- locomotion.
*pseudopod- false footed organisms (aemeoba) stretches out membrane-locomotion

Eucaryots-
Protiesta- animal-like, fungi like, plant-like -Cheitn (base upon
~animal-like-zooflagellate, cilate, sarcedines, sporezoans (no locomotion).-locomotion) movement

~Fungi-like- slime molds, water molds - no chitin
~plant-like-unicelluar, multicelluar
~unicelluar- diatoms- silica in cell walls
- chrysophyta- golden algae
- euglenophyta- photosyntheses and flagella and can distinguish light from dark. Have the ability to be photoautotrophs, do not have a cell wall.
- dynoflagellates- move with flagella and do have a cell wall (creates red tide).

-Multicellular- brown algae, red algae, and green algae all have cell walls made of cellulose, not silica.
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Biodiversity

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Order of Complexity-
Human
Sparkey
Pheobe
Moth
Earthworm
Peaplant

-Linnaeus
-binomial nomenclature = two name naming system
-Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
Kingdom- Plantae (one species)
and
Animalia
and
Fungi
and
Protista- 1 plant like unicelluar
- 2 plant like multicelluar
- 3 Fungi like
- 4 Animal like

Archabacteria and eubacteria

Species- all individual can breed and produce viable offspring (offspring can reproduce)
Canis familiaris (dog) Felis domesticus

Canis lupus Canis latrans

Homo sapiens (human) Lynx rufus (bobcat)
|
Kingdom- animalia
phylum- chordata
sub-phylum- vertebrata
class- mamalia
order- primate
family- hominidae
genus- homo
species- sapiens

Linneaus divided these species into groups using only physical characteristics.

Krebs Cycle

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Pre-Krebs Cycle-
2 oxygens and a carbon go off from pyruvate to become acedaltihide which bonds to coenzyme a to produce acetal CoA, and goes into Krebs Cycle (2 NADH made in Pre-Krebs cycle).
Predisposition- "genetically predisposed" set up for it to happen.
Acetal CoA comes in and bonds with oxaloacetate. The CoA goes away, and you are left with citrate. Citrate becomes isocitrate by rearranging molecule. In isocitrate, we lose a carbon dioxide and isocitiate (6-carbon) becomes alpha-Ketogluterate (5-carbon molecule) alpha-Ketogluterate gives up another carbon (4-carbon), a coenzyme A will grab it succinyl CoA. CoA breaks away to cause generation of ATP from ADP and P (energy makes this happen). Your new molecule is succinate. Succinate will rearrange to Fumerate, which will release 2 H⁺ and the electrons it takes to bond them producing FADH₂. Fumerate rearranges to malate, malate rearranges to oxaloasetate (loose hydrogen and some electrons), and in doing that, you produce another NADH. Cycle repeats twice.

You will produce: 4 CO₂ - 6 CO₂
6 NADH - 10 NADH
2 FADH₂- 2 FADH₂
2 ATP - 4 ATP

Electrons from all NADH and FADH₂ enter ETS. Molecules then lose H⁺ ions. Then the movement of electrons in the ETS causes the active transport of the hydrogen into one side of the membrane. The hydrogens then use phasilitated diffusion through an ion channel and then produces ATP through the movement. Hydrogens then bone with oxygen taken in and create H₂O.

Glycolosys

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1 glucose will produce 36 ATP if aerobic
1 glucose will produce 2 ATP if anaerobic
Taking glucose in presence of O₂ and breaking it down to form ATP.

ACR- Glycolosys- takes place in cytoplasm (turning glucose into 2 three carbon molecule pyrobate)
Electron Transport Phosphorolation
glucose - Glycolosys = 2ATP and 2NADH - pyruvate

Glycolosys- breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate inputs on ATP which gives a phosphate to form glucose-6-phosphate. This is done to energize glucose. ADP is recycled.
POOOOOO
The energy creates a bond to break a NADA new one to be formed, to go to glucose to Fructose. The fructose becomes Fructose-1, 6 bisphosphate, by adding another ATP.
P-OOOOOO-P
Molecule splits into 2 PGAL molecules because it is unstable. It is now 2 3 carbon molecules. Both PGAL molecules release 2 electrons and a H⁺ ion to create NADH. Then, each PGAL bonds with an inorganic phosphate (from cytoplasm) to 2 molecules of 1, 3 bisphosphoglycerate (this happens as a result of the new open bond sites). THe NADH is used as an energy carrier and goes to ETP (with its 2 energized electrons). ADP them takes the end phosphates to form ATP, which then created two 3 (carbon)-phosphoglycerate. Then it rearranges to two 2 carbon phosphoglycerates. Then it rearranges into two phosphoenolpyruvate. They then lose the phosphate to ADP to form ATP, and these molecules then become pyruvate.

2 ATP - power the cell
2 NADH - ETP
2 pyruvates - enter mitochondrian

cristae - folds of inner membrane of mitochondrian

Oxygen of cellular respiration is used to grab hydrogen
Pre- Krebs
Pyruvate - preparatory - acetyl CoA
Co enzyme a - reactions - NADH (goes to ETS)
NAD⁺ - - CO₂

Photosynthesis

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Calvin Benson Cycle
Light independent: occurs in stroma
-Passes ability to absorb atmospheric gasses (CO₂)
-One carbon is taken from CO₂, and attaches it to RUBP ribulusebis phosphate (a 5 carbon molecule) to form a 6 carbon intermediate molecule. This is called carbon fixation.
This happens 6 times, to make 12 PGA's. Then when you energise with ATP, and NADPH. H⁺ bonds to PGA, and it takes those e^- to form PGAL. You have 12 PGAL, but you only need 2 to form glucose, and the remaining 10 will be rearranged to form 6 RuBP.
-The 6-carbon molecule is unstable, and breaks in 1/2 to form PGA- phospho glycerate
-The PGA is energized with ATP and NADPH, and turns into PGAL.
-This PGAL bonds with another PGAL to form phosphorilated glucose.
-10 PGAL are then rearranged to make six 5 carbon RUBP, and the process restarts.

~light phase- takes in sun, water (osmosis), and produces O₂, ATP, and NADPH.
~dark phase- takes in ATP, NADPH, CO₂, and releases water, glucose, ADP and P (ATP reduced to original form) and NADP⁺ (H was used for photosynthesis).
PGAL = phospho gluteraltohide

Photosynthesis

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As e^- goes down e^- transport system, it energizes those molecules to take H⁺ from stroma. Another photon re-energizes e^- once in PSII H⁺ leaves thylakoid structure via phasilitated diffusion, because it is moving across ionization gradient, to place that is less positive.
All this happens in a leaf.

Light dependent:
-Light (photon) comes in and energizes chlorophyll pigment in PII (P680)
-This breaks apart water molecules, leaving you with H⁺ ions, charges electrons, and free oxygen.
-The O (oxygen) will bond to another O and leave as O₂- a waste gas.
-The charged electrons quickly lose energy, and the lost energy is used to transport H⁺ ions from low to high concentration.
-The electrons are then sent to the PS1 phase through the electron transport system.
-At this time, the H⁺ ions move into the thylakoid structure, and the electrons continue to the P700.
-Once at the P700 phase, the electrons recharge, take an H⁺, and bond it to NADP⁺ (using 2 energized electrons).
-This makes NADPH
-The H⁺ ions then go through a channel using phasilitated diffusion. From ATP synthase.
-This energizes the enzyme ATP synthase, and allows for the production of ATP (from ADP and an inorganic phosphate).
-ATP and NADPH carry the energy needed for the next phase of photosynthesis (light independent).

NADP⁺ traps energy of e^- to attach H⁺, to form NADPH
Value of ATP: high energy unstable bond, so when energy is needed, it is easy to break that other P off A-P-P~P

Photosynthesis

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sunlight - glucose (plants)- ATP (us) - Energy lost as heat

Stroma- Fluid of chloroplast
~thylakoid structure- entire system
~granham- stacks of thylakoid membrane
~chloroplast membrane- double lipid bilayer
stroma: H₂O dissolved oxygen

light comes in, strikes thylakoid, water is bio

NADP⁺ will only bond with H⁺ if H⁺ has 2 energized electrons = NADPH

chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
- the thylakoid structure has molecules embedded within them. These molecules contain chlorophyll a/b.
Sunlight comes in and strikes chlorophyll pigment, then it overcharges the chlorophyll. Then it releases electron through electron transport system, which generates ATP. It then returns to chlorophyll. Energy bounces off random chlorophyll loosing energy each time.

Phasilitated diffusion- allow ions to get through membrane by putting a hole in it.

Fungi

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hyphae- long thin strands that make fungus
yeast- only single-celled fungus

-the mold on the surface get nutrients by sending out hyphae throughout the bread- absorbing nutrient.

mycelial mat- the mat of hyphae that are used to gather nutrients
fungi- decomposer

lichen- a protiest and a fungus. capable of changing rocky environment to forest floor.

Genetics

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incomplete dominance- the offspring is an equal mix of the 2 dominant traits prominent dominance.

codominance- the phenotype of the offspring displays traits of both parents.

polygenic trait- a trait that requires multiple alleles within the punnet square (skin color).

monogenic trait- "strait forward" punnet square.