C Tutorial[www.c-codin.blogspot.com]

Online C# Learnig

2008-07-26T00:59:00.000-07:00

C#'s principal designer and lead architect at Microsoft is Anders Hejlsberg. His previous experience in programming language and framework design (Visual J++, Borland Delphi, Turbo Pascal) can be readily seen in the syntax of the C# language, as well as throughout the Common Language Runtime (CLR) core.
C# is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose, object-oriented programming language.

About MicroSoft.Net Technology >>>
Introduction >>>
Standardization and licensing >>>
Versions & Changes >>>
.NET vs. Java and Java EE >>>
Criticism >>>

About C# >>>
What is C#? >>>
C# & Other OOP Languages >>>
Why c# >>>

Basics of C# >>>
Primitive Data Types >>>
The Value Type >>>
Methods & Formal Parameters >>>
Operators & Variables >>>
Types Conversion in C# >>>
Enum >>>
Type Safety in C# >>>
Using Return Statements>>>
Scope of the variable >>>
Control Statements >>>
Early & Late Binding >>>
Managed and Unmanaged code >>>
Getting Started with C# >>>
Getting Started with C# >>>

Class & Object >>>
Inheritance >>>
Interfaces >>>
Abstract Class >>>
Sealed Class >>>
Polymorphism >>>
Overloading >>>

Abstract Class and Interfaces >>>
Abstract Classes and Methods >>>
Interfaces >>>
Advantage & Disadvantages of Interface >>>

Namespaces and Base Classes >>>
Introduction >>>
Namespaces in C#2.0 >>>
The Base Classes >>>

Enumerations, Arrays and String Manipulation >>>
Enums >>>
Arrays >>>
String Manipulation in C# >>>

Collections >>>
Collections & Collection Classes >>>

Properties and Access Attributes >>>
Properties >>>
Restrictions of properties >>>
Attributes >>>

Indexer >>>
Comparison : Properties & Indexers >>>

Delegates and Events >>>
www.akadia.com/services/dotnet_delegates_and_events.html >>>
Events >>>
Event Handlers >>>

Errors and Exceptions Handling >>>
Errors >>>
Exceptions >>>
Creating Custom Exceptions >>>

Garbage Collection and Resource Management >>>
The Life and Time of an object >>>
What is garbage collection? >>>
Resource Management >>>

Graphical Device Interface (GDI+) >>>
Graphics Handling >>>
Graphical Device Interface (GDI) >>>
Sample Examples:* >>>

File Handling >>>
Files & Folders >>>
Stream >>>
Creating Objects >>>

Generics >>>
Introduction >>>
What are Generics? >>>
Csharp Generics Collection Interfaces >>>

Value and Reference Type >>>
Types >>>
Value Types >>>
Reference Types >>>

What’s New in C#2.0 and C#3.0 >>>
What’s New in .Net 2.0 >>>
What’s New in C# 2.0 >>>
What's New in C# 3.0 (A Brief Preview) >>>

Visual Basic

2008-07-11T00:05:00.000-07:00

Visual Basic is Easy to learn Programming language. With Visual Basic you can develop Windows based applications and games. When first released in 1991, it was similar to Microsoft's QuickBASIC, With its visual user interface development tools.

Introduction to Visual Basic >>>
History of Visual Basic >>>
Graphical User Interface (GUI)s >>>
Getting started with Visual Basic* >>>
Visual Basic Integrated Development Environment >>>(IDE)*
Application of VISUAL BASIC >>>

Data types and modules >>>
Data types >>>
Variables >>>
Constants >>>
Modules >>>

Operators >>>
Arithmetic operators >>>
Logical operators >>>
Relational operators >>>

Arrays >>>
Introduction of array >>>
Declaration of array >>>

Conditional statement and loop structure >>>
If..then..statement >>>
If..then..else statement >>>
Select case statement >>>
Do..Loop structure >>>
For..next structure >>>

Procedure >>>
Sub procedures* >>>
Function procedures* >>>
Property procedure >>>

Functions >>>
Visual basic function >>>
Methods and events
>>>
Methods >>>
Syntax for calling Methods >>>
Events >>>
Example of an event in an application >>>

Working with forms >>>
Form basis >>>
Form properties >>>
The form events >>>
The form methods >>>
Setting runtime and design time properties* >>>
Setting start up form* >>>

Creating simple application in visual basic >>>
Structure of a visual basic application >>>
Designing the visual interface form >>>
Adding code for the program >>>
Compiling the project >>>
Creating an exe >>>
Running the project >>>
Making different applications* >>>

Working with files >>>
Saving project or files>>>
Opening existing project>>>
Adding file to the project >>>
Removing file from the project >>>
Removing project >>>
Exiting from Visual Basic >>>

Learn Java [Pure Object Oriented Programming Language]

2008-07-08T22:51:00.000-07:00

Java Evolution <<
Core Java offers a total immersion approach for C\C++ programmer wanting to learn java.
The course will use JDK(Java Development Kit) and covers all the new language features.

Java History<<
• Java is a general purpose , object-oriented programming language.
• The fastest growing programming language in the history of computing

Java features<<
Java is a simple language as it does not use pointers, preprocessor header files; go to statement and many more others.
Benefits of java over C and C++ <<
Architecturally neutral. Once written, the same Java program can be run on any
platform computer and operating system) that supports Java.

How Java works <<
1. Programmer codes Java source statements
2. Java compiler converts source statements into bytecode (platform-independent object language)

The Java programming language <<
With a compiler, it translates a Java program into an intermediate language called Java bytecodes--the platform-independent codes interpreted by the Java interpreter.

The Java Platform <<The Java API is a large collection of ready-made software components that provide many useful capabilities, such as graphical user interface (GUI) widgets. The Java API (application programming interface) is grouped into libraries (packages).
Java Development Kit*<<
The Java Development Kit comes with a collection of tools that are used for developing and running Java programs.
Hardware & Software requirement <<
Java is currently supported on Window 95, Window NT, Sun Solaries, Macintosh and UNIX machine.
The minimum software and hardware requirement for 95 version of Java

Disadvantage of Java <<
• Not supported by all platforms (though third-party JVM software is usually available)
• Slower in execution than compiled languages
Overview of Java Language <<

Developing the Java Application*<<

Comments in Java Code <<

Defining a class <<

The main method <<

Using classes and objects <<

Java Program Structure <<

Java Tokens <<

Constant, Variable and Datatype <<

Variable <<

Declaring Variable <<

Rule on Variable Names <<

Variable Type <<

Primitive Data Type <<

data type <<

Operator and Expression <<
Expression and operators <<
Operator Precedence <<
Integer Operators <<
Relational Integer Operators <<
Floating point Operators <<

String Operator <<
Assignment Operator <<
Arithmetic assignment Operator <<
Conversions <<
Casts <<
Boolean expression & Operations <<
Logical Operators <<
Bitwise operators <<
The complement operator <<

Decision making, Branching & looping <<
Flow control with if & else <<
The if statement <<
The else statement <<
Switch statement <<
For, while & do-while statement <<
The for statement <<
The while statement <<
The do-while statement <<
Using break and continue <<
The break statement <<
The continue statement <<

Class Object and Method <<
Introduction to class <<
The benefit of classes<<
Defining class<<
Class using constructor <<

Object
Declaring an Object
Instantiating an Object
Initializing an Object
Referencing an object's Variable
Calling an Object method
Creating a class
The class Declaration
The class body
Constructions for class
Implementing Methods
The Method body
Example of Math class

Array and String
Array
Java array
Object array
Strings
String concatenation

Inheritance
Introduction
Creating subclasses
Member variables in subclass inherit
Hiding member Variables
Methods in subclass Inherit
Overriding Method
Methods a subclass cann't override
Methods a subclass must override
The Benefits of Inheritance
Interfaces
Interfaces and Classes
Implementing and using Interface
Implementing Multiple Interfaces
Creating and Extending Interfaces
Methods inside Interfaces
Extending Interfaces

Packagee
Introduction
Declaring Packages
Importing Packages
Creating Our Own Packages
The Java Language Packages
The Java I/O Packages
The Java Utility Packages
The Java Networking Packages
The Jajava.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/docs/api/java/applet/package-summary.htmlva Applet Packages
The Java abstract Window Toolkit Packages

Multithreading
Introduction
Thread
Thread Attributes
Thread State
Thread Group
Method that Operate on All Thread
Access Restriction Methods
The notify All () and wait () methods
Frequently used Method

Exception Handling
Introduction
What is an Exception
If Exception than?
The exception handling technique
Some terminology
Throw, try, and catch blocks
Multiple catch blocks
The finally clause
The throwable class
Type of exception
Different list of exception
Built-in Exceptions

Applet
Introduction
How Applets and Applications are different
Limitation of Applets
The Applet Class
Major Applets Activities
The life cycle of a Web page Applet
Including am Applet on a Web Page
Essential HTML to launch an Applet & pass it parameters
Launching an Applet in an html/core_java Document

A Sample Applet that receives a Parameter
Posting a Web Page that launches a custom Applet
Managing Input/Output Files in Java
Introduction
Stream
Input Streams
The Abstract Class Input Stream
The File Class
The FileDialog Class
Low-level & High-level Stream Class
The FileOutputStream Class
The FileInputStream Class
The DataOutputStream Class
The DataInputStream Class
The ObjectOutputStream Class
The objectInputStream Class

Learn C++[OOP]

2008-07-07T00:19:00.000-07:00

C++ is a general-purpose, high-level programming language with low-level facilities. It is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm language, supporting procedural programming, data abstraction, object-oriented programming, generic programming and RTTI.
Programming Techniques
This section is a short survey of programming techniques. There are various types of programming technique is available in the programming era. Here more focus has been given over OOP.
Introduction
Without a program, a computer has no purpose. It becomes an inert mass, a way to keep a door open when the wind blows.

In 1952, a very clever man named John Von Neumann was working on a rather primitive computer that was programmed by moving wires about on a large plug-board.
Various programming techniques
This section is a short survey of programming techniques. There are various types of programming technique is available in the programming era. Here more focus has been given over OOP.

Principal of Object Oriented Programming
With procedural programming you are able to combine returning sequences of statements into one single place.

A procedure call is used to invoke the procedure. After the sequence is processed, flow of control proceeds right after the position where the call was made.
Introduction of OOP
Object

Object is an identifiable run-time entity with some characteristic and behavior. for example 'orange' is an object and its characters are shape, color etc.

Introduction of C++

In 1952, a very clever man named John Von Neumann was working on a rather primitive computer that was programmed by moving wires about on a large plug-board.
History of C++
C language is separation of C++ language .
C++ has made enormous alter in the marketplace of computer, because it is primary object oriented language
Introduction of C++

First C++ program
The C++ compiler runs a program called the C++ preprocessor. The preprocessor is expert to set in and carry off code from your source file.

Overview of OOP using C++
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, C became the dominant computer programming language, and it is still widely used today Since C is a successful and useful language but there arise a need for something else existed, the reason is complexity.

Elements of C++ Language
Tokens
Character set is a set of valid characters that a language can recognize. A character represents any letter , digit or any sign. The C++ has the following character set
Literals & constant
Literals are data items that never change their value during a program run. C++ allows several kind of literal:

Variables
Variable represents named storage location, whose values can be manipulated during program run. variables are called symbolic variables because they are named.
Declaration of Variable
Variables declared within a function are called local variables. They are also sometimes called automatic variables.
Data types
Data can be of many type e.g. character, integer, real, string etc. Any thing enclosed in single quotes represent character data.
Pointer
A pointer is a variable that holds a memory address. This address is usually the location the location of another variable in memory.
Constant
The keyword const can be added to the declaration of an object to make that object a constant rather than variable
Control structures & Operators
Introduction of control structure
Statements are the instructions given to the computer to perform any kind of action, be it data movements, be it making decisions, or be in repeating action.

Introduction of Operators

Once we know of the continuation of variables and constants, we can begin to operate with them. C++ integrates operators.
Precedence of Operators
Writing complex expressions with more than a one operands, we may have a number of misgivings about which operand is evaluated foremost and which afterward.
Expression
An expression is composed of one or more operations. The objects of the operations are referred to as operands. An expression in C++ is any valid combination of operators, constants, and variables
Functions
Introduction
Now that you should have learned about variables, loops, and if statements it is time to learn about functions. You should have an idea of their uses.
Function declaration & prototyping
Functions that a programmer writes will generally require a prototype. Just like an blueprint, the prototype tells the compiler what the function will return, what the function will be called, as well as what arguments the function can be passed.
Function definition & call
Once the compiler knows that you have declared a function, it then needs the definition of that function.
Return values of functions
Return values are used in the function syntax and so far we have mentioned void as the return value of a function. Void means: no value is returned by the function.
Types of function
The declaration of library function is in the header file specified at the beginning of the program
Inline functions
If a function is very small, then there is no need to go for branching to sub routines (i.e. there is no need for using another function).
Recursion
What is recursion? Recursion comes from the word ‘to recur’ which means happening repeatedly over and over again.
Manipulators

Manipulators are keywords that are used for doing something to change the way the output appears on the screen.
Objects & Classes
Object is an instance of a class, i.e. only when you define an object for a class, will the compiler allocate memory for the object.
Object

The command prompt specifies what drive and directory you are currently in. The command prompt can be seen in the ms-dos prompt.
Classes
Object & classes together
Command line arguments
The command prompt specifies what drive and directory you are currently in. The command prompt can be seen in the ms-dos prompt.
Constructors & Destructors

Basic constructors
Constructors are used for this purpose. A constructor is a special member function with same name as the class. It is used for the automatic initialization of object and it is carried out at the time of creation.
Copy constructors
A copy constructors is used to declare and initialize an object from another object. A copy constructor is invoked when you initialize a new object of a class using an existing object.
Dynamic constructor
Destructors in details
Allocation of memory to objects at the time of their construction is known as dynamic construction of objects. The memory is allocated with the help of the new operator.
Operator Overloading & Type Conversion
A destructor always has the same name as the class itself, but is preceded with a ~ symbol
Operator overloading
The compiler identifies that it is an overloaded operator by looking at the data type of operand (i.e. if it is a user defined data type then the compiler knows it is an overloaded operator
Binary operator overloading

In the case of a unary operator we generally use no arguments. In the case of a binary operator we need to use one argument.
Type conversion
Conversion of a numeric values to Boolean yield T if the converted value is non-zero. A string value yields T if its length is non-zero.
Inheritance
Data Hiding
Inheritance

It is also known as data encapsulation and is a fundamental concept of Object oriented programming. By the way, in many instances you may come across the term ‘method’. A method is just another term used for a function.
Multople Inheritance
Multiple inheritance means that one subclass can have more than one superclass. This enables the subclass to inherit properties of more than one superclass and to "merge'' their properties
Pointers,Virtual Functions & Polymorphism
An Introduction to pointer
Pointers are variables that store memory address. This address is the address of another variable.
Pointer
When * is used, it denotes a pointer. The data type denotes the data type to which the pointer points.
Polymorphism
Basically, the word is the same word but it's interpretation varies depending on the use. Similarly, in C++ we can make use of polymorphism.
Virtual functions
Virtual function is a member function of a base class and redefined by a derived class.
I/O Operations
Insertion & Extraction
StreamsVirtual function is a member function of a base class and redefined by a derived class.
Stream functions

This section covers the basics of using streams, including explaining which streams are provided by the streams library, how the different streams classes are related, which member functions are available for use with streams, and how to create your own streams.
Formatting

When a program inserts or extracts values other than single characters, such as integers or floating-point data, a number of different formatting options are available.
Manipulators again
A manipulator is an object that can be an operand to the << or >> operator, but which modifies the state of the stream, rather than actually inserting or extracting any data.
I/O status handlingAssociated with each stream is a set of flags indicating the I/O state of the stream.
Working with Files
Streams revisitUsing C++ you can access a device through an intermediate medium. The intermediate medium is called as stream. The device that you access is known as file.
Opening & closing a fileWe think you'll find this interesting. You'll learn how to access disk files in the following sections.
Writing to a text fileReading and Writing to a file is very easy. First we shall take a look at writing:
Reading a text file
Before learning this section We hope you know the Difference between void main ( ) and int main ( ). If you haven't seen the section then please do so and come back here.
Template & Exception Handling Introduction of template
Templates are the mechanism that make it possible to use one function or class to handle many different data types
Function template
We can also define function templates that could be used to create a family of functions with different arguments types. The general format template is
Class template
However, the examples of these classes that we presented could store data of type float in a stack we would be required to define a completely new class.
Exception Handling
Check out whether your C++ compiler supports this feature (the older C++ compilers will not support exception handling
Namespace & Dynamic Memory
Introduction of Namespace
Namespace is the collection of or group of same type of classes. Meaning of this it is collection of same type of entities.
Introduction of Dynamic Memory
With the help of dynamic memory we can determine memory required by variable during runtime.
New & Delete OperatorsTo demand dynamic memory there is use the operator new. new is followed by a data type specifies and if a series of extra than single element is mandatory- then there is use of brackets []. It returns a pointer to the beginning of the new block of memory allocated.

C Programming Language

2008-05-20T23:54:00.000-07:00

Introduction to C Programming Language

How to open C program code window

Description of C code window

Editing C File

Saving and Running a program

The components of C language

Structure of C Program

Introduction(C character set, identifiers, and keywords, data types, )

The C character set

Key words In C

Introduction(Data types)

Primary Data Type

Secondary Data Type

Introduction(Variable)

Rules for constructing variables names

Variable declaration

Assigning values to variables

Scope of variables: LOcal and Global

Logical & String constants

Introduction (operators in c)

Arithmetic operators

Relational operators

Logical operators

Increment & Decrement operators

Bitwise operators

Conditional & ternary operators

Comma operators

Size of operator

Assignment operator

Type modifier In C

Expression In C

Automatic type conversion

Introduction {Basic input/output}

Console I/O function

Disc & Port I/O function

CONTROL STRUCTURE(Sequence control statements )

Decision control & conditional statements

Case control statements

some-more-statements-break-statement

Some more statements (The break Statement )

Array And string(Introduction of Array )

Array Declaration

Array Initialization

Two Dimensional Array

Multi Dimensional Array

String In C

Function And Recursion(Function Definition)

Function Declaration

Function Call in C

Recursion

Pointer(Introduction )

Pointer expression

Pointer & functions

Pointer(Pointer And Array)

Pointer(Multi Dimensional Arrays & Pointer )

Pointer(Arrays of Pointer )

Pointer(Pointer & functions )

Structure(Inroduction)

Structure(Giving values to member )

Structure Initialization

Comparison of structure variables

Arrays of structures

Arrays with in structures

Structure( Passing structure to function )

Union( Introduction )

Union(Accessing a union member )

Union(Initialization of Union variable )

Union(Use of Union)

Dynamic Data Structure(Queue)

Dynamic Data Structure(Stack)

Dynamic Data Structure(Link list)

Data file Handling(Introduction)

File operation

Opening & closing a data file

Creating a data file

Processing a data file

C preprocessors And macro(Introduction,File inclusion )

Header File:-

Introduction (Header File)

Use of library functions

Some Useful library functions

How to open C program code window

2008-05-17T00:30:00.001-07:00

How to open C program code window

Before opening C on your computer. Please ensure that C compiler has been loaded or not. If not then please load it first and then try any of the following ways to open C which suit your computer setting.

1.Start>>Program >> Turbo c.

2. If turbo C icon is present on your computer desktop then simply click on it.

3. My computer >>c:\>> tc (folder)>> bin (folder) >> tc.exe (icon).

4. Or make sure the path where you have loaded the C on your computer and try to run it from there.

Description of C code window

2008-05-17T00:27:00.000-07:00

Description of C code window

1. =: Interface to external programs.

2. File: File related option such as opening and saving file.

3. Edit: Cut,Copy,Paste operation.

4. Search: Find,Find & Replace operation.

5. Run: Compile and run the file currently loaded in the text editor. And debugging such as setting/clearing trace points can be performed from this menu.

6. Compile: The menu item compiles a source file to an object file or an .exe file.

7. Debug: Provides interactive debugging. Variables can be examined/set/cleared, and we can watch variables change during execution.

8. Project: This menu item controls Borland C++'s handling of large programs that are in multiple source file.

9. Option: Default option are set during installation . The user can change any option at any time through this menu.

10. Windows: Windows operation include zoom, arranging windows on the screen , and closing windows.

11. Help: Borland C++ includes a context sensitive help capability. Select Help or press f1 for general Help, Shift f1 for indexed help or Ctrl f1 for context sensitive help.

Editing File

2008-05-17T00:25:00.002-07:00

Editing File

To open a new file, first press Alt F then Enter key, File pull down will activated, select new and then press Enter key, the display will be change into a blank screen of text editor having file name NONAME00.C, on which you can start entering your code through keyboard.

To open existing file press Alt F and then Enter, from the activated file pull down menu select Open, A Open Dialoge Box will appear, select desired file name path and press Enter.

Saving and Running a program

2008-05-17T00:25:00.001-07:00

Saving and Running a program

Press Alt F, move the cursor to save , press Enter and then type file name with extension .C in given Text Box and press Enter to save the program.

Running a program

Press Alt R to pull down the Run menu and Enter to begin compilation, A compile window opens and shows progress and output can be viewed in output window and press Alt W to pull down window menu, move the cursor down to output and press Enter. Press Alt W and move the cursor to close to close output window immediately.

Exiting Borland C

Press Alt X to Exit Borland C and return to Dos Prompt.

The components of C language

2008-05-17T00:15:00.000-07:00

The components of C language

There are five main component of C language are:

1. The character set: Any alphabet ,digit or special symbol ,used to represent information is denoted by character. The character in C are grouped into four categories.

1 Letters A...Z and a...z
2 Digits 0,1,2,.....9
3 Special Symbol ~,`,!,@,#,$,%,^,&,*,(),.,<,>,?,/,",:,;,{},[]
4 White Space blank space, Carriage return, form feed, newline, horizontal tab

2. The data types: The power of the programming language depends, among other thing, on the range of different types of data it can handle.

3. Constants: A constant is a fix value that doesn't change while program execution.

4. Variable: A variable is an entity whose value can change during program execution.

5. Keywords: Keywords are those word which have been assigned specific meaning in C language. Keywords should not be used as variable names to avoid problem.

Note: Above given all the term has been discussed in details in next section.

Structure of C Program

2008-05-17T00:10:00.000-07:00

Structure of C Program

Every C program is made of function and every function consist of instructions called statement.

Structure of C Program.

#include //stdio.h is the header file
main() // main function is the first function which is executed by a C program.

All C statements are written within main function.
{

// All C statements.

}

Functions

Every C program consists of one or more modules called functions. One of the functions must be called main( ).
The program will always begin by executing the main function, which may access other functions.

Any other function definitions must be defined separately, either ahead of or after main.

A function name is always followed by a pair of parenthesis, namely, ( ). And all function statements are enclosed within a pair of braces { }.

The program execution always starts with main function. When the closing brace of the main function is reached, program execution stops, and the control is handed back to the OS (Operating System).

Statements

Single C language instruction is called a statement. Statements are written according to the grammar of C language. Every C language statement must ends with semicolon(;).

In order to write a C program we should follow some basic rules which are described below:

a) Usually all statements in C are entered in small alphabets.

b) Blank spaces may be inserted between two words to improve the program readability. However no blank spaces are allowed within a variables, constants or key words.

c) It has no specific rules for the position at which statements is to be retained that's why it’s often called a free form language.

d) All C statements must end with a semicolon (; )

Till now, We have very little knowledge about the type of variables, constants and key words. Now we would try to understand the simple C program.

Read this artical regarding C -
1.Introduction(C character set, identifiers, and keywords, data types, )
2.The C character set
3.Key words In C
4.Introduction(Data types)
5.Primary Data Type
6.Secondary Data Type
7.Introduction(Variable)

Introduction(C character set, identifiers, and keywords, data types, )

2008-05-17T00:09:00.000-07:00

Introduction

C language consists of some basic elements which are used to construct simple C statements.

These elements include the C character set, identifiers, and keywords, data types, constants, variables and arrays, declaration, expressions and statements.

We will see how these basic elements can be combined to form more comprehensive program components.

Key words In C

2008-05-16T23:59:00.000-07:00

There are certain reserved words, called keywords, which have standard, predefined meanings in C.

These keywords can be used only for their intended purpose; they cannot be used as programmer-defined identifiers.

Some standard keywords are:

auto extern sizeof break floatn static case for char

switch register return long int else while short void

Some C compilers may recognize other keywords.

Note that the keywords are all lowercase. Since uppercase and lowercase characters are not equivalent, it is possible to utilize an uppercase keyword as an identifier.

Normally, however, this is not done, as it is considered a poor programming practice.

Secondary Data Type

2008-05-16T23:47:00.000-07:00

1. Array:

It is a collection of data of similar data type.
e.g. Int num [5];

Reserve a sequence of 5 location of two bytes each for storing integers.

2. Pointer:

Pointer is a variable that stores the address of some other variable.
e.g. int *i;

The above statement declares i as pointer to integer data type.

3. Structure:

A structure is a collection of data of different data types under one name.
e.g.
Struct employees
{
char Name[10];
int Age;
int Salary;
}

4. Union:

It is a collection of data of different types sharing common memory space.
e.g. Union item

{
int m;
float x;
char c;
} ;

5. Enumerated Data types:

This data types gives us an opportunity to invent your own data type and define what values the variable of this data type can take.
Example: enum colors

{
red, green, blue, cyan
};
colors foreground, background;

Here the declaration has two parts:

a) The first part declare the data type and specifies its possible values.
b) The second part declare variable of this data type.

Now we can give the values to these variables:

foreground=red;
background=blue;

But remember we can't use values that aren't in the original declaration. Thus, the following declaration cause error.

foreground=yellow;

Note: Secondary data type has been given in detail later.

Rules for constructing variables names

2008-05-16T23:42:00.000-07:00

Rules for constructing variables names

There are some specific rules for constructing variable names in C language:

(a) Variable name may be a combination of alphabet digits or underscores and its lengths should not exceed 8 characters, some compilers allow 40 characters also.

(b) The first character must be an alphabet.

(c) No comma, blank spaces are allowed in variable name.

(d) No special symbols except underscore can be used as variable names.

Variable declaration

2008-05-16T23:41:00.000-07:00

Variable declaration

All the variables must be declared before their use. It does two things:

(a) Tell the compiler what the variable name is.

(b) Specify what type of data that a variable will hold.

Syntax of variable declaration:

data_type variable_name;

Example of variable declaration:
int i,j,k;
char ch;

Assigning values to variables

2008-05-16T23:40:00.000-07:00

Assigning values to variables

To assign values to the variables, assignment operator (=) is used.

Syntax of assigning values:

variable declaration;
Variable_name = value;

Example of assigning values:

Int i , j;
j = 5 ;
i = 0 ;

It is also possible to assign a value at the time of declaration.
e.g.
int i = 5;

More than one variable can be initialized in one statement using multiple assignment operators.

e.g. j = m = 2;

There could be an exception while using multiple assignment operators.

e.g. int i , j = 2 , k;

here the assignment will be i = 0 j=2 and k = garbage value

Scope of variables: LOcal and Global

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Scope of variables: LOcal & Global

Scope of variable means where the variable stands in the program. All variables may not necessary be available to all statements in a program.

Variables can have two types of scope:

a) Local:

When a variable is declared inside the function then such a variable is known as local variable.

A local variable can only be accessed by the function in which it is declared. It cannot be accessed by other function.

b) Global:

A variable which is declared outside all functions is known as global variable.

A variable with a global scope is accessible to all the statements in the program. A global variable can be accessed by all the functions.

Constant in C(introduction)

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All Constant in C(introduction)
Introduction

There are some values which do not change during the execution of the program. These values are called constants.
Constants are of fixed value that remain unchanged during the execution of a program, and are used in assignment of statements. Constants are stored in variables.

Syntax of constant declaration:

Const datatype var_name = value;

Example of Constant declaration:

Const int a = 5;

In C language there are five types of constants which has been described separately

Character constants

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Character constants

A character constant consists of a single digit or a single special symbol enclosed within a pair of single inverted commas. The maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character.

e.g. --> 'a', 'i' , '5', '='.

There are some character sequence constants which are used in C to represented special action, these are called C Escape Sequence.

List of these escape sequence and its tasks are given below:

\a : audible bell

\f : form feed

\r : carriage return

\v : vertical tab

\' : single quote

\? : question mark

\HHH: 1 to 3 digit hex value.

\b : backspace

\n : newline

\t : horizontal tab

\\ : backslash

\" : double quote.

\000 : 1 to 3 digit octal value

Integer constants

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Integer constants

An integer constant refers to a sequence of digits. It could be either positive or negative. and must have at least one digit.

It mustn't have a decimal point. No commas or blank are allowed within an integer constant. The allowable range for integer constants is -32767 to 32767.

There are three types of integer constants:

1. decimal :

In decimal notation ,simply we write decimal number. e.g. 24,678

2. octal :

In octal notation, write(0)immediately before the octal represention,e.g.-076,-076

3. hexadecimal :

In hexadecimal notation ,the constant is preceded by 0x,e.g.,0x3e,-0x3e.

Some example of integer constants:

: 426
: +762
: -8000
: -7605

Real constants

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Real constants

Real constants are often called Floating Point constants.

It has three parts:

1. A sign (+ or -) preceding the number portion (optional).

2. A number portion (representing the base).

3. An exponent portion following the number portion (optional). This starts with E or E followed by an integer. The integer may be preceded by a sign.

A real constant must have at least one digit. It must have a decimal point. It could be either positive (default) or negative. No commas and blank are allowed within a real constant.

Some example of real constants:

: +.72
: +72
: +7.6E+2
: 24.4e-5

Logical & String constants

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Logical & String constants

A logical constant can have either of two values either true or false. In C a non-zero value is always treated as true whereas zero is treated as false.

The logical constants are very useful in evaluating logical expressions and complex condition.

A group of character enclosed within a pair of double inverted commas (" ") is treated as a string constant.

some example of string constant:

: "Hello"
"Welcome to eBiz"
"a"

Introduction (operators in c)

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Introduction

An operator specifies an operation to be performed. C is rich in operator. Operators join the various variables and constants to from an expression.

Some operator requires one operand and some require more than one operands.

An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical manipulation in data stored in variables.

C is extremely rich in operators It has as many as 45 different operators.

Arithmetic operators

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Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic Operators are used to Arithmetical calculation.

There are five Arithmetic operators in C:

Operator Purpose
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Remainder after integer division