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The Deposition of Caliph Muttaqi, the Rise of Mustakfi Billah and the Decline of Abbasid Power

2026-11-01T00:54:21.754-07:00

Muttaqi lillah

Muttaqilillah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq bin Motawakkil was born of a slave girl named, Zahrah. He came to the throne when he was 34. On 26 Rajab 329 A.H., Yahkum was killed by Kurds in the neighborhood of Wasit. He kept the title Amirul Omara' for 2 years and 8 months. Following his death goods worth 1,100,000 dinars were seized and deposited in the Caliph's treasury. In Shaban 329 A.H. Abu Obadiah Buraidi took an army from Basra and went to Baghdad. The Caliph ordered him to go back and when he did not obey, the Caliph sent an army. The army was put to rout and Buraidi entered Baghdad and demanded 500,000 dinars from the Caliph with the message that if he did not concede to his demand, he would be deposed and put to death. The Caliph felt helpless and paid the ransom.

After 24 days in Ramadan 329 A.H. Buraidi's army revolted because of non-receipt of their salaries. Buraidi fled and went to Wasit. After his flight, a chief named Kortageen dominated the caliph and his court. He received the title Amirul Omara. Baghdad at the time had a large group of people from Delam in addition to the Turks. The Delamis had started growing in power since Yahkum's rise to power. The Delamis created an uprising against Kortageen but his power remained unaffected.

Hearing this, Muhammad bin Raiq who ruled over Syria went to Baghdad to secure the post of Amirul Omara. Kortageen came out of Baghdad to face him. Raiq entered Baghdad by force and Kortageen was arrested and imprisoned. The Caliph made Ibn Raiq Amirul Omara. Muhammad bin Raiq collected taxes from Abu Abdullah Buraidi by force.

In Rabia Thani 330 A.H., Ibn Buraidi invaded Baghdad and defeated Ibn Raiq. Buraidi's army was made up of Turks and the soldiers from Delam. They entered the city and started looting and killing. The Caliph along with Ibn Raiq and his own son Abu Mansoor fled to Mousil. They looted the caliph's palace and the houses of Baghdad. Some Qaramati also joined in looting. The nobles of the city were subjected to great humiliation and torture. On the arrival of the Caliph, the ruler of Mousil, Nasiruddaulah bin Hamdan, left the city. The Caliph and Ibn Raiq consoled him and called him back. Nasiruddaulah killed Muhammad bin Raiq. The Caliph gave Nasiruddaulah the title of Amirul Omara while his brother Abul Hasan was given the title Saifuddaulah.

Preparing the army Nasiruddaulah and the Caliph moved to Baghdad. Ibn Buraidi who had captured Baghdad fought but was defeated in Shawwal 330 A.H. and Nasiruddaulah entered Baghdad with the caliph. Nasiruddaulah and Saifuddaulah lived with the caliph for 11 months. Then they returned to Mousil. In Ramadan 331 A.H., a commander named Tuzoon acquired power in Baghdad and the caliph gave him the title of Amirul Omara.

In Muharram 332 A.H., Abu Jafar Sherzad entered Baghdad while Tuzoon was in Wasit. When Abu Jafar entered Baghdad caliph Muttaqi left Baghdad and fled to Mousil out of fear of him. Tuzoon and Abu Jafar jointly invaded Mousil and defeated both the brothers Nasiruddaulah and Saifuddaulah and they along with the caliph went to Nasiban and from there to Riqqah he wrote a letter to Tuzoon and reconciled with Banu Hamdan and returned to Baghdad. The caliph along with Banu Hamdan stayed on in Riqqah.

During the same period, Muizzuddaulah Ahmad bin Buwayh who controlled Ahwaz invaded Wasit. Tuzoon returned from Mousil and fought against him on 17 Thul Qada 332 A.H. Though Muizzuddaulah suffered defeat in the fight, he re-invaded Wasit and conquered it. In 332 A.H., The Russians invaded Barua an Azerbaijani town on the Russian border. Marzaban Delam heard of this and sent his forces there. The Russians plundered and killed the Muslims on a large scale. The Muslims rallied and fought back. The fight continued for a long time and after many fierce battles the Muslims forced the Russians to retreat.

Deposition of Caliph Muttaqi

Caliph Muttaqi lived with Banu Hamdan until the end of 332 A.H. Meanwhile resentment developed between them. The caliph wrote letters for help to Baghdad and to Akhsheed bin Muhammad bin Tafaj in Egypt. Akhsheed visited the caliph in Riqqah on 15 Muharram 333 A.H. and requested him to accompany him to Egypt and live there.

The minister approved of the idea and described to him the benefits of making Egypt his capital. But the caliph did not agree to it. In the meantime, Tuzoon's letter from Baghdad came granting amnesty and security to the caliph and his minister Ibn Sherzad. The caliph expressed his sense of joy after going through the contents of the letter and leaving Akhsheed, he set out to Baghdad at the end of Muharram 333 A.H. Tuzoon received him warmly at Sandyah and lodged him in his tent. The next day he blinded the caliph with hot pokers. Then he sent for Abul Qasim Abdullah bin Muktafi Billah. All the members of the government took the oath for him and called him Mustakfi Billah.

The deposed caliph Muttaqi was also presented in the court and he also took the oath for caliph Mustakfi. Muttaqi was imprisoned in Jazirah. After remaining in that state of suffering for 25 years, he died in 357 A.H. When Qahir Billah was informed of Muttaqi's blindness, he was overjoyed and began to say. "Now we two have become blind and the third is waiting." Ironically after a few days, Mustakfi also met the same fate.

Mustakfi Billah

Abul Qasim Abdullah bin Mustakfi Billah was born of a slave girl Amlaahunnas. He came to the throne in Safar 333 A.H. at the age of 41. Abul Qasim Fadl bin Muqtadir Billah also made a claim to the caliphate. He went underground Mustakfi searched for him but he could not be found. He remained in hiding during his regime. When Mustakfi failed to locate him, he had his house demolished.

Soon after caliph Mustakfi's enthronement Tuzoon died. Mustakfi conferred the title of Amirul Omara on Abu Jafar Ibn Sherzad. Having taken power into his hands, he began to squander money until the treasury became empty and the entire administration was thrown into disarray. Theft and robbery were committed with such impunity that the civilians began to desert the city and migrate in Damascus, were carried out in all territories from Andalus and Morocco to China and Turkistan. When the Islamic caliphate came to Banu Abbas, within a very short time, a separate and independent government of Banu Umayyah was established in Andalus and instead of one capital, there were two centers of the Islamic government. Then Morocco became independent. After that, the governments of Mawaraunnahr, Khorasan, and Persia went out of the control of the caliph of Baghdad. At this point in the narrative, the government of the caliph of Baghdad did not exist even in Baghdad itself. For a long time the state of the Tigris and Euphrates was under the caliph's rule. However, when the post of the Amirul Omara (chief of the chiefs) was created, its government was run by the Amirul Omara he called himself the subordinate of the caliph but in name only.

The caliph's orders were honored in the city of Baghdad proper. However, anybody who could subdue others by virtue of their power could become the Amirul Omara and the caliph would be forced to confer on him this title. Though the caliph had no power left in his hands, he enjoyed a bit of liberty and still commanded a sort of admiration and respect.

Muizzuddaulah Ahmad bin Buwayh, the fisherman's son came from Ahwaz and dominated over Baghdad and the caliph. He was given the title Malik (king) and others after him continued to enjoy this privilege. Muizzuddaulah put the caliph under strict surveillance and kept him as a respectable captive and seized the little respect he enjoyed in Baghdad. The caliph's duty was to greet ambassadors from abroad, the ambassador would be presented before the Caliph and shown a magnificent exhibition at the artificial court the Caliph would be used and exploited to serve their purpose. Conferring of titles and granting of documents were generally done by the caliph but without option. The actual decisions were made by the Malik alone.

The caliph was a figurehead only. The Malik used to fix the caliph's salary. When he received his salary late or did not receive it, he had to sell his personal belongings to meet his daily needs. The condition of the Abbasid caliphs had deteriorated to such an extent that it has become redundant for a historian to mention them, except for the word Caliph nothing else remained of their power. In order to complete the history of the Islamic governments it is essential to record the lives and conquests of the rulers who not only ruled in Baghdad but also the area of the Euphrates and Tigris and other provinces as those controlled by the Malik. In order to deal with the conditions of these territories we will continue with the Abbasid caliphs though they are no more than figureheads, they are still called caliphs.

The important point is that now we are not studying the Abbasid caliphs but those who were in control of Baghdad. We should not overlook the fact that though separate and independent governments were formed and established in provinces all over the Islamic territories, all still honored the institution of the caliph. His name was mentioned in the Friday sermons even where he had no power.

In Andalus, the Umayyah caliphate was in power. The Fatimids in North Africa claimed the caliphate and leadership and the name of the caliph of Baghdad was never mentioned in Andalus or North Africa. Besides these exceptions in all other Islamic territories, they recognized the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad as caliph and their religious leader. Sometimes a particular Malik would expunge the name of the caliph from the Friday sermon and have his own name mentioned in it but the caliph's name did exist in the sermons of the other territories.

The Deposition of Qahir Billah, Reign of Radi Billah and Decline of Abbasid Authority

2026-11-01T00:53:03.372-07:00

Over Throw of Qahir

Qahir Billah was a killer, hasty, a chronic drunk and a man of mercurial nature. He had clamped a total ban on drinking and selling of wine. After ruling for one and a half years he was arrested by military rioters on 6 Jumad Thani 322 A.H., they put Abul Abbas Muhammad bin Muqtadir on the throne and gave him the title of Radi Billah. Immediately after assuming power, Radi Billah had Qahir Billah blinded.

According to Ali bin Muhammad Khorasani, one day Qahir Billah came to me with a spear in his hand and asked me to describe to him the habits and nature of every Caliph of the Abbasids. I said, "Saffah was quick to spill blood and his governors followed in his footsteps. He was a brave and believed in collecting taxes. Mansoor was the first to sow the seed of dissention between the Banu Abbas and the family of Abi Talib and did not let them remain as one. He was the first to have made the astrologers his companions. Suryani and non-Arabic books like geometry, Kalilah Dimnah and books in Greek were translated for him. Mahdi was very generous and a just man and whatever his father had seized from the people, he returned it to them. He had the apostates killed and rebuilt mosques on the three holy sites in Makkah, Madinah and Jerusalem. Hadi was a tyrant and proud and his governors followed suit. Haroon Rasheed fought the Romans and performed Hajj, he had rest houses and water tanks constructed on the way to Madinah, populated Tartoos, Masisah and Marash and he pleased the people. He was the first among the caliphs who played polo, chess and enjoyed shooting. Ameen was generous and tolerant but was drowned in pleasures. Mamoon was overwhelmed by astrology and philosophy. He was generous and wise. Motasim was the same and was fond of horseback riding and imitating the non-Arab kings. He fought in battles and had many conquests to his credit. Wathiq followed his father's life style. Motawakkil went against Mamoon, Motasim and Wathiq. He was against their beliefs and ordered the opposing scholars to be given the opportunity to speak on these subjects and the people were generally pleased with him." Qahir continued to ask about the other Caliphs and I kept telling him about them. He was very pleased to hear their history.

Radi Billah

The name of Radi Billah bin Muqtadir Billah was Muhammad and his kunya was Abu Abbas. He was born of a Roman slave girl named Zaloom. He was enthroned on Jumad Thani 322 A.H. following the deposition of Qahir. He was brought from the jail and put on the throne. He appointed Ali bin Maqlah as his Prime Minister. He arrested Muhammad bin Yaqut and imprisoned him. His father, Yaqut was in Wasit at that time. He arrayed his forces and went to fight against Ali bin Buwayh but lost. The same year Obaidullah Mahdi, the ruler of North Africa, died after ruling for 25 years. He was succeeded by his son Abul Qasim with the title Biamrillah.

Murder of Mardawih

As stated above, Mardawih captured the province of Rayy, Isfahan, and Ahwaz and obtained the documents authorizing him from the Caliph's court. He then claimed to be an independent ruler and made a throne of gold, the chairs of the generals and commanders were made of silver, he wore a crown and called himself emperor. He made preparations to invade Iraq and Baghdad and said that he would rebuild the palaces of the Persian emperors and would reestablish the Zoroastrian kingdom after wiping out the Arabs. This controversial talk displeased some of his commanders and he was murdered near Isfahan in 323 A.H.

Condition of the Provinces

Caliph Radi Billah's government was confined to Baghdad and its vicinity only. Independent rulers, who had acquired documents authorizing their rule on the promise of paying taxes, had gone back on their promises. Basra was under the domination of Muhammad Raiq and Khuzistan and Ahwaz were under Abu Abdullah Buraidi. Iran was ruled over by Ali bin Buwayh with the title Imaduddaulah while Kerman was controlled by Abu Ali bin Ilyas. Hasan bin Buwayh with the title Ruknuddaulah and Mardawih's brother Dashmagir were at war with each other in Rayy, Isfahan and the mountain provinces. Mousil, Deyar Bakr Deyar Egypt Deyar Rabiyah were under the rule of Muhammad bin Tafaj and some parts of Mawaraunnahr were under the Bani Saman rulers. Abu Tahir Qaramati governed Bahrain and Yamamah and the Delam commanders had captured Tabristan while independent states in Andalus, Morocco and North Africa had existed for many years.

In the very first year of Radi Billah's enthronement Imaduddaulah Ali bin Buwayh applied for the documents of authorization for the province of Iran, the caliph sent the document, a royal robe with a flag and the title of Imaduddaulah. He conferred the titles of Ruknuddaulah and Muizzuddaulah to his brothers Hasan and Ahmad respectively. After Mardawih's death, his army was divided into two parts one part went to Imaduddaulah in Iran while the other remained under one of his former commanders named Yahkum.

Yahkum arrived in the Caliph's court and enhanced his influence and was able by manipulation to dominate over all the leaders who kept the caliph's court under their control. He received the title of Amirul Omara, and imposed himself on the caliph and his court and began to act like the ruler. Dashmagir Mardawih's brother left Isfahan to Ruknuddaulah bin Buwayh and captured Azerbaijan. Ruknuddaulah bin Buwayh and Muizzuddaulah bin Buwayh captured Isfahan and Ahwaz respectively. Muhammad bin Raiq snatched Syria from Muhammad bin Tafaj leaving only Egypt for him. During Radi's regime, the caliphate was only a figurehead. During the last period, Yahkum completely dominated the caliph and his court and no one dared to oppose him. He himself lived in Wasit and his head clerk worked as the Prime Minister in the Caliph's court in Baghdad.

Death of Radi Billah

Having ruled for about seven years Caliph Radi Billah died of dropsy in Rabia Awwal 329 A.H. Hearing this news Yahkum gave instructions to his head clerk and in accordance with his orders Ibrahim bin Motazid Billah with the title Muttaqi lillah was enthroned as caliph on 29 Rabia Awwal 329 A.H.

During Radi Billah's regime, Muhammad bin Ali-Shalmaghani known as Ibn Al-Arrafa appeared and claimed to be divine. Many became his disciples but in the very first year of Radi's caliphate, he was caught and killed along with his followers who would not recant his claims. The same year Qaramata looted and plundered Baghdad and Makkah so such an extent that the inhabitants of Baghdad did not perform Hajj and none of them dared go to Hajj until 327 A.H.

In 327 A.H., Abu Tahir Qaramati levied a five dinar tax per camel on the Hujjas. That was the first time pilgrims had to pay a tax for Hajj. The inhabitants of Baghdad paid the tax and performed their Hajj comfortably. Radi was the last caliph who read the Friday sermon himself, all the caliphs after him assigned this job to others.

The Assassination of Caliph Muqtadir and the Rise of the Buwayhid Dynasty

2026-11-01T00:52:09.721-07:00

Murder of Muqtadir Billah

Munis captured Mousil in Safar 320 A.H and to rout Sayeed and Dawood the sons of Abdullah bin Hamdan and their nephew Nasiruddaulah Husain bin Abdullah bin Hamdan who were sent to defend Mousil. Then the armies of Baghdad, Syria and Egypt joined Munis because the soldiers were pleased with his generous gifts.

Nasiruddaulah bin Abdullah bin Hamdan joined Munis and stayed with him in Mousil. Nine days after the conquest of Mousil, Munis invaded Baghdad. Intense dissention arose between him and the ministers of the government.

After being defeated Sayeed bin Abdullah went to Baghdad. At the receipt of the news of Munis's attack, armies under the commands of chiefs like Sayeed bin Abdullah bin Hamdan, Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Yaqut and others were sent. When Munis's army approached, the defending soldiers ran back to Baghdad. Without an army, the commanders also went back to Baghdad. Munis reached Baghdad and stayed at one of the city's gates known as Shamasyah. Both sides built fortifications and the battle began. Muqtadir came out and stood on a hillock and the army was fighting in front of him.

The Baghdad army suffered defeat. The Caliph's companions said to him. "Please don't stand in this place. Let us go back." He started to go but was surrounded by a group of Berbers who had joined Munis's army. One of the Berbers shot an arrow that hit Muqtadir. He fell off the horse and the same Berber rushed forward and chopped off his head. He was stripped naked and his body was left there and his head was taken to Munis on the point of a spear. This took place on Tuesday 27 Shawwal 320 A.H.

Munis put Abu Mansoor Muhammad bin Motazid on the throne and chose for him the title Qahir Billah. Ali bin Maqlah was made the minister and Ali bin Baleeq was appointed Hajib. Muqtadir's mother was arrested and forced to part with her money then she was beaten to death. In this way, money was collected from the people by force.

Qahir Billah

Qahir Billah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq Billah bin Motawakkil was born of a slave-girl named Fitnah. His name was Muhammad and his kunya was Abu Mansoor.

After the murder of Caliph Muqtadir, his son Abdul Wahid along with Haroon bin Ghuraib, Muhammad bin Yaqut and Ibrahim bin Raiq had gone to Madain. He came to Ahwaz via Wasit and Sus. Qahir Billah gave an army to Ali bin Baleeq and sent it to arrest Abdul Wahid and his men.

Consequently, through the efforts of the army commanders and through correspondence Abdul Wahid and his men begged Munis and Qahir Billah for amnesty, which was readily granted and they all went to Baghdad.

The Caliph made Muhammad bin Yaqut his companion which was disliked by the minister Ali bin Maqla. He misguided Munis by telling his that Muhammad bin Yaqut had been trying to ruin him. Munis ordered Baleeq and his son Ali bin Baleeq that caliph to be kept under constant surveillance. Even women visiting the Caliph's palace were body-searched and basically no one was allowed to enter the palace. When the caliph realized that he was under surveillance and rendered powerless, he started conspiring with some army chiefs against Munis.

Munis and his supporters began to make preparations to depose the Caliph and make Abu Ahmad bin Muktafi the caliph. Qahir Billah succeeded in his attempts. Ali bin Baleeq and Munis were arrested and killed. Muhammad bin Yaqut and Abu Jafar Muhammad bin Qasim bin Obaidullah were appointed Hajib and minister respectively. This happened in Shaban 321 A.H.

During the same period, they started looking for Ahmad bin Muktafi who had gone into hiding. He was eventually arrested and buried alive in a wall. The houses of the dead were razed to the ground and their belongings confiscated. After ruling for three and a half months as minister, Abu Jafar was censured and jailed. He died after 18 days in captivity.

The Origin of the Buwayhid Dynasty

As the members of the Buwayhid dynasty are going to be mentioned repeatedly in connection with the Abbasid caliphs, it is pertinent to record the early history of this dynasty. Mention of Atroosh, Hasan bin Ali Zainul Abedeen has already been made. Following Muhammad bin Zaid Alawi's death, Atroosh went to Delam and preached Islam to the people there and continued this missionary work continuously for 13 years in Delam, Tabristan and Egypt and he induced many of them to embrace Islam.

During that time, the ruler of Delam was Hassan. He tried to stop the growing influence of Atroosh but to no avail. Atroosh had mosques built and had the people act upon the Islamic tenets and started collecting taxes. Finally, he formed a body of the converts and armed them. They invaded Qazween and Saloos the border cities, invited the people to Islam and admitted them into the Islamic fold.

The state of Tabristan was a part of the Samani territory. The Samani ruler of Tabristan began to oppress the people. Atroosh goaded the people of Delam to launch an offensive against Tabristan. In 301 A.H., Atroosh formed an army of the Delam people and attacked Tabristan and put to rout the ruler Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Salook and captured Tabristan.

After Atroosh, his son-in-law Hasan bin Qasim and his descendants captured and ruled over Tabristan, Jurjan, Saryah Amud and Usturabad. Their army commanders were all from Delam. Among them was Lail bin Noman whom Hasan bin Qasim had appointed the ruler of Jurjan. Lail bin Noman was killed while fighting with the Samanis in 309 A.H. After that, the Samanis led several offensives against Bani Atroosh. Those attacks were repulsed by Surkhab, a Delami general, who lost his life in the battle. Surkhab's uncle Makan Ibn Kane Delami ruled over Usturabad on behalf of Bani Atroosh.

Makan collected round him his compatriots from Delam and formed and army and brought Jurjan under his control. One of the Delamis who helped him was the famous chief Asfar bin Shairwaih Delami. Makan set up an independent government and annexed major parts of Tabristan. He got angry with Shairwaih on some issues and expelled him. He then went to Bakr bin Muhammad bin Yasi in Nishapur who was the ruler there on behalf of the Samanis.

Bakr bin Muhammad gave Asfar an army and sent him to conquer Jurjan. Makan lived in Tabristan and his brother Abul Hasan bin Kani was made the ruler there. Abu Ali bin Atroosh was also there and he had no territory to rule over. One day Abu Ali had a deadly opportunity and killed Abul Hasan and the Delami army, which was stationed at Jurjan, took the oath for Abu Ali. Abu Ali then deputed Ali bin Khursheed Delami as ruler of Jurjan.

At this time, Asfar with an army from the Samanis reached near to Jurjan. Ali bin Khursheed wrote to Asfar: "Instead of invading us why don't you join us and attack Makan who is in Tabristan? Asfar sought Bakr bin Muhammad's permission and he agreed.

When Makan bin Kani found out, he took an army from Tabristan and marched to Jurjan. Ali bin Khursheed and Asfar put up a joint resistance and put him to rout and captured Tabristan. Shortly after that both Ali bin Khursheed and Abu Ali bin Atroosh died and Asfar ruled over Tabristan without facing any resistance. Makan took this opportunity and attacked Asfar and gained control over Tabristan. Asfar went to Bakr bin Muhammad in Jurjan.

When Bakr bin Muhammad died in 315 A.H., the Samani ruler deputed Asfar to administer Jurjan. Among Asfar's commanders was Mardawih whom he gave an army and sent him to invade Tabristan. Makan arrayed his forces but lost the battle and Mardawih captured Tabristan. Makan fled and went to Atrooch's son-in-law, Hasan bin Qasim in Rayy.

Having gained control over Tabristan and Jurjan, Asfar introduced in the Friday sermon the name of the ruler of Khorasan and Mawaraunnahr, Nasr bin Ahmad bin Saman. Then he went to Rayy and liberated it. Makan became a landless and went to the mountains of Tabristan. Asfar's rule over the provinces of Rayy, Qazween, Zanjan, Abharqam and Karkh was firmly established and he governed this vast territory very successfully. Asfar decided to be an independent ruler so he revolted against the Samani King and declared his independence.

Hearing this Caliph Muqtadir gave an army to Haroon bin Ghuraib and sent him to take these territories from Asfar but Haroon was defeated. Then Nasr bin Ahmad Samani left Bukhara with an army to punish Asfar. Asfar begged to be excused and promised to pay the taxes. Nasr granted his petition for amnesty and allowed him to retain the Province of Rayy while Nasr returned to Bukhara.

Mardawih, one of Asfar's commanders persuaded other commanders to join him and rebel. He killed Asfar, annexed Hamadan and Isfahan and began to rule over that territory. He called Makan bin Kani and deputed him to govern Tabristan and Jurjan. Then he deposed Makan. Makan went to Delam, collected a group of fighters and invaded Tabristan but was defeated by Mardawih and he fled to Nishapur.

In 319 A.H., Mardawih decided to secure the recognition of his conquered territories from the Abbasid Caliph. He therefore sent an application to the Caliph's court to grant him the letter of governorship of the territories he held in exchange for the payment of two hundred thousand dinars annually. The Caliph granted the application and sent the letter of authorization and gave him another landed estate on his own accord. In 320 A.H., Mardawih called his brother Dashmagir from Gilan. In Dashmagir's territory Abu Shuja Buwayh's three sons were in charge of the boats in that area and it is because of them that these details are being given.

Abu Shuja Buwayh Delami was a very poor fisherman. He eked out his living by catching fish. One night he dreamed that he squatted down to urinate and a flame came out of his penis, which spread and lit the whole world. He interpreted that his descendents would be kings of the area covered by the light. Then three sons were born to him Ali, Hasan and Ahmad. Because these three brothers made much progress later on and chose for their titles Imaduddaulah, Ruknuddaulah and Muizzuddaulah as respectable rulers, some linked their lineage to the King of Iran, Yazd Jurd and some called them the descendants of Bahram Gaur. People generally try to attach wealth and kingship to nobility of birth and sycophants generally prove most useful in connecting power to an impressive family tree.

The act of the three sons of Buwayh the fisherman acquiring wealth and becoming rulers and then linking their lineage to the Iranian kings is not unusual but their real origins are as stated.

When Makan bin Kani recruited the inhabitants of Delam into his army, Buwayh's three sons were amongst them. When Makan met with failure, most of his men went over to Mardawih. Mardawih granted them great honor and appointed them to higher posts than they really deserved, Buwayh's three sons also benefited from this. By virtue of their service, alertness and skill they endeared themselves to him, Mardawih deputed Ali bin Buwayh to rule over Karkh. His younger brothers Hasan and Ahmad also went with him. At that time, Rayy was ruled over by Mardawih's brother Dashmagir. Dashmagir had made Husain bin Muhammad known as Umaid his minister. When Ali bin Buwayh arrived in Rayy, he called on Umaid and presented him with a mule. Then he went to Karkh and began to rule.

When Mardawih was informed of the meeting between Ali bin Buwayh and Umaid and the presentation of the mule, a doubt crossed his mind thinking that the chiefs coming from Makan, who were given good posts and made rulers of cities, might conspire against him and become a problem. Therefore, he wrote to his brother Dashmagir to arrest all those who came from Makan and who were assigned to govern the cities there. Some were arrested but Ali bin Buwayh who had occupied Karkh was not arrested for fear of possible riots.

Ali bin Buwayh captured several forts in the vicinity of Karkh and whatever money and goods he collected in booty he distributed among his soldiers. This endeared him to them. Respect for him and his influence began to rise. In 321 A.H., Mardawih released all those who were under house arrest in Rayy. All of them went to Ali bin Buwayh in Karkh and he honored them.

During the same period a Delami chief, Sherzad, along with a group visited Ali bin Buwayh and induced him to invade Isfahan. When Mardawih found out that all the Delamis had gathered around Ali bin Buwayh, he wrote to send him all the chiefs who had been released. Ali bin Buwayh refused to comply with the order and began to make preparations to invade Isfahan in coalition with Sherzad. Isfahan was being ruled over by Mozaffar bin Yaqut and Abu Ali bin Rustam. Both of them were angry with the Caliph and had rebelled against him.

Ali bin Buwayh invaded Isfahan and put Mozaffar bin Yaqut to rout. Abu Ali bin Rustam died and Ali bin Buwayh gained control over Isfahan. This news plunged Mardawih into a deep anxiety because by then Ali bin Buwayh's power had grown considerably. He sent his brother Dashmagir with an army to Isfahan to punish and discipline Ali bin Buwayh. After receiving this information, Ali left Isfahan and captured Jurjan. This occurred in Thul Hijjah 321 A.H.

Dashmagir captured Isfahan but then handed over Isfahan to Mozaffar bin Yaqut to govern it. Ali bin Buwayh sent his brother Hasan to Gazroon to collect the taxes. He came across Muzaffar bin Yaqut's army on way and defeated it. He collected the taxes and returned to his brother.

Ali bin Buwayh set out towards Astakhar. Ibn Yaqut chased him with a big army and challenged him to fight. They fought and Ali bin Buwayh's brother Ahmad showed extraordinary valor. Muzaffar bin Yaqut lost and retreated to Wasit. Ali bin Buwayh came to Shiraz and captured it and the whole of Iran came under his control. The soldiers whose number had now considerably increased demanded their salaries. Ali did not have enough money to meet their requirements. In a pensive mood, he lay down on the roof of a house. A snake fell off the roof. He ordered the house to be pulled down. When they started demolishing it, boxes full of gold were found. He distributed all the gold among his soldiers. He sent for a tailor to have some new clothes made. The guards brought a tailor who thought he was being arrested. Immediately he said, "I have nothing except a few boxes that I am holding for someone and I have not opened them and do not know their contents." Those boxes were brought and they were found to contain gold coins. Ali bin Buwayh confiscated them too. All this wealth had been left by Muzaffar bin Yaqut who could not carry it with him. By luck during the same period, he discovered the accumulated treasure of the kings of the Saffar Dynasty, which totaled five hundred thousand red dinars.

During the same period, one day he was riding on horseback and the horse's legs sank into the ground. He had the horse's legs dug out and a treasure was found there. In this way, he accumulated a huge treasury and began to rule over Iran very successfully and continued increasing his power rivaling Mardawih and he became a source of great danger for him.

Caliph Muqtadir’s Turmoil, Qaramata’s Rebellion and the Desecration of the Ka'bah

2026-11-01T00:51:00.865-07:00

The Oath for the Heir to the Throne

In 301 A.H., Muqtadir declared as heir to the throne his 4-year-old son Abul Abbas first with his title Qahir Billah. He then made him Governor of Egypt and the Western territories and sent him to Egypt under tutelage of his servant Munis.

The same year Hasan bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Omer bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Abi Talib who was known as Atroosh, captured the province of Tabristan. Atroosh worked hard inviting the people of Tabristan and Delam to Islam, the people of these regions embraced Islam by virtue of his sermons and this increased his power until he was able to captured Tabristan.

Atroosh was a Shiite by religion and those who became Muslims due to his efforts took it as their faith. The administrators of Khorasan invaded Tabristan and killed Atroosh in 304 A.H.

In 302 A.H., Obaidullah Mahdi sent his General Khafasha Katami to invade Alexandria. Munis who had already reached Egypt fought against him. After several fierce battles, Mahdi's army retreated and fled back to their territory losing 7,000 men.

In 307 A.H., Obaidullah Mahdi gave a big army to his son Abul Qasim and sent him to launch an attack on Egypt. In suffered defeat at the hands of Munis he returned after many of their commanders were captured.

The same year the Roman king made peace with Muqtadir Billah and in order to strengthen the ties of friendship sent his ambassadors to Baghdad for whose reception grand arrangements were made. In 308 A.H., Obaidullah's army captured a part of Egypt.

Qaramata's Upheaval in Iraq

A group of Qaramata's followers had taken possession of Bahrain as has been stated above. One night in 311 A.H., Qaramata's commander Abu Tahir Sulaiman bin Abi Sayeed Janani, supported by 1,700 men, invaded Basra. By putting ladders against the walls of the city they climbed over them killed the guards, opened the city gate and began a general massacre.

When the Governor of Basra, Subuk Muflihi, got the news, he came out to face them but was killed by Qaramata. Abu Tahir captured Basra, stayed there for 17 days, looted cash and goods, captured women and children and left for Hajar on the 18th day. Caliph Muqtadir heard about this disaster, gave the letter of Governorship to Muhammad bin Abdullah Farooqi and sent him there. Muhammad bin Abdullah reached there after Abu Tahir had left.

In 312 A.H., Abu Tahir took an army and looted the caravans of the pilgrims returning from Makkah and captured Abul Hija bin Hamdani and Muqtadir Billah's maternal uncle Ahmad bin Badr who were with those caravans.

He released them after a few days and demanded the city of Ahwaz. When Caliph Muqtadir refused, Abu Tahir re-started looting the caravans. He sent an army, which was defeated by Abu Tahir. He chased them up to Kufa and after capturing it, stayed there for six days and returned to Hajar with a huge quantity of cash and goods.

No one dared to perform Hajj for fear of Qaramata in 313 A.H. In 314 A.H., Caliph Muqtadir recalled Yusuf bin Abu Saj from Azerbaijan and made him the ruler of the eastern countries and asked him to fight against Abu Tahir and the Qaramata. There was no confrontation that year. In Ramadan 315 A.H., Abu Tahir along with his army went to Kufa. Yusuf left Wasit to save Kufa but Abu Tahir reached Kufa a day earlier and captured it. Yusuf came and started a battle. His army was defeated by Abu Tahir and retreated. Yusuf was wounded and captured. Abu Tahir deputed a physician for his treatment.

When the news reached Baghdad, Caliph sent Munis. Abu Tahir had left for Ain Tamr before Munis reached there. Abu Tahir left Kufa, captured Ambar and put the army to rout. Finally, Nasr Hajib left Baghdad, joined Munis and with 40,000 soldiers attacked the Qaramata but they were defeated. Abu Tahir killed Yusuf who was in captivity.

This defeat sent shock waves throughout Baghdad. The people began to leave for safer places. In the beginning, Abu Tahir left Ambar, looted Rahba and for one day and one night, he declared the killings of the people of Rahba as lawful.

The inhabitants of Qarqisya watched the horrible sight of the massacre and begged for amnesty, which was granted by Abu Tahir. He then sent military units to various areas to launch night attacks. After three days of continued fighting, he conquered Riqqah and was firmly established in the province of Jazirah. Armies left Baghdad to fight with him but in vain.

In 316 A.H., Qaramata went to Hajar. Then after a few days, they caused terror in Sawad, Wasit and Ain Tamr. Caliph Muqtadir deputed Haroon bin Ghuraib, Safi Basri and Ibn Qais to punish them. Qaramata's groups were vanquished and they fled and peace was restored there.

Roman Tyranny

In 314 A.H., the Romans conquered Lamtiyah. In 315 A.H., they captured Dimyat, plundered the city and had the horn sounded in the central mosque (the horn being and insult). The same year the inhabitants of Delam invaded Rayy and Gibal and killed thousands of men, the Romans captured Khalat, removed the place for giving the sermon from the grand mosque and put a cross in its place and made it into a Church.

Deposition and Restoration of Muqtadir

In 317 A.H., Munis alias Muzaffar deposed Muqtadir. Muqtadir wanted to appoint Haroon bin Ghuraib Hajib in place of Munis. When Munis found out, he took an army and most of the members of the government and invaded the palace, arrested Muqtadir and installed as caliph Muhammad bin Muqtadir with the title Qahir Billah. Everyone took the oath for his Caliphate and the Governors were duly informed by letter.

The next day the army created a scene because of a delay in their reward money. They went to Munis's house in search of Muqtadir, bringing him out they put him on their shoulders and took him to the palace and brought Qahir Billah to him under arrest. Seeing him Muqtadir said, "Don't be afraid. You were not at fault." The people were pacified. Then Governors were again informed that Muqtadir Billah was the Caliph as before. Muqtadir pleased them by bestowing on them gifts and honor.

Qaramata's Atrocities in Makkah

Qaramata's rule in Bahrain was firmly established. Their commander was Abu Tahir. They read the name of Obaidullah Mahdi, the ruler of Africa, in their Friday sermon and recognized him as their caliph. In 318 A.H., Abu Tahir went to Makkah with his army during the season of Hajj. Mansoor Delami was sent as leader of the pilgrimage from Baghdad. He reached Makkah safely on 8 Thul Hijjah. Abu Tahir arrived on 9 Thul Hijjah and immediately after his arrival began to slay the Hujjaj and loot their belongings.

He did not hesitate in killing people even inside the holy sanctuary of the Ka'bah and threw the dead bodies in the well of Zamzam, removed the Black Stone from the wall of the Ka'bah and broke its door.

Muhammad bin Rabi bin Sulaiman says: "I was present in Makkah during the disaster. I saw a man climb on the roof of the Ka'bah to pull down the arch. I said, O Allah! I cannot stand the sight. That man's feet slipped he fell down and died instantly." Abu Tahir looted the people of Makkah for 11 days, loaded the black stone on a camel and started for Hajr (the capital of Bahrain). 40 camels one after another died carrying the black stone between Makkah and Hajr. It remained under Qaramata's possession for 22 years. He was offered 50,000 dinars for it but he would not part with it.

At the end of Motiullah's caliphate, the black stone was taken back from him and set in the Ka'bah again. On the return journey, only a single camel carried it from Hajr to Makkah. When these atrocities and desecrations were narrated to the ruler of North Africa, Obaidullah he wrote a denunciatory letter to Abu Tahir and insisted the return the goods to the Makkans. Abu Tahir returned part of the goods but he did not return the black stone. It was not put back in its place until 339 A.H.

The Rise of the Fatimid Dynasty and Caliph Muqtadir Billah

2026-11-01T00:49:56.337-07:00

Invasions by the Turks and the Romans

In 291 A.H., the Romans with an army of 100,000 invaded the Islamic territories but they did not succeed. The border commanders put them to rout. In 293 A.H., a new group of invaders appeared, that is the Turks who lived in the northern mountains and forests of Mawaraunnahr. It was the first major attack from this side. The number of these barbaric invaders was staggering.

Ismail Samani, the governor of Mawaraunnahr, acted with courage and perseverance, collected all his forces and taught the invaders a good lesson. Thousands were killed and arrested and the remainder escaped. The same year the Romans begged the Muslims for amnesty and prisoners were exchanged as a good lesson. However, soon after this reconciliation they led a night attack on the city of Quras. Thousands of Muslims were killed and captured being caught off-guard. They burnt down the central mosque and returned to Roman territory. The same year Ismail Samani captured some parts of Delam and the territories of the Turks by force. In 294 A.H., the Muslims invaded the Roman territories from Tartoos and captured many Romans including a Prelate who willingly embraced Islam.

The Death of Muktafi Billah

After ruling for six years and six months Muktafi Billah breathed his last in Baghdad on Jamad Awwal 295 A.H. and was buried in Muhammad bin Tahir's house. He had made his brother Jafar his heir-apparent before he died. He left 15 million dinars in the treasury at the time of his death. Jafar bin Motazid was 13. After coming to the throne, he called himself Muqtadir Billah.

Muqtadir Billah

The real name of Muqtadir Billah bin Motazid Billah was Jafar and his kunya was Abul Fadl. He was born of a Roman slave girl Ghuralb. When Muktafi Billah consulted the people on his heir to the throne just before his death, they assured him that his brother Muqtadir Billah had come of age of puberty and only then did he make him his heir-apparent. Before this, no Caliph of such a young age had come to the throne. After his accession, the people began to talk about his abdication. As Prime Minister, Abbas bin Hasan's powers were great and he had been authorized to use the treasury, this caused the members of the government to be apprehensive. The Prime Minister was also not pleased at a boy assuming power. He therefore persuaded Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. While they were preparing for Muqtadir's abdication and Muhammad Motaz's accession, Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz died. Then arrangements were made to put Abul Husain bin Motawakkil on the throne but he also died. Due to his and Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz's deaths, Caliph Muqtadir's position was firmly established.

After sometime, they started gossiping again and the members of the government wanted to persuade Abdullah bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. He agreed to it provided there should be no bloodshed and all the members of the government also agreed to it. However, Prime Minister Abbas bin Hasan did not agree to it. On 20 Rabia Awwal 296 A.H. while the Prime Minister was going to his garden, he was suddenly attacked and killed. The next day the deposition of Muqtadir was announced and the oath for Abdullah bin Motaz took place. At that time, Caliph Muqtadir was playing polo. Having heard about his deposition, he went to his palace and closed the doors.

Soon after coming to the throne Abdullah bin Motaz chose Al-Murtaza Billah as his title and wrote to Muqtadir, "You will be safe if you leave the capital and give up the desire for the caliphate." Muqtadir replied: "I gladly agree to what you say but give me time until this evening."

At night, the servant Munis consulted other servants on how to create a disturbance. When Husain bin Hamdan came to the palace door in the morning, they showered arrows on him. They continued doing this until the evening. At night, others began to join Muqtadir's group. As a consequence, the new Caliph, Abdullah bin Motaz, along with some of his supporters had to go into hiding. Muqtadir then appointed Abul Hasan bin Forat as Prime Minister. Abdullah bin Mutaz was arrested and killed.

The same year in Rabia Thani 296 A.H., the oath for Obaidullah Mahdi took place in Africa and thus the Obadiah (Fatimid) dynasty was founded and the Aghlab dynasty came to an end in North Africa.

The Origin of the Obadiah (Fatimid) Dynasty

The first ruler Obaidullah Mahdi claimed to be the son of Muhammad bin Jafar bin Muhammad bin Ismail bin Jafar Sadiq. The Abbasids questioned his lineage. He in fact was originally a Zoroastrian and some have called him a Christian.

The well-known judge, Qadi Abu Bakr Baqillani, has refuted Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be from the Prophet's family or to being of a high lineage. During Caliph Qahir Billah's regime when the question of his lineage was under consideration, renowned scholars clearly denounced Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be an Alawiite. These scholars include Abul Abbas Abyuzah, Abu Hamid Asfaraini and Abu Jafar Nasfi Qudoori. Among the Alawiites Murtada Ibn Bathawi and Ibn Azraq have also called him a fraud in his claim. He was a Shiite however, the scholars of the Shiites have rebutted his claim to be an Alawi. Furthermore, Abu Abdullah Ibn Noman has also called him a liar in his claim to be an Alawi. The chief of the historians Sheikh Jalaluddin Suyuti has very emphatically proved him to be false in his claim to be of a well-known family. He has proved him to be of Zoroastrian heritage.

However, a very great scholar of history, Ibn Khaldoon has attempted to prove him to be an Alawiite. In both his introduction to history and in his history book Ibn Khaldoon has given recognition to his claim of noble lineage. However, the arguments he has offered in this respect are very unusual. He writes, "A great dynasty was established in Obaidullah's family. Had he not been an Alawi, the people would not have recognized his leadership and given away their heads under his flag."

Offering such arguments as proof of someone's noble birth is certainly not scientific and the reality is that he has not given even a single proof in this respect. As he himself was a West Acrican, naturally he does not like a western ruler to be discredited. Similarly, he exerts much effort to prove the sultanate of Idrisids of Morocco to be Alawi. He tries his level best to prove Idris II to be son of Idris I and unnecessarily brings into discussion the chastity of a Berber woman. The misunderstanding may possibly be a sin against the Imam in question.

With the beginning of Abbasid caliphate the Alwis antagonistic activities began against the administration. The Alwis rose again and again and every time they met with failure. Abdullah bin Saba, the Jew had sown the seed of discord among the people and conspiracies against the administration. Their nefarious plan was aided and abetted by the Magi, Jews, Berbers etc. who were carrying out their activities in the garb of neo-Muslims. And when Abbasid dynasty showed signs of weakness some Jews and Magis tried to present themselves as Alwis to benefit from the flowing situation. Since Berber territories were far distant from Baghdad, the centre of power due advantage could be taken of their inherent nature. Thus, a person named Muhammad Habib who lived at Salmia in Homs towards the end of the third century Hajara came on the scene as one descending from Imam Jafar Sadiq's elder son Isma'il. He tried to cash in on his relation with the Imam. Right from his time Imam Jafar Sadiq's influence had spread throghout Yemen, Africa and Morocco. He used all his means, devices and force to turn the people to expect the arrival of Imam Mahdi in immediate future who were to be from among the Alwi Fatimi. Habib sent one of his confidants Rustam bin Hasan bin Haushab to Yemen to convince people of the arrival of Imam Mahdi in near future. He performed his duty with utmost care and tact.

Following this a man named Abu Abdullah Hasan bin Muhammad bin Zakariya, a Shi'ite by faith, and a staunch support of the Alwis came to Habib. He found him promising and sent him, after necessary instructions, to keep company with Rustam bin Hasan for a few days and learn from him the art of preaching and then go to Berber territories to perform his duty. Muhammad Habib had also told Abu Abdullah that his son, Ubaidullah was Imam Mahdi and that he was being sent as one inviting people towards him. Abu Abdullah arrived in Yemen, took lesson in preaching and reached Makkah in Hajj season.

There he sought out the caravan of the Hajjis from Katama and became friendly with them. Observing how pious he was they revered and served him.

When they set out towards Africa after the Hajj, he accompanied them. They took it as an auspicious sign. Reaching Katama, they had a house built for him on Mount Ankajan, which they called Fajjul Akhyar. He told them that the Mahdi was about to appear and that he was instructed by him to stay in Katama and he had told him that his supporters would be from there. Gradually Abu Abdullah's government and leadership became established in Katama.

When the news reached Ibrahim bin Ahmad bin Aghlab, the Governor of North Africa, at the capital Qairwan, he wrote to the ruler of Melah to give him a report about Abu Abdullah. He wrote back that he was an ascetic and instructed the people to perform their prayers and observe fast. Ibrahim was silent after hearing this. After a few days Abu Abdullah armed and fortified his group and invaded Melah city, expelled the governor and captured it. Ibrahim bin Aghlab then gave an army to his son Ahwal and sent him to Melah. Abu Abdullah suffered defeat and fled to Katama and took refuge on Mount Ankajan. Ahwal left for Qairwan.

Meanwhile the ruler of North Africa, Ibrahim bin Ahmad died. His son Abul Abbas then succeeded to the throne. Abu Abdullah founded and populated a city named Darul Hajarah. Ahwal went to mount Ankajan to punish him. Meanwhile Abul Abbas died and his son Zeyadatullah came to the throne.

Zeyadatullah recalled Ahwal and killed him on some false pretext. Abu Abdullah continued to increase his power. He sent a delegation of people from Katama to Obaidullah Mahdi in Homs where he was staying. He briefed him about his victories and asked him to come to North Africa.

Some spies informed Caliph Muktafi Billah about the arrival of the delegation carrying the said message. He at once issued a warrant for the arrest of Obaidullah and wrote to the Egyptian governor Isa Naushri (then Governor of Egypt after the downfall of the Tuloons) to arrest him. [This has also been taken by Ibn Khaldoon as a proof of Obaidullah being a Sayed (from the Prophet's family), indicating that if he had not been of the Prophet's family, the caliph would not have given orders for his arrest. This is another very weak proof, any government would arrest those who desired to over throw their rule and it is not evidence as to the heritage of any conspirator.] The rulers of the Aghlab dynasty recognized the leadership of the Abbasid caliphate and read the name of the Abbasid Caliph in the Friday sermons. They bordered Egypt so how could Muktafi stand the creation of any major disturbance in North Africa with out responding?

Obaidullah left Homs with his son and his supporters. He disguised himself as a merchant and joined a commercial caravan. He was caught in Egypt but Naushri released him based on incomplete information. He passed through Egypt and entered North Africa. Zeyadatullah's spies were after him but he managed to conceal himself from them until he reached Sijilmassa. The administrator of the place caught him and jailed him along with his son. Zeyadatullah was drowned in debauchery and neglected state administration and consequently Abu Abdullah the Shiite's power continued to increase and nothing was done to deter him. When Zeyadatullah saw that Abu Abdullah the Shiite had captured the major parts of North Africa and continued to do so, he collected a huge army and sent it to punish him.

Abu Abdullah could not stand the pressure of such a huge army and climbed up the peak of a high mountain. He remained besieged there for six months. In the seventh month, he led a successful night attack on the North African army and put it to rout and then began to conquer city after city. Zeyadatullah then sent another commander to fight against him but he was defeated. In 295 A.H. after making special arrangements, he sent his armies and Generals to discipline Abu Abdullah however, he had already established his power. For a year the chain of battles continued. Sometimes Abu Abdullah was defeated and sometimes he defeated the African army. During this period, Abu Abdullah's group kept multiplying and people kept on joining him while Zeyadatullah's army was becoming smaller. One city after another continued to come under Abu Abdullah's control until Zeyadatullah's army commanders started joining him. Urwah bin Yusuf and Hasan bin Abi Khazir joined him and were appointed to important posts. In Rajab 296 A.H., Abu Abdullah captured the capital Qairwan and put Zeyadatullah to rout and let the people of Katama stay in the royal palaces. He then invaded Sijilmassa, defeated the Governor Yasa' bin Madar, captured and killed him. He then took Obaidullah Mahdi out of the jail and put him on a horse and went to the army camp declaring to all, "This is your leader," referring to the Mahdi. He then left and came to the city of Rafadah. Abu Abdullah and all others took the oath for Obaidullah and called him Al-Mahdi Amir al-Muminin. This oath took place in the last ten days of Rabia Thani 296 A.H. and it marks the beginning of the Obadiah dynasty (Fatimids).

Soon after coming to the throne, Obaidullah Mahdi sent his missionaries to every corner of the territory. Those who refused to accept his religion were killed. He gave feudal estates and important posts to the people of Katama. He sent Hasan bin Abl Khazir to Sicily as its ruler. He reached there on 10 Thul Hijjah 297 A.H. and made all the subjects of the island hate him because of his tyranny.

He began to appoint governors and administrators in the whole of North Africa. In 299 A.H., the people of Sicily sent a letter to Obaidullah Mahdi complaining against Hasan bin Abi Khazir. He sent Ali bin Omar as Governor in his place. The civilians were displeased with him too. They deposed him and chose Ahmad bin Mohib as their leader. Ahmad bin Mohib induced the people to obey the Abbasid Caliph Muqtadir Billah. He expunged Mahdi's name from the Friday sermon and entered Muqtadir's name in his place and sent a war fleet to the North African coast.

Obaidullah Mahdi sent a war fleet under Husain bin Ali bin Khazir's command to defend the coast. The fleets clashed and Ibn Khazir had killed and Obaidullah Mahdi's fleet was destroyed by the ships from Sicily.

When the news reached Baghdad, Caliph Muqtadir dispatched black robes and flags to Ahmad bin Mohib and for one year the name of the Abbasid Caliph was read in the Friday sermon in Sicily. Obaidullah Mahdi prepared a powerful war fleet and sent it to Sicily, which broke Ahmad bin Mohib's power. The people of Sicily arrested him and sent him along with his men to Obaidullah Mahdi and he begged for forgiveness. Obaidullah Mahdi ordered Ahmad bin Mohib and his men to be taken to Ibn Khazir grave and killed. This occurred in 300 A.H.

Caliph Muktafi Billah: Defeat of the Qaramata, Fall of the Tuloon Dynasty and Rise of Banu Hamdan

2026-11-01T00:48:19.344-07:00

Death of Motazid Billah

In 289 A.H., Caliph Motazid died of overindulgence in sex. He suffered from a number of diseases. While the doctor was feeling his pulse, Motazid kicked him so hard that the doctor was knocked down and died. Motazid breathed his last at the same moment.

Motazid was survived by 4 sons and 11 daughters. Motazid died at the end of Rabia Awwal 289 A.H.

Muktafi Billah

The first name of Muktafi Billah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq Billah bin Motawakkil Alallah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed was Ali and his kunya was Abu Muhammad. He was born of a Turk slave girl the named Jeejak. There have been only two Caliphs bearing the name Ali, one Ali (RA) and the other Muktafi Billah. Motazid Billah had made him his heir-apparent.

When Motazid died, Muktafi was in Riqqah and Badr the slave was in Iran. Prime Minister Qasim bin Obaidullah took the oath from the people in the name of Muktafi and sent the information to him in Riqqah. Muktafi entered Baghdad on 7 Jumad Awwal and gave Prime Minister Qasim seven royal robes. Muktafi was just, even tempered and handsome, minister Qasim bin Obaidullah did not want any of Muktafi's sons to be Caliph Motazid's he wanted somebody else from the Abbasids to follow Muktafi.

Badr objected and his opposition made the minister give up the idea. When Muktafi came to the throne, he thought that if Badr informed the Caliph of his intention, the Caliph would turn against him. He made a plan to misguide the Caliph before Badr's arrival. He called all the leaders who were with Badr in Iran. When Badr left Iran and came to Wasit, the minister sent an army to Wasit. Badr wanted to present himself to the Caliph and prove his innocence. The minister made the Caliph extremely angry with Badr and consequently he was killed before he entered Baghdad.

Badr was very wise, brave and was a good manager. His murder was unjust like the murder of Harsima bin Ayun that took place during the early period of Mamoon Rasheed's caliphate. Muhammad Haroon, a rebel chief of Ismail Samani, captured Rayy and Caliph Muktafi sent an army, which was routed by Muhammad bin Haroon. Then Caliph Muktafi Billah gave authority over Rayy to Ismail Samani and he captured Rayy. Muhammad Haroon was defeated and fled he was later captured and Ismail Samani put him in jail where he died in Shaban 290 A.H.

Qaramata's Attack on Syria

It has been stated above that Qaramata and his followers had captured Bahrain. Then they surfaced in Kufa but they were defeated there. Qaramata then went to Damascus and repeatedly defeated the governor of Damascus named Tafaj and then besieged the city. Qaramata's tyranny in Damascus forced Muktafi Billah to leave Baghdad and go to Riqqah this occurred in 290 A.H. Commander Muhammad bin Sulaiman, was given an army and sent to Damascus to punish Qaramata. Muhammad bin Sulaiman fought with Qaramata valiantly. The commander of Qaramata Abul Qasim Yahya known as Zakarrya was caught on 6 Muharram 291 A.H. Many of Qaramata's men were killed and captured and the rest fled. Zakarrya was brought as a captive to Muktafi in Riqqah who had him killed.

After Zakarrya's capture, his brother Husain collected the Qaramata and created unrest. He was also killed. Husain Qaramati called himself Amir al-Muminin Mahdi. His cousin Isa chose Mudassir as his title and gave the impression that the Quranic verse Mudassir referred to his name. In short, in 291 A.H., all of them were killed one by one and thus this evil in Syria was put to an end. However, Qaramata went to Yemen and created trouble there.

The End of Bani Tuloon in Egypt

When Muktafi was free from the war with Qaramata, he left Riqqah and went to Baghdad. The greater part of Syria was included in the jurisdiction of Haroon bin Khomarwaih bin Ahmad bin Tuloon. Neither the Caliph nor Muhammad bin Sulaiman had a mind to fight with him. The movement of the Caliph and dispatching his forces were not only for the sake of protecting his government but also for supporting the king of Egypt, Haroon. Muhammad bin Sulaiman was originally a working leader of the Tuloon dynasty but due to some grievance, he went over to the Caliph's side. On the way to Baghdad, he received a letter from Badr Hamami who was a slave of Haroon bin Khomarwaih.

Badr Hamami had written: "At this time the sultanate of Bani Tuloon is in a shambles. It has become weak and is disintegrating. If you come here with your forces and invade Egypt, I am ready to help you with my men."

Muhammad Sulaiman went to Baghdad with the letter and gave it to Caliph Muktafi. He gave Muhammad bin Sulaiman an army and sent him to Egypt. Muhammad Sulaiman reached there and began a chain of battles.

Badr Hamami sided with Muhammad Sulaiman. Haroon bin Khomarwaih was killed and Muhammad Sulaiman conquered Egypt. All the members of Tuloon dynasty were arrested and sent to Baghdad. This occurred in Safar in 292 A.H. Isa Naushri was made governor by the Caliph and sent to Egypt. Muhammad bin Sulaiman handed over the authority to him and returned to Baghdad. Meanwhile one of the chiefs friendly to Bani Tuloon, general Ibrahim Khilji dethroned Isa Naushri, and captured Egypt. An army was sent from Baghdad, which suffered defeat at first but later Ibrahim was defeated and arrested and sent to jail in Baghdad. The same year the Caliph gave Mozaffar bin Hajj the Governorship of Yemen and sent him there to quell the uproar created by Qaramata.

Bani Hamdan

In 292 A.H., Caliph Muktafi gave the governorship of Mousil and to Abul Hija Abdullah bin Hamdan bin Hamdoon Adwi Taghlibe. He arrived in Mousil in Muharram 293 A.H. Soon after his arrival, the Kurds revolted. Abul Hija left Egypt with an army to confront them but was defeated. He went to Mousil and asked the Caliph for reinforcements. The army was sent and in Rabia Awwal 294 A.H. Abul Hija attacked the Kurds. They were terrified and took refuge in the Saleeq Mountains. The siege and fighting continued for a long period. Eventually, the Kurdish leader Muhammad bin Hilal begged for amnesty, which was granted. Abul Hija established his superiority over the entire province and all the Kurds became obedient, he then revolted against the caliph. The caliph at this time was Muqtadir, who sent his servant Munis against him. He arrested Abul Hija and brought him to Baghdad. He was excused and began to live in Baghdad. Abul Hija and his brother Husain along with their other relatives were then arrested and sent to jail. They were released in 305 A.H.

Reforms, Military Campaigns and the Rise of the Qaramata Revolt

2026-11-01T00:47:31.125-07:00

Motazid Billah

The real name of Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq Billah bin Motawakkil Alallah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed was Ahmad. His kunya was Abul Abbas. He was born of a slave girl named Sawab in Rabia Awwal 243 A.H. and after his uncle Motamid Billah he came to the throne in Rajab 279 A.H. He was a handsome and wise man. He did not evade strictness and bloodshed if needed. He was careful and discerning. He was inimical to astrologers and storytellers. Philosophy had been in vogue since Mamoon's times. Motazid banned the publication of books on philosophy and debate in order to avoid religious strife and conflict that the society had become prone to. He reduced the taxes on his subjects. He loved justice and protected the people from being subjected to injustice and tyranny.

The building of Dar An-Nadwah in Makkah had survived until this time. Motazid had it demolished and built a mosque near the Haram. The majority of the people who were originally Zoroastrian introduced celebrating their old holidays and performed certain rites concerning the lighting of their religious fires in Baghdad. Motazid strictly banned it. He set up an office of religious affairs and gave money to the poor religious ascetics. The people prayed for him. He married the daughter of the Governor of Egypt Khumarwaih bin Ahmad Tuloon.

Once Motazid sent word to Qadi Abu Hazim. "You have managed to recover a certain persons money from another party. That same party owes something to me. Please have it returned to me." The Qadi sent the following reply, "If you present a witness you will also have a decree in your favor." Motazid's witnesses refused to stand witness on his behalf finally the Qadi declared his case void and Motazid the Caliph could not get back his money. He had come to the throne at a very critical and bad time in the Abbasid dynasty. He tried his best to improve the degenerating condition of the Abbasids. Some signs of improvement began to be visible but his successors didn't have the ability to maintain the pace of progress.

Shortly after he came to the throne, Nasr bin Ahmad bin Asad Samani died and he was succeeded by his brother Ismail bin Ahmad Samani as the governor of Mawaraunnahr. Two groups of the Khwarij were at war in the region of Mousil. The leader of one group Abu Jauzah was brought to Baghdad in 280 A.H. as a captive. Motazid tortured him to death. The leader of the other group Haroon Shari remained rebellious. In 280 A.H., Motazid invaded Jazirah, punished and disciplined the tribe of Bani Shaiban and returned to Baghdad with a large quantity of spoils of war.

Motazid appointed his slave Badr as Chief of Police and Obaidullah bin Sulaiman bin Wahab his minister in 281 A.H. Motazid caught Hamdan bin Hamdoon who had captured the fort of Mardeen and established a friendship with Haroon Shari. The Caliph then had the fort leveled to the ground.

In 281 A.H., Caliph Motazid deputed his son Ali, known as Muktafi, to rule over Rayy, Qazween, Zanjan, Qom and Jadan. In Rabia Awwal 283 A.H., Caliph Motazid arrived near to Mousil and succeeded in destroying the Khwarij. He arrested and jailed Haroon and returned to Baghdad. He made a public display of Haroon and had him killed. In 285 A.H., he invaded Azerbaijan, conquered the fort of Amad, arrested Ahmad bin Isa bin Sheikh and went back to Baghdad in Rabia'Awwal 286 A.H.

Qaramata's Revolt

In 281 A.H., one of Qaramat's followers, Yahya bin Mahdi, arrived at Qateef near Dammam and Bahrain and lodged at Ali bin Moalla bin Hamdan's house and said, "I have been sent by the Mahdi the leader of our time. He is about to revolt very soon."

Ali was a Shiite. He collected all the Shiites and read to them the Mahdi's letter brought by Yahya. They very sincerely promised to revolt at the appearance of Mahdi. Then Yahya disappeared for a few days and when he returned, he presented another letter written by the Mahdi instructing everyone to pay 36 dinars each to Yahya. The Shiites at once complied. Yahya again came after a few days with a third letter from the Mahdi instructing them to contribute one fifth of their money to Yahya.

In 286 A.H., Abu Sayeed Janani went to Bahrain and openly invited the people to accept Qaramata's religion. Those who had already accepted it secretly began to assemble under its flag openly. Abu Sayeed took all of them to Qateef where he prepared and fully armed them and set out for Basra. When Motazid was informed of all these incidents, he wrote to the governor of Basra, Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Yahya Wasqi, "Have a wall constructed around the city." It was completed at the cost of 14,000 dinars.

When Abu Sayeed reached the vicinity of Basra, Abbas bin Omar Ghanwi arrived from the capital Baghdad with 2,000 men to defend Basra. They fought and Abu Sayeed captured Abbas and the men with him, his men were thrown into a fire and burnt to ashes. This occurred in Shaban 287 A.H.

Abu Sayeed Qaramati left Basra after this victory and went to Hajr. He gave amnesty to the civilians and captured it and then went to Basra. The people of Basra were extremely terrified. The Governor of the city Ahmad bin Muhammad Wasqi consoled and pacified them. Abu Sayeed released Abbas from captivity, left Basra and went to Bahrain. In 288 A.H., a man named Abul Qasim Yahya, known as Zikrwaih bin Mehrwaih, went to Kufa. The tribe of Qalees bin Zamzam bin Adi became inclined to the religion of Qaramata. Slowly the number of its followers began to multiply.

A chief named Shibl attacked them. The fight saw the arrest of a commander of Qaramata, Abul Fawaris. The remainder fled to Damascus. Shibl sent Abul Fawaris to caliph Motazid in Baghdad who had him killed. Qaramata went to Damascus to try to win the people over to him. At the time, the governor of Egypt was Tafaj. He fought with Qaramata several times and each time the Qaramata was victorious. This happened in 289 A.H. The remaining details about Qaramata will follow later in the narrative.

In 286 A.H., Caliph Motazid bestowed on his son Ali, whose future title would be Muktafi, the governorship of Jazirah and Awasim. He recalled Hasan bin Amr Nasrani and made him his minister.

In 288 A.H., Tahir bin Muhammad bin Amr bin Laith Saffar collected an army and wanted to capture Iran but Ismail Samani warned him saying, "If you have a mind to attack this province, I shall come." Tahir stopped. However, Caliph Motazid's slave Badr conquered Iran.

After the minister Obaidullah bin Sulaiman bin Wahab's death, Caliph Motazid made his son Abul Qasim the Prime Minister. During Caliph Motazid regime the Muslims invaded Rome in 285 A.H. and 287 A.H. Sometimes the Romans were victorious and sometimes the Muslims.

Roman Wars, Abbasid Decline and the Rise of Independent Dynasties

2026-11-01T00:46:39.108-07:00

The Roman War

The Romans have not been mentioned during the discussion of this turbid period of Motamid's Caliphate. In 257 A.H. Saqalabi, a relative of the king of Constantinople, Michael bin Rafael, killed him and usurped the throne. In 259 A.H., the Romans invaded Maltiya but were defeated. In 263 A.H., they captured the fort of Karkarah, adjacent to Tartoos, from the Muslims. In 264 A.H., Abdullah Rasheed bin Kroos invaded Roman territory with 40,000 Syrian border troops. In the initial stage he was successful but later was captured and sent to Constantinople.

In 265 A.H., the Romans led an attack on Ain Ofa, 400 Muslim were martyred and 400 were captured. The same year the Roman emperor freed Abdullah bin Rasheed and sent him with a few volumes of the Qur'an to Ahmad bin Tuloon as gifts. In 266 A.H., the war ships of the Muslims and the Romans clashed with each other at a place adjacent to the Island of Saqliya. The Muslims lost and the Romans captured several of their boats. The remaining ships took shelter on the coast of Saqiliya.

Ahmad bin Tuloon's Syrian deputy launched a successful attack on Rome and captured a large amount of spoils of war. In 270 A.H., the Romans numbering 100,000 attacked Qalmiya, situated at a distance of 6 miles from Tartoos. The Governor of Tartoos, Mazyar, launched a night attack on the Romans and 70,000 of them were killed. The Chief Prelate was captured and their Great Cross also came into the Muslim's possession. In 273 A.H., the governor of Tartoos, Mazyar, attacked the Romans and returned victorious. In 278 A.H., Mazyar and Ahmad Jofi jointly invaded the Roman Empire. During the battle, Mazyar was hit on the head by a stone from a catapult. He stopped the fight and started to return to the capital but died on way. The Muslims buried him at Tartoos. Although there was a great upheaval in the Islamic world and civil wars had broken out all over, the Romans failed to score any major success against the Muslims.

Motamid's Death

Caliph Motamid Alallah bin Motawakkil Alallah died on 20 Rajab 270 A.H. and was buried at Samarra, the capital of the Abbasid Caliph since Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed shifted there. Motamid left Samarra and chose to live in Baghdad, which then became the capital. It was due to this change of capital that the Turk chiefs who dominated over the Caliph and his court lost their power suddenly. This shifting of the capital was the idea of Motamid's wise brother Mowaffaq.

During Motamid's regime, the powers of the government and its wealth had declined. The members of the government as described, dissented, hated and opposed one another openly. All the occupied territories were in a shambles and there were riots and anarchy everywhere. The people had lost the fear of the Caliph's authority. Whoever found an opportunity usurped the territory he could. The governors of the provinces stopped sending taxes. There was total lawlessness all over. Whoever captured a territory would introduce his own law.

Atrocities began to be perpetrated upon the people and the governors subjected them to all sorts of harassments with impunity.

Banu Saman established their government in Mawaraunnahr, Banu Saffar in Sajistan, Kerman, Khorasan and Persia. Hasan bin Zaid in Tabristan and Jurjan, the rebel slaves in Basra, uballa and Wasit, the Khwarij in Mousil and Jazirah, Ahmad bin Tuloon in Egypt and Syria and Ibn Aghlab in North Africa. Besides these, there were other minor chiefs who were busy fighting trying to capture smaller territories and states. The only symbol of the Caliph that remained was that they mentioned his name in the Friday sermon but none of his orders were complied with. Mowaffaq spent all his energy and life in fighting riots and disturbances but except for the extermination of the rebel slaves, he failed to achieve any other significant success.

It was at that time that the criminals like Qaramata made their advances. Similarly during the same period Obaidullah bin Obaid who descended from the Egyptian kings and the Shiites of Yemen, claimed to be the Mahdi (a future Muslim leader that was spoken of by the Prophet ﷺ). He took the majority of the members of the Banu Kenana tribe and went to the western territories where in stages, he found an independent government in Egypt and the rest of North Africa. During the same period, the well-known Islamic scholars and Muhaddith like Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Abu Daud, Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah died. In short, 23 years of Motamid's caliphate passed in this state of disintegration, distress and disappointment.

Comment

Nearly 150 years have passed since the Caliphate of Banu Abbas ended. The Abbasid caliphate began with 100 years of grandeur and progress. The signs of decline started appearing with the death of Motasim Billah in 272 A.H. Inauspicious days befell the caliphate and for 20 years, the negative impact continued until Motawakkil Alallah's murder. During this period it was expected that the Abbasid caliphate would bring back its 100 years of lost glory and power but with Motawakkil Alallah's murder in 247 A.H. their abilities suddenly became paralyzed leaving no chance for restoration. We have studied the 22-year period of aging. The caliphate survived for several hundred years more in this debilitated form. Many different centers of Islamic rule were established. The caliphate of Baghdad or the Abbasid Caliphate retained its glory but little and it was not to be a serious power again.

With the given circumstances if the remainder of the Abbasid Caliphate is dealt with in the same detail as we have dealt with it up to this point in history, the readers' interest in history will evaporate and they will feel unnecessarily and mentally burdened. Brevity has been maintained and in the rest of the narrative, our concentration will be on the important events. At this point in the narrative many new lineages and new dynasties of rulers are emerging and to record them parallel to each other is difficult. However, their beginnings and how they came to assume power in relation to their connection to the Abbasids is important and will be referred to in their proper places.

The greatest mistake of Banu Umayyah was that it provided the way to ruin by introducing hereditary succession and got the Muslims habituated to this evil practice. Similarly, the fault of Banu Abbas is no less than that of Banu Umayyah. They effaced every object of Banu Umayyah and demolished and leveled to the ground all their memorials. However, they fully protected the evil practice of hereditary succession and hastened the Muslim's ruin.

The second major error they committed was that right from their very beginning they opposed the Arabs and sympathized with the new Muslims from Iran who were still subject to the prejudices of their culture. From the first Caliph Saffah to Mamoon Rasheed each caliph except Mahdi reduced the power of the Arabs and goaded and pushed ahead those still enamored with the Zoroastrian religion with the result that the Abbasids were unable to expand beyond the circle of victories set by Banu Umayyah and gradually that area of their authority continued to shrink.

Only a few of the former Zoroastrians grasped the real glory and morality of Islam. The other descendants of the Zoroastrians created many problems and hardships for the Abbasid caliphs but the wise and farsighted of them succeed in overcoming these problems.

Motasim Billah organized the Turks of Mawaraunnahr as a new group in the balance of power. Their national and racial heritage was different than the Khorasanis. His plan would have proved effective if he had not made the Turks more powerful than the Khorasanis and had made the Arabs equal to them in power. However, the Arab's relation with the Abbasids continued to be diminished. Motasim Billah's shifting of the capital to the Turkish village Samarra proved a great boon to the progress of the Turks. He preferred them probably because they were free from the influence of the Alawiites. The Abbasids, who were Arabs, hated the Arabs simply because the Alawiites were Arabs. These Alawiites influence on the Zoroastrian Iranians whom the Banu Abbas used and counted on was great. This continuously led to conflicts and deception. Distancing himself from these two groups, Motasim selected a third group historically free these machinations. However, the Turks unlike the Iranians were not cultured or well versed in statecraft. They needed a strong and alert hand to control them and use them to their best advantage.

Had there been even a few leaders with the heart and faith of Haroon and Mamoon, the glory of the caliphate of the Abbasids would have gone higher. Motasim was wise enough to make Samarra the capital but coupled with the weakness of his successors and the diminished Arabic element, created many problems, which his successors could not remedy. The Turks were nomadic fighters without vision. They could neither establish their own government nor did they turn to the Alawiites to establish a dynasty. The Alawiites had removed themselves from open contention for the Caliphate after becoming tired and frustrated with their failures. There was no clear apprehension of any real danger to the caliphate of the Abbasids from them.

After Motasim when commotion and turmoil erupted in the land, the Alawiites had a far-reaching impact on all the provinces and all the governors and administrators throughout the Islamic territories and they became busy establishing their own separate and independent governments.

The examples of Andalusia, Morocco and North Africa were clearly known by all. With the failure of the heart, the circulation of blood to all the organs of the body stopped. Observing the independence and lawlessness of the Governors and administrators the Alawiites, Khwarij, rebel slaves, Qaramatis and others geared up to take a chance to establish their own governments. The conditions deteriorated to such an extent that even a Mansoor or Haroon could probably not have succeeded. Motawakkil's murder was the blackest and the most inauspicious incident of the Abbasid caliphate. Had Mowaffaq succeeded Motawakkil, he might have possibly controlled the situation but he did not get a chance to work as the caliph and his son, Motazid who was ambitious and brave like his father, received the caliphate when the disease of anarchy had become quite incurable.

Caliph Motazid's Rise: Saffarid Decline, Mowaffaq's Death and Emergence of Qaramata

2026-11-01T00:43:05.140-07:00

Amr bin Laith Saffar

Amr bin Laith Saffar had been given the Governorship of Khorasan, Sajistan and other territories by the Caliph's court as has been recorded above and Iran was also under his control. In 271 A.H., a letter of his dismissal was issued from the Caliph's court and the administrator of Isfahan, Ahmad bin Abdul Aziz bin Abl Walf, was instructed to fight Amr bin Laith and liberate the Province of Iran. They clashed and Amr bin Laith was defeated but he retained his hold on the Province Iran.

Ultimately in 274 A.H., Mowaffaq himself invaded Iran, he took the Province of Iran from Amr bin Laith and returned to Baghdad. Amr bin Laith went to Kerman and Sajistan and began to rule over Sajistan and Khorasan successfully. Then he sent gifts to the Caliph's court and enhanced his influence and in 278 A.H., he received the governorship of the territory of Mawaraunnahr, Bukhara, Samarkand etc., from the Caliph's court. Ismail bin Ahmad Samani had been ruling over Mawaraunnahr successfully. With the receipt of the governorship of Mawaraunnahr Amr bin Laith became busy collecting soldiers, arms and equipment. When Ismail bin Ahmed Samani found out, he wrote to Amr bin Laith: "I have been lying here out of the way in this border area. You have a larger country. Let me lie here and don't try to remove me." Amr bin Laith did not pay any heed to the letter and attacked him. Ismail Samani fought Amr bin Laith who was captured and sent to jail in Samarkand. In 288 A.H., Ahmed sent him to the Caliph in Baghdad. He remained there until Caliph Motazid's death. When Muktafi Billah came to power, he had him killed.

Conditions in Makkah and Madinah

In Madinah, Muhammad bin Hasan bin Jafar bin Musa Kazim and his brother Ali bin Hasan began to fight against each other. Fear of the government was non-existent. Civil wars were raging everywhere. These two brothers also created an upheaval in Madinah. Many men on both sides were killed. In 277 A.H., for one month Friday congregational prayers could not be held in Madinah. The same conditions existed in Makkah also. Yusuf bin Abu Saj was the Governor of Makkah. Ahmad bin Muhammad Tai was awarded the letter of governorship from the Caliph's court in his place.

Ahmad Tai sent his slave Badr as the leader of the pilgrimage on his behalf. Yusuf fought against him. The confrontation took place in front of the Holy Mosque around the Ka'bah. Yusuf arrested Badr. Badr's soldiers and the pilgrims launched a joint attack, arrested Yusuf, sent him to Baghdad and freed Badr. The situation everywhere was deteriorating.

Mowaffaq's Death

Caliph Motamid Billah was a nominal Caliph. His brother Mowaffaq, by virtue of his valor and wisdom, dominated over all state affairs. He was the virtual Caliph though he was not the legal Caliph. As mentioned above, Mowaffaq was also the heir apparent. Prior to his rule, the Turk chiefs had been ruling and dominating the Caliph's court. Mowaffaq had maneuvered and succeeded in breaking their power. Since he had defeated the rebel slaves, his and his son's popularity increased considerably among the Muslims. The Turk chiefs had been unable to defeat the slaves and they didn't dare to oppose him.

However, since the entire administration had totally collapsed anarchy continued to spread. The power that had held the dynasty together was now dissipated and the territories were asserting their independence and autonomy, which could not be suppressed. Yet, Mowaffaq's presence in the capital was a great source of strength and no one had the heart to challenge his leadership or expunge his name from the Friday sermon.

When Mowaffaq returned from Isfahan, he came down with the gout. He was treated by physicians but in vain. He died on 22 Saffar 278 A.H. and was buried at RaSaffah. Though Caliph Motamid was living, he was only a figurehead. Following Mowaffaq's death, the members of the government and generals of the army unanimously selected Mowaffaq's son Abul Abbas Motazid as the heir apparent and Caliph Motamid made an announcement of his succession and placed him in his father's position. Since Motazid was a very experienced and brave man, he came to dominate over all the state administration like his father and Caliph Motamid remained ineffectual.

Qaramata

In 278 A.H., a man in Kufa named Hamdan, popularly known as Qaramata, introduced a new religion. He was an extremist Shiite. He believed that the Imams were only seven in number: 1. Imam Husain (RA) 2. Ali Zianul Abedeen (RA), 3. Baqar bin Ali (RA) 4. Jafar Sadiq (RA) 5. Ismail bin Jafar 6. Muhammad bin Ismail 7. Obaidullah bin Muhammad. He called himself the deputy of Obaidullah bin Muhammad although Muhammad bin Ismail did not have a son named Obaidullah. He regarded Muhammad bin Al-Hanafia bin Ali bin Abi Talib as a prophet and added the following words to the call to prayer: "I bear witness that Muhammad bin Hanafia is a Messenger." He declared the Holy Mosque in Jerusalem as the direction for Prayer, which was made only two times a day, before sunrise and after sunset. He maintained that some verses, were revealed to Muhammad bin Al-Hanafia. Monday instead of Friday was considered the holy day of the week and he did not do any work on that day. He believed that only a few days of fasting a year was compulsory. He declared date juice unlawful while wine was made lawful. He said bathing after coition was unnecessary, (this of course is in direct contravention of Islamic law.) He made certain animals legal to be eaten while others were forbidden and declared unlawful. Whoever opposed him was declared worthy of death. He chose for his title Qaim Bil-Haq.

He talked to the chiefs of the slaves Khabbees and Bahbood about his new religion and wanted to convert them to his views but they did not attach any importance to him. Eight years after their defeat he began to propagate his beliefs in Kufa and many people began to accept them. Becoming aware of his activities the Governor of Kufa had him arrested and put in jail.

The guards of the jail were derelict in their duties and he escaped. His followers publicized the event as if he had special powers. Gradually people from a far began to talk about this religion and join it.

There are a group of people who trade guidance for falsehood and are infatuated with the blind despite their ability to see and worship that which is senseless despite their having intelligence. These people are found throughout history until our present time and they were the type of people who rushed to embrace Qaramata's new religion.

Succession of Motazid

As mentioned above after Mowaffaq's death, Motazid was made the heir apparent and he was to be the Caliph after Jafar bin Motamid. Jafar bin Motamid was first in succession to the throne and Motazid was second after him. His father Mowaffaq was also the second in succession behind Jafar but in 279 A.H. Motamid, being impressed by Motazid's power and ability gave priority to him as heir apparent over his own son Jafar and had the certificates authorizing his succession issued to the Governors in the provinces.

Defeat of the Zanj Rebellion, Saffarid Decline and Rise of the Samanids

2026-11-01T00:42:00.897-07:00

Yaqub bin Laith Saffar's Death

Yaqub bin Laith Saffar had gained much power. Ahmad bin Abdullah Khajistani, Sayeed bin Tahir, Ali bin Yahya Kharji, Hasan bin Zaid Alawi, Rafe bin Harisimah had all made their claims to being the ruler of Khorasan, Tabristan and Iran. They had been at war with one another with no clear victor. Outwardly it seemed Yaqub bin Laith Saffar was more able, braver and more powerful and he possessed a larger territory. When Motamid realized that Syria had gone out of his control, a greater part of Iraq was under the slaves occupation and the eastern province of Khorasan and Iran had been lost, he thought it wise that the letter of Governorship of provinces like Khorasan should be given to Yaqub bin Laith from the Caliph's court. By making him legitimate, the Caliph felt that he could win his allegiance and these territories would have a proper administration. The negotiations to arrange this had already started when Yaqub bin Laith Saffar died of colic. The Caliph had sent the documents of Governorship of Iran to Yaqub Saffar but it reached him when he was dying. After his death, his brother Amr bin Laith Saffar succeeded to the throne. He sent a declaration of his obedience and allegiance to the Caliph. The Caliph was overjoyed and bestowed on him the Governorship of Khorasan, Isfahan, Sindh and Sajistan in addition to making him the Chief of Police of Baghdad and Samarra. He also sent him a royal robe. This appointment letter and the royal robe led to the recognition of his government willingly by the masses and added to his power.

Extermination of the Rebel Slaves by Mowaffaq and Motazid

The rebellion of the slaves and the repeated failure of the Caliph's armies against the slaves was not something ordinary. The slaves had been defeating the Caliph's armies and famous generals for 10 years and had destroyed the peace in the Iraqi cities. Each slave had forcibly kept 10 to 15 Alawi and Hashmi women. Their leaders named Bahbood and Khabbees used to verbally abuse the righteous Caliphs, the family of the Prophet ﷺ and his wives from their pulpits. Bahbood claimed to be omniscient and a Prophet. These slaves had killed thousands of Muslims. Their continuous victories had left the people's hearts filled with terror and they put an end to the Turk's pride of valor.

The Turk's trembled at their names. Ultimately, Caliph Motamid's brother Mowaffaq assigned his son Abul Abbas who later became Caliph with the title Motazid Billah, the expedition to fight the slaves in Rabia Thani 266 A.H. After a very fierce battle near Wasit, he defeated them. This was the first significant setback they received from the Caliph's army. After this Mowaffaq joined his son and both of them began to defeat them regularly over the next four years. The slaves' leader Khabbees was killed on 1 Saffar 270 A.H. and their reign of terror was ended. When news reached Baghdad that the slave leader was killed and the evil ended, there was a great celebration in the city. While father and son, Mowaffaq and Motazid were at war with the slaves the Khwarij had revolted in Mousil.

Masawar Khwarji, as has already been stated, had been killed in 263 A.H. His followers and disciples formed different groups and began to fight with each other until 276 A.H. No effort was made by the Caliph's court to restore peace in the region, which lets us know the condition of things in the occupied territories.

Anarchy in Khorasan

When Yaqub Saffar died, Caliph Motamid appointed his brother Amr bin Laith as Governor. However, the supporters of the Tahir dynasty were still present in Khorasan. Two of them, Abu Talha and Rafe bin Harisimah, formed groups in the name of Husain bin Tahir and established their own government. They expelled Amr bin Laith's administrators from the cities of the territory then they quarreled with each other. In the ensuing battles they used to seek help from the ruler of Bukhara, Ismail bin Ahmad bin Asad bin Samani.

Ismail Samani sometimes would help one and sometimes the other and sometimes he would help their common enemy Amr bin Laith Saffar. In brief, there was great tension in these territories. During this time, Mowaffaq deputed Muhammad bin Tahir as Governor of Khorasan. In 271 A.H. Caliph Motamid, who had given Amr bin Laith Saffar the Governorship of Khorasan, deposed Amr Saffar. Muhammad bin Tahir stayed in Baghdad. He deputed Rafe bin Harisimah as the governor of Khorasan and his deputy. This did not make any difference or put an end to the unrest and anarchy in Khorasan and its adjoining provinces.

Ahmad bin Tuloon's Death

Ahmad bin Tuloon, who has already been dealt with in detail, had Egypt and Syria under his occupation. Caliph Motamid was a Caliph in name only and his brother Mowaffaq by virtue of his wisdom and valor dominated all affairs of the Caliphate. Motamid entered into correspondence with Ahmad bin Tuloon and wanted him to go to Egypt on his behalf. This happened in 269 A.H. while Mowaffaq was engaged in war with the rebel slaves. Mowaffaq tried to make Motamid understand with the help of other leaders that supporting Ahmad bin Tuloon was not to their benefit and asked him to desist, because of this Mowaffaq became angry with Ahmad Tuloon.

Ahmad Tuloon became sick in Antakia and died and his son Khumarwaih succeeded him as the Governor of Syria and Egypt. When Mowaffaq became free from the slave rebellion in 270 A.H., he sent Ishaq bin Kandaj and Muhammad bin Abu Saj to capture Syria. These two commanders began to conquer city after city. Khumarwaih sent an army to face them. These two commanders hesitated in starting the battle and were on the defensive. In view of this, Mowaffaq sent his son Abul Abbas Motazid to Syria. Motazid pushed the Egyptian army back, conquered Damascus and continued to move ahead. Khumarwaih came to fight and Abul Abbas Motazid suffered a defeat and returned to Damascus. The inhabitants of Damascus did not open the gate of city for him. Helplessly, he went to Tartoos. Khumarwaih came to Damascus and the circulation of his coins and the Friday sermon in his name began. The inhabitants of Tartoos revolted and expelled Abul Abbas Motazid and began to read Khumarwaih's name in the Friday sermon. Abul Abbas distressed and a failure went back to Baghdad.

Situation in Tabristan: Alawi, Rafe and Saffar

It has been stated above that Hasan bin Zaid Alawi had established his government with the assistance of the inhabitants of Delam. Hasan bin Zaid died in Rajab 270 A.H. Then his brother Mohammad bin Zaid assumed power in Tabristan. In 272 A.H., a Turk administrator of Qazween invaded Tabristan with an army of 4,000 men. Muhammad bin Zaid faced him with 8,000 soldiers but was defeated and took refuge in Jurjan. However, immediately after the departure of the victorious army he re-captured Tabristan. In 275 A.H. Rafe bin Harisimah attacked Jurjan. Muhammad bin Zaid fought and after a prolonged battle lost control over Tabristan. Finally, in 283 A.H., Rafe bin Harisimah was killed while fighting with Amr bin Laith, Muhammad bin Zaid reoccupied Jurjan but Amr bin Laith Saffar dethroned him.

In 288 A.H., Ismail Samani caught Amr bin Laith Saffar and sent him to Baghdad, Muhammad bin Zaid revolted in Delam again and captured Tabristan. Then Ismail Samani sent Muhammad bin Haroon to Tabristan. Muhammad bin Zaid was killed in the encounter and his son Zaid bin Muhammad was caught and sent to jail in Bukhara.

Rise of the Samanid Dynasty: Yaqub Saffar's Defeat and Ahmad bin Tuloon's Conquests

2026-11-01T00:40:28.069-07:00

The Birth of the Government of the Samaniites

The details about the Samani dynasty will follow later on. However, in order to remind the readers and to maintain the sequence of events it is pertinent to say something about its origin here.

Asad bin Saman was a member of a reputed and respectable family in Khorasan. He had four sons: Noah, Ahmad, Yahya and Ilyas. During the period when Mamoon Rasheed was staying in Merv, these four brothers called on him. On the suggestion of his Prime Minister Fadal bin Sahal, he appointed them to important posts. When Mamoon Rasheed proceeded to Baghdad after making Ghassan bin Abbad his deputy and the governor of Khorasan, the latter deputed Noah, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas as the rulers of Samarkand, Farghana, Shash and Ashrosna, and Herat respectively.

When Mamoon Rasheed sent his famous general Tahir ibn Husain as the governor of Khorasan, he also maintained the status quo by retaining them in their posts. However, when Noah bin Asad died Tahir annexed the regions of Samarkand to Yahya and Ahmad's territories. After a short time, Ilyas died, this was during Tahir's governorship, Tahir made Ilyas's son, Abu Ishaq Muhammad, the ruler of Herat. Ahmad bin Asad had seven sons: Nasr, Yaqub, Yahya, Ismail, Abul Ashas, Ahmad Khanam, Hameed and Asad. When Ahmad bin Asad passed away, his elder son Nasr succeeded him as the Governor of Samarkand.

Nasr continued to be given the governorship of this province until the Tahir family was dethroned from Khorasan and Yaqub bin Laith Saffar captured it. In 261 A.H., Caliph Motamid Alallah sent the letter of governorship of Samarkand to Nasr directly. The Governor of this province used to receive the letter of Governorship from the Governor of Khorasan. In view of losing control over Khorasan and Yaqub Saffar gaining control over it, the Caliph thought it best that he should keep his leadership in Mawaraunnahr. Therefore, the letter was sent from the Caliph's court with the instruction that he should protect Samarkand from Yaqub Saffar. Nasr bestowed the state of Bukhara on his brother Ismail and he himself continued to rule over Samarkand. In 275 A.H., they developed resentment against each other, which escalated into a military confrontation. Ismail won and Nasr came to Ismail in chains. Ismail ran to him and kissed his feet, made him sit on the throne and promised to obey him. They reconciled and both the brothers began to govern under the name of Ismail. This same Ismail founded the government of the Samanids, which will be dealt with later on in the narrative.

The Oath for the Heir Apparent

In Shawwal 261 A.H., Caliph Motamid held open court and made the proclamation before all the courtiers that his son Jafar would be the heir apparent and after him his brother Ahmad Mowaffaq. However, in case Jafar did not reach the age of discretion, then Mowaffaq would be the Caliph first to be followed by Jafar.

Everyone took an oath on this proclamation. Jafar was given the title Mufawwad illallah, and made the Governor of Africa, Egypt, Syria, Mousil, Jazirah and Armenia. Musa bin Bagha was made his deputy. Abul Wajid was entitled as Nasir li deenillah Al-Mowaffaq and made the Governor of the Eastern countries, Baghdad, Kufa, the route to Makkah, Yemen, Kaskar, Ahwaz, Iran, Isfahan, Rayy, Zanjan and Sindh. Two different flags were made for them. After this oath, Caliph Motamid assigned the task of punishing the rebel slaves to his brother Mowaffaq.

The Battle of Saffar

Mowaffaq had hardly set out towards the rebellious slaves when the Caliph received news that Yaqub Saffar after capturing and consolidating Khorasan was marching towards the capital with his army. The Caliph's brother Mowaffaq postponed his expedition against the rebels and returned to the capital. The Caliph himself left the capital and stayed at Zafranya and sent his brother Mowaffaq to fight with Saffar. The right flank was controlled by Musa bin Bagha while the left one was commanded by Masroor Balkhi. Mowaffaq was in the middle. They fought a very fierce battle from dawn to dusk. Sometimes Saffar's army retreated and sometimes Mowaffaq's army fell back. The battle remained indecisive. Meanwhile the Caliph sent another army to aid Mowaffaq. The arrival of this fresh army spelled defeat for Yaqub bin Laith's army. Yaqub and his soldiers fled. Mowaffaq and his army looted their camp. After being defeated Saffar moved towards Khazistan and stayed at Jandisabor. Mowaffaq could not follow Saffar and went to Wasit. He fell ill and returned to Baghdad.

While Mowaffaq and Saffar were at war, Muhammad bin Wasil who had fled after loosing Iran to Saffar found an opportunity and rebelled, the field of opposition was empty and he recaptured Iran.

When Saffar went to Jundisabor after his defeat, the slaves sent a letter to Saffar, goading him to fight against the Caliph and assuring him of their help. In reply to the letter Saffar quoted following Verses of Qur'ān:

"Say O Unbelievers ........to you your religion and to me my religion." (109:1-6)

And sent an army under the command of Omar bin Sirsi to fight against Muhammad bin Wasil. Omar bin Sirsi expelled Wasil from Iran and captured it. After fighting with Yaqub Saffar, Motamid sent Musa bin Bagha to crush the rebellious slaves. Saffar sent a commander to Ahwaz. It was at Ahwaz that the three armies, the Caliph's, Saffar's and the slaves' clashed with one another. No one supported the other. Yaqub Saffar left Jundisabor and went to Sajistan after deputing Aziz bin Sirri in Nishapur and his brother Omar bin Laith in Herat. These events took place in 261 A.H.

The Conquest of Wasit

After capturing Jundisabor and deputing his administrator, Yaqub Saffar had gone to Sajistan. A commander had been sent to Ahwaz. Finally, the slaves recognized Saffar's conquest of Ahwaz, made peace with Saffar and turned to Wasit. In Wasit, a Turk commander was in charge by the order of the Caliph. The Caliph's soldiers could not stand against the slaves and they defeated him and conquered Wasit. This occurred in 263 A.H.

Ahmad bin Tuloon's occupation of Syria

In 264 A.H., a Turk named Majoor ruled over Syria. His son succeeded him after his death. Upon receipt of this news Ahmad bin Tuloon left his son Abbas as his deputy in Egypt and he went to Damascus. Majoor's son laid down his arms and Tuloon's men captured Damascus and all their territories in 264 A.H. He stayed in Syria for two years and after making satisfactory arrangements, he went back to Egypt in 266 A.H. From this point, Ahmad bin Tuloon's territory included Egypt and Syria.

Caliph Motamid Alallah: Alawi Revolts, Zanj Rebellion and Rise of Yaqub Saffar

2026-11-01T00:39:27.817-07:00

Motamid Alallah

Motamid Alallah bin Motawakkil Alallah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed was born of a Roman slave girl named Fatyan. Caliph Motamid made Obaidullah bin Yahya bin Khaqan his minister. Obaidullah fell off his horse and died in 263 A.H. Then Mohammad bin Mukhallad was made the minister.

The Revolt of the Alawiites

In 256 A.H. Ibrahim bin Mohammad bin Yahya bin Abdullah bin Mohammad bin Hanafia bin Ali bin Abi Talib alias Ibn Sufi and Ali bin Zaid Alawi revolted against the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt and Kufa respectively. Ibn Sufi suffered defeat in several battles and fled from Egypt and went to Makkah where the governor of Makkah arrested him and sent him to Ahmad bin Tuloon in Egypt. He imprisoned him and later released him. After his release, he went to Madinah where he died. Ali bin Zaid revolted in Kufa and expelled the governor and took it over. Caliph Motamid sent a commander named Shah bin Michael to Kufa but he was defeated by Ali bin Zaid. Then the Caliph sent another commander named Kajoor who defeated Ali bin Zaid. In 256 A.H. he re-attacked Ali bin Zaid which resulted in his defeat and arrest. Kajoor went to the Caliph with him. Husain bin Zaid Alawi captured Rayy and Musa bin Bagha set out to fight against him.

A man named Ali posing as an Alawiite previously drew the people's attention to himself in Bahrain and then went to Ahsa. There he posed as an Alawiite but with a different lineage. As the Alawiites were revolting in different places, he had a strong craving for power and kept drawing people's attention to himself by posing as an Alawiite but his lineage continued to be questioned everywhere proving that he was not an Alawiite. At last, in coalition with a few slaves in Baghdad he went to Basra and announced to the slaves that whoever came over to him would be freed. It attracted many of them and they rallied around him. When the masters of the slaves came to him and wanted to talk about them, he had them arrested and later Ali released them.

The number of slaves continued multiplying under Ali's flag and with fiery speeches coaxed and induced them to conquer territory with the power of their swords. He looted Qadsiya and its adjoining areas and returned to Basra. The people of Basra fought but were defeated. Following that, they fought with him several times but were defeated each time.

The slave army captured Basra. The Caliph deputed the Turk Abu Bilal with a 4,000 man army under his command to confront them. The confrontation took place near the river Riyan. The slaves defeated and chased them away. They captured not only Basra but also, Ahwaz and other places. The Turk leaders brought armies from the Caliph's court repeatedly but always returned defeated. Finally, it was Sayeed bin Saleh who crushed them and expelled them from Basra. However, on 15 Shawwal 257 A.H. they recaptured Basra and burnt it to the ground. The beautiful buildings of Basra were reduced to ashes and rubble.

Assessing the situation Caliph Motamid sent Mohammad Maroof alias Molid with a large army. The slaves came out of Basra and fought with him at the Maqul River. They put Molid's army to rout, looted their goods and killed the fleeing soldiers. Then they returned to the Maqul River. Then the Caliph deputed Mansoor bin Jafar Khayyat to tackle the problem. They came to fight under the command of their chief Ali bin Aban. There was a fierce battle. Swords dazzled until noon finally, Mansoor bin Jafar was defeated and killed.

Hearing the news, Caliph Motamid Billah recalled his brother Abu Ahmad Muwaffaq, whom he had deputed as the governor of Makkah, gave him the governorship of Egypt, Qansareen and Awasim and ordered him to fight against the slaves. Then he gave another army to Mufleh and sent him to fight them also. These two armies marched to face the slave army.

In the battle that followed, Mufleh was killed and his men began to flee. This caused anxiety and disintegration among Muwaffaq's men. At last, Muwaffaq dodged the enemy and saved his army, reorganized them, came to the Abu Khaseeb River and fought with the slaves, defeated them and captured many of them he also freed many of his men from their captivity and returned to Samarra. That defeat did not crush them completely. They rallied again and started looting, killing and plundering. They continued on their looting and killing spree in Basra and Iraq until 270 A.H.

Yaqub bin Laith's Governorship

In 256 A.H., the very first year of Motamid's accession Mohammad bin Wasil bin Ibrahim Tamimi, an Iraqi Arab living in Iran for many years, conspired with some Kurds and killed the governor of Iran, Harith bin Seema and captured it. When Yaqub bin Laith Saffar found out, he invaded Iran. Muwaffaq thought it wise to save Iran from going under Yaqub Saffar's control so he had the letters of governorship for Takharistan and Balkh in Yaqub's name written by Motamid and sent to Yaqub bin Laith with the message: "Give up the thought of Iran and establish your government in Balkh and Takharistan." Yaqub bin Laith liked the idea and he made proper arrangements for Balkh and Takharistan, reached Kabul and arrested Ratbeel. Then he dispatched gifts to the Caliph.

He visited Sajistan and began to take control of the cities of Herat and Khorasan. In 259 A.H., he captured Khorasan and expelled all the members of the Tahir family. Caliph Motamid wrote him a threatening letter saying, "Be content with the cities and the governorship of that which has been given to you. Don't capture Khorasan." But Yaqub did not pay any heed to this warning. In 260 A.H., Hasan bin Zaid Alawi took an army from Delam and invaded Yaqub. In a fierce battle Hasan bin Zaid suffered defeat and returned to Delam and Yaqub conquered Sarya and Amul then he turned to Sajistan.

The Rebellion in Mousil

Motamid deputed the Turk commander Satgeen as the governor of Mousil. The Turks started perpetrating atrocities on the inhabitants of Mousil. As a consequence of this abuse, they made Yahya bin Sulaiman their leader, beat the Turks and expelled them.

The Caliph was informed of the rebellion. Turk armies were sent. Bloody battles were waged but the result was disastrous. The Caliph's army of Turks lost and Sulaiman bin Yahya's government was established in Mousil. This happened in 260-61 A.H.

Ibn Mufleh, Ibn Wasil, Ibn Laith Saffar

When Yaqub bin Laith invaded Iran to snatch it from Mohammad bin Wasil in 256 A.H. the Caliph bestowed on him the governorship of Balkh and Takharistan and sent him back. Then he sent Abdur Rahman bin Mufleh with an army to win the province of Iran from Mohammad bin Wasil. Abdur Rahman and Mohammad began to fight.

The Caliph deputed the Turk commander Tashtamar to reinforce Abdur Rahman bin Mufleh. Tashtamar was killed and in 262 A.H. Mohammad bin Wasil captured Abdur Rahman bin Mufleh. Caliph Motamid began to correspond with Mohammad bin Wasil and initiated a move to liberate Abdur Rahman bin Mufleh. Mohammad bin Wasil did not reply to his letters but killed Abdur Rahman bin Mufleh and began to prepare to invade the city of Wasit where Musa bin Bagha was stationed with his army. When Mohammad bin Wasil proceeded towards Wasit, Ibrahim bin Seema blocked his way.

From the opposite side Abu Saj who was made governor of Iran by the Caliph sent his son-in-law Abdur Rahman to fight against

Muhammad bin Wasil and conquer Iran. Abu Saj was engaged in dealing with the slaves who had made more trouble in Basra and the surrounding area. When Abu Saj's son-in-law Abdur Rahman set out with the army, he came across the slaves' leader Ali bin Aban on the way. Ali bin Aban defeated and killed Abdur Rahman. Mohammad bin Wasil and his army were ready to confront Ibrahim bin Seema at Ahwaz. In the meantime, news arrived that Yaqub bin Laith Saffar invaded Faras, so Muhammad Wasil Tamimi, ended the confrontation with Ibrahim bin Seema and returned to Iran. Finally, Saffar and Mohammad bin Wasil fought. Ibn Wasil lost and escaped and Yaqub Saffar captured Iran. Khorasan had already come under his rule and in 261 A.H., he brought all of Iran under his control.

Struggle Against Turkish Domination, Reforms, Deposition and Martyrdom

2026-11-01T00:38:25.251-07:00

Motaz Billah: Deposition and Death

Caliph Motaz was completely under the control of the Turk generals and whatever they wanted he would do for them. The treasury had been drained because the generals had usurped it. The soldiers demanded the Caliph to pay their salaries. The Caliph was helpless. Finally, the Turks demanded payment or else they would kill Saleh bin Waseef who they considered responsible for manipulating the Caliph.

Saleh bin Waseef was a Turk general and the Caliph was afraid of him. Seeing the problem Motaz went to his Roman mother Fatahyah for some money to solve the problem. She had large sums of money but she refused to part with any on the pretext of impending poverty. The Turks, in coalition with Saleh bin Waseef, Mohammad bin Bagha Sagheer and Babakyal, armed themselves fully and went to the door of the Caliph's palace and called Motaz. Caliph Motaz sent word, "I have taken medicine. I am too ill and weak to come out." Hearing this the Turks made a forced entry into the palace and brought out the Caliph dragging him by the legs. They beat him up, abused him and made him stand bareheaded in the sun in the courtyard. Then everybody who passed by slapped him in the face. When his humiliation went beyond limits, he was asked to abdicate. He refused. Then the chief judge Husain bin Abi Shorab and members of the government were called to witness the dismissal of the Caliph. All of them put their signatures on it and Motaz was thrown into a dungeon without food and water leading ultimately to his death. This occurred in Rajab 255 A.H. He died on 8 Shaban 255 A.H.

They brought Motaz's cousin Mohammad bin Wathiq from Baghdad and put him on the throne and bestowed on him the title of Mohtadi Billah. When Motaz's mother saw her son's arrest and humiliation, she escaped through a tunnel and went into hiding somewhere in Samarra. When Mohtadi become Caliph, she received amnesty from Saleh bin Waseef, the Caliph's deputy, and appeared in Ramadan 255 A.H. When Saleh initiated inquiries about her wealth it came to light that she was in possession of 10,300,000 dinars and gold and jewels worth more than that although Motaz had asked for only 50,000 dinars, a sum which would have been sufficient to put an end to the unrest in the army. Saleh seized all her wealth and goods and said, "This unlucky woman had her son killed for 50,000 dinars although she had millions of dinars in her possession." Then he sent her to Makkah. She lived there until Motamid succeeded to the throne. Then she went to Samarra where she died in 264 A.H.

Mohtadi Billah

Mohtadi Billah bin Wathiq Billah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed's real name was Mohammad and his kunya was Abu Ishaq. He was born during his grandfather Motasim Billah's period of Caliphate in 218 A.H. He became Caliph on 29 Rajab 255 A.H. at the age of 37. He was light brown in complexion, lean and thin, handsome, pious and devout, just and brave. He struggled considerably to uphold the divine commandments. Right from his accession to his death, he continuously observed the fast but he did not have any supporters. He came at such a bad time that it was difficult to restore the old Islamic honor and glory. Hashim bin Qasim says: During the month of Ramadan I was sitting near Mohtadi. It was evening. When I stood up to leave, he asked me to sit down. Then we broke the fast together and performed our prayer. When Mohtadi ordered supper, it was brought in a small willow basket. It contained thin loaves of bread, a pinch of salt in a cup, vinegar in another and olive oil in a third cup. He invited me to eat. I began to eat and thought that more food would follow so I ate slowly. Mohtadi looked at me and said, "Don't you observe the fast?" I said, "Yes" Then he said, "Will you not observe it tomorrow?" I said, "It is the month of Ramadan. Why shouldn't I observe it?" He said, "Then eat well and don't expect that more food will be coming for there is nothing here except this." I was taken by surprise and said, Amir al Mu'minin! "What is this? Allāh has given you all the delicacies, conveniences and comforts of life." He said, "Yes, that is true. However, when I reflected, I found that Omar bin Abdul Aziz among Banu Umayyah was reduced to a skeleton due to his under- eating and preoccupation with providing all facilities to his subjects. Then I turned my attention to my family and I was highly ashamed to find that we, the Banu Hashim, are quite unlike them. That is why I have adopted the way you see." He had put a strict ban on sports and entertainment, declared singing and playing musical instruments unlawful and prohibited the royal staff from being tyrannical to the people. In matters of administrative work, he was strict. He attended the court daily and handled the cases in open court. He used to do the accounting by having the accountants sit in front of him.

As has been recorded earlier, the Turks also made Mohtadi Billah Caliph. After enthroning him Saleh bin Wasif, the most influential among the Turks who dominated him most arrested and killed Ahmad bin Israil, Zaid bin Motaz Billah and Abu Nuh and confiscated their money and property. Then he arrested Hasan bin Mukhallad and seized his goods. When Caliph Mohtadi Billah came to know about these incidents, he was extremely shocked and said, "Was their arrest for an ordinary crime that they were also killed?" Following that the Caliph turned all the slave-girls and singers out of Samarra. He ordered all pets to be killed and the dogs to be set free. He made Sulaiman ibn Wahab his minister. But Saleh ibn Waseef, by virtue of his intelligence and careful planning, brought him under his control and began to rule himself. Musa bin Bagha was not present at the time of Motaz's deposition and Mohtadi's accession. He had been in Rayy. When he heard that Saleh had deposed Motaz and enthroned Mohtadi, he announced his intention of avenging Motaz's blood and marched to the capital. After he arrived, he sent a request to the Caliph for permission to come to him. Saleh went into hiding when he heard of Musa's arrival.

The Caliph permitted Musa to call on him. Soon after his arrival, he captured the Caliph. He then had him mounted on a mule and wanted to take him to the prison. Mohtadi said, "Musa! Fear Allāh, what is it that you want?" Musa said, "My intention is good. Please swear that you will not side with Saleh." The Caliph swore. Musa took the oath at his hands immediately. Then Musa began to search for Saleh. The Caliph tried to reconcile between Musa and Saleh. Consequently, Musa and his men suspected that the Caliph knew where Saleh was and that it was he who was concealing him. The Turks met at Musa bin Bagha's house for council, and thought of killing or deposing Caliph Mohtadi. The Caliph came to know about this meeting and sent for all of them to appear in his court. He himself came to the court armed and with a face that reflected great anger. He said to the Turks, "I have come to know about your council. Do not take me like other Caliphs. As long as I hold the sword in my hand, I will kill most of you. I have left my will and I am ready to kill and be killed. Remember that enmity with me will prove fatal to you. I declare on oath that I do not know where Saleh is." They were silent when they heard this and their conspiracy subsided. Then Musa proclaimed a 10,000 dinars reward for the capture of Saleh.

By chance, Saleh was located and Musa had him killed, then had his head put on a spear and taken throughout the city. Mohtadi disapproved of it but he could not do anything against the Turk's power. He was quite helpless. Finally, he wrote a letter to the Turk chief named Babakyal asking him to kill Musa. Babakyal showed the letter to Musa. Musa rushed with his army to the Caliph's palace. The people of the western territories and Farghana defended the Caliph and a number of encounters took place.

Meanwhile Babakyal was put in Mohtadi's prison as a captive. Caliph Mohtadi had him killed and his head thrown over to the Turks side. This excited them even more and the Turks who were in the Caliph's army became angry over Babakyal's murder and went over to Musa's army. During this period the Turks had besieged the Caliph, the subjects of Baghdad, Samarra and other places that had been praying for Caliph Mohtadi as they were very pleased with his justice and generosity and thought of him as a righteous Caliph. However, the consequences were quite adverse. The Caliph was defeated. The Turks arrested him and had his testicles crushed until he died.

This tragedy occurred on 14 Rajab 256 A.H. Caliph Mohtadi ran his Caliphate for 15 days short of a year. He was 38 when he lost his life. After that, the Turks took Abul Abbas Ahmad bin Motawakkil out of captivity (he was in captivity at Josaq) and put him on the throne. They took the oath for him and chose Motamid Alallah as his title.

Turkish Rebellions, Ahmad bin Tuloon and Rise of the Saffarid Dynasty

2026-11-01T00:37:32.064-07:00

Motaz Billah

Motaz Billah bin Motawakkil Alallāh bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed was born of a Roman salve girl named Fatahyah at Samarra in 232 A.H. He was made Caliph in Samarra in Muharram 251 A.H. After being at war with Mustayeen Billah for one year, he succeeded in forcing him to abdicate. He was very handsome. Ashnas the Turk died the same year he was enthroned. He had left 50,000 dinars, which were seized by Motaz Billah to run his administration. When Motaz Billah took the throne, he was 19. He made Ahmad bin Israil his minister and allowed Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir to continue as the chief of the Baghdad Police. Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir was the governor of Khorasan and his deputy lived in Khorasan and he himself lived in Baghdad. It was the Turks who had enthroned Motaz and so he was under their influence. The Khorasanis and Iraqis were in the army, which was stationed in Baghdad and Mohammad bin Abdullah used to pay their salaries.

Motaz Billah stopped their salaries and allowances. In Rajab 252 A.H., he deposed his brother Moayyad from the succession, sent him to jail and had him killed. In Ramadan 252 A.H., the army revolted because of not receiving their salaries and started to fight with Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir. Mohammad bin Abdullah quelled the rebellion with great difficulty. The same year a riot break out between the Turks and the Arabs starting a civil war. The inhabitants of Baghdad sided with the Arabs but the Turks succeeded fraudulently in killing and exiling the Arabs and their leaders.

The same year Caliph Motaz Billah appointed Husain bin Abi Shorab to the post of Chief Justice. The respect for the institution of the Caliphate had disappeared, the governors of different provinces began to consider themselves independent and the Khawarij and Alawiites began to revolt. Musawir bin Abdullah bin Musawir Bijli Khwarji captured Mousil and declared his independence and all the forces sent to fight him by the Caliph were defeated and chased away.

In 253 A.H., the Turks demanded their generals Waseef, Bagha and Simataweel, to pay four months salaries in advance. They told them that the treasury was empty and payment was not possible. The Turks grew restless and the generals informed Motaz Billah. Motaz Billah himself was helpless. The Turks caught Waseef and killed him. At that time, there was a rivalry between Babakyal and Bagha Sagheer. The Caliph showed greater favor for Babakyal. Bagha made up his mind to put the Caliph to death but Motaz Billah somehow found out and Babakyal's men did away with Bagha Sagheer.

Death of Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir

Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir, the governor of Khorasan died in Baghdad in 253 A.H. Before his death, his will made his son Obaidullah his deputy and the governor of Khorasan. Obaidullah's brother Tahir bin Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir opposed him. They fell out regarding who should lead the funeral prayer. In light of the will, Obaidullah was declared to be his father's deputy. Later Caliph Motaz Billah made another brother Sulaiman bin Abdullah bin Tahir the deputy of Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir and he made Baghdad his headquarters and began to discharge his duties and manage the expeditions.

Ahmad bin Tuloon

Among the Turkish generals, Babakyal like Bagha, Waseef and Simataweel was a famous and popular leader. The same year Motaz Billah deputed Babakyal as the governor of Egypt. Babakyal deputed on his own behalf Ahmad bin Tuloon as the governor of Egypt.

Tuloon was a Turk who was captured in the battle of Farghana. He was brought up in the family of the Caliph and was counted as one of the royal slaves. His son Ahmad was brought up in the capital and was well versed in administrative affairs. When Babakyal became the governor of Egypt, he was considering that who he should assign as the governor of Egypt on his behalf. His advisors named Tuloon. He agreed and sent Tuloon to Egypt where he took over and managed the affairs there. Later, Caliph Mohtadi made the Turk Yarkooj the governor of Egypt who retained Ahmad bin Tuloon as his deputy in Egypt.

In this way Ahmad bin Tuloon gained a firm hold on Egypt as a ruler and his descendants ruled it by succession and minted their own coins there. In short, Egypt should be considered excluded from the Abbasid Caliphate from 253 A.H. or at least that the Tuloon government was founded in Egypt in 253 A.H.

Yaqub bin Laith Saffar

Both Yaqub bin Laith and his brother Amr bin Laith owned shops making copper and brass utensils in Sajistan. There were revolts in several places following the weakening of the Caliphate and the Khwarij also revolted. The Alawiites supporters also came out against the Abbasids. One of them named Saleh bin Nasr Kanani took up arms. A group of the wealthy, noblemen and common masses collected around him. Yaqub bin Laith also joined them. Saleh fought and somehow captured Sajistan and forced the members of the Tahir dynasty out of Sajistan. Saleh died after this victory. Dirham bin Hasan followed as his successor. However, the governor of Khorasan captured and sent him to Baghdad. Saleh's group chose Yaqub bin Laith as its Amir. Yaqub, by virtue of his prudence and valor, completed the capture of Sajistan and expelled Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir's governor of Herat, Mohammad bin Aus Ambari and took over Herat. He then began to conquer the territories of Khorasan.

Meanwhile the governor of Iran, Ali bin Husain bin Shibil, wanted to conquer Kerman. Yaqub bin Laith also wanted control over Kerman. Yaqub bin Laith defeated and chased away Ali bin Husain's commanders and finally invaded and conquered Shiraz, the capital of Iran in 255 A.H. At once he went back to Sajistan and sent an application to the Caliph's court that read, "Great unrest was prevalent in this region. The people here have made me their Amir. I am obedient and loyal to Amir Al-Muminin." Gradually he removed the families of Tahir from Khorasan, occupied it and established his own permanent government. Tahir bin Husain's descendants had ruled over Khorasan continuously but they were always connected with the Caliph's court and one member of this family was always appointed to the administration of the Baghdad Police department.

None of the Abbasids wanted to take Khorasan from the Tahir family because they had always regarded themselves as the servants and subordinates of the Abbasid Caliphs so they continued to receive title to the governorship from them and in return, the Tahir family would pay the fixed taxes to the Caliph. However, the government which Yaqub bin Laith setup was different. It would become known as the Saffariah State and its details follow later on in the narrative.

Caliph Mustayeen Billah: Turkish Domination, Civil War and Downfall of the Abbasid Caliphate

2026-11-01T00:36:41.411-07:00

Mustansir Billah

Mustansir Billah bin Motawakkil Alallāh bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed's real name was Mohammad and his kunya was Abu Jafar or Abu Abdullah. He was born of a Roman African slave at Samarra in 223 A.H. After having his father Motawakkil killed, he sat on the throne on 4 Shawwal 247 A.H. He deposed both his brothers Motaz and Muayyad, who had been made heirs apparent by his father Motawakkil.

The Turks had been dominating the Caliph's court and their power was increasing day by day. They had the upper hand in all affairs. Seeing the Turks were on the ascendant and they might be harmful to him, he geared up to curtail and reduce their powers and influence.

During his six-month Caliphate, he served the Shiites considerably. He allowed them to pay visits to Imam Husain's grave and granted all type of freedom to the Alawiites. Immediately after taking over the Caliphate, he made Ahmad bin Khaseeb the prime minister and made Bagha Kabeer the commander-in-chief. It was Bagha Kabeer and the other Turks who coaxed him to remove his brothers from succession. When he wanted to reduce their power, they were scared of him because he was wise and brave and they were sure he would succeed in his aim. Therefore, they gave his physician Ibn Taifoor 30,000 dinars as a bribe to use a poisoned scalpel while letting his blood in connection with curing a disease this led to his death.

After being Caliph less than 6 months, he died on 5 Rabi-al-Awwal 248 A.H. At the point of death he said, "O my mother! I have lost both this world and the hereafter. I have killed my father and now I am going after him."

Mustayeen Billah

Mustayeen Billah bin Motasim bin Haroon Rasheed's real name was Ahmad and his kunya was Abul Abbas. He was handsome and fair complexioned. His face was pock marked and he stammered. He was born of a slave-girl named Makhariq in 221 A.H. When Muntasir died the members of the government assembled to decide on who should be chosen Caliph. Motawakkil's sons Motaz and Moayyad were present but the Turks were wary of them because they were responsible for their removal from succession. Motasim Billah's son Ahmad was enthroned and the title Mustayeen Billah was chosen for him. He was very noble, very eloquent and a literary scholar. He sat on the throne on 6 Rabia Akhir 248 A.H.

When Mustayeen Billah was being taken to the royal palace for enthronement Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir and the masses protested, revolted and presented Motaz's claim to the Caliphate. The Turks fought with them and many were killed and many escaped. While the fight was going on the Turks were taking the oath for Mustayeen Billah's Caliphate. When the uproar subsided, awards and posts began to be distributed. The message was sent to Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir to come and take the oath, which he did. After the completion of the oath news arrived that Tahir bin Abdullah bin Tahir, the governor of Khorasan, passed away. Caliph Mustayeen Billah appointed Mohammad bin Tahir bin Abdullah as governor there. His uncle Talha and his son Mansoor were made rulers of Nishapur, and Sarkhas and Khwarzam respectively. Then his uncle Sulaiman bin Abdullah and his cousin Abbas were sent as rulers to Tabristan and Jurjan and Talqan respectively.

In 248 A.H., Abdullah bin Yahya bin Khaqan sought permission to perform Hajj. The Caliph permitted him but immediately after his departure he assigned a commander named Abdullah bin Yahya to arrest and exile him. He caught and exiled him to Riqqah accordingly. During the same period, the Turks wanted to murder Motaz and Moayyad. Ahmad bin Khaseeb stopped the Caliph from committing this illegal act. Immediately after sitting on the throne as Caliph, Mustayeen made a Turk chief Atamish his prime minister and Ahmad bin Khaseeb his deputy. The Caliph put Motaz and Moayyad under house arrest. After a short time Ahmad bin Khaseeb was also deposed and put under surveillance. Besides becoming prime minister, Atamish was also made the ruler of Egypt and the western territories. Bagha Sagheer was made the governor of Halwan and Masabzan. Similarly, Ashnas was appointed commander in chief and put in charge of all government staff. In short, all the important posts were given to the Turks.

In 249 A.H., the Romans launched an attack on the Islamic territories. Two reputed chiefs Omar bin Abdullah and Yahya bin Yahya besides many other Muslims were martyred in the encounter.

The Baghdad people were extremely shocked about the martyrdom of these two leaders and they all started complaining about the Turks that after getting power they not only killed the Caliphs and humiliated the noblemen but also neglected to declare Jihad against the infidels. That was why the two servants of Islam met their martyrdom and the Romans felt encouraged to attack the Muslims.

These and other issues led to the rise of unrest in Baghdad and the people began to make preparations for Jihad. In other words the common people were not waiting for the military leaders and the armed forces to address the problem of the Romans they themselves formed an army for the Jihad. The Muslims from all around began to come and join the Jihad and the wealthy Muslims contributed the money necessary and a huge army left Baghdad to fight in the holy-war against the Romans. Mustayeen and the members of his government remained in Samarra as spectators and did not intervene. The Muslims who came out for Jihad reached Samarra and created trouble there. They broke open the jail and set the prisoners free. After that, the Turk chiefs Bagha, Waseef and Atamish faced these Muslims fighters with their armies. A large number of people were killed and their enthusiasm dissipated. Because Atamish had a greater hold on power and was able to utilize the royal treasury, Bagha and Waseef had enmity for him.

After Atamish, they had Abdullah bin Mohammad bin Ali made prime minister. After a short time there developed bad blood between Bagha Sagheer and Abdullah bin Mohammad bin Ali. Abdullah left Samarra out of fear of Bagha Sagheer. The Caliph appointed Mohammad bin Fadal Jurjani as the prime minister. Caliph Mustayeen was totally under the control of the Turks. Samarra was populated mostly by Turks and the Caliph was unable to get out of their control. In this situation Yahya bin Omar bin Yahya bin Husain bin Zaid Shaheed, whose kunya was Abul Husain, revolted in Kufa. Kufa was ruled over by Ayyub bin Husain. bin Musa bin Sulaiman bin Ali on behalf of Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir. Abul Husain forced Ayyub out of Kufa, looted the royal treasury and occupied Kufa.

Abul Husain then left Kufa and marched towards Wasit. Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir sent Husain bin Ismail bin Ibrahim bin Husain bin Mus'ab to defeat him. The confrontation took place midway to Wasit. Abul Husain defeated Husain bin Ismail and returned to Kufa. The inhabitants of Baghdad also were ready to help Husain bin Ismail, who rallied his forces and attacked Abul Husain Yahya bin Omar. Yahya came out of Kufa and fought. After a fierce battle, Abul Husain was killed and his head was severed and sent to Caliph Mustayeen at Samarra. He put it into a box and kept it in the arsenal. Abul Husain Yahya lost his life on 15 Rajab 250 A.H.

As reward for his victory over Abul Husain, Caliph Mustayeen granted estates to Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir in Tabristan. One of the estates was near the border of Delam. When Mohammad bin Abdullah's ruler went to take possession, a man named Rustam opposed him. The inhabitants of Delam sided with Rustam and his two sons Mohammad and Jafar. At that time, Mohammad bin Ibrahim Alawi was present in Tabristan.

Mohammad and Jafar called on him and said, "Please stake your claim to the caliphate. We shall help you." He said, "Go to Rayy and put this request to Hasan bin Zaid bin Mohammad bin Ismail bin Hasan bin Zaid bin Hasan Sibt. He is my chief and leader." Mohammad and Jafar went to their father and briefed him about the meeting. He sent a man to Rayy. Hasan bin Zaid came to Tabristan. The people from Delam and Darban began to come and take the oath. A huge crowd collected and Hasan bin Zaid captured Tabristan, which was followed by Rayy.

Receiving this news, Mustayeen sent an army to defend Hamadan. It suffered defeat. Then Musa bin Bagha Kabeer was sent from the capital with an army. He took Tabristan from Hasan bin Zaid's control but Delam still remained under Hasan's control. Musa returned to Rayy. During these days, Caliph Mustayeen appointed Daleel bin Yaqub a Christian as his minister. After a short time, a Turk named Baghar developed a grievance against Daleel Christian. Bagha Sagheer and Waseef declared Baghar guilty in the matter. The Caliph jailed him. The Turks created an uproar and Bagha Sagheer had Baghar killed. This, far from quelling the uproar, aggravated it and the entire city of Samarra took up arms. The flags of the insurgents were visible on all sides. Seeing the danger Caliph Mustayeen, Bagha Waseef, Shahik and Ahmad bin Saleh bin Shiraz left Samarra and went to Baghdad and lodged at Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir's house in Baghdad in Muharram 251 A.H. The royal offices and the whole staff followed the Caliph and went to Baghdad.

The Turks felt ashamed after the Caliph had left for Baghdad. Six Turks from Samarra called on him and entreated him saying: "Please come to Samarra. We are ashamed of our impertinent acts. We beg to be excused." Caliph Mustayeen reminded them of their disloyalties and impertinences and he refused to go to Samarra. The Turks returned to Samarra, took Motaz bin Motawakkil out of the jail and took the oath for his rule. Abu Ahmad bin Haroon Rasheed was also present there. When he was asked to take the oath, he said, "As I have taken the oath for Mustayeen and Motaz has accepted his dismissal from succession, I shall not take the oath."

Motaz left Abu Ahmad alone and did not insist on his taking the oath. Bagha Kabeer's sons Musa and Abdullah also took the oath for Motaz. Thus all those who preferred Motaz, came to Motaz at Samarra and those who preferred Mustayeen left Samarra and went to Baghdad.

The rulers and governors of the provinces also followed suit. Some joined the one and some the other. There were two Caliphs, one in Samarra and the other in Baghdad. The dynasty of Tahir and the Khorasanis were more on Mustayeen's side while all Turks and some other chiefs joined Motaz. The Caliphs continued fighting for 11 months. Both entered into correspondence with the governors of the provinces and tried to win their sympathy. This war was not confined to Samarra and Baghdad but spread to other provinces. However, the concentration was greater around Baghdad because the other areas were waiting to see the results from the capital.

Finally, in Thul Qadah 251 A.H. Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir, the commander of Mustayeen's army in Baghdad, launched such a fierce attack on the Turks who were besieging Baghdad, that they were defeated and fled away. Bagha and Waseef were with Mustayeen in Baghdad. They also accompanied Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir with their small army of Turks consisting of men loyal to them and were part of Mustayeen's army.

When Bagha and Waseef saw the Turks defeated and fleeing from the Khorasanis and Iraqis, their national and racial prejudice received a jolt. They separated and joined the runaway army. The Turks became encouraged with their arrival, organized and ordered their armies to return and lay siege to Baghdad again.

In Baghdad, the civilians spread the rumor that Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir was deliberately putting Caliph Mustayeen into trouble which led to the loss of his enthusiasm for the struggle.

On 6 Muharram 252 A.H., Mustayeen Billah, wrote to Motaz Billah recognizing his Caliphate and renouncing his own. Caliph Motaz then entered Baghdad, put the deposed Caliph under surveillance and sent him to Wasit. Mustayeen lived there under the custody of one of Motaz's commanders for 9 months then he came back to Samarra and was slain at Caliph Motaz's suggestion.

Caliph Motawakkil’s Reign and Assassination: Roman Campaigns, Foundation of Jafaria and Revival of Sunnah

2026-11-01T00:35:34.466-07:00

Invasion on the Roman Empire

After the above exchange of prisoners the Romans again committed a breach of treaty. They led a surprise attack and took away many Muslims as captives. The Muslim commanders chased the Romans but returned disappointed.

Caliph Motawakkil sent Ali bin Yahya along with the army of Saifa to declare Jihad on the Roman Empire. The Caliph left the capital and went to Damascus. He encamped there and was busy sending armies against the Romans and making the expedition a success. All members of the government accompanied the Caliph to Damascus. All the royal offices were also shifted there because the Caliph was inclined to stay there permanently.

Hardly two months had passed since the Caliph's arrival in Damascus when an epidemic broke out and he had to return to the capital. Before leaving, he sent a big army under Bagha Kabeer's command to attack the Roman Empire. Bagha Kabeer entered Roman territory and ordered a general massacre. He conquered many forts and did not hesitate killing and capturing the Romans.

When the Romans surrendered and begged for amnesty, Bagha Kabeer pulled back at the Caliph's instance. The Romans violated the agreement again in 245 A.H. and they looted some Muslim cities. Ali bin Yahya attacked the Romans in retaliation, and looted them significantly. In 246 A.H., the Romans again harassed the Muslims. They looted the border territories and desolated them. This time Caliph Motawakkil deputed land and navy forces to lead a multi-pronged attack on the Roman territories. This caused a major upheaval there. The Romans again begged for amnesty and expressed their will for reconciliation. The Muslims conceded to it willingly and again prisoners were exchanged at the Lams River. This time, in 246 A.H., 2,300 Muslim prisoners were recovered.

The Building of the City of Jafaria

In 245 A.H., Motawakkil had a new city named Jafaria built at the cost of 200,000 dinars not including a big palace in the center of the city called Luloo (pearl). It was taller than all the royal palaces. Some called it Jafaria, some Motawakkilia and yet some Makhoorah. Jafar bin Ayyub died the same year. In this year, Motawakkil had Najah bin Maslama beaten to death. He was a very influential man. He was the executive of the office of Motawakkil's official proclamations. The charge of bribery was proved against him and he suffered this severe punishment.

The Murder of Motawakkil

As has been mentioned above, Motawakkil had made his son Muntasir heir apparent. Muntasir was greatly influenced by the Shiites and believed in the creation of the Quran as did Wathiq and Motasim before him. But Motawakkil was a strict follower of Sunnah, a great adviser of the scholars of the Sunnah and a formidable critic on the issue of the Qur'ān's creation. He always remained engaged in putting an end to this problem with great courage. This difference of belief between the father and the son led to an estrangement. Motawakkil made up his mind to make his second son Motaz his heir-apparent. As Muntasir and Motaz were born of two different women, there already existed a rivalry between them. When Caliph Motawakkil preferred Motaz to Muntasir, the latter turned inimical to his father.

A few days before this Caliph Motawakkil had become angry with his Turk commanders Bagha Kabeer, Waseef Kabeer, Waseef Sagheer and Dawajan Ashrosani for some of their activities and seized their estates, the Turks were displeased with him. Though Bagha Kabeer was sent to the Roman territories, his son Musa bin Bagha was assigned to protect the royal palace.

When Bagha Kabeer found that Muntasir agreed to his views, he organized a group including his four sons and a few Turks and assigned them the task of murdering Motawakkil. One night when Muntasir and the other courtiers left the court and the Caliph remained with Fatah bin Khaqan and four other companions, the killers entered the royal palace by the door facing the Tigris River and attacked the Caliph. Fatah bin Khaqan was also killed with him. Leaving the two dead bodies, the killers with their blood-stained swords reached Muntasir the same night and congratulated him on becoming the Caliph. Muntasir immediately went to the royal palace and took the oath from the people. Waseef and other Turk chiefs came and took the oath. When this news reached the minister Obaidullah bin Yahya bin Khaqan, he rushed to Motaz but Muntasir had already called Motaz to him and taken the oath from him. When the minister Obaidullah called on Motaz, 10,000 people including Azdi, Armeni and non-Arabs assembled there. They said to him in one voice, "If you permit us, we shall kill Muntasir and his men." Obaidullah stopped them. The next morning Muntasir ordered Motawakkil and Fatah to be buried. This happened on 4 Shawwal 247 A.H. Caliph Motawakkil was murdered after being Caliph for 14 years 10 months and 3 days. He was 40.

Motawakkil's Habits and Nature and a Few Important Incidents

Immediately after assuming power, Caliph Motawakkil Alallāh showed his interest and inclination towards the revival of the Sunnah. In 234 A.H., he invited all the scholars of Hadith to the capital Samarra and accorded them great honor. Before this during Wathiq and Motasim's regimes, they could not deliver lectures on Hadith in public and could not narrate Hadith regarding the vision of Allāh. Motawakkil decreed them to teach Hadith at mosques freely and narrate Hadith about the attributes and vision of Allāh. This pleased the Muslims and endeared him to them. Lessons on Hadiths began to be taught at the mosques. He put an end to the practice of grave worship. This made the Shiites his enemies because the rites performed at the grave of Imam Husain were stopped at once.

In 240 A.H., the inhabitants of Khalat heard such a loud sound from the sky that many people died from its impact. Hailstones, the size of chicken eggs, fell in Iraq and 13 villages sank into the earth. In 243 A.H., a severe tremor was felt in North Africa, Khorasan, Tabristan and Isfahan. Many mosques cracked and large numbers of people fell into the earth. Stones weighing 5 kg. fell on an Egyptian village. In Ramadan 243 A.H., the people of Halab (Aleppo) saw and heard a bird uttering, "O people fear Allāh" followed by "Allāh!" "Allāh" 40 times. Then it flew away. The next day the same thing happened. They informed the people in the capital and 500 people witnessed it. In 245 A.H., earthquakes took place in the whole world; many cities and forts fell to the ground; a mountain in Antakia fell into the ocean; the water in the springs of Makkah disappeared. Motawakkil spent 1,000,000 dinars to bring water from Arafat. Terrible sounds from the sky were heard.

Motawakkil was very generous. He gave more awards to the poets than any other Caliph had ever given. It was during his regime that Dhun Nun Misri appeared. When the Egyptian governor called on Thul Nun Misri and enquired about his faith, he was satisfied and wrote accordingly to Motawakkil. Motawakkil called him to the capital and was very pleased with him. He respected him much. After Motawakkil's murder somebody saw him in a dream and asked, "What has Allāh done with you?" Motawakkil said, "Allāh forgave me for whatever little I could do for the revival of the Sunnah." When he ascended the throne, the people thought about a suitable title for him. There was no agreement on it but when Motawakkil narrated his dream, all of them liked the title Motawakkil Alallāh.'

Once Motawakkil called the scholars to his palace including Ahmad bin Madal. When all the scholars had arrived, Motawakkil also came, seeing him approaching all the scholars stood up to show respect except Ahmad bin Madal who remained sitting. Motawakkil said to his minister Obaidullah "Has this gentlemen not taken the oath?" Obaidullah said, "He has taken the oath but his eyesight is poor." Ahmed bin Madal at once said, "There is no defect in my eyes but I want to protect you from Allāh's punishment for a Hadith says: 'Whosoever expects that people should stand up respect him he should make his accommodation in Hell.'" Hearing this Motawakkil moved near Ahmad bin Madal.

Yazid Mahlabi says: One day Motawakkil said to me, "The Caliphs were strict with their subjects in order to keep them in awe. But I treat my subjects kindly so that they may obey me by recognizing my Caliphate." Amr bin Sheban says: I saw Motawakkil in a dream two months after he was murdered. I said to him, "What did Allāh do with you?" Motawakkil said, 'Allāh forgave me for what I did for the revival of the Sunnah.' Then I said to him, 'What will happen to your killers?' He said, 'I have been awaiting my son Muhammad (Muntasir). When he comes I shall complain to Allāh against him.'" Caliph Motawakkil Alallāh followed the Shafii school of thought and he was the first among the Caliphs to embrace this school of jurisprudence.

Caliph Motawakkil’s Rule: Itakh’s Arrest, Succession Plans, Armenian Revolt, Qadi Ahmad’s Deposition and Roman Invasion

2026-11-01T00:27:58.774-07:00

Itakh's arrest and death

Itakh was a Turk slave. In his early years, he lived with Salam bin Abras and served as a cook and that is why he was known as Itakh Tabbakh (the cook). Finding him wise, well-mannered, strong-bodied and handsome Caliph Motasim purchased him from Salam Abras in 199 A.H. As he was discerning and clever, he kept rising in rank. During Motasim's regime, his respect and power increased many fold. Those from the royal family accused of a crime were generally imprisoned in his house and put under his surveillance. Ajeef, Mamoon Rasheed's descendants, Mohammad bin Abdul Malik and Omar bin Farah were kept as prisoners and killed under his charge. He was also in charge of defense, surveillance and delegations. He left for Hajj in Dhul Qadah 234 A.H. After his departure, Motawakkil appointed his servant Waseef to the post of surveillance. When he returned from Hajj and reached near Baghdad, Ishaq bin Ibrahim at the insistence of Caliph Motawakkil invited him to Baghdad and then imprisoned him along with his two sons, Mansoor and Mozaffar. Itakh died in captivity and his two sons remained in prison until the end of Motawakkil's Caliphate. When Muntasir ascended the throne, he released them.

The Oath for Succession

In 235 A.H., Mohammad bin Bayee bin Jalees revolted in Azerbaijan however, it was soon crushed by Bagha Kabeer. The same year Caliph Motawakkil took the oath from the people for the succession of his sons Mohammad, Talha and Ibrahim and declared that first Mohammad would be the Caliph followed by Talha. He gave titles of Muntasir and Motaz to Mohammad and Talha respectively. The western countries were given to Mohammad and the eastern countries to Motaz as landed estates. Later on, they were made successors to the throne and Syria was given to them as a landed estate.

The same year, Caliph Motawakkil changed the uniforms of the army and woolen coats were ordered to be used by tying them with a cord instead of the belt used formerly. The Dhimmis were restrained from constructing new places of worship. Instructions were issued in all the territories that no one should approach any government officials for financial help. The Christian Dhimmis were ordered not to hang the cross at their conferences. The same year Hasan bin Sahal and Ishaq bin Ibrahim bin Hasan bin Mus'ab, the nephew of Tahir bin Husain who had been the Baghdad Chief of Police since Mamoon's regime died. Motawakkil made Mohammad bin Ishaq the Chief of Police. He gave him the governorship of the province of Iran. It should be kept in mind that the Province of Iran was separate from Khorasān.

The governorship of Khorasan along with that of Tabristan was under the control of Tahir bin Abdullah Tahir bin Husain. The same year Caliph Motawakkil issued the decree that all the Christians should wear a scarf. The necktie is probably the memorial of this. In 236 A.H., he restrained the people from visiting the grave of Imam Husain (رضي الله عنه) and the constructions around it were demolished. The same year Obaidullah bin Yahya bin Khaqan was given the post of the Prime Minister.

Revolt in Armenia

The province of Armenia was governed by Yusuf bin Mohammad. Buqra bin Aswat, a prelate and the head of the prelates visited the governor's headquarters and begged Yusuf bin Mohammad for security. Yusuf arrested him along with his sons and sent them to Caliph Motawakkil. This caused great resentment among the prelates of Armenia against Yusuf. Buqrat bin Aswat's son-in-law Musa bin Zurara assembled them and sought their opinions. All swore that they would kill Yusuf bin Mohammad. Then under Musa bin Zurara's command, the Christians revolted. Yusuf bin Mohammad came out to fight. The rebels killed him and his men in Ramadan 237 A.H. Hearing this news, Motawakkil sent Bagha Kabeer to Armenia. Bagha Kabeer passed through Mousil and Jazirah, encamped at Arzan and conquered it. He killed 30,000 of Musa bin Zurara's men and also captured a large number. After that in 238 A.H., he picked up the rebellious prelates, punished them and sent them to Baghdad.

Qadi Ahmad bin Abi Dawood's Deposition and Death

Qadi Ahmad bin Abi Dawood commanded greater influence and power than the Prime Minister during Wathiq Billah's regime. The status quo was maintained during the initial period of Motawakkil. Caliph Motawakkil became displeased with Qadi Ahmad bin Dawood in 237 A.H. and ordered the confiscation of his goods, property and estates. Qadi Ahmad's son Abul Waleed sold his goods and property for 160,000 dirhams and presented the same to the Caliph. Motawakkil deposed and jailed Qadi Ahmad and gave the post of Chief Justice to Yahya bin Aktham.

Qadi Ahmad suffered from paralysis at that time. Qadi Yahya bin Aktham was also dismissed by Motawakkil in 240 A.H. and Ahmad bin Abi Dawood died the same year 237 A.H. 20 days after his son Abul Waleed's death. The same year the Christians in Hims took up arms, removed their ruler and captured the city. Caliph Motawakkil ordered the armies of Damascus and Ramla to move on Hims. These armies quelled the rebellion of the Christians and they exiled many of them. The same year Motawakkil dismissed Qadi Abu Bakr bin Mohammad bin Abul Laith of Egypt and had him lashed. He appointed Imam Malik's disciple Harith bin Miskeen as Chief Justice of Egypt. Then the Caliph made Mohammad bin Abdullah bin Tahir bin Husain bin Mus'ab Chief of the Baghdad Police while his brother Tahir bin Abdullah bin Tahir was made the governor of Khorasan.

The Roman Invasion

In 238 A.H. the governor of Egypt Ambasa bin Ishaq, called the army stationed along the coast of Dimyat to Egypt for some engagement. Finding the place unprotected, the Romans with a fleet of 100 ships looted Dimyat completely. They burned down the Central Mosque, looted the city's goods and put captives on their ships and sailed to Tunis. They repeated the same there also. Ali bin Yahya Armini invaded the Roman Empire with the help of the army of Saifah and captured many Christians. In 241 A.H., the Roman empress Nadurah wanted to convert the Muslim captives to Christianity. Those who refused were killed. Many converted to Christianity out of fear of death. Then the Queen requested Motawakkil to exchange the prisoners. Motawakkil sent his servant Saif with the Qadi of Baghdad Jafar bin Abdul Wahid to accompany the Christian prisoners. The exchange of the Muslim and Christian prisoners took place at the river Lams.

Caliph Wathiq Billah’s Death and the Rise of Motawakkil: Ahmad bin Nasr’s Execution, Roman Prisoner Exchange and Abbasid Political Changes

2026-11-01T00:24:52.864-07:00

Ahmad bin Nasr's Revolt and Death

Ahmad bin Nasr bin Malik bin Haitham Khazai's grand father Malik bin Khazai was one of the deputies of the propagation of the Abbasids cause. Ahmed bin Nasr used to live in the company of the scholars of Hadith and was counted among them. He was opposed to the issue of the Quran's creation that was why a large group of people took the oath at his hands against the Caliphate of the Abbasids. He revolted in Baghdad on Wednesday night 3 Shaban 231 A.H. and beat the war drums. The Baghdad Police swung into action and arrested him very tactfully.

Ahmad bin Nasr and his men were sent to Wathiq Billah as captives. Wathiq killed Nasr with his own hands. He cut off his head and sent his body to Baghdad. The body was hung on the gate of Baghdad and his head on the clock tower of Baghdad. A special guard was deputed with instructions that he should not let the face be pointed towards the Qiblah (direction of prayer). A sign was hung from his ear with the words: "This is Ahmad bin. Nasr bin Malik's head whom the Caliph invited to accept the faith of Qur'ān's creation but he declined. Then Allāh quickly invited him to the fire of Hell." Ahmad bin Nasr's murder took place earlier than Abu Abdur Rahman Abdullah bin Mohammad Azdi's experience with the Caliph, which has been mentioned above.

The Exchange Prisoners of War with the Romans

The chain of battles with the Romans had been going on continuously. The Muslims continued to defeat the Romans and at times, they reached Constantinople. However, the Roman Empire could not be destroyed. During the period of the rightly guided Caliphs, the Iranian empire was totally annihilated but the Roman Empire survived. Although Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were taken from the Romans and no stone was left unturned by the Muslims to capture Constantinople and enter Europe, civil wars among the Muslims started and Constantinople and Europe were spared from being overrun by the hooves of the Muslims' horses. The series of these internal struggles continued in such a way that they did not appear to have an end and none of the Caliphs had a chance and the time necessary to concentrate all their power on Europe nor was any of them able to stop the rebellions and uprisings in the Islamic territories.

In short, the internal bickering of the Muslims saved the Roman Emperor in Constantinople and the other European countries. The skirmishes between the Muslims and the Christians along the borders continued. Sometimes a Caliph invaded the Romans and returned to the capital after threatening and punishing them but it was never possible for him to be away from his capital for an extended period of time. Even during Wathiq Billah's regime skirmishes with the Romans went on. During Caliph Haroon Rasheed's time, the exchange of the Christian and Muslim prisoners took place twice. The exchange had taken place on the bank of the river Lams and on 10 Muharram 231 A.H. during Wathiq Billah's regime it took place there for a third time. The procedure adopted was as follows: Two bridges across the river were constructed in parallel. On one bridge, the Christian prisoners crossed over and on the other bridge the Muslim prisoners crossed from the other side. This was done to insure that the number of Muslims released equaled the number of Christians released. Wathiq Billah sent Khaqan on his behalf to the riverbank along with the Christian prisoners. When an equal number of prisoners were exchanged and all the Muslim prisoners numbering 4,600 were released, there still remained many Roman prisoners in the Muslims custody.

Saying, "In this exchange we should have the upper hand and this is a type of obligation on the Romans from us," Khaqan then set the remaining Roman prisoners free.

The death of Wathiq Billah

Wathiq Billah came to suffer from dropsy. His whole body swelled up. He was made to sit on a hot oven. This improved his condition. The next day the oven was heated a bit more and he sat for a longer period, which caused fever. They took him out and put him on a litter for a tour. When it was put down, they found him dead. Immediately members of the government Qadi Ahmad bin Dawood, Muhammad bin Abdul Malik Prime Minister Itakh, Waseef and Umar bin Farah assembled at the Caliph's palace and decided to enthrone Mohammad bin Wathiq Billah, a young boy of 9 years. At that moment Waseef addressed them saying, "Don't you fear Allāh making such a young boy Caliph?"

Hearing these words, they realized their mistake. They stopped and began to discuss who was the most deserving man. At last, Wathiq Billah's brother Jafar bin Motasim was called made to put on the royal robe and sit on the throne of the Caliphate. He was given the title Motawakkil Alallāh, Motawakkil Alallāh took the oath for Caliphate from all, led the funeral prayer and ordered the burial.

Wathiq Billah was buried in Hadi palace. He ruled for 5 years and 9 months. He died on Tuesday 24 Thul Hijjah 232 A.H. at the age of 36. He was very firm and forbearing. However, he committed excesses regarding the issue of the Qur'ān's creation. He was cured of this craze at the end of his life.

Note: Caliph Wathiq's body was left alone after death and everyone was busy taking the oath from Motawakkil Alallāh's hands while an animal came ate his eyes out of his head.

Motawakkil Alallāh

Motawakkil Alallāh bin Motasim bin Haroon Rasheed's real name was Jafar. His kunya was Abul Fadl. He was born of a slave-girl named Shuja. He ascended the throne after Wathiq's death on 24 Thul Hijjah 232 A.H. Immediately after becoming Caliph he disbursed salaries for 8 months to the army and made his son Muntasir the ruler of Hijaz, Yemen and Taif.

Mohammad bin Abdul Malik's Deposition and Death

Mohammad bin Abdul Malik Zayyat had been Prime Minister since Motasim's times. Even during Wathiq Billah's regime, he continued in that post. During Motawakkil Alallāh's Caliphate, he remained Prime Minister and then he was deposed and punished.

The following are the details: During his Caliphate, Wathiq Billah was displeased with his brother Motawakkil Alallāh. Motawakkil Alalāh went to Prime Minister Mohammad bin Abdul Malik and requested him to recommend him to the Amir al-Muminin and improve his standing with him. Due to his long term of office, the Prime Minister he had grown a bit arrogant, ill tempered and unbalanced. He paid little attention to Motawakkil Alallāh and treated him discourteously and said to him "Mend your ways and the Amir al-Muminin will automatically be pleased with you and no recommendation is needed." After that, he complained to Wathiq Billah against him saying, "He came to me for a recommendation to you. When I saw his hair growing like a woman, I did not talk to him." Wathiq called Motawakkil Alallāh to the court, had his hair cut and turned him out of the court. The engineer of this humiliation was Mohammad bin Abdul Malik, Motawakkil Alallāh after two months of his assuming power, ordered Itakh to arrest Mohammad bin Abdul Malik at home and send the message to all the occupied countries that all his property and goods wherever they were should be confiscated. In compliance with the order, Itakh imprisoned him, had his goods brought to Baghdad and deposited them in the royal treasury. Mohammad bin Abdul Malik could not stand the rigors of captivity and died on 15 Rabi-al-Awwal 233 A.H. in that state. Omar bin Farah was also arrested and imprisoned like him in Ramadan 233 A.H. but was later released on payment of 1,100,000 dirhams.

Caliph Wathiq Billah: Suppression of Revolts, Rise of Turkish Rule and Decline of Arab Influence

2026-11-01T00:19:01.007-07:00

Abu Harb and the Natives of Damascus

While discussing Caliph Motasim, it has been stated above that Motasim had sent Raja bin Ayyub to punish Abu Harb Yemeni. After waiting for a few days, he started a series of battles with Abu Harb. In the meantime, Motasim Billah died and Wathiq Billah succeeded to the throne. As soon as the natives of Damascus heard about his death, they rebelled. They besieged their governor within the Governor's headquarters and were collecting and arraying soldiers and had gathered a big army.

As soon as Wathiq heard the news, he ordered Raja bin Ayyub to control Damascus first. At that time, he was at war with Abu Harb at Ramla. In order to comply with this order, he left a very small army behind and taking the rest of the army with him proceeded towards Damascus. The natives of Damascus fought a bloody battle with him in which 1,500 natives of Damascus and 300 of Raja's soldiers were killed. After having been defeated, the natives of Damascus begged for security and peace and the rebellion ended. After Damascus Raja went towards Ramla, defeated Abu Harb and took him captive. Abu Harb lost 20,000 men in this battle.

The Rise and Fall of Ashnas

Following his succession to the throne Wathiq Billah made the Turk slave, Ashnas his deputy with total executive powers over all the Islamic territories. Prime Minister Mohammad bin Abdul Malik bin Zayyat who had been at this post since Motasim's times continued to enjoy this status even during Wathiq's regime. The post, which was given to Ashnas, was called Deputy of the Dynasty was created by Wathiq Billah for the first time.

The Deputy of the Dynasty used all powers of the Caliph and was of higher rank than the Prime Minister. No other Caliph invested anybody with so much power before this time. Though the Turks had suffered a loss following Afsheen's death, his forces, platoons and cavalries still survived and enjoyed honor as usual. When Ashnas came into full power over the entire Islamic world following Wathiq Billah's succession to the throne, it marks the establishment of Turk rule in the world of Islam. However, Ashnas did not enjoy this power long and his powers were limited very soon. However, this precedent would prove to be responsible for the downfall and ruin of the Abbasid Caliphate.

Wathiq Billah was fond of academic symposiums he used to sit with the scholars, the members of the government and listened to academic debates and ancient traditions. Most of the scholars were Arabs and they narrated the events of Haroon Rasheed's times whenever they had a chance. They narrated to Wathiq Billah stories of the Barmuk's academic tastes and their generosity along with their power and influence and then details of their conspiracies against the dynasty of the Caliph and all the events that led to their ruin in a proper and effective manner. Consequently, his eyes opened a bit and he began to put the Turks and Khorasani chiefs under surveillance. Most of them were found to be involved in misappropriation and Wathiq Billah started the process of collecting fines from them. It was in this connection that Ashnas's powers were restricted. He died in 230 A.H.

The End of Arab Dignity

Until this point, the Abbasid dynasty had been reducing the leadership roles and positions of honor of the Arabs and the non-Arabs had been continuously improving their positions. Because of being the cradle of Islam, Arabia commanded a special respect and, because the Arabs were the first servants of Islam, there was a special reverence for them. The dynasty of the Caliph itself came from an Arab family. That was why the non-Arabs never wished to humiliate the Arabs nor did the Caliphs send Khorasani and Turk armies to the Hijaz and Yemen to punish the Arab tribes. Whenever there arose any need for making arrangements for maintaining the administration of the Arab provinces, Arab, Iraqi or Syrian soldiers were sent.

The consequence of this special reverence was that though the Arabs were weakened, every heart harbored honor for them. No one questioned the dignity of the Arabs. During Caliph Wathiq's regime the Arabs lost this special acknowledgement. The details in brief are that there lived a good number of people belonging to the tribe of Banu Sulaim in the adjoining regions of Madinah. They attacked Banu Kanana and looted their goods.

Such incidents of lootings and killings began among the Arabs simply because they were dismissed from serving in the conquering armies and the Abbasid Caliphs had gradually eliminated them from the military. In this situation, the fighting instincts of the Arabs began to be channeled into looting, plundering and robbing.

When the ruler of Madinah, Mohammad bin Saleh, heard of Banu Sulaim's excesses he sent an army to punish and discipline them. The army suffered a crushing defeat at their hands leading to the spread of anarchy in all the regions lying between Makkah and Madinah and bringing to an abrupt halt the movement of caravans. When Caliph Wathiq Billah received the news, he sent his Turk commander Bagha Kabeer with an army to the Hijaz. He reached Madinah in Shaban 230 A.H. and confrontations with Banu Sulaim took place. He defeated the Banu Sulaim. He arrested 1,000 of them, imprisoned them in Madinah and killed many of them.

Bagha Kabeer along with his Turk army stayed in Madinah for about four months and continued to humiliate, subdue and terrify the Arab tribes in various ways. After the Hajj, Bagha Kabeer turned to Banu Hilal, punished them like he had punished Banu Sulaim and arrested 300 men. Then he turned to Banu Murrah. He went to Fadak and encamped there for 40 days and captured many men of Banu Fazarah and Banu Murrah and imprisoned them in Madinah. Then he called the chiefs and headmen of Banu Ghaffar, Thalbah and Ashja and took from them the oath of allegiance. Then he arrested 3,000 men of Banu Kilab released 2,000 of them and imprisoned 1,000 of them. Then he went to Yamamah, killed 50 men of Banu Numer and imprisoned 40.

The inhabitants of Yamamah began to fight against Bagha Kabeer he killed 1,500 of them in several encounters and skirmishes. The flame of fighting had hardly dimmed when Wathiq Billah sent another Turk commander with a fresh army to reinforce him. Bagha Kabeer then ordered a general massacre all over Yamamah. When they fled, he pursued them until Yemen and killed thousands of them. In short, after badly mauling and humiliating the Arab tribes he arrested 2,000 Arab noble men and brought them to Baghdad.

After arriving in Baghdad, he wrote to Mohammad bin Saleh to bring all the captives he had put in jail in Madinah to Baghdad. He gathered all the prisoners he had captured on the expedition and brought all of them to Baghdad where they were put in jail. In this way, Bagha Kabeer had the Arabs killed mercilessly and humiliated and subdued in various ways by Turks over a two-year period.

Abdullah bin Tahir, the ruler of Khorasan, died in 230 A.H. Caliph Wathiq Billah retained Tahir's son as the ruler of Khorasan, Kerman, Tabristan and Rayy in accordance with Abdullah bin Tahir's will.

Caliph Motasim Billah’s Legacy and the Rise of Wathiq Billah: Abbasid Military Power, Turkish Influence and Religious Controversies

2026-11-01T00:17:59.612-07:00

The Characteristics of Motasim's Caliphate

As Caliph Motasim himself was not an educated man, the academic activities, which began during Haroon's rule and reached their pinnacle under Mamoon's regime, dwindled. Motasim was interested more in war and conquest. During his regime, territories of Rome, Khizr (the area north of the Black Sea), Mawaraunnahr, Kabul and Sistan were conquered. He fought the Roman emperor very hard and surpassed any previous successes by Muslim forces against the Romans. The killing of 30,000 and capturing an equal number of Romans, in the conquest of Amurya, made the Romans extremely terrified of Motasim. The number of kings who assembled at Motasim's door had never been seen assembling at any other Caliph's door. Motasim was also fond of constructing buildings. The daily expenses of his kitchen were 1,000 dinars.

He purchased many Turk slaves and increased their number. He made a few select Turk slaves his commanders and generals. During his regime, the Turks progressed rapidly, became cultured and brave and began to exhibit valor. By increasing the Turk armies and letting them progress he wanted to break the power of the Khorasanis who had earlier reduced and ruined the Arab power. These same Turks later on would be responsible for the ruin of the Abbasi Caliphate. Motasim committed an error in making a third nation powerful. He should have helped the Arabs to be a match for the Khorasanis. However, since his ancestors from the very beginning of their rule regarded the Arabs as their enemies and relied more on the Khorasanis and distrusted the Arabs he dared not disturb this age-old family tradition.

Motasim had heard about the Khorasanis's rebellions and conspiracies and knew how his forefathers had faced their intrigues repeatedly. He also knew that his family's old rivals, the Alawiites, commanded respect and popularity among the Khorasanis and the Arabs and used their support against him. Therefore, Motasim made a third nation powerful, which had not been influenced by the Alawiites. This third nation, the Turks, had not yet grown intimate and attached to Islam due to their ignorance and barbarism. Though the Turks had been made subservient and subdued for some time, Islam was not preached to them as it should have been. Another reason was that only Turk chiefs ruled over the Turk territories of Mawaraunnahr (present day Uzbekistan) and they paid taxes to the Islamic governments.

When these Turk converts made sudden progress and saw that they were themselves a powerful Islamic force they started dreaming about putting an end to the Abbasid Caliphate as is evident from Afsheen's case.

Although Caliph Motasim was uneducated, he was wise. He recruited the Turks into the armed forces by empowering them yet he retained the ability to neutralize the dangers in this strategy. Therefore, they were not able to harm the Islamic government as long as he lived. Had his successors been as capable as he was or had he ruled for a longer period, the flaws that developed later on might have been corrected.

Truly, these are only speculations after the fact and not the most fundamental factors in the condition of the Caliphate. The real and the grossest error was the Muslims had accorded recognition to the reign of succession in the Islamic Caliphate and the son was entitled to succeed his father as Caliph. This sinful practice has always inflicted great harm on Islamic rule and the Muslims. Forgetting the tradition of Abu Bakr and Omar bin Khattab led them to see these unfortunate days. (Arabic phrase: "Inna lillahi wa inna ilayhi raji'un")

It is from Motasim's Caliphate that the Turks political life cycle starts.

Motasim may also be called the Caliph with a connection to the number 8. He was the 8th child of Caliph Haroon Rasheed. He was born in 180 A.H. or according to another tradition in 178 A.H. In both these years, the digit 8 is present. He sat on the throne in 218 A.H. Motasim was the 8th Caliph of the Abbasids. He lived for 48 years. He had 8 sons and 8 daughters. His birth constellation was Scorpio, the eighth sign of the zodiac. He was Caliph for 8 years, 8 months and 8 days. He had 8 palaces constructed. He won 8 major battles. 8 kings were brought to his court. He had 8 formidable enemies killed, like Afsheen, Ajeef, Abbas, Babak, and Mazyar. He left 800,000 dinars, 800,000 dirhams, 8 thousand horses, 8 thousand slaves and 8 thousand slave-girls as his legacy. He died on the 8th day in the month of Rabia Awwal.

Like Mamoon Rasheed, he was also obsessed with the question of the Quran's creation and most of the scholars were hurt due to his preoccupation with this obscure philosophical point. Had he not suffered from this shortcoming he would have been called the greatest Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty. During his regime, the glory of the Abbasid Caliphate reached its zenith following which signs of decline began to be visible.

Wathiq Billah

The kunya of Wathiq Billah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed bin Mahdi bin Mansoor Abbasi was Abu Jafar or Abul Qasim. His real name was Haroon. He was born of Qaratees, a slave girl, on the way to Makkah on 20 Shaban 196 A.H. His father made him his heir-apparent. He sat on the throne after his death. He was very handsome and fair complexioned. His beard was thick and shapely. His fair complexion was combined with paleness. There was a visible black mole in the white of his eyes. He was a great poet and literary expert. He was as efficient in Arabic literature as Mamoon to a certain extent superior to him. But he was inferior to him in philosophy, practical skills and wisdom. He had seen academic symposia and seminars during Mamoon's regime. He had a taste for knowledge and he was called Mamoon junior or Mamoon the second.

Wathiq had committed to memory so many verses that none among the Abbasid Caliphs could match him in this respect. He was fond of eating and drinking like his father. He was a voracious eater. He used to give away big prizes and remunerations to poets and literary men. He honored men of letters and thought it essential to treat them respectfully. However, he inherited the craze about the issue of the Quran and the created or uncreated word of Allah from his father and he was so over ambitious in this respect that he killed great scholars with his own hands thinking it to be a virtuous act.

In the last phase of his life, a remarkable thing happened which led him to reduce or totally stop his activities about the Quran and its creation. Abu Abdur Rahman Abdullah bin Muhammad Azdi who was Imam Abu Dawood and Nasai's teacher was brought to the court as a captive for his disbelief in the issue of the Quran and its creation. He put a question to Qadi Ahmad bin Abi Dawood who had been enjoying a status equivalent to that of the Prime Minister in the court since Motasim's time and believed in the issue of the Quran and its creation: "Please tell me whether the Prophet ﷺ knew or did not know that the Qur'an is a creation?"

Qadi Ahmad said: "Yes. He ﷺ knew it." Abu Abdur Rahman said: "Did the Prophet ﷺ give any instructions to the people regarding the belief of the Qur'an to be a creation?" Qadi Ahmad said: "The Prophet ﷺ did not say anything about it." Then Abu Abdur Rahman said, "This information the Prophet ﷺ did not teach the people and did not force them to believe in despite his knowledge of it, so then why don't you take the people's reticence as sufficient and why do you force them to accept it?" Wathiq was startled hearing this, stood up, left the court and went to his chamber in the palace and lay down on his bed. He kept repeating, "We are adopting stern measures regarding an issue about which the Prophet ﷺ kept silent." He then ordered Abu Abdur Rahman to be released and sent him to his native country comfortably with 300 red dinars as a reward.

Caliph Motasim Billah: Execution of Afsheen and the Death of Motasim

2026-11-01T00:16:28.470-07:00

The Death of Afsheen

The above-mentioned incident strengthened Caliph Motasim's suspicion against Afsheen and he became sure of his involvement in it. Afsheen also realized that the Caliph had become suspicious about him. He therefore began to think of ways how to flee the capital. First, he thought of going to Azerbaijan and Armenia and from there to his native country Ashrosna via Khirz. However, he could not execute this plan simply because Caliph Motasim had sent his deputy in Mankajur's place as Afsheen's deputy and Afsheen knew that he would not be safe in Azerbaijan.

At last, he made up his mind to host a feast for the Caliph, courtiers and chiefs of the government. He wanted to keep them busy eating and drinking for the whole day and when they went to sleep, he would slip away. He had hardly decided on his final plan when by chance he got angry with his servant who was also his confident and abused him. The servant in retaliation went to Itakh and disclosed Afsheen's intentions to him. Itakh at once took the servant with him and went to Caliph Motasim and informed him that Afsheen was preparing to escape. Motasim called him at once, had him stripped of rank and sent him to jail and did not show any concern about it. Then he wrote to the governor of Khorasan, Abdullah bin Tahir to arrest and send Afsheen's son Hasan bin Afsheen who was the ruler of Mawaraunnahr and was living in Ashrosna. Hasan bin Afsheen often complained against the ruler of Bukhara, Nuh bin Asad. Abdullah bin Tahir wrote to Hasan bin Ashfeen, "I hand over to you the rule of Bukhara go to Bukhara, show this order of mine to Nuh bin Asad and take charge of Bukhara." Hasan bin Afsheen was overjoyed at the letter and immediately left for Bukhara. Abdullah bin Tahir had already written to the ruler of Bukhara Nuh bin Asad, "I have sent Hasan bin Afsheen to you on this pretext. Arrest him as soon as he enters Bukhara and send him to me." By this ploy, he was arrested and brought to Abdullah bin Tahir in Merv.

Abdullah bin Tahir sent him to Motasim. When Afsheen was brought as a captive, Motasim commissioned a committee comprised of his Prime Minister Mohammad bin Abdul Malik, Qadi Ahmad bin Abi Dawood, Ishaq bin Ibrahim and other members of the government and asked them to probe Afsheen's affairs and award him the punishment which he deserved. Though Caliph Motasim could have had him slain immediately, he took this very wise step in order to counter act any possible move in the army against him for killing Afsheen.

Motasim was perfectly aware of Afsheen's evil designs and he had come to know during the war against Babak that he was stealing and sending the stolen royal goods to his son who he had already appointed the ruler of his native land Ashrosna. Since Afsheen was at war with an enemy who had not been able to be subdued for 20 years, Motasim remained patient. The success of the expedition against Babak was no ordinary feat and to keep Afsheen deprived of reward and take him to task for his betrayal might have proved fatal to Motasim and no power on the earth could have saved him from the anger of his military. Furthermore, Afsheen was expected to undergo a real change for the better but when his letters and policy proved him a traitor, Motasim was justified in what he did.

The commission of the Prime Minister and other leaders began the hearing and investigating Afsheen's case very carefully and methodically. He was brought daily to the court and statements of witnesses and documentary proof were presented in his presence.

Mazyar who was still in jail was brought before Afsheen. Afsheen's letters were read and shown to Afsheen. Afsheen pleaded guilty. Mazyar also spoke plainly and stated the facts clearly. Then things about Afsheen's denial of Islam came under discussion, which proved Afsheen a hypocrite. He desecrated the Qur'an, the mosques and the Imams of the mosques, he had the Zoroastrian books recited daily and kept them with him all the time, insolence against Islam and the Prophet Mohammad ﷺ while offering prayer with the Muslims and practicing all the tenets of Islam outwardly. In short, it was proved solidly, absolutely and convincingly that Afsheen was not a Muslim at heart rather he was engaged in defrauding the Muslims, bringing about the overthrow of the government and ending the Islamic government and establishing a Zoroastrian kingdom. The hearing of this case closed peacefully and the final verdict was this that Mazyar should be given 400 lashes and Afsheen was given capital punishment. Mazyar could not bear 400 lashes and he died. Afsheen was sent to the gallows and his dead body was put on public display. This took place in Shaban 226 A.H. Ishaq bin Yahya bin Mu'az took over as the Commander-in-chief in place of Afsheen.

The Death of Motasim

After ending the threat from Afsheen, Caliph Motasim Billah surveyed the borders of his occupied territories. When he was satisfied that there was no danger of any unrest or revolt, he said, "While Banu Umayyah were rulers and Caliphs, we did not get anything from their kingship and power. However, when we received the Caliphate, Banu Umayyah's kingdom and government continued in Andalus. Therefore, we should move towards the west and take Andalus from Banu Umayyah." He had his treasury, war and traveling expenses estimated and began to prepare to invade Andalus. During that period, he was informed that Abu Harb Yemeni who lived in Palestine and claimed to belong to the dynasty of Banu Umayyah, had collected a 100,000 man army and was about to revolt.

As stated, Abu Harb lived in Palestine. One day when he was out, a soldier came to his house and stayed there. The women folk forbade him to do so. The soldier beat them up and occupied the outer part of the house meant for male guests by force. When Abu Harb came back, he attacked the soldier and killed him. Out of fear of the officials, he went to hide In the mountains of Jordan. He wore a veil over his face and began to preach to the local people. They became his devotees. He started criticizing and speaking ill of the Caliph. In this way, about 100,000 people became his disciples, collected under his banner and were ready to rebel against the Caliph. Motasim deputed Raja bin Ayyub with 1,000 soldiers to punish him. But Raja bin Ayyub was overawed by the greater number of Abu Harb's followers and hesitated in waging the battle. He decided to wait for the planting season, letting Abu Harb's followers who were mostly farmers, become busy with their agricultural activities, before attacking. During this time, Caliph Motasim Billah died on 30 Rabi-al-Awwal 227 A.H. and his trial of strength against Banu Umayyah remained unfulfilled. After his death, his son Wathiq Billah became Caliph and the people took the oath at his hands. Wathiq led Motasim's burial service and he was buried at Samarra.

Caliph Motasim Billah: Afsheen’s Conspiracy and the Revolts in Tabristan, Kurdistan and Azerbaijan

2026-11-01T00:15:17.890-07:00

The Revolt of Tabristan

Mazyar bin Qarin, the ruler of Tabristan, was the subordinate and paid taxes to the governor of Khorasan, Abdullah bin Tahir. There developed an estrangement between them. Mazyar said, "I shall send the taxes directly to the capital but not directly to Abdullah bin Tahir." Abdullah bin Tahir took it as an affront to his rule and disliked it. The quarrel continued for sometime as Mazyar continued to send the taxes directly to the capital where Abdullah bin Tahir's man continued receiving it.

During the war with Babak, Afsheen was empowered to spend money freely and Motasim continued to dispatch all types of goods and money to him. Afsheen was highly economical in spending it and the rest he used to send to his native land Ashrosna (Turkistan).

These goods meant for Azerbaijan used to pass through Khorasan. When Abdullah bin Tahir came to know that Afsheen was sending provisions, arms, and money to his motherland, he realized that something was wrong. He caught and imprisoned the men who carried these goods, seized them and wrote to Afsheen, "Some of your soldiers were carrying such and such goods, I arrested and jailed them and distributed the goods among my soldiers because I am preparing to invade Turkistan. Though they told me that they were sent by you, their statement appears to be absolutely false because had they not been thieves and been sent by you, you would have definitely informed me." At the sight of the letter, Afsheen felt extremely ashamed and wrote back to him that they were not thieves but his men. At the receipt of the letter Abdullah bin Tahir released them but the goods he had seized were not returned.

He sent a secret report about it to Caliph Motasim although he did not pay any obvious attention to it. Afsheen wanted to establish his own government in Ashrosna and he was making preparations for it in advance. When he returned to Samarra after the war with Babak was over, he hoped that Motasim would make him the governor of Khorasan and he would have an opportunity to found his own kingdom. But Motasim made him the governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan instead and this disturbed his plan.

Immediately after that, the Roman war took place and Afsheen had to participate, Motasim himself was present and the man he made the commander-in-chief was Ajeef who considered himself to be the rival of Afsheen. What happened to Ajeef has been mentioned above.

Now Afsheen thought out a new plan, he wrote a confidential letter to Mazyar the ruler of Tabristan, and instigated him to rise against Abdullah bin Tahir. It read:

There is none to patronize and promote the Zoroastrian religion except you and me. Babak tried to support it but he met his end due to his own foolishness. He did not act upon my advice. Now there is still a golden chance at present. You simply rise in revolt. They will only send me to face you. Now I have a very powerful army. I shall conspire with you and we shall join forces. Then only the westerners, Arabs and Khorasanis will fight against us. The westerners are very few. An ordinary division of our army will be sufficient to face them. As for the Arabs, give them a morsel and then pound their heads with stones. As far as the Khorasanis are concerned, their enthusiasm is just like boiling milk it rises and then the next moment it falls. With a small amount of determination, they will be finished quickly. If you gear up a little then the religion, which saw its rise during the regimes of the non-Arab kings, may again be established and promoted.

Mazyar was overjoyed reading the letter. He rose in revolt. He collected taxes from his subjects for a year in advance, procured the weapons of war, repaired the forts and was ready to face the most powerful army. When Abdullah bin Tahir was informed of Mazyar's revolt, he sent his own uncle Hasan bin Husain with an army towards him. When Motasim found out, he issued orders for the dispatch of armies from the capital and other places to reinforce Abdullah bin Tahir. He did not allow Afsheen to go to the conflict. Consequently, Mazyar was arrested and presented before Abdullah bin Tahir who in turn sent him to Motasim. Motasim sent him to jail. When Hasan bin Husain caught Mazyar, he seized Afsheen's letter to him. Other letters of the same nature sent by Afsheen were also recovered from him. Abdullah bin Tahir sent those letters to Caliph Motasim, who took and kept them under his custody and outwardly did not attach any importance to them. This happened in 224 A.H.

The Revolt in Kurdistan

The revolt in Tabristan had hardly been stamped out when Jafar bin Fahar, a Kurd, collected a huge number of Kurds in the adjoining areas of Mousil and rose in revolt. Although its border touched the borders of Azerbaijan and Armenia, Motasim sent Abdullah bin Sayyed bin Anas to punish Jafar and did not send Afsheen on this expedition. Abdullah bin Sayyed arrived there and marshaled his troops in battle array. The battles continued until Motasim sent another general Itakh with a strong army. Jafar bin Fahar was killed in action and his men were caught and killed. This revolt probably engineered by Afsheen ended in 225 A.H.

The Revolt in Armenia and Azerbaijan

After having made one of his relatives Mankajur his deputy and having handed the governorship of Azerbaijan over to him, Afsheen settled in the capital. Mankajur somehow found a large treasure of Babak Khurmi in a certain village. He did not inform the Caliph and kept it himself. Motasim's informant told him. When Mankajur knew of this, he decided to murder him. The poor reporter sought safety from the people of Ardabil and they tried to stop Mankajur but he was ready to kill them too. When informed, Motasim sent an order for Mankajur's removal to Afsheen and dispatched Bagha Kabeer with an army to Azerbaijan to take his place. When Mankajur heard that he was deposed and that Bagha Kabeer was coming to take charge he revolted. He left Ardabil fought and was defeated. Bagha Kabeer moved forward and captured Ardabil. Mankajur fled and took refuge in a fort in Azerbaijan. He remained there for about a month. Finally, one of his own men captured him when he was off his guard and handed him over to Bagha Kabeer. Bagha Kabeer returned to Samarra with him and brought him to Caliph Motasim who put him in jail.

Caliph Motasim Billah: Conquest of Amurya and Execution of Abbas bin Mamoon’s Rebellion

2026-11-01T00:14:11.532-07:00

The Capture of Amurya and the Battle of Rome

When Babak Khurmi felt desperate during the siege by the Islamic army he dispatched a letter to Nofil bin Michael, the Roman emperor stating: "Motasim has sent all his forces against me. Baghdad, Samarra and all the provinces are quite defenseless at this time and all the leaders of the army are at war with me. You will not get a better chance to capture these territories don't let it slip through your fingers and march on Baghdad conquering the Islamic territories." Babak felt that if the Roman emperor invaded, the Islamic army would have to be divided into two parts reducing its pressure on him. The Roman emperor read the letter and attacked with 100,000 soldiers but by that time the war with Babak had ended, and the Islamic army was poised to stop him. Nofil first launched a night attack on Zabtarah and killed all the men who fought against him and captured their women and children. Then he turned to Maltiya and did the same thing there.

The news of the capture and ruin of Zabtarah and Maltiya reached Motasim on 29 Rabia Thani 223 A.H. The narrator also told of a Roman soldier dragging away a Hashimite woman and she was shouting, "O Motasim, O Motasim." As soon as he heard this, Motasim stood up from the throne of Caliphate saying, "Labbaik, Labbaik" (I am here, I am here). He jumped on his horse and ordered the drum of departure to be beaten. The soldiers and their leaders came and joined him. All the royal army and a group of Mujahideen (those fighting for the cause of Allah) followed him. He sent Ajeef bin Ambasa and Omar Farghani ahead with a fast moving vanguard to reach Zabtarah as soon as possible and console and boost the moral of the people there and drive away the Romans but the Romans had left by the time the two commanders arrived there.

Then Caliph Motasim arrived with his army. He wanted to know the strongest and most important city of the Romans in that area. He was told that Amurya was such a strong and fortified fort and city. It was very important also because it was the birth place of the Roman emperor Nofil. Motasim said, "Zabtarah is my birth-place. The Roman emperor has ruined it and in retaliation I will ruin his birth place Amurya." He therefore made available equipage and war material on an unprecedented scale. Then he made Ashnas the commander of the vanguard. Mohammad bin Ibrahim bin Mus'ab was made the supplier of reinforcements to him. Then he fixed Itakh on the right flank and Jafar bin Dinar Khayyat on the left flank, giving the middle part to Ajeef bin Ambasa. Having made these arrangements, he entered Roman territory and made Ajeef bin Ambasa the supreme commander of all the forces. He arrived at Saluqiya and encamped along the tributary San, which was at a distance of one day's journey from Tartoos.

Here it must be remembered that Motasim had already sent Afsheen as governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Afsheen with his army entered Roman territory. A part of the Islamic army marched forward and occupied Angoora where it captured a big stock of grain, which the Muslims needed to continue the fight. The Roman emperor wanted to confront the Islamic army at Angoora and had made all the necessary materials and food available there. However, the army stationed there and their commanding officer had a falling out and as a result, the army retreated. Meanwhile the Roman emperor himself had gone to the Armenian border to stop Afsheen's advance. After being defeated, he turned back to Angoora but the Muslims had already captured it. Being compelled he then turned to Amurya and made the necessary provisions of all war materials available there. He collected the army from all corners of his empire and became busy securing all kinds of military weapons. At Angoora Motasim encamped and waited for Afsheen, where he called upon the Caliph and joined him on the expedition.

At the end of Shaban 223 A.H., Caliph Motasim along with his army left Angoora to declare war. He fixed Afsheen on the right flank and Ashnas on the left and he remained in the middle. The Islamic army marched forward and laid siege to Amurya, and after making fortifications started moving towards the battlements. From 6 Ramadan 223 A.H. to the end of Shawwal 223 A.H., 55 days in all, they kept Amurya encircled and finally conquered it. They captured or killed the people there. Motasim continued to sell the booty for five days and what remained was consigned to flames. Then he ordered Amurya to be pulled down and leveled to the ground. The army destroyed it completely. Emperor Nofil fled and went to Constantinople and Caliph Motasim divided the captives among his generals and marched towards Tartoos.

The Death of Abbas bin Mamoon

Ajeef and Afsheen were rivals. Caliph Motasim often criticized Ajeef's activities and that amounted to his humiliation in Afsheen's eyes. Consequently, Ajeef's loyalty underwent a change and he began to hatch a conspiracy against the Caliph. On the occasion of the invasion of the Roman Empire, he said to Abbas Mamoon who was with him on the journey, "You committed a blunder mistake by taking the oath at Motasim's hands. Had you expressed your mind to be Caliph yourself, all the army chiefs were ready to lend you support." This inducement and more set Abbas thinking. Ajeef mentioned such things so many times that Abbas decided to revolt. It was proposed that first of all the army chiefs should be converted to their views and then by killing Motasim, Afsheen and Ashnas simultaneously, they would declare Abbas's Caliphate. They acted as proposed and many soldiers were persuaded to recognize Abbas as Caliph. While returning from Amurya after its conquest, Motasim stumbled upon the conspiracy.

Motasim first imprisoned Abbas and handed him over to Afsheen. Then Masha bin Sahal, Omar Farghani and Ajeef were arrested one after another and thrown into captivity. First Masha bin Sahal was slain. Then they reached Banj and put Abbas into a sack and stitched it closed and caused him to die of suffocation. Then they reached Nasiban, had a ditch dug out and buried Farghani in it alive. Then they reached Mousil and there Ajeef was also stuffed into a sack and sewn closed leading to his suffocation and death. After entering Samarra, Motasim had all the descendants of Caliph Mamoon Rasheed rounded up and put under house arrest until they died. During this journey, Caliph Motasim picked up all the suspects and had them killed.

Caliph Motasim Billah: Removal of Fadal bin Marwan and Defeat of Babak Khurmi by Afsheen Haider

2026-11-01T00:13:21.501-07:00

The Removal of Fadal bin Marwan

The same year, 220 A.H., the Caliph received complaints of corruption and dishonesty against his Prime Minister Fadal bin Marwan. He assigned auditors to take account of the expenditures. They found a discrepancy of 1,000,000 dinars. The Caliph deducted this sum from his goods and belongings and put him under surveillance in a village near Mousil. He then appointed Mohammad bin Abdul Malik bin Abban bin Hamza as his Prime Minister in place of Fadal. Mohammad bin Abdul Malik was known as Ibn Zayyat because his grandfather Abban lived in a village and brought oil from there and sold it in Baghdad. Mohammad bin Abdul Malik was brought up and educated in Baghdad and achieved high qualifications. The period he was Prime Minister extended to the regimes of Motasim, Wathiq and Motawakkil. Just as Qadi Yahya bin Aksham during Haroon Rasheed's regime was not a minister, yet he was more powerful and influential than the Prime Minister and always accompanied Mamoon, similarly Qadi Yahya bin Aksham's disciple Ahmed bin Abi Dawood lived with Motasim. Though he too was not a minister, he enjoyed as much power and authority as the Prime Minister did. It is said that whatever atrocities Mamoon and Motasim perpetrated on the scholars in connection with the debate about the created nature of the Quran were done at the insistence and instigation of these two men. However, it was Ibn Abi Dawood at Motasim's court, who supported the Arabs and it was due to him that they commanded some respect in the capital otherwise the Turks and the Iranians dominated everywhere.

Babak Khurmi and Afsheen Haider

It has already been mentioned that all the generals of Mamoon Rasheed who went to fight against Babak Khurmi were defeated. They had made the city Buz their headquarters and the people of the adjoining areas recognized his rule. All the governors and noblemen were afraid of him and entertained his men to win his pleasure. Caliph Motasim assigned Abu Sayeed Mohammad bin Yusuf to punish Babak. Abu Sayeed first had all the forts situated between Ardabil and Azerbaijan repaired which Babak had damaged or demolished. Then he gathered the necessary provisions of food and weapons and then he marched towards Babak. A division of Babak's army launched a night attack on one of the cities.

When Abu Sayeed was informed of the night attack, he took his army and set out in pursuit. He caught up with them and fought and defeated Babak's army. Many of his men were killed and captured and the goods they had looted were recovered. This was the first setback, which Babak's army received. Its impact was that those leaders who supported Babak out of fear but were actually against him began to sympathize with the Islamic forces. One of Babak's generals Asmat came to stay at the fort of Azerbaijan, Mohammad bin Bayeeth the caretaker, made arrangements for a feast, and lodged his men as usual. He treated them with honor but arrested them at night and sent him to Caliph Motasim and killed his men. Caliph Motasim made him divulge the secrets of Babak's cities and forts. He told him everything in the hope of being released. Motasim imprisoned Asmat and decided to send a more powerful and veteran general to fight with Babak and put an end to his evil for good.

Haider bin Kaoos was Motasim's greatest general. He was the son of the king of Ashrosna whose family name was Afsheen. He had embraced Islam and his Islamic name was Haider and was known as Afsheen Haider. He was the commander in chief of the entire Faraghna or Turkish army. He had accepted Islam at Motasim's hands during Mamoon Rasheed's Caliphate and was constantly in his service. During the period of his governorship of Syria and Egypt, Motasim had tested his military services and found him to be a real veteran. After assuming power he organized the Faraghna army, he appointed Afsheen Haider, Itakh, Ashnas, Ajeez, Waseef and Bagha Kabeer all Turks, leaders of the army. Afsheen Haider was made the commander in chief.

He had palaces built for all these commanders in Samarra. After assessing Babak's power and the difficult terrain of mountain passages and passes, Caliph Motasim sent Afsheen Haider to fight him. Besides divisions of Turks, Khorasani and Arab armies were also sent under his command. A number of local fighters also set out for the purpose of Jihad. After reaching there, Afsheen began a chain of battles very carefully and efficiently. Having sent him with full equipage and men, Motasim later dispatched Itakh with a fresh army as reinforcements. After a few days, he sent Bagha Kabeer with arms and necessary provisions. Afsheen received 10,000 dirhams daily in addition to all military expenditures, food and other necessities when at war and siege and 5,000 dirhams from the Caliph's treasury besides his salary when at peace during the entire period of war with Babak. The war continued for a year and a half.

Afsheen reached Ardabil and continued establishing outposts at short distances in order to facilitate food supply and communication. Then he entered the mountains, which were under Babak's occupation and fixed the army at strategic locations, setup communications and coordinated the movements of his commanders by flags or messengers and marched on by pushing Babak's army back towards the fort of Buz. He also made careful defensive arrangements against night attacks and ambushes. The climate and the severe cold of winter made the Arabs and the Iraqis more uncomfortable than the Khorasanis and the Turks.

Jafar bin Dinar Khayyat was the chief of the local fighters who had come out for Jihad. He, Bagha and Itakh fought heroically. Babak and his generals Azeen and Tarah Khan exhibited considerable military skill. Abu Sayeed who had been at war with Babak long before Afsheen's arrival began to work under him along with his army. The long chain of battles resulted in Babak Khurmi's defeat and captivity. He was sent to Caliph Motasim at Samarra. Babak and his brother were arrested in Shawwal 222 A.H. and Afsheen was sent to Samarra in Saffar 223 A.H. At the receipt of the news of victory and Babak's capture, Motasim passed orders that Afsheen should be presented at all the stages between Barzand (Azerbaijan) to Samarra with a robe of honor and a well-saddled horse and accorded a royal and grand reception. When Afsheen approached the capital Samarra, the Caliph's son Wathiq received him at the city gate.

When he appeared in the Caliph's court, he was seated on a golden chair and a crown was put on his head. A very expensive robe of honor and a sum of 2,000,000 dirhams was given to him as a reward and 1,000,000 dirhams was given to be distributed among his soldiers. Babak was slain by the order of Caliph Motasim at Samarra. His brother was sent to Baghdad where he was killed. Their dead bodies were hung up for display. Babak had maintained his influence for about 20 years. During that period, he killed 155,000 people. 7,600 Muslim men and women were rescued and released from his captivity. Afsheen arrested 17 men and 30 women from Babak's family.

Caliph Motasim Billah: Revolts, Military Reforms and the Foundation of Samarra

2026-11-01T00:12:31.695-07:00

Motasim Billah

Abu Ishaq Motasim bin Haroon Rasheed was born of a slave girl named Barwah at Zabtarah in Roman territory in 180 A.H. when Caliph Haroon Rasheed himself was attacking the Roman territories. Haroon loved him most and whenever he distributed anything among his children, he used to give him the largest share. Motasim was not interested in acquiring education. He spent his childhood days in games and sports. Haroon had assigned a slave to live with him and educate him whenever he had a chance. When the slave died Haroon said to Motasim, "Now your slave has died. Say what is your intention now?" Motasim said, "Amir al-Muminin! Yes, the slave is dead and I have gotten rid of the books." This indicates that Motasim was not fond of studying. The fact is that he had only a little formal education. Since he was brought up in the company of the royal family and scholars and had seen the educational meetings during Haroon and Mamoon's regimes, his knowledge was sufficient. Motasim was a heavily built wrestler and a brave man. He was also a good general. Ibn Abi Dawood says: "Motasim often outstretched his arm towards me and said, 'Bite it as hard as you can.' I bit and he said, 'I did not feel anything.' I bit again but in vain. He often broke the wrist of his opponents with the pressure of only two fingers."

Motasim sometimes composed poems and honored the poets. He was also infected with the problem concerning the debate about the creation of the Quran like his brother Mamoon Rasheed. Just as Mamoon persecuted the scholars in connection with this problem, Motasim Billah Abbasi also followed suit. He mercilessly tortured Imam Ahmad bin Hambal in connection with this problem.

Motasim Billah was the governor of Syria and Egypt during the Caliphate of Mamoon Rasheed. When Mamoon invaded the Roman territory, Motasim exhibited such bravery that Mamoon was pleased and made him his heir apparent and deprived his own son, Abbas. The oath for the Caliphate of Motasim Billah was taken the day after the death of Mamoon at Tartoos on 19 Rajab 218 A.H., corresponding to 10 August 833 A.D.

Fadal bin Marwan was his Christian assistant. When the news of Mamoon's death reached Baghdad, Fadal bin Marwan took the oath for Motasim's Caliphate from the inhabitants of Baghdad. Having reached Baghdad, Motasim made Fadal bin Marwan his Prime Minister. When the oath for Motasim was taken, most of the military personnel wanted Abbas bin Mamoon saying that he deserved the Caliphate more than anybody else. Motasim sent for Abbas and he took the oath at Motasim's hands. After the oath, the unrest subsided by itself. The city of Towanah was built under the supervision of Abbas. Immediately after becoming Caliph, Motasim ordered Towanah to be demolished and rendered desolate and the citizens were sent back from where they had come. After its desolation, he brought all the goods, which he could, from there to Baghdad and burned the rest.

The Revolt of Mohammad bin Qasim

Mohammad bin Qasim bin Ali bin Omar bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Abi Talib lived near the mosque in Madinah and spent his time in prayer. A Khorasani visited him and coaxed him saying that he deserved the Caliphate and that he should take the oath from the people secretly. He therefore began to gather those people who came from Khorasan to perform Hajj and passed through Madinah. They would take the oath for his Caliphate.

Thus when a good number of followers gathered in Khorasan, Mohammad bin Qasim went to Jurjan with the same Khorasani who originally incited him and went into hiding there safely organizing himself. Oaths of supporters continued to be taken there secretly. The rich and the noble visited him. At last Mohammad bin Qasim revolted. The governor of Khorasan Abdullah bin Tahir sent an army to quell the riots. There were several fights on the outskirts of Talqan. Mohammad bin Qasim was defeated in every battle. Finally, he escaped alone to save his life. He was arrested in Nasa and brought to Abdullah bin Tahir who sent him to Motasim in Baghdad. He put him under the custody of Masroor Kabeer. Mohammad bin Qasim arrived in Baghdad on 15 Rabi-al-Awwal 219 A.H. and escaped unnoticed from captivity on the first night of Shawwal which corresponds to the Islamic holiday Eid al-Fitr following Ramadan in 219 A.H.

The Extermination of the Zutts

In Jumad-al-Thani 219 A.H., Caliph Motasim deputed his general Ajeef bin Ambasa to finish the battle of Zutt. He had been at war with those plunderers for seven months and at last he forced them to ask for safety and pardon by themselves in Dhul Hijjah 219 A.H. and they surrendered themselves to Ajeef. Ajeef took them numbering 17,000 including women and children to Baghdad. That included 12,000 men who were physically fit to fight. Ajeef entered Baghdad on 10 Muharram 220 A.H. Motasim himself boarded a boat and came to Shamamah. He inspected the Zutt captives and ordered that they should be settled near Zarbah close to the Roman border. They were therefore resettled there. The Romans later decided to attack the Islamic territories and led a surprise night attack in this area and massacred them not sparing a single soul. Thus, the group of Zutt met their end.

The City of Samarra

Caliph Motasim was a soldier. He turned his attention more towards the military. His predecessors, the Abbasi Caliphs, attached more importance to the Khorasanis. They had rarely relied on the Arab army. Although they faced dangers from the Khorasanis more than once, they depended more on the Khorasanis and the Iranians in comparison with the Arabs on the whole. The Arab elements continued to become weaker. Motasim Billah concentrated on the organization and improvement of the military from the beginning of his Caliphate. He purchased thousands of Turkish slaves and formed an army. He also had Turks from Farghana and Ashrosna (Turkistan) recruited.

He liked their style of fighting and their ability to bear extreme hardship. Until this time the army was composed of Arabs and the Iranians and they were always at war with the Turks along the borders of the Islamic territory. The Turks and their leaders were subjugated and had to pay taxes, then they revolted and fought against their conquerors. They were not considered reliable to be recruited into the army. Motasim however, recruited them into his army in such large numbers and appointed them to so many high posts that they were on par with the Iranian military in respect to their number. The Arab tribes continued to decrease until only the Egyptian and Yemeni tribes were left in the Caliph's army. The Caliph combined all the Arab divisions and formed a separate army and called it Magharba.

The Turk army was made up of soldiers from Samarkand, Farghana and Ashrosna, which was very powerful and was named Faraghna. The Khorasani army developed an enmity with the Faraghna army. Since Caliph Motasim had organized the new Turkish army with great care, all facilities were made available to its soldiers. Their uniforms were more beautiful, their horses were better and their salaries and allowances were more than the others. The Khorasanis began to quarrel with them in Baghdad. Observing the situation, Motasim set up a military cantonment at a distance of 90 miles from Baghdad on the Qatoon tributary of the Tigris River. He built a palace for himself, houses for the soldiers, a large market and a central mosque. Other necessary buildings were erected and he settled the Turks there and then he moved to the newly built city.

He called it Surra man Raa, which came to be known as Samarra in common usage. It was built in 220 A.H. and the same year it was declared the capital in place of Baghdad. In a short time, it was on par with Baghdad in respect of its beauty and population and the Turks instead of the Arabs and Khorasanis came to dominate over the capital and the Caliph. The same year Mohammad bin Ali Raza bin Musa bin Qasim bin Jafar Sadiq died and was buried in Baghdad.