Researchers in the US are currently looking in to a new therapy for bone cancer in dogs, based upon a relatively new branch of science known as oncolytics.

The new bone cancer therapy uses a modified, ‘harmless’ virus to target only cancerous cells. The virus replicates within cancerous cells, destroying them and spreading around the body to other cancer cells. The modified virus has been engineered to leave normal, healthy cells untouched.

Bone Cancer in Dogs: Osteosarcoma

Canine osteosarcoma is an extremely aggressive cancer, as such, an unfortunate truth is that the outcome for the majority of dogs affected by the disease is not good. Research in to this new therapy for the treatment of bone cancer will therefore be greatly received by many.

Current treatment of bone cancer in dogs involves the amputation of the affected limb and chemotherapy to combat cancer cells that have spread around the body. Radiation therapy is sometimes used as a palliative therapy, which helps to reduce any pain that your dog may be experiencing.

For more information on bone cancer in dogs:

• Canine Osteosarcoma – Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine
• Donate to provide funding for bone cancer in dogs – Bone Cancer Dogs
• One Dog’s Battle with Osteosarcoma – Canine Cancer Blog

Dogs with osteosarcoma will often begin limping for no apparent reason as a result of the painful growth. Aggression, reluctance to exercise, weight loss and sleeplessness may follow. There may also be inflammation and swelling around the affected area. If you notice these symptoms in your dog, it is important that you visit your vet as soon as possible to rule out the possibility of osteosarcoma.

Oncolytic Treatment of Bone Cancer in Dogs

Oncolytics is a term given to the treatment of cancers with viruses. The new therapy being researched uses this model of cancer therapy to destroy cancerous cells.

Cancer sufferers are infected with an oncolytic virus, which will infect cancerous cells. After infection, the virus uses resources within that cell to replicate itself, creating many identical copies of the original virus. After this incubation period, the infected cancer cell becomes full of the replicated oncolytic virus and bursts open – killing that cancerous cell and releasing multiple copies of the oncolytic virus. The process continues and the virus replicates exponentially, spreading through the entire body.

Oncolytic viruses used for the treatment of cancers are attenuated versions of existing viruses that already display oncolytic properties. This means certain properties of the virus are removed to make the virus safer and to ensure that it only targets cancerous cells.

An in-depth guide in to oncolytic viruses can be found here.

See below for an example of how Reolysin®, a commercial oncolytic virus currently being manufactured by Oncolytics Biotech Inc., specifically targets cancer cells.

Image from the Oncolytics Biotech Inc. website

Cancers, such as bone cancer in dogs, will benefit greatly from oncolytics. The rapid spread of the cancer around the body will be matched by the spread of the virus, greatly reducing the threat of metastasis.

The Future of Oncolytics as a Cancer Treatment

Oncolytics is a very promising therapy for cancer patients, as such, there is a lot of research being done in to how best exploit these cancer-fighting viruses to help those suffering from cancer. There are also numerous oncolytic viruses currently undergoing clinical trials.

If this research for the treatment of bone cancer in dogs proves successful, it will greatly benefit not only future treatment of the disease in dogs, but also the treatment of cancer in humans too.

The research is currently under way at Auburn University after the American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation awarded Dr. Bruce Smith, Research Initiative in Cancer director, a 2 year grant.

Be sure to leave your thoughts on the exciting research in to this method of cancer treatment in the comments below.

Image Credit: mjk23

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The severity of epilepsy can vary greatly between individual sufferers. Some dogs may experience a single, isolated seizure, whilst other can experience multiple seizures every week.

Recently Boehringer Ingelheim has announced their latest product for the treatment of canine epilepsy, Pexion® (Pexion) an alternative to the traditional phenobarbital or potassium bromide treatments given to epileptic dogs.

What Is Pexion?

Unlike other treatments for canine epilepsy, Pexion contains the active ingredient Imepitoin. Imepitoin acts in a similar manner to previous anti-epileptic medicines, potassium bromide and phenobarbital, in that it works to suppress electrical activity in the brain.

Imepitoin partially activates GABA receptors, which are responsible for reducing electrical activity between nerve cells. This partial activation of the GABA receptors is believed to reduce electrical activity and help prevent seizures. Specifically, Imepitoin also has a weak blocking effect on calcium channels that allow electrical signals to be propagated along nerve cells.

See here for more information about Pexion 

Does Pexion Work?

A study conducted on Pexion during its development compared it to the traditional anti-epileptic medicine phenobarbital. A 20 week study of 226 dogs taking the medications found Pexion matched phenobarbital in efficacy, reducing the occurence of seizures by around 50%. ¹

Is Pexion a Better Alternative?

The Pexion study showed that it had an effectiveness equivalent to phenobarbital, however, Pexion may be considered a better alternative as it has less severe side effects.

Unlike phenobarbital, Pexion does not pose a hepatotoxicity risk (liver toxicity). This means the regular testing required to ensure that a dog’s liver remains healthy is not needed whilst being given Pexion.

Treating the Epileptic Dog

It is commonly cited that around 0.5 to 5% of dogs suffer from some form of epilepsy, the severity varying between breeds and individuals. In dogs where seizures occur infrequently  owners may consider not using any medication at all, avoiding the side effects associated with anti-epileptic medications.

In dogs where seizures occur more freqently, such as once a month or more, treatment should be considered.

The introduction of Pexion gives owners and vets a greater choice when it comes to treatment, but does not replace phenobarbital and potassium bromide.

Owners should consult their vet and explore all the possibilities when dealing with an epileptic dog.

For more information about epilepsy, such as the causes, what to do during a seizure and more, see this article.

Disclaimer: This article was written as a response to the release of Pexion and as a follow up to a previous article concerning idiopathic epilepsy. I am not affiliated with the product (Pexion) or the manufacturer (Boehringer). 

Image Credit: Onkel_wart

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Whilst the virus is not typically lethal, it can result in a higher occurrence of infections and degenerative conditions that can be stressful and uncomfortable for the infected cat.

Many cats afflicted with FIV suffer from intestinal disorders such as colitis, chronic diarrhoea or inflammatory bowel disease. A recent study investigated the effects of probiotics on the feline intestinal tract and found that they have the potential to reduce the severity of intestinal problems by restoring normal conditions in the gut.

Feline Immunodeficiency Virus

FIV is a type of lentivirus that is believed to infect 11% of cats worldwide. ¹ The infection is not curable, so infected cats will live with the virus for the rest of their life. How the virus affects an infected cat varies between individuals, some cats succumb to the direct effects of the virus, whilst other may suffer from secondary infections due to the virus’ effect on the immune system. Some cats may even go their whole life without ever displaying symptoms, but continue to spread the virus.

The transmission of FIV from one to cat to another requires saliva from an infected cat to enter the bloodstream. This means deep bites or scratches are required for the virus to spread. Infected females can spread the virus to their offspring during pregnancy as the virus can be transferred in the uterus.

FIV attacks the immune system of the infected cat, it targets the white blood cells responsible for dealing with infections. The weakened immune system increases the chance of infected cats developing secondary infections.

A vaccine is available, but it is difficult to test how effect the vaccine actually is. Due to the high number of possible variations of the virus, it is also difficult to protect against all strains with a single vaccine. One study did show the vaccine was able to protect an entire sample group from infection with one sub-type of the virus. ² Vaccination is the choice of the owner.

A treatment for FIV is available in the USA. It is known as Lymphocyte T-Cell Immunomodulator (LTCI) and it works by increasing the production of certain white blood cells (CD-4+ T-cells). Increasing the production of these cells can help reduce the immunosuppressive effects of FIV.

Chronic Diarrhoea in FIV Positive Cats

FIV positive cats have been observed to suffer more frequently from chronic diarrhoea than FIV negative cats. Whilst there are a number of theories that could explain this increase, a definitive explanation is yet to be found.

FIV is associated with intestinal mucosal dysfunction. The intestinal mucosa is what lines the wall of the intestines. so if there are problems with the way that it functions, absorption of nutrients and water can be disrupted. It is this disruption that can lead to chronic diarrhoea.

It is also thought that intestinal mucosal dysfunction associated with FIV positive cats disposes them to bacterial or viral infection. If pathogenic bacteria establish themselves in the instestine this too can cause chronic diarrhoea. Some pathogenic bacteria release toxins that contribute to poor gastrointestinal health and diarrhoea.

When the cause of the gastrointestinal stress is unknown, the diagnosis is often inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). IBD is a chonic inflammation of the intestinal lining that occurs as a result of the body’s own inflammatory cells reacting continually and excessively.

See this extensive guide on the relationship between FIV and chronic diarrhoea: FIVTherapy

Probiotic Treatment for FIV Positive Cats

The chronic diarrhoea associated with FIV can be stressful for both the owner and the cat, so any beneficial treatment is warmly welcomed. A recent study showed how administration of probiotics (‘good bacteria’) to FIV positive cats is a beneficial therapeutic treatment. ³

Treatment with probiotics (in the case of the study, Lactobacillus acidophilus) helped to restore intestinal homeostasis i.e. returning the intestine to a stable system.

Probiotic treatment altered the release of inflammatory mediators responsible for inflammation of the intestines (that can lead to chronic diarrhoea). Probiotics are also beneficial, as they can prevent ‘bad bacteria’ establishing themselves in the gut.

Image Credit: akk_rus

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Supplements are becoming increasingly popular in the companion animal industry, following the successes of the human supplement industry. So we’ve taken a look at just what those supplements are actually proven to do.

Take a look through the list and be sure to let us know what you think in the comments below.

12. Vitamin C

Starting the list is the well-known and widely used Vitamin C. Vitamin C is frequently used by humans to support the immune system and help keep away diseases. In actual fact, there isn’t too much evidence supporting Vitamin C’s immune boosting ability, but in dogs, it has been shown to increase the bactericidal (bacteria-killing) activity of white blood cells ¹.

11. Vitamin A

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is quite a distressing disease that causes rapid weight loss in dogs. It occurs when the pancreas secretes insufficient digestive enzymes, making it difficult for the dog to absorb the nutrients it needs from the diet. Normal treatment involves supplementing pancreatic enzymes. Supplementing vitamin A alongside may improve the benefits ².

10. Selenium

Selenium deficiencies can cause a number of problems in dogs, which it why it is a good idea to supplement the diet with selenium if you dog is deficient (deficiency can be determined by a blood test performed by a veterinarian). It has also been shown that additional selenium can reduce DNA damage and cell death in the ageing canine prostate ³.

9. Taurine

Taurine is an organic acid found naturally in the diet. It is added to cat food due to its essential role in the feline diet, as they are unable to synthesise it themselves. Addition of taurine to dog food is not necessary, which is why it is regularly advised that you don’t feed your cat dog food. As a supplement, taurine has been shown to be beneficial for dogs diagnosed with cardiomyopathies ⁴. It is also an antioxidant, soaking up free radicals that can damage the body, it is particularly active in the kidney and recommended to prevent kidney toxicity as a result of certain immunosuppresants ⁵.

8. L-Carnitine

Carnitine is involved in the production of energy from fats and is widely believed to aid weight loss. Although solid data is yet to be found on carnitine’s role in weight loss, it is incorporated in to many ‘light’ dog foods ⁶. There is evidence to show that carnitine is beneficial for canine heart health, particularly those diagnosed with cardiomyopathies (heart disease) ⁷.

7. Green Tea

The claimed benefits of green tea are quite vast; antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral. Just how true these claims are still requires more research, but green tea has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity ⁸. Insulin resistance allows excess glucose to circulate in the blood stream allowing the liver to convert it in to fat, which can lead to weight gain and canine obesity – green tea can help prevent this.

6. L-Tryptophan

Tryptophan is an amino acid that has been shown to reduce canine aggresion ⁹. Tryptophan is a precursor of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is commonly associated with feelings of well-being. As such, tryptophan (and serotonin) are used to reduce anxiety, fear and aggression.

5. Silybin (Milk thistle)

Silybin is an extract from milk thistle, which has been shown to protect the liver from damage caused by free radicals and other toxins ¹⁰. Its hepatoprotective (liver protecting) effect is widely documented ^{11 12}, as such silybin is a common component of canine liver health supplements. See which 9 dog breeds are at greater risk of developing liver disease.

4. Vitamin E

Vitamin E is probably best known for its antioxidant function, which protects the body from free radicals that can damage cells. It is the antioxidant activity of Vitamin E that is responsible for improving canine cognitive function ^{13 14}, making it an ideal supplement for dogs suffering from canine cognitive dysfunction.

Vitamin E (like Vitamin C) has also been shown to increase the bactericidal activity of white blood cells ¹⁵. Studies have also shown the beneficial effect of Vitamin E on semen quality and fertility. Improvements in the volume of semen, the vigour of spermatozoa and a reduced in the number of abnormal spermatozoa have been documented ^{16 17}.

3. Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides are short chains consisting of sugar molecules such as fructose (fructo-oligosaccharides) or mannose (mannan-oligosaccharides). They are widely used as a prebiotic, a non-living substance that has a beneficial effect on gut health by promoting the growth of ‘good’ bacteria in the digestive tract.
Oligosaccharides can provide puppies with protection against bacterial infection ¹⁸ and improve gastrointestinal microbial ecology of adult dogs, beneficially affecting gut health ¹⁹.

Oligosaccharides are also used beneficially, alongside treatment for gastroenteritis and can reduce the presence of E. Coli in the gastrointestinal tract ²⁰.

Oligosaccharides have also been used to prevent the progression of diabetes mellitus ²¹.

2. Lactobacillus spp.

Various species of the ‘good’ bacteria Lactobacillus are used to promote gut health. Lactobacillus is a probiotic, a living organism that improves the health of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in a similar way to prebiotics. Probiotics survive well in the GI tract and out-compete species such as E. Coli that can cause GI upsets and diarrhoea. Probiotics, in particular Lactobacillus, have been shown to:

• Reduced faecal pH ²²
• Stabilise the digestive process ²³
• Improve the symptoms of canine inflammatory bowel disease ²⁴
• Improve GI health of growing puppies ²⁵

1. Essential Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids (EFAs), such as omega-3 and omega-6 found in fish oil (in particular Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)) take the top spot on this list. EFAs are cheap, easy to find and have many great health benefits:

• EFAs can improve skin and coat health and have been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of canine atopic dermatitis ²⁶
• Like vitamin E they also improve fertility and semen quality (volume, vigour and reduced abnormalities) ²⁷
• EFAs have beneficial anti-inflammatory effects ^{28 29}, making them highly suitable for chronic inflammatory diseases such as canine osteoarthritis
• There is also evidence to suggest they may reduce the frequency of seizures in epileptic dogs ³⁰

Your Thoughts

Are there any supplements we’re missing? Let us know what you use and why or even what you don’t use and why in the comments below. Have you found any additional positive (or negative) papers or articles concerning the supplements above? Leave a link in the comments below.

Disclaimer: Remember, it is always wise to consult your vet before supplementing your dog’s diet. Be sure to research what is best for your dog and stick to dosage guidelines. Overdosing on beneficial supplements isn’t always a good thing – in fact in some cases it can cause toxicity, so please be aware and seek advice if you are unsure.

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In this article, we’ll be discussing what bute is and why it is used, as well as the risks that it may (or may not) carry.

Also covered below are the recent results from the FSA concerning contaminated horse carcasses destined for human consumption and the importance of horse passports (and why they are current failing).

What is Bute?

Phenylbutazone (bute) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used as a pain reliever in horses. Bute reduces inflammation and pain by inhibiting enzymes responsible for the production of prostaglandins (a hormone involved in inflammation/pain).

Bute was once used in humans, but is now no longer approved in the USA. It is still used in the UK, but only for the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis (a type of arthritis that can cause extremely painful and debilitating fusion of the spine) when other treatments aren’t suitable or available.

Benefits of Bute Use in Horses

Bute is an effective pain reliever that is commonly used in horses. Its widespread use is owed to its easy available and low cost. It is primarily used to treat lameness and offers pain relief from a number of ailments including:

• Infections
• Muscle sprains or injuries
• Joint pain
• Arthritis
• Tendinitis
• Laminitis

Bute reduces the inflammation and fever associated with these conditions, reducing pain, however; chronic use of bute, or overdosing can cause ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract.

See here for more information on the use of bute in horses.

Does Bute in Horse Meat Pose a Risk to Human Health?

The UK, EU and USA do not allow the use of bute in horses at any point in their life if they are intended for human consumption. This is due the serious and potentially lethal adverse effects it has been known to cause in humans.

Around 1 in 30,000 patients suffered from a serious and potentially lethal condition known as aplastic anaemia when taking bute. The bone marrow of patients suffering from aplastic anaemia becomes unable to replenish blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets).

Many race horses are often destined for slaughter for human consumption and it is these horses that are most likely to be treated with bute. It is the responsibility of the abattoir to check the documentation of horses intended for human consumption and dispose of those where bute administration has been recorded. This information is contained within a horse passport (see below).

It remains unknown how long bute and its metabolites remain in the body. Fortunately, highest concentrations are found in the horse’s blood, kidneys and liver – components that are not included in the ‘dressed meat’ intended for human consumption. The muscle tissue that is consumed, contains the lowest levels of bute.

Whilst it is highly likely that bute contaminated meat is able to make its way in to the human food chain (as demonstrated by recent events), the risk to human health is actually relatively low. See below for more information on the recent carcass test results from the UK Food Standards Agency (FSA).

How Horse Passports ‘Prevent’ Bute from Entering the Human Food Chain

All horse owners must now obtain a passport for each horse they own, if the horse is intended for slaughter for human consumption at the end of its life, the owner should sign the corresponding declaration.

The passport acts as a method of identification for the horse, by allowing the owner to record physical traits and characteristics. The passport also acts as a log of any medications (or notifiable illnesses) the horse has been administered during its lifetime. If bute is recorded in this section, the horse may not be slaughtered for human consumption and will be disposed of at the abattoir.

Whilst in theory this works, a lack of centralised regulation makes it easy to circumvent the restrictions regarding medication and slaughter for human consumption. There are over 80 equine passport delivery bodies (PIOs) and the government run national equine database (NED) has been retired; without the NED it is easy for horse owners to commit passport fraud and apply for additional horse passports.

By applying for an additional passport, a horse owner is able to omit details about bute administration, thus allowing the horse to be slaughtered at the abattoir for human consumption.

Currently around 9,000 horses are slaughtered in the UK each year for human consumption, however, all of this meat is exported.

FSA Testing of Horse Carcasses for Bute

A recent investigation by the FSA involved testing 206 horse carcasses, slaughtered in the UK between 30/01/13 – 7/02/13, for bute residue. They recorded 8 positive results for bute (4%)

The highest amount of residue recorded was 1.9mg per kg of meat – which is actually a relatively small amount. To put this in to perspective, a single serving of 250g of 100% horse meat would contain around 0.5mg of bute. The typical dose given to humans is 100mg, 200x the amount found in a single serving of contaminated meat.

The conclusion is that whilst a risk to public health is present, it is negligible.

Further Reading

Association of phenylbutazone usage with horses bought for slaughter: A public health risk - An American paper from a few years ago that indicates how poorly controlled bute-contaminated horse meat is, and how easily it is able to enter the human food chain.

The European trade in horsemeat mapped - An interactive map documenting the trade of over 60,000 tonnes of horse meat by European countries in 2012.

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Whilst we may feed certain foodstuffs to correct or prevent deficiency, an increasing number of ‘bioactive’ ingredients can be found in a variety of pet foods. These ingredients are added to actively improve or maintain certain aspects of animal health. For example; prebiotics and probiotics that can act as digestive aids, or antioxidants that can aid brain function.

A recent study investigated the role of certain dietary components on feline immunity. It has been shown that the addition of certain ingredients to the diet can enhance immunity in rats and humans, so the study looked at whether the same was true for cats. We consider the metabolism of the cat to be specialised (due to its carnivorous diet), so it isn’t possible to simply assume that what is true for us is true for cats.

The Role of the Feline Immune System

The feline immune system functions much like our own; a complex relationship between cells, tissues, organs and disease-causing pathogens protects the cat from disease.

Whilst there are a number of ways the feline immune system can deal with bacteria, parasites and other foreign invaders, the most commonly recognised defence mechanism is the white blood cell. White blood cells, or leukocytes, roam the body and respond to sites of infection or inflammation. Different types of leukocytes have different specialities and thus different roles.

The study discussed in this article showed that adding specific ingredients to a cat’s diet improved the phagocytic function of white blood cells – this is the ability of certain cells to ‘consume’ foreign particles such as bacteria. A process that is very important in immunity.

Ingredients Believed to Improve Feline Immunity

The study looked at three specific ingredients, all of which are believed to have a role in improving immunity:

• Arginine – An essential amino acid for cats, it is required to produce enzymes that break down protein after a meal. Arginine has been shown to stimulate the the human and rodent immune system.
• Nucleotides – A small sugar molecule that is the building block of DNA. Nucleotides have been shown to be effective in enhancing the human immune function of newborn babies. Nucleotide-free diets have been shown to increase susceptibility to infection.
• EPA & DHA – These omega-3 essential fatty acids are believed to decrease the risk of heart disease. Whilst some research suggest these omega-3 fatty acids can improve immune function, there is also conflicting research that suggests supplementation with omega 3 fatty acids can cause immune suppression.

Rutherfurd-Markwick Study Investigates Ingredients that May Improve Feline Immunity

The Rutherfurd-Markwick study consisted of five groups of cats, each group was fed a different diet. After a period of 35 days, numerous tests were conducted to determine whether the immune system had been enhanced as a result of the diet.

The five diets were:

• High protein (control diet)
• Low protein (control diet)
• Low protein + arginine
• Low protein + salmon oil (omega-3 essential fatty acids)
• Low protein + nucleotides (derived from yeast)

Conclusion of the Rutherfurd-Markwick Study on Improving Feline Immunity via the Diet

The study found that after only 14 days of being fed a non-control diet (low protein diet + arginine, salmon oil or nucleotides), there was a significant improvement in phagocytic function compared to the control (high/low protein) diets. This means that leukocytes (white blood cells) had an improved ability to consume and destroy foriegn particles such as bacteria.

The conclusion of the study was that it is possible to improve feline immunity by adding specific ingredients to the diet. Arginine, omega-3 essential fatty acids and nucleotides all improved the cat’s ability to deal with infection-causing agents such as bacteria. It is also worth noting that all the animals involved in the study remained healthy and no significant change in body weight was observed.

The ‘immune strength’ of the leukocytes was tested by mixing fluorescent E. coli with blood. Analysing the results allowed the researches to determine the activity of the leukocytes.

Rutherfurd-Markwick, K.J., et al., The potential for enhancement of immunity in cats by dietary supplementation. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2013.01.007

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The virus lies dormant in the nerve cells of an infected dog for the majority of its life, causing little, if any issues; however, the virus can be reactivated from time-to-time. Stress is a common cause of reactivation (much like cold sores in humans).

An infected adult dog is unlikely to suffer as a result of canine herpesvirus infection, however, they may experience respiratory distress when first infected and reactivation may lead to the onset of sores or the return of respiratory problems. Canine herpesvirus becomes a much bigger problem during pregnancy, as a connection between the virus and major reproductive disturbances has been identified. The first litter from an infected female is likely to have a low survival rate.

About Canine Herpesvirus

Canine Herpesvirus Infections in Adult Dogs

Compared to human herpesviruses, little has been established about canine herpes virus, despite its extremely high prevalence rate in both males and females. The consequences of being infected with canine herpesvirus remain largely unknown.

A dog becomes infected when they come in to contact with bodily fluids of a dog that is shedding the virus. The virus is mainly shed through discharge from the eyes, nose and genitalia. Canine herpesvirus is not airborne and cannot survive for long in the open environment, meaning close contact is required to become infected.

Once infected, a dog will usually suffer from mild respiratory distress, similar to a typical cold. Even after symptoms clear however, the virus remains as a latent infection i.e. the virus is still present, but hidden away from the immune system. Canine herpesvirus causes a latent infection of certain nerve cells and will remain dormant in those cells until reactivated.

Reactivation of canine herpesvirus usually arises as a result of stress. Examples include; pregnancy, lactation, immunosuppressant therapy or environmental stress such as moving house.

The primary site of infection is the reproductive tract, as a result, the disease can be sexually transmitted, but as mentioned earlier, the virus can also be spread by discharge from the eyes and nose. When the virus becomes reactivated, it may be possible to detect raised sores around the genitalia. Lesions have also be known to occur within the body, but these cannot be detected from the outside and require a necropsy.

Canine Herpesvirus Infections in Puppies

Whilst the virus has typically mild consequences in an adult dog, the same cannot be said for puppies. Puppies that are infected with canine herpesvirus typically have a low survival rate.

Puppies can become infected either during whelping as they leave the birthing canal or through being in close contact with the mother when she is shedding the virus.

The virus is known to cause fatal haemorrhagic disease in pups less than 3 weeks old. Pups that survive go on to become latently infected or may even develop neurological diseases at a later date.

Treating Canine Herpesvirus

There is currently only one available vaccine for canine herpesvirus, which is only available in Europe. The vaccine, Eurican Herpes 205, contains tiny amounts of viral protein, which is enough to stimulate the mother’s immune system in to producing antibodies.

The female should be vaccinated once during heat and again 1-2 weeks before whelping. The second injection ensures that antibodies are transferred to the newborn pups via colostrum. This greatly increases their chance of survival.

Canine Herpesvirus and Pregnancy

There are strong indications that canine herpesvirus causes mortality in newborn pups, especially if female is infected during late pregnancy. Unfortunately, there is little that can be done to treat an infected newborn. Mortalities at 3 weeks or earlier are usually attributable to the virus.

The mother may appear well before pregnancy, but the stress caused by oestrus (heat), pregnancy or lactation can be enough to reactivate the latent virus. Reactivation can cause shedding of the virus, which is usually responsible for infection of newborn puppies.

The clinical effects of viral reactivation have not yet been fully clarified, however, reproductive disturbances and lower pup weights have been suggested. Other investigations of the virus show an apparent association between reactivation and reproduction hormone concentrations.

Kennels with a high prevalence rate of canine herpesvirus note increased reproductive disturbances, including:

• Resorption
• Mummification
• Abortion
• Low conception rate
• Embryonic losses
• Still borns

There is usually little that can be done to save infected newborn puppies during a mother’s first pregnancy, however, subsequent pregnancies are unlikely to be as badly affected, as the mother will produce sufficient antibodies to protect her pups.

Recent Study Findings

Investigation of the canine herpesvirus is not as widespread as investigation of the human herpesvirus for example, however, research does continue to be performed. A recent study looked at a small group of 12 dogs, all of which had canine herpesvirus antibodies (suggesting infection, and also highlighting the high prevalence rate).

The bitches were monitored during their pregnancies to see if canine herpesvirus caused any reproductive disturbances. Even though an increase of canine herpesvirus antibodies was detected in a couple of the study participants (indicating reactivation of a latent infection), no reproductive disturbances as a result of canine herpesvirus were found.

Although further study is still needed, particularly as the group size was small in this study, the conclusion was that; good management during pregnancy did not result in canine herpesvirus related disturbances.

Canine Herpesvirus During Pregnancy and Non-Pregnant Luteal Phase, B Stro¨m Holst et al. Reprod Dom Anim 47 (Suppl. 6), 362–365 (2012)

For more information on canine herpesvirus take a look at these guides:

• A brief overview of everything you should know about CHV at Petcare 360 
• An indepth guide to CHV, written by Dr. Ron Hines DVM PhD at 2nd Chance

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The study was conducted right after the festive period, when pets are often given more unhealthy treats than they would usually receive throughout the year.

The study participants reported the unhealthy, festive treats they had given to their pets, which included; meats, cheese, chocolate, stuffing, cow’s milk and even Christmas pudding! Treats such as these aren’t healthy for cats as they are high in fat and calorie rich.

We’ve included a ‘Feline Calorie Calculator’ in this article, so you can work out how many calories your cat needs a day, and how many they should be eating if they need to lose weight, check it out below.

Problems Faced by the Overweight Cat

The study conducted by Cats Protection has shown us that, here in the UK, we are giving our cats too many treats, too often! A problem that is likely mirrored in many places around the globe.

Giving treats to our cats is a simple way to show our affection for them, but if we give too many, we could be causing them problems. An increase in body weight of as little as 1kg can increase the risk of weight related problems such as:

• Type 2 diabetes (as much as x3 the normal risk)
• Heart problems
• Respiratory problems
• Osteoarthritis
• High blood pressure
• Cancer

All of which can contribute to a decreased life expectancy.

How to Treat the Overweight Cat

An overweight cat can still be given treats, even as part of a weight loss programme, as long as we carefully monitor their diet. Anyone familiar with dieting will be aware of how important counting calories is, and cats are no exception!

Instead of giving your cat milk, cheese or other fatty, human foods, look out for specifically formulated cat treats. Treats such as ‘Dreamies’ have as little as 2 calories per treat. Not all human food is a bad for your cat though, why not try giving your cat a little boiled fish or boneless chicken as a special treat.

Just be sure to consider the total calorific intake of both standard meals and treats and make sure it isn’t more than what is recommended for your cat.

Calculating How Many Calories an Overweight Cat Needs

The calculator above calculates your cat’s ‘Recommended Energy Requirements’ or RER, based on their ideal weight (typically 4-5kg for adults). To safely lose weight, it is recommended that a cat receives 80% of it’s RER – this value is shown beside ‘Calories required for weight loss’.

Weight Loss Programmes for Overweight Cats

If your cat is overweight and you want to help them shift those extra pounds, there are a few things you can do. One of the best ways to help your cat to lose weight is to change to a specifically formulated weight loss diet. Look for diets branded as ‘light’ or ones that specifically mention ‘Weight loss formulation’ from reputable manufacturers.

When moving your cat over to the new diet, be sure to do so gradually. This means, for the first week, mixing their old food with the new food; slowly increasing the amount of the new food and decreasing the amount of the old food over time.

If you’re finding that your cat is refusing to eat their new food, try switching to a wet ‘light’ diet as some cats find wet food more palatable. You can also try warming wet food slightly to make it even more palatable. If you find that your cat is ‘begging’ more often for food, try replacing their water with fresh water and this can sometimes satisfy them. If they do continue to beg, only offer a small amount of food (for example, if feeding dry food, offer only about 10 kibble pieces).

Be sure that you don’t dramatically change your cat’s diet or calorific intake as rapid weight loss can cause problems, such as feline hepatic lipidosis. This is a condition where the body’s fat reserves are used for energy, leading to a build up of fat in the liver.

Exercises for the Overweight Cat

With dogs, we could quite easily go for a jog (getting both of us fit and healthy at the same time), but unfortunately, cats aren’t built for physical activity like this. Instead, cats are designed to expel large amounts of energy in a short period of time. Lions for example spend large parts of the day fairly ‘relaxed’, but will sprint after their prey at great speeds to earn themselves a meal.

So with this in mind, why not try constantly moving your cat’s food around, so they have to ‘hunt’ for it. Keep putting the food in different places though otherwise your cat will quickly wise up!

Also, try to engage with your cat for 10-15 minutes a day with their favourite toys. Toys that you can get them to chase are ideal! Exercising cats like this, probably isn’t the best idea…

Your Thoughts

If you were a participant in the Cats Protection study, how would you have responded? Do you consider your cat to be overweight? If so do you plan to help them shift those extra pounds? Have you got any feline dieting tips you can share with other readers? Let us know in the comments below.

We’d also like to hear how you found the calorie calculator to work out your cats calorific needs. How many calories does your cat need a day?

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For many dogs however, the incidence of a seizure may not be isolated. When this is the case, it may be that the dog is suffering from canine epilepsy.

Note that epilepsy and seizure are not synonyms. Epilepsy is a cause of seizures and is sometimes referred to as ‘recurrent seizure disorder‘ due to the fact that epilepsy sufferers experience frequent seizures.

There are many similarities between canine epilepsy and human epilepsy, the main difference being the method of treatment, but also that it may be more difficult to recognise the occurrence of a canine seizure in some instances.

What is Canine Epilepsy?

As mentioned earlier, canine epilepsy is a recurrent seizure disorder, where the dog experiences frequent seizures. In general, a dog suffering from a seizure or more a month is considered to be epileptic. Isolated seizures or less frequent seizures may be the result of another underlying disease.

The onset of seizures in dogs suffering from canine epilepsy can begin as early as 6 months of age, or as late as 5 years. Seizures that arise in dogs aged over 5 years may again be the result of an underlying disease, and not a result of epilepsy. The frequency of seizures in epileptic dogs may also increase over time (without treatment). Depending on the severity, epileptic dogs may experience multiple seizures each month. Multiple seizures in a day is a cause for concern (see cluster seizures below).

Canine epilepsy causes seizures as a result of sudden abnormal ‘electrical activity’ in the brain. This unusual activity results in a complete or altered loss of conciousness.

In the majority of cases, the cause of canine epilepsy is unknown (idiopathic), however, in some cases, epilepsy may be the result of a known cause (e.g. scar tissue in brain).

Causes of Canine Seizures

Some of the more common causes of canine seizures are listed below:

• Toxins – For example; antifreeze, toxic plants, excessive chocolate (theobromine) or even lead (peeling lead paint)
• Trauma – A recent head injury can cause scar tissue formation in the brain, which could lead to the onset of seizures
• Meningitis – Inflammation of the tissue surrounding the brain (the meninges) can cause seizures in some dogs
• Encephalitis – Inflammation of the brain, which like meningitis, can cause seizures
• Canine Distemper – A viral disease that can affect the nervous system, causing muscle spasms and potentially, seizures
• Tumours – A tumour in the brain itself or surrounding tissue can be a serious medical issue and can have severe symptoms such as seizures
• Hypoglycaemia – A low concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood, which can have a mild symptoms (disorientation) or severe symptoms (unconsciousness, seizures)
• Liver disease – In some dogs, the presence of liver disease can cause complications including kidney failure, infection or seizures)
• Epilepsy – Recurrent seizures are usually a result of epilepsy, in the majority of cases the exact cause is unknown (idiopathic)
• Genetics – In some breeds of dog, there is an inherited risk of developing epilepsy (see below), meaning the puppies of epileptic parents (male or female) have an increased risk of developing the disorder themselves

Breeds With an Inherited Risk of Developing Canine Epilepsy

Breeds of dog with evidence to suggested a genetic risk of developing idiopathic epilepsy:

• Beagle
• Boxer
• Cocker Spaniel
• Border Collie
• Dachshund
• Dalmatian
• German Shepherd
• Golden Retriever
• Irish Setter
• Irish Wolfhound
• Labrador Retriever
• Poodle
• Saint Bernard
• Schnauzer
• Siberian Husky
• Welsh Springer Spaniel
• Wire Fox Terrier

See here for more information on the genetics of canine epilepsy.

Types of Canine Seizure

Like humans, there are multiple types of seizure. From the more recognisable ‘General Seizures‘, to ‘Partial Seizures‘ – which can often be difficult to detect in dogs.

General Seizures

General seizures are easily identifiable and highly recognisable, due to their obvious effect on the whole body. This type of seizure results in the rapid relaxation and contraction of entire muscle groups, leading to the body convulsions typically associated with seizures.

This type of seizure is also known as a ‘Tonic-Clonic‘ seizure (or formerly ‘grand mal’). The Tonic-Clonic seizure has 3 identifiable states:

1. Aura – Difficult to detect in dogs, but widely reported in humans; the ‘aura state’ is a sense of foreboding, disorientation or unhappiness before a seizure occurs. In dogs, this is most likely to present itself as a combination of strange behaviours, such as; fatigue, confusion, barking or other unusual behaviour
2. Tonic – This brief state occurs for a matter of seconds and results in the contraction of muscles. The sudden contraction will often lead to collapse or vocalisation (due to air being forcefully expelled from the lungs)
3. Clonic – The most recognisable state, rapid relaxation and contraction of muscles, causes body convulsions

Partial seizures (Focal Seizures)

Partial seizures affect an isolated part of the body, e.g. a limb or facial muscles, which causes twitching in the affect muscle(s).

Complex partial seizures (formerly known as psychomotor seizures) can be much more difficult to recognise. They cause no typical convulsions and only result in unusual behaviour. Commonly reported behaviours associated with these complex partial seizures include; frenzied barking, licking or chewing themselves, staring into space, snapping at invisible objects and accidental defecation or urination.

Like general seizures, partial seizures (both ‘standard’ and complex) are preceded by an aura phase. They also result in impaired awareness and responsiveness.

Seizure Types Requiring Emergency Medical Attention

Cluster seizures – When multiple seizures occur in one 24 hour period, veterinary assistance should be sought. Cluster seizures indicate a more severe underlying problem or epileptic state.

Status epilepticus – A persistent epileptic state that lasts for longer than 5 minutes (a typical seizure would not last longer than this). Status epilepticus can lead to permanent brain damage and requires immediate veterinary attention. This epileptic state may not self-terminate without veterinary aid.

What to Do During a Seizure

When your dog is experiencing a seizure, they will lose consciousness, meaning that your dog is not in a state of suffering; however, you should take some precautions for your own safety and the safety of your dog.

Ensure the immediate area is safe by removing all breakable items or furniture that could fall onto or harm your dog if knocked over. Also, move children in to a separate room until the seizure passes.

Whilst you may feel the need to intervene, you should avoid direct contact with your dog until the seizure has passed. In their epileptic state, they may pose a risk to you and themselves. Owners have reported animals snapping at them during a seizure (out of character behaviour due to a loss of conciousness).

Do not leave your dog, stay with them and observe them until the seizure is over. This is to ensure they safely recover and do not enter status epilepticus (see above).

Treating Canine Epilepsy

An isolated seizure may not be cause for concern, however, treatment will likely be considered when seizures become regular e.g. after second seizure or if seizures occur monthly or more frequently.

In some cases it may be possible to treat an underlying medical condition that is the cause of canine seizures, but in epileptic dogs there is, unfortunately, no cure. Treatment of canine epilepsy involves controlling the seizures by reducing their severity and/or frequency. Some dogs may respond to treatment extremely well and stay seizure free for extended periods of time.

Many owners and vets recommend keeping a ‘seizure journal‘, noting the times, environmental conditions, possible triggers, duration etc. of their dog’s seizures. This can prove extremely useful in controlling your dog’s seizures when combined with effective therapy. There are even apps to help with this process.

The majority of human epilepsy drugs are toxic or ineffective in dogs and other companion animals, leaving us with two primary options for the treatment of the disorder:

1. Phenobarbital – A mild sedative and hypnotic, used as an anticonvulsant to prevent seizures
2. Potassium bromide – An anticonvulsant, (restricted use in cats)

In some cases, these treatments may be combined, especially where seizures are severe or they aren’t as effective individually.

Dogs being treated with these medications should undergo regular blood tests, 2-4 times a year to ensure the correct therapeutic dose is being given. This will allow the vet to determine if the dog is receiving too high or too low a dose. High concentrations of anti-epileptic in the blood can pose a toxicity risk, whilst low concentrations may be ineffective in controlling the seizures.

Side effects

When dogs begin treatment (or when the dosage is increased) for epilepsy, side effects may be worse until the body becomes accustomed to the treatment.

Side effects common to both treatments:

• Increased thirst and appetite
• Mild sedation (reduced alertness)
• Increased frequency of urination
• Instability (especially in the hind legs)

Phenobarbital specific side effects (rare, but considered worse than the seizures it is trying to control):

• May cause liver toxicity (hepatotoxicity)
• Blood abnormalities e.g. Low red/white blood cell count and low platelet count

Dogs undergoing treatment that includes phenobarbital are advised to have blood tests twice a year, to monitor liver health.

Effectiveness of Treatment

For treatment of canine epilepsy to be effective, it is important to maintain a therapeutic concentration of the medication in the blood stream (i.e. ensure the correct concentration of medication in the blood). It is important that you, as the owner, maintains a strict treatment regime as missing a dose of your dog’s medication can negatively affect treatment.

It is also worth noting that once treatment begins, a form of ‘dependency’ develops, stopping treatment can lead to the onset of a seizure.

Dogs that respond well to treatment may be able to have their dosage reduced (reducing the severity of the side effects) – although this will require gradual reduction in dosage over a period of time.

Some owners claim to have had success using an elimination diet – GARD, which you can check out here.

Living with Epileptic Dogs

If you are the owner of an epileptic dog and would like to share some advice with other owners, please leave your comments below. It can be hard initially to keep up with the additional responsibilities of owning an epileptic dog (such as medication and maintaining a seizure journal), but with your help, your dog can live a happy and normal life.

If you are worried about canine epilepsy, you should speak to your veterinarian, who will be able to talk through the options you have and offer more advice on treatment, responsibilities and care.

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Milkweed is most commonly found throughout the USA, so fortuantely for us here in the UK, Europe and elsewhere, we generally have little worry about when it comes to milkweed poisoning. We’ll be taking a look at the genus Asclepias (milkweed), which contains around 140 different milkweed species, (fortunately, not all species are toxic). The most toxic milkweed species however, is ‘Whorled milkweed’.

The Milkweed Plant

As mentioned above, there are around 140 species of milkweed, some are toxic, some aren’t. However, Whorled milkweed contains an extremely toxic neurological poison. Whorled milkweed may sometimes be referred to by its latin name, Asclepias verticillata.

Milkweed has only a few uses; one of the more interesting uses is that it is grown commercially for filling hypoallergenic pillows. Its other primary use is in butterfly gardens, as it acts as a food source and habitat for the monarch butterfly.

It is not common for livestock or horses to consume milkweed as it is highly unpalatable.

The plant itself stands around 3 to 4 feet tall and leaks a milky sap when the stem is broken. The toxic Whorled milkweed is shown to the right.

Milkweed Poisoning

Horses that consumes a toxic dose of milkweed (the dose varies between species of milkweed), will show signs of milkweed poisoning. The symptoms of milkweed poisoning are:

• Depression
• Irregular heartbeat
• Colic
• Dilated pupils
• Muscle weakness
• Tremors
• Incoordination
• Laboured breathing

Horses that ingest a toxic dose of Whorled milkweed will display slightly more severe symptoms, which are:

• Severe colic
• Severe incoordination
• Falling over
• Muscle tremors
• Violent convulsions

If a leathal dose is consumed, death can occur within 24 hours for both toxic milkweed species and Whorled milkweed. The reason for difference in symptoms is that Whorled milkweed contains a different toxic to the other toxic milkweed species.

Whilst some milkweed species contain cardiac glycosides (a naturally occuring, sugar derived molecule that is used in human medicine to treat heart failure), Whorled milkweed contains an unidentified neurotoxin that is much more potent. This means that a toxic dose of milkweed may be as little as 300g (Whorled milkweed) or as much as 9,000g for a 500kg horse.

All parts of the milkweed plant are toxic, so this includes the leaf, stem and flower and milkweed retains toxicity even when dried. This means that precautions still need to be taken when feeding baled hay.

Dealing with Milkweed Poisoning

As there is no antidote for milkweed poisoning, the owner of any horse suspected of having ingested the plant should seek assitance from their vet. The vet will limit further absorption of the toxin from the gastrointestinal tract.

Because milkweed is highly unpalatable, it is unlikely that a horse will eat it through choice, however, there are a few simple steps that owners can take to reduce the likelihood of milkweed poisoning.

Horse owners should check the pasture for milkweed (and other toxic plant species or toxins) and remove the whole plant (root included) if found. It is also recommended that herbicides are used, following the manufacturer’s guidelines.

Ingestion of milkweed is most common when the plant is dried and baled. As such, horse owners should be vigilant of the contents of hay when feeding. The finer stem of milkweed makes it difficult for the horse to find and pick out.

What is the Risk?

Overall, the risk of your horse actually ever experiencing milkweed poisoning is low to moderate. The plant is unpalatable, only really found in America and requires large doses to be considered toxic. However, recent events have shown that it is possible for horses to succumb to poisoning.

In general, horse owners should be aware of which plants pose a toxic risk and regularly evaluate the pasture for the presence of these species. See here for an idea of which plant species are poisonous to horses.

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