Pharmacist from Gujarat

Types of Dosage Forms & Classification

2019-02-13T15:26:00.000+05:30

Dosage form types का chart मैंने यहाँ पे बनाया हे जो आप refer कर के स्टडी कर सकते हो। अगर आप pharmaceutical dosage forms का classification के बारे में पढ़ना चाहते हो तो ये चार्ट देखके आपको आपकी स्टडी में हेल्प होगी।

Classification of Dosage Forms

Dosage forms के बारे में introduction

Dosage Forms को हम mainly 4 पार्ट्स में divide कर सकते हे।

Solid Dosage forms
Liquid Dosage Forms
Semi Solid dosage forms
Gaseous Dosage forms

Solid Dosage Forms classification

Tablets
Capsules
Powders
Capsules
Lozenges
Suppositories

More details about Solid Dosage Forms

Liquid Dosage Forms classification

Syrups
Elixirs
Suspensions
Emulsions
Mouthwash

More details about Liquid Dosage Forms

Semi-Solid Dosage Forms Classifications

Cream
Paste
Gel
Ointments

Gaseous Dosage Forms Classifications

Aerosols
Inhalers

Dosage forms classification के बारे में full lecture video आप यहाँ से चेक कर सकते हो।

ये सारे dosage forms के बारे में हम details में आपको समझायेंगे, तो अगर अपने हमारी YouTube चैनल को अभी तक subscribe नहीं किया है तो आप यहाँ से सब्सक्राइब कर लीजिये ताकि आने वाले online pharmacy lectures आपसे miss ना हो।

Solid Dosage Forms in Hindi

2019-02-04T18:07:00.001+05:30

यह जानना चाहते हैं कि हिंदी में Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient(API) या Excipient(Additives) क्या है? Pharmacy में Types of Solid dosage Forms और classification हिंदी में जानने के लिए ये वीडियो देखे।

इस Pharmaceutics lecture में, हम आपको निम्नलिखित बातों बारे में बताएँगे ।

Introduction to dosage form
What is API & Additives
Types of Additives (Excipients)
Solid dosage form Classification

हमें उम्मीद है कि यह Online pharmacy tutorial video आपको अपनी B.Pharm, D.Pharm के बी.फार्मा, डी.फार्मा कैरियर में आपके अध्ययन में मदद करेगा।

Pharmaceutical Study Material

What is API & Excipient

Types of Excipients (Additives)

यदि हिंदी में dosage form के इस वीडियो ने वास्तव में आपकी मदद की है, तो आप हमारी चॅनेल को सब्सक्राइब करे।

Phenoxy Methyl Penicillin

2018-11-13T15:39:00.000+05:30

What is Phenoxy Methyl Penicillin?

According to WikiPedia, It is also known as penicillin V and penicillin VK which is an antibiotic that can be used for variuous types of bactirial infections. Mostly Phenoxy Methyl Penicillin is used in otitis media, cellulities or strep throat condition. However it is also being used in rheumatic fever as well as to prevent infection when spleen is removed. Usually this Phenoxy Methyl Penicillin is administrated by mount.

Filtration - Pharmaceutics I (Unit Operations I) - B.Pharm - Sem 1

2017-11-11T19:57:00.000+05:30

Pharmaceutics I (Unit Operations I) Syllabus :

1. Filtration Theory and mechanism of filtration process, factors affecting rate of filtration, filter media, filter aids, types of filters, operation of filters, industrial filters-leaf filter, filter press, rotary filter, edge filters, cartridge filters, membrane filters, optimum cleaning cycle in batch filters, etc. Mathematical problems on filtration.

Definitions

Filtration - Filtration is the process of separation of solid from fluid by passing the same through the porous medium that retains solid but allows the fluids to pass through.

Clarification - When solid are present in very low concentration in fluid, ex. Not exceeding 1.0 w/v, the process of its separation from liquid is called as clarification.

Cake Filtration - If recovery of solid is desired, filtration process is called as cake filtration.

Straining - When we need to remove large visible particles by using coarse filtration medium(cotton wool or muslin), the process is called as straining.

Terminologies Used in Filtration

Slurry/Feed - The suspension of solid & liquid to be filtered is known as Slurry/Feed

Filter Medium - The Porous medium used to retain the solid is described as the filter medium.

Filter cake - After Filtration, accumulation of solid on filter medium is known as Filter cake.

Filtrate - Clear liquid passed through the filter is known as filtrate

Example of Filtration:

Most common example is making of a tea. When we prepare a tea, we need to separate tea leaves from tea. So Filter or a sieve is used to filtering tea from tea leaves. Through the sieve pores, only liquid tea will pass, tea leaves will remain on the sieve. The liquid which we got after filtration is called as filtrate & water is filtrate.

Process of Filtration

Porous of the filter medium should be smaller than the size of particles to be separate.
Filter medium(Filter paper) is placed on the support(mesh)
Slurry is placed over the filter medium
Due to pressure difference across the filter fluid flows through the filter medium
Gravity will acting over the medium & solid are retained on the surface of the medium

Factors Affecting Rate of Filtration

Pressure
Viscosity
Surface Area of Filter Media
Temperature of Liquid to be filtered
Particle Size (Clogging with fines)
Pore size of filter media
Thickness of Cake
Nature of Solid material (Porosity of Filter Cake)

Application of Filtration

Production of Sterile products
HEPA Filter / Laminar Air Bench
Membrane Filters
Production of Bulk Drugs
Production of Liquid Dosage
Waste water treatments

Filter Media

The surface on which solids are retained after filtration process is called as Filter Medium.

Properties of Ideal Filter Media

High retention power
Absorb negligible amount of Materials
Resistant to corrosive action of liquid
Chemically inert
Sufficient Mechanical Strength

Selection of Filter Media Depends on following

Size of Particles to be filtered
Nature of Product to be filtered
Amount of liquid to be filtered

Types of Filter / Filter Media Types

1. Filter Paper

Filter paper is most common filter medium used in filtration process as it offers controlled porosity, low cost and limited absorption characteristic.

Image Credit: labfriend

Filter papers are available in different grades and quality based on pore size such as fine, medium and coarse.

Drawbacks

They shed very fine particles to the filtrate
Absorb properties of liquid

2. Cotton Wool

Cotton wool is used for filtering moderately coarse particles. Small tough of cotton is placed at the neck of funnel while filtering.

Image Credit: wisegeekhealth.com

Usually this type of filter media is placed at the neck of funnel or pipet to at the time of filtration.

Drawback

It sheds Fine cotton hair in the filtrate

3. Glass Wool

If we want to filter the highly corrosive chemicals, we can use glass wool. As Cotton wool or filter paper will not be able to work with corrosive chemicals such as strong acids, alkalies or oxidizing agents.

Image credit: Wikipedia

Glass wool is also be used while preparing for column chromatography. You can check how it works in the video here.

Drawback:

It may contaminate the filtrate with glass fibers

4. Asbestos

5. Fine Muslin

6. Filter Cloth

7. Membrane Filter

8. Sintered Glass

Preparation & evaluation of turpentine liniments : Pharmaceutical Technology

2011-07-11T20:01:00.000+05:30

First of All What is Liniment ?
Well, to answer this question, Liniment is the medicinal preparation applied topically on the skin.Liniment are having similar viscosity like lotions but different in application on the skin.We are applying the lotion on the skin fractionally while liniment can not be used in this way.Liniment can be applied on the skin for external use only with rubbing.
Generally Liniment are used for relieving the muscle stiffness,such as from sore muscles or from arthritis and relieving pain like balm we are using.

General Formulation & evaluation of turpentine liniments is given here.

Soft Soap :2.7 grams
Camphor : 1.5 Grams
Terpentine Oil : 19.2 ml
Purified water : upto 30 ml

Use : Terpentine liniments are used for following application.
Counter irritant,
Rubefacient,
Sore muscles,
Arthritis.

Storage : Terpentine liniments are used to packed in tightly closed container with in cool place.

Additional information : Deepti Pharmaceuticals are preparing Turpentine Liniment I.P. having composition of Turpentine Oil I.P 65 % V/V & Camphor 5 % W/V, which established in the year of 1976.

VASAKA | Medicinal use of VASAKA

2010-07-21T18:53:00.000+05:30

VASAKA-
Family: Acanthaceae
Genus: Justicia

Species: J. adhatoda
Common name: Adulsa (Vasaka)
Kingdom: Plantae
Description: It is evergreen shrub about 2.2-3.5 meters high, wich have long leaves and white flowers in axillary spike.The plants grown in mainly India except the mountain region.
Characteristic:They are long, dark green in color.cattle and other animals can not eat the plants as the plant VASAKA contain unpleasant smell from it.

Medicinal use of VASAKA:
Leaves and flowers are both used medicinally.for treating asthma and cough the juice of leaves of VASAKA is given orally.It has an active constituent namely vasacine, which is brancho-dialator in nature,that can be used for treating Asthma.Most of the ayurvedic preparation of cough syrup contain the juice extracted from VASAKA plants.leaves are used as green manur, and for packing purposes.

Source of coffee

2010-07-17T19:57:00.000+05:30

Source of coffee is mainly done in Vietnam since 20th century.It was first produced in france in 1857.Most of production are state based.It is used as stimulant.The main constituents present in coffee is caffeine and it act as stimulant.Coffee beans were traded from Arabia to Alexandria and Constantinople under high security.
more details can be found on http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coffee&oldid=42552560 - Direct Link

Green Chemistry

2010-07-01T20:47:00.002+05:30

Green Chemistry-Green Chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that
reduce or eliminate the use and/or generation of hazardous substances.

The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry-

1. Prevention of waste
2. Atom Economy
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis
4. Designing Safer Chemicals
5. Safer solvents and auxiliaries
6. Energy efficient
7. Renewable feedstocks
8. Reduce derivatives
9. Catalysis
10. Design for degradation
11. Real time analysis for pollution prevention
12. Safety

Pathways to Green Chemistry-
Chemical Manufacturers
• Create new ways to make desired materialsdifferent
feedstocks, different pathways
• Identify desired performance characteristics
and create new materials

Benefits of Using Biomass-
• Renewable Feedstock
• Contributes no net CO2 to the atmosphere
• Conserves fossil fuel leading to a secure
domestic supply
• Platform for making an array of chemical products from what is otherwise considered
waste.

Pathways to Green Chemistry-
Non-Chemical Manufacturers
• Identify materials that are unsustainable and
phase them out
• Identify benign materials that already exist
and select them
• Work with vendors and manufacturers to develop new benign and environmentally
appropriate materials. Competitive edge!

DRUGS AND PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

2010-05-09T15:10:00.000+05:30

Evolution of Indian Pharmaceutical Industry:

In the process of industrialization, pharmaceuticals have been a favorite sector for policy makers in the developed as well in many developing countries, including India. This special policy preference has been due to the criticality of the pharmaceutical products for the health security of the populace as well as for developing strategic advantages in the knowledge‐based economy. However, not all developing countries succeeded in enhancing local capabilities in the sector. The growth of the pharmaceutical industry in the developing region is largely confined to a few countries like India, China, Singapore, Korea, Czech Republic, Brazil, and Argentina. Among these countries, most often the case of Indian pharmaceutical industry is projected as the most successful case of a developing country scaling up the indigenous capabilities

The pharmaceutical production in India began in 1910s when private initiatives established Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works in Calcutta and Alembic Chemicals in Baroda and setting up of pharmaceutical research institutes for tropical diseases like King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chennai (in Tamil Nadu), Central Drug Research Institute, Kasauli (in Himachal Pradesh), Pastures Institute, Coonoor (in Tamil Nadu), etc. through British initiatives. The nascent industry, however, received setbacks in the post World War II period as a result of new therapeutic developments in the Western countries that triggered natural elimination of the older drugs from the market usage by newer drugs like sulpha, antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, antihistamine, tranquilizers, psycho pharmacological substances, etc. This culminated in the discontinuation of local production based on indigenous materials and forced the industry to import bulk drugs meant for processing them into formulations and for selling in the domestic market.

Pharmaceutical Policy – 2002

2010-05-09T14:45:00.005+05:30

Introduction

The basic objectives of Government’s Policy relating to the drugs and pharmaceutical sector were enumerated in the Drug Policy of 1986. However, the drug and pharmaceutical industry in the country today faces new challenges on account of liberalization of the Indian economy, the globalization of the world economy and on account of new obligations undertaken by India under the WTO Agreements. These challenges require a change in emphasis in the current pharmaceutical policy and the need for new initiatives beyond those enumerated in the Drug Policy 1986, as modified in 1994, so that policy inputs are directed more towards promoting accelerated growth of the pharmaceutical industry and towards making it more internationally competitive.

The orientation of the objectives of the current policy has also become necessary on account of these issues:-
a)The essentially of improving incentives for research and development in the Indian pharmaceutical industry, to enable the industry to achieve sustainable growth particularly in view of anticipated changes in the Patent Law;
b)The need for reducing further the rigors of price control particularly in view of
the ongoing process of liberalization. It is against this backdrop, that Pharmaceutical Policy-2002 is being enunciated

Objectives:

The main objectives of this policy are:-
a) Ensuring abundant availability at reasonable prices within the country of good quality essential pharmaceuticals of mass consumption.
b) Strengthening the indigenous capability for cost effective quality production and exports of pharmaceuticals by reducing barriers to trade in the pharmaceutical sector.
c) Strengthening the system of quality control over drug and pharmaceutical production and distribution to make quality an essential attribute of the Indian pharmaceutical industry and promoting rational use of pharmaceuticals.
d) Encouraging R&D in the pharmaceutical sector in a manner compatible with the country’s needs and with particular focus on diseases endemic or relevant to India by creating an environment conducive to channelizing a higher level of investment into R&D in pharmaceuticals in India.
e) Creating an incentive framework for the pharmaceutical industry which promotes new investment into pharmaceutical industry and encourages the introduction of new technologies and new drugs.

Approach Adopted in the Review

In order to strengthen the pharmaceutical industry’s research and development
capabilities and to identify the support required by Indian pharmaceutical companies
to undertake domestic R&D, a Committee was set up in 1999 by this Department by
the name of Pharmaceutical Research and Development Committee (PRDC) under
the Chairmanship of Director General of CSIR.

To qualify as R&D intensive company in India, the PRDC has suggested following conditions (gold standards):-
1. Invest at least 5% of its turnover per annum in R&D,
2. Invest at least Rs.10 Crore per annum in innovative research including new drug
development, new delivery systems etc. in India
3. Employ at least 100 research scientists in R&D in India,
4. Has been granted at least 10 patents for research done in India,
5. Own and operate manufacturing facilities in India

As far as the question of price control is concerned, the span of control has been gradually reduced since 1979. Presently, under DPCO, 1995 there are 74 bulk drugs and their formulations under price control covering approximately 40% of the total market. The functioning of the Drugs (Price Control) Order, 1995, has brought to light some problems in the administration of the price control mechanism for drugs and pharmaceuticals. In order to review the current drug price control mechanism,with the objective, inter-alia, of reducing the rigours of price control, where they have become counter-productive, a committee, called the Drugs Price Control Review Committee (DPCRC), under the Chairmanship of Secretary, Department of Chemicals & Petrochemicals was set up in 1999, which has given its report. The recommendations of DPCRC have been examined and taken into account while formulating the “Pharmaceutical Policy - 2002”.

In view of the steps already taken and in the light of the approach indicated in the
foregoing paragraphs, the decisions of the Government are detailed below :-

Industrial Licensing:
Industrial licensing for all bulk drugs cleared by Drug Controller General (India), all their intermediates and formulations will be abolished, subject to stipulations laid down from time to time in the Industrial Policy, except in the cases of
a) Bulk drugs produced by the use of recombinant DNA technology
b) Bulk drugs requiring in-vivo use of nucleic acids as the active principles, and
c) Specific cell/tissue targeted formulations

Foreign Investment:
Foreign investment up-to 100% will be permitted, subject to stipulations laid down from time to time in the Industrial Policy, through the automatic route in the case of all bulk drugs cleared by Drug Controller General (India), all their intermediates and formulations, except those, referred to in para 12.I above, kept under industrial licensing.

Foreign Technology Agreements:
Automatic approval for Foreign Technology Agreements will be available in the case of all bulk drugs cleared by Drug Controller General (India), all their intermediates and formulations, except those, referred to in para 12.I above, kept under industrial licensing for which a special procedure prescribed by the Government would be followed.

Imports:
Imports of drugs and pharmaceuticals will be as per EXIM policy in force. A centralized system of registration will be introduced under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act and Rules made there under. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare will enforce strict regulatory processes for import of bulk drugs and formulations.

Encouragement to Research and Development (R&D):
a) In principle approval to the establishment of the Pharmaceutical Research and Development Support Fund (PRDSF) under the administrative control of the Department of Science and Technology, this will also constitute a Drug Development Promotion Board (DDPB) on the lines of the Technology Development Board to administer the utilization of the PRDSF.
b) With a view to encouraging generation of intellectual property and facilitating indigenous endeavours in pharma R&D, appropriate fiscal incentives would be provided.

PRICING Span of Price Control:
The guiding principle for identification of specific bulk drugs for price regulation should continue, as per DPCRC’s recommendation, to be:

a) Indian Pharmaceutical Guide (IPG)

b) Current Index of Medical Specialties (CIMS),

c) Monthly Index of Medical Specialties (MIMS),

d) Drug Today

e) Information provided by some manufacturers

f) Label composition as indicated on market samples

g) The 279 items appearing in the alphabetical list of Essential Drugs in the National Essential Drug List (1996) of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the 173 items, which are considered important by that Ministry from the point of view of their use in various Health Programmes, in emergency care etc., with the exclusion., as in the past, there from of sera & vaccines, blood products, combinations etc. should form the total basket out of which selection of bulk drugs be made for price regulation.

h) The ORG-MARG data of March 2001 would form the basis for determining the
span of price control as suggested by DPCRC.

i) The Moving Annual Total (MAT) value for any formulator in respect of any bulk
drug will be arrived at by adding the MAT values of all his single-ingredient
formulations of that bulk drug, its salts, esters, stereo-isomers and derivatives,
covering all the strengths, dosage forms and pack sizes listed against that formulator
in all groups / categories of the ORG-MARG (March 2001).

j) The MAT value for all the formulators, as defined in sub-para (iii) above, in respect of a particular bulk drug will be added to arrive at the total MAT value in the
retail trade.

k) The MAT value for an individual formulator, in respect of any bulk drug, as
arrived at in sub-para (iii) above, will be the basis for calculating the percentage
share of that formulator in the total MAT value arrived at as in sub-para (iv) above,
in respect of that bulk drug.

Maximum Allowable Post-manufacturing Expenses (MAPE):
Maximum Allowable Post-manufacturing Expenses (MAPE) will be 100% for indigenously manufactured formulations.

Margin for Imported Formulations:
For imported formulations, the margin to cover selling and distribution expenses including interest and importer’s profit shall not exceed fifty percent of the landed cost.

Pricing of Formulations
a) For Scheduled formulations, prices shall be determined as per the present practice. The time frame for granting price approvals will be two months from the date of the receipt of the complete prescribed information.
b) The present stipulation that a manufacturer, distributor or wholesaler shall sell a formulation to a retailer, unless otherwise permitted under the provisions of Drugs (Prices Control) Order or any other order made hereunder, at a price equal to the
retail price, as specified by an order or notified by the Government, (excluding excise
duty, if any) minus sixteen percent thereof in case of Scheduled drugs, will continue.

Ceiling prices
Ceiling prices may be fixed for any formulation, from time to time, and it would be obligatory for all, including small scale units or those marketing under generic name, to follow the price so fixed.

Pricing of Scheduled Bulk Drugs:
a) For a Scheduled bulk drug, the rate of return in case of basic manufacture would be higher by 4 per cent over the existing 14 per cent on net worth or 22 per cent on capital employed. The time frame for granting price approvals will be 4 months from the date of the receipt of the complete prescribed information.
b) The Government shall, however, retain the overriding power of fixing the maximum sale price of any bulk drug, in public interest.

Drug Price Equalization Account (DPEA):
Provision would be made in the new Drugs (Prices Control) Order (DPCO) to ensure that amounts which have already accrued to the Drug Price Equalization Account (DPEA) and those which are likely to accrue as a result of action in the past, are protected and used for the purpose stipulated in the existing DPCO.

Quality Aspects:
The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare would
a) Progressively benchmark the regulatory standards against the international standards for manufacturing.
b) Progressively harmonize standards for clinical testing with international practices,
c) Streamline the procedures and steps for quick evaluation and clearance of new drug applications, developed in India through indigenous R&D, and
d) Setup a world class Central Drug Standard Control Organization(CDSCO) by modernizing, restructuring and reforming the existing system and establish an effective net work of drugs standards enforcement administrations in the States with the CDSCO as a nodal center, to ensure high standards of quality, safety and efficacy of drugs and pharmaceuticals.

Pharmacy Education and Training:
The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) has been set up by the Government of India as an institute of “national importance” to achieve excellence in pharmaceutical sciences and technologies, education and training. Through this institute, Government’s endeavor will be to upgrade the standards of pharmacy education and R&D. Besides tackling problems of human resources development for academia and the indigenous pharmaceutical industry, the institute will make efforts to maximize collaborative research with the industry and other technical institutes in the area of drug discovery and pharmacy technology development.

Pharmaceutical legislation

2010-05-09T14:40:00.001+05:30

Jurisprudence: The study of fundamental principle is called jurisprudence. In General sense jurisprudence includes knowledge of law while in the technical sense. It is the science of the first principle of civil law.

Forensic pharmacy: The word “forensic” is derived from the Latin term” forensic” meaning “forum” means “public place” or market place.

Drug Enquiry Committee:
The government of India pursuance to the resolution appointed a committee known as Drug Enquiry Committee with Col.Ramnatha.N.Chopra as its chairman in 1928.
Recommendation of Chopra Committee:

1.A central law to control drug and pharmacy profession.
2.Setting up of testing laboratories in all states to control quality of production of drugs and pharmaceutical and a central laboratory to control the quality of imported drugs and also to act as expert a referee in case of sample sent by local government.
3.Appointment of advisory board to advice the government in making rules to carry out the objectives of the act.
4.Setting up the course for training of pharmacist and prescribe minimum qualification for the registration as the pharmacist.
5.Registration of every pattern and proprietary medicine manufacture in India or imported from outside country.
6.Bringing of crude single drug as well as compounded medicine used in the indigenous system of treatment under control.
7.Development of the drug industry in India.
8.Gradual reduction of manufacturing in medical stores.
9.Completion of an Indian Pharmacopoeia.

DRUG CONTROL ADMINISTRATION

(1)Organization and Function
(a)Central Administrative body
(b)Inspectorate Service
(c)Regulatory Service
(d)Public Relation and consumer affairs department
(e)Laboratory Service
(2) Prohibition, offense, Penalties and legal procedures
(3)Powers to make Rules and Regulation
(4)Repeals of other laws and regulation

DRUG LAWS EVALUTION
(A)Pre-Constituent laws
(B)Post Constituent laws

(A)Pre-Constituent laws:
These laws were passed before independence of India and state government is empowered to make change on it with the permission of president.

(B)Post Constituent laws:
These laws were passed after independence of India and state government is not empowered to make change on it.

HEALTH SURVEY AND DEVELOPMENT COMITTEES:

(1) Mudaliar Committee:
The concern of the Health Survey and Planning Committee (Mudaliar Committee 1962) was limited to the development of the health services infrastructure and the health care at the primary level. It felt the growth of infrastructure needed radical transformation and further investment. Another major shift came in the Third Plan (1961-66) when family planning received priority for the first time. Increase in the population became a major worry and was seen as a hurdle to the development process. Although the broad objective was to bring about progressive improvement in the health of the people by ensuring a certain minimum level of physical well-being and to create conditions favorable for greater efficiency, there was a shift in focus from preventive health services to family planning. During the Fourth Plan (1969-74), efforts were made to provide an effective base for health services in rural areas by strengthening the PHCs. The vertical campaigns against communicable diseases were further intensified.

(2)Bhatia Committee:
Government of India in 1953 appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Major General S.L.Bhatia which is called as Bhatia committee to make comprehensive enquiry in to the working of Pharmaceutical industry & to recommend what steps the Government should take to establish it on sound lines in the interest of the country ‘s health care delivery & economy.

(3)Hathi Committee:
Indian Government has setup Hathi committee under the chairmanship of Jaysukhlal Hathi to take comprehensive look into the drug industry and to enquiry in to the various facets of drugs in India. The report of this committee covered all aspects ranging from licensing, Price control, Imports, role of foreign sector and quality control. It encouraged the development of indigenous industries, It also further controlled price of a large number of drugs in the interest of the consumer.
(4)Bhore committee:
In 1943, Indian Government appointed a committee under the chairmanship of sir Joseph Bhore to make a survey of existing position in respect to the health care delivery organization in India and to make recommendation for future developments.
Recommendation of Bhore committee:

(1)Setting up central drug laboratory
(2)Establishment of all India Pharmaceutical council and provincial Pharmaceutical Council representing the pharmaceutical trade, education.
(3)Starting of revised courses of study for:
(a)Licentiate Pharmacist
(b)Pharmaceutical Technologist
(c)Graduate Pharmacist
(4)Rigid enforcement of the Drugs and cosmetic act, 1940 through country.

Antagonism

2010-04-03T20:27:00.000+05:30

It is pharmacological opposite effect of drug Agonist.
Drug Antagonist are drugs that decrease the actions of another drug or endogenous ligand.
Antagonists, however, have no intrinsic activity and, therefore, produce no effect by themselves. Although antagonists have no intrinsic activity, they are able to bind avidly to target receptors because they possess strong affinity. If both the antagonist and the agonist bind to the same site on the receptor, they are said to be "competitive." For example, the antihypertensive drug prazosin competes with the endogenous ligand, norepinephrine, at a1-adrenoceptors, decreasing vascular smooth muscle tone and reducing blood pressure.

Parenteral Routes of Drug Administration

2010-03-25T20:34:00.000+05:30

The parenteral route introduces drugs directly across the body's barrier defenses into the systemic circulation or other vascular tissue. Parenteral administration is used for drugs that are poorly absorbed from the GI tract (for example heparin) and for agents that are unstable in the GI tract (for example, insulin).

Intravenous (IV): Injection is the most common parenteral route. For drugs that are not absorbed orally, such as the neuromuscular blocker atracurium, there is often no other choice.
In IV administration, the drug avoids the GI tract and therefore, first-pass metabolism by the liver. Intravenous delivery permits a rapid effect and a maximal degree of control over the circulating levels of the drug. However, unlike drugs in the GI tract, those that are injected cannot be recalled by strategies such as emesis or by binding to activated charcoal. Intravenous injection may inadvertently introduce bacteria through contamination at the site of injection. IV injection may also induce hemolysis or cause other adverse reactions by the too-rapid delivery of high concentrations of drug to the plasma and tissues. Therefore, the rate of infusion must be carefully controlled. Similar concerns apply to intra-arterially injected drugs.

Subcutaneous (SC): This route of administration, like that of Intra Muscular injection, requires absorption and is somewhat slower than the IV route. Subcutaneous injection minimizes the risks associated with intravascular injection. Other examples of drugs utilizing Subcutaneous administration include solids, such as a single rod containing the contraceptive etonogestrel that is implanted for long-term activity , and also programmable mechanical pumps that can be implanted to deliver insulin in diabetic patients.

Intramuscular (IM): Drugs administered IM can be aqueous solutions or specialized preparation often a suspension of drug in a non-aqueous vehicle such as polyethylene glycol.
Absorption of drugs in an aqueous solution is fast, whereas that from depot preparations is slow. As the vehicle diffuses out of the muscle, the drug precipitates at the site of injection. The drug then dissolves slowly, providing a sustained dose over an extended period of time. An example is sustained-release haloperidol decanoate , which slowly diffuses from the muscle and produces an extended neuroleptic effect.

Enteral Routes of Drug Administration

2010-03-25T19:50:00.002+05:30

The route of administration of drug is determined by the properties of the drug (e.g. water or lipid solubility,etc.) & by the therapeutic objectives (e.g. the desirability of a rapid onset of action or the need for long-term administration or restriction to a local site).
There are two major routes of drug administration, enteral and parenteral.

Enteral Routes of Drug Administration

Enteral administration, or administering a drug by mouth, is the simplest and most common means of administering drugs. When the drug is given in the mouth, it may be swallowed, allowing oral delivery, or it may be placed under the tongue, facilitating direct absorption into the bloodstream.

Oral: Giving a drug by mouth provides many advantages to the patient; oral drugs are easily self-administered and limit the number of systemic infections that could complicate treatment.
Toxicities or overdose by the oral route may be overcome with antidotes such as activated charcoal.
On the other hand, the pathways involved in drug absorption are the most complicated, and the drug is exposed to harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environments that may limit its absorption. Some drugs are absorbed from the stomach; however, the duodenum is a major site of entry to the systemic circulation because of its larger absorptive surface.
Most drugs absorbed from the GI tract enter the portal circulation and encounter the liver before they are distributed into the general circulation. These drugs undergo first-pass metabolism in the liver, where they may be extensively metabolized before entering the systemic circulation.
Drugs that exhibit high first-pass metabolism should be given in sufficient quantities to ensure that enough of the active drug reaches the target organ. Ingestion of drugs with food, or in combination with other drugs can influence absorption. The presence of food in the stomach delays gastric emptying, so drugs that are destroyed by acid (for example, penicillin) become unavailable for absorption

Sublingual: Placement under the tongue allows a drug to diffuse into the capillary network and, therefore, to enter the systemic circulation directly. Administration of an agent, sublingually, has several advantages including rapid absorption, convenience of administration, and low incidence of infection, avoidance of the harsh GI environment, and avoidance of first-pass metabolism.

Ischemic Heart Disease

2010-03-24T16:56:00.003+05:30

Angina pectoris is a clinical syndrome of chest discomfort caused by reversible myocardial ischemia that produces disturbances in myocardial function without causing myocardial necrosis. Myocardial ischemia occurs secondary to increased myocardial demand and/or decreased myocardial oxygen supply. The specific causes of increased demand and decreased supply will be discussed. Myocardial ischemia causes several syndromes referred to collectively as ischemic heart disease including: stable angina, variant or Prinzmetal's angina, silent myocardial ischemia, and unstable angina.

-->Myocardial Oxygen Supply and Demand
Myocardial ischemia is caused by an imbalance between coronary blood flow (supply) and the metabolic needs of the myocardium (demand). Myocardial ischemia occurs when myocardial oxygen demand exceeds myocardial oxygen supply.
The major determinants of myocardial oxygen demand are heart rate, contractility, and left ventricular systolic wall tension of the three determinants, heart rate is the easiest to assess clinically with current drug therapies. Myocardial contractility refers to the rate of rise in the intraventricular pressure during isovolumetric contraction and is influenced by a number of variables including: the autonomic nervous system, heart rate, blood calcium concentration, and body temperature.

-->Signs and Symptoms

Patients with stable angina are often classified as having mainly fixed-threshold angina or mainly variable-threshold angina. Anginal syndromes in patients with fixed-threshold angina or exertional angina are precipitated by increased myocardial oxygen demand and tend to occur at some reproducible level of myocardial work. This type of angina is caused by increased myocardial oxygen demand, associated with a fixed-obstruction of an epicardial coronary artery by an atherosclerotic plaque.

Treatment

Coronary Risk Factor Reduction
Hypertension Management
Smoking Cessation
Cardiac Rehabilitation
Dyslipidemia Management
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor Therapy
Antiplatelet Therapy

CYP2D6

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Metabolism via CYP2D6 is the major elimination pathway for numerous widely used medications, including beta-blockers such as carvedilol, metoprolol, and propranolol; antidepressants such as amitriptyline, desipramine, imipramine, and fluoxetine; and antipsychotics such as haloperidol and risperidone.

The effect of the variable number of CYP2D6 functional alleles is shown in Figure 1.19 for the systemic exposure of nortriptyline. The higher the number of functional CYP2D6 alleles, the lower the systemic exposure that was observed after administration of the same 25-mg nortriptyline dose to groups of subjects with different genotypes.

CYP2D6 is a highly polymorphic gene for which more than 70 variant alleles have been described. A series of genetic variants is responsible for low levels of CYP2D6 activity or no activity

Benzene

2010-03-07T15:25:00.001+05:30

Benzene is
an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C₆H₆.Benzene
is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively
high melting point. Because it is a known carcinogen, its use as an additive in
gasoline is now limited, but it is an important industrial solvent and precursor
in the production of drugs, plastics, synthetic rubber, and dyes. Benzene is a
natural constituent of crude oil, and may be synthesized from other compounds
present in petroleum.The word "benzene" derives historically from
"gum benzoin", sometimes called "benjamin" (i.e., benzoin
resin), an aromatic resin known to European pharmacists and perfumers since the
15th century as a product of southeast Asia.

Ring
formula

The empirical formula for benzene was long known,
but its highly polyunsaturated structure, with just one hydrogen atom for each
carbon atom, was challenging to determine.

A scientist show in his dreams that a snake was
eating it's own tial;, so he supposed the benzene may be ring in structure and
it did not show the test of alken and alkenes so that it was difficult for them
to describe benzene under the group of alken or alkenes, but the ring structure
made it to easily understable for scientist.

Structure

The C–C bond lengths are greater than a double
bond (135pm) but shorter than a single bond (147pm). This intermediate distance
is explained by electron delocalisation: the electrons for C–C bonding are
distributed equally between each of the six carbon atoms. One representation is
that the structure exists as a superposition of so-called resonance structures,
rather than either form individually. This delocalisation of electrons is known
as aromaticity, and gives benzene great stability. This enhanced stability is
the fundamental property of aromatic molecules that differentiates them from
molecules that are non-aromatic.Realising each carbon has 2p electrons, each
carbon donates an electron into the delocalised ring above and below the benzene
ring. It is the side-on overlap of p-orbital that produces the pi clouds.

Production

benzene produced from toluene. In this
hydrogen-intensive process, toluene is mixed with hydrogen, then passed over a
chromium, molybdenum, or platinum oxide catalyst at 500–600 °C and 40–60
atm pressure.

C₆H₅CH₃ + H₂
→ C₆H₆ + CH₄

This irreversible reaction is accompanied by an
equilibrium side reaction that produces biphenyl (aka biphenyl) at higher
temperature:

2 C₆H₆→
H₂ + C₆H₅–C₆H₅

Chirality

2010-03-07T01:08:00.002+05:30

A chiral molecule is a type of molecule that
lacks an internal plane of symmetry and has a non-superimposable mirror image.
The feature that is most often the cause of chirality in molecules is the
presence of an asymmetric carbon atom.

The term chiral in general is used to describe an
object that is non-superposable on its mirror image. Achiral (not chiral)
objects are objects that are identical to their mirror image.

Ex:-Human hands are the most universally
recognized example of chirality. The left hand is a non-superposable mirror
image of the right hand; no matter how the two hands are oriented, it is
impossible for all the major features of both hands to coincide.

Basic Terms of Chromatography

2010-03-06T20:50:00.000+05:30

Analyte- It is the substance that is to be separated during
chromatography.

Chromatograph- It is equipment that enables a sophisticated separation
e.g. gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation.

Stationary phase- It is the substance which is fixed in place for the
chromatography procedure. Examples include the silica layer in thin layer
chromatography.

Analytical chromatography-is used to determine the existence and
possibly also the concentration of analyte's in a sample

Bonded phase- It is a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the
support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing.

Chromatogram- It is the visual output of the chromatograph. In the
case of an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram
correspond to different components of the separated mixture.

Chromatography-It is a physical method of separation in which the
components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is
stationary (stationary phase) while the other (the mobile phase) moves in a
definite direction.

Immobilized phase- It is a stationary phase which is immobilized on
the support particles, or on the inner wall of the column tubing.

Mobile phase- It is the phase which moves in a definite direction. It
may be a liquid (LC and CEC), a gas (GC), or super-critical-fluid chromatography(SFC).
The mobile phase consists of the sample being separated/analyzed and the solvent
that moves the sample through the column. In the case of HPLC the mobile phase
consists of a non-polar solvent's) such as hexane in normal phase or polar
solvents in reverse phase chromatography and the sample being separated. The
mobile phase moves through the chromatography column (the stationary phase)
where the sample interacts with the stationary phase and is separated.

Preparative chromatography- It is used to purify sufficient quantities
of a substance for further use, rather than analysis.

Chromatography Techniques

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Techniques
of chromatography

Column chromatography

Column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed
is within a tube. The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support
coated with a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the
tube or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open,
unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube.
Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to different
retention times of the sample

Planar chromatography

Planar chromatography- It is a separation technique in which the
stationary phase is present as or on a plane. The plane can be a paper, serving
as such or impregnated by a substance as the stationary bed or a layer of solid
particles spread on a support such as a glass plate. Different compounds in the
sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they
interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase.

Thin layer
chromatography

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely employed laboratory technique and
is similar to paper chromatography. However, instead of using a stationary phase
of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like
silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. Compared to paper,
it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between
different adsorbents. For even better resolution and to allow for
quantification, high-performance TLC can be used.

Paper chromatography

Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line
of sample solution onto a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is
placed in a jar containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent
rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture which starts to travel up
the paper with the solvent. This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance,
and the compounds within the mixture travel farther if they are non-polar. More
polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do
not travel as far. Techniques
by physical state of mobile phase

Gas chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC), also sometimes known as Gas-Liquid chromatography, (GLC),
is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas chromatography
is always carried out in a column, which is typically "packed" or
"capillary" Gas chromatography (GC) is based on a partition equilibrium of
analyte between a solid stationary phase (often a liquid silicone-based
material) and a mobile gas (most often Helium). The stationary phase is adhered
to the inside of a small-diameter glass tube (a capillary column) or a solid
matrix inside a larger metal tube (a packed column).

Liquid chromatography

Liquid chromatography (LC) is a separation technique in which the mobile
phase is a liquid. Liquid chromatography can be carried out either in a column
or a plane. Present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small
packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

In the HPLC technique, the sample is forced through a column that is packed
with irregularly or spherically shaped particles or a porous monolithic layer
(stationary phase) by a liquid (mobile phase) at high pressure. HPLC is
historically divided into two different sub-classes based on the polarity of the
mobile and stationary phases.

Techniques
by separation mechanism

Ion exchange
chromatography

Ion exchange chromatography uses ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes.
It is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode. Ion
exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged
compounds including amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In conventional methods
the stationary phase is an ion exchange resin that carries charged functional
groups which interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to be
retained. Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using
FPLC.

Size exclusion
chromatography

Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is also known as gel permeation
chromatography (GPC) or gel filtration chromatography and separates
molecules according to their size (or more accurately according to their
hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume). Smaller molecules are able to
enter the pores of the media and, therefore, take longer to elute, whereas
larger molecules are excluded from the pores and elute faster. It is generally a
low-resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the
final, "polishing" step of a purification. It is also useful for
determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified
proteins, especially since it can be carried out under native solution
conditions.

Reference from wikipedia

Posted by Student of Pharmacy BMEF college of Surat.

BHAVESH(Silent Killer)

Cultivation of Liquorice

2010-03-06T20:27:00.000+05:30

Liquorice is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra from which a sweet flavor can be extracted.
The liquorice plant is a legume, native to southern Europe and parts of Asia.
It is an herbaceous perennial, growing to 1 m in height, with pinnate leaves about 7–15 centimeters (3–6 in) long, with 9–17 leaflets.
The flowers are 0.8–1.2 cm long, purple to pale whitish blue, produced in a loose inflorescence.
The fruit is an oblong pod, 2–3 centimeters (1 in) long, containing several seeds.The flavor of liquorice comes mainly from a sweet-tasting compound called anethole, an aromatic, unsaturated ether compound also found in anise, fennel, and other herbs. Additional sweetness in liquorice comes from glycyrrhizic acid, an anti-viral compound sweeter than sugar.

Scope of Pharmacy

2010-03-06T20:06:00.000+05:30

First of all what is Pharmacy?

it is derived from Greek word 'pharmakon' means drug and it is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs!!

Pharmacist is the right hand of Doctors because if pharmacist is not there there will be problem for doctors and they are nothing without the pharmacist.

Pharmacists practice in a variety of areas including retail, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, drug industry, and regulatory agencies. Pharmacists can specialize in various
areas of practice including but not limited to: hematology/oncology, infectious diseases, ambulatory care, nutrition support, drug information, critical care, pediatrics, etc.

Community pharmacy-Community pharmacies usually consist of a retail storefront with a dispensary where
medications are stored and dispensed. The dispensary is subject to pharmacy
legislation; with requirements for storage conditions, compulsory texts,
equipment, etc., specified in legislation.Hospital pharmacy-Hospital pharmacies can usually be found within the premises of the hospital. Hospital
pharmacies usually stock a larger range of medications, including more
specialized medications, than would be feasible in the community setting.Clinical pharmacy-Clinical pharmacists provide direct patient care services that optimize the use of
medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention. Clinical
pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical
pharmacy movement initially began inside hospitals and clinics.Compounding pharmacy Compounding is the practice of preparing drugs in new forms. For example, if a drug manufacturer only provides a drug as a tablet, a compounding pharmacist might
make a medicated lollipop that contains the drug. Patients who have difficulty
swallowing the tablet may prefer to suck the medicated lollipop instead.Consultant pharmacy-
Consultant pharmacy practice focuses more on medication regimen review (i.e.
"cognitive services") than on actual dispensing of drugs. Consultant
pharmacists most typically work in nursing homes, but are increasingly branching
into other institutions and non-institutional settings. Some community
pharmacies employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide consulting services.Internet pharmacy-
While most Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs and require a valid
prescription, some Internet pharmacies sells prescription drugs without requiring
a prescription. Many customers order drugs from such pharmacies to avoid the
"inconvenience" of visiting a doctor or to obtain medications, which
their doctors were unwilling to prescribe.Canada is home to dozens of licensed internet pharmacies, many of which sell
their lower-cost prescription drugs to U.S. consumers, who pay one of the
world's highest drug prices.
Veterinary pharmacy-Veterinary pharmacies, sometimes called animal pharmacies may fall in the category
of hospital pharmacy, retail pharmacy or mail-order pharmacy.Nuclear pharmacy-Nuclear pharmacy focuses on preparing radioactive materials for diagnostic tests and for
treating certain diseases. Nuclear pharmacists undergo additional training
specific to handling radioactive materials, and unlike in community and hospital
pharmacies, nuclear pharmacists typically do not interact directly with
patients.